22327	----	[Transcriber's Note: Superscript numbers are shown by ^. A few minor printing errors are listed at the end of the text.] Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections Volume 56 Number 11 DEVELOPMENT OF THE DIGESTIVE CANAL OF THE AMERICAN ALLIGATOR With Fifteen Plates By ALBERT M. REESE Professor of Zoology, West Virginia University [Illustration: Smithsonian symbol] (Publication 1946) City of Washington Published by the Smithsonian Institution 1910 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. DEVELOPMENT OF THE DIGESTIVE CANAL OF THE AMERICAN ALLIGATOR By ALBERT M. REESE Professor of Zoology, West Virginia University In a previous paper (6) the writer described the general features in the development of the American Alligator; and in other papers special features were taken up in more detail. In the present paper the development of the enteron is described in detail, but the derivatives of the digestive tract (liver, pancreas, lungs, etc.) are mentioned only incidentally; the development of these latter structures may be described in a later paper. No detailed description of the histological changes taking place during development has been attempted, though a brief description of the histology is given for each stage discussed. The material upon which this work was done is the same as that used for the preceding researches. It was collected by the author in central Florida and southern Georgia by means of a grant from the Smithsonian Institution, for which assistance acknowledgment is herewith gratefully made. Various methods of fixation were employed in preserving the material. In practically all cases the embryos were stained in toto with Borax Carmine and on the slide with Lyon's Blue. Transverse, sagittal, and horizontal sections were cut, their thickness varying from five to thirty microns, depending upon the size of the embryos. The first indication of the formation of the enteron is seen in the very early embryo shown, from the dorsal aspect, in figure 1. The medullary folds and notochord are evident at this stage, but no mesoblastic somites are to be seen. A sagittal section of approximately this stage, shown in figure 1A, represents the foregut, _fg_, as a shallow enclosure of the anterior region of the entoderm, while the wide blastopore, _blp_, connects the region of the hindgut with the exterior. No sign of a tail fold being present, there is, of course, no real hindgut. The entoderm, which has the appearance of being thickened because of the fact that the notochord has not yet completely separated from it, is continuous, through the blastopore, with the ectoderm. Posterior to the blastopore the primitive streak, _ps_, is seen as a collection of scattered cells between the ectoderm and the entoderm, apparently formed by proliferation from the ventral side of the ectoderm. A slightly later stage is shown in figure 2, a dorsal view of an embryo with five pairs of mesoblastic somites. A sagittal section of this stage is shown in figure 2A. The foregut is here more inclosed, and the notochord, _nt_, having separated from the entoderm, _en_, is seen as a distinct layer of cells extending from the foregut to the blastopore. A transverse section through the headfold of this stage is shown in figure 2B. The foregut is seen as a wide cavity, _ent_, depressed dorsally, apparently, by the formation of the medullary groove and the notochord; it is wider laterally than in a dorso-ventral direction, and its walls are made up of about three layers of closely arranged, irregular cells; the wall is somewhat thinner on the dorsal side, just below the notochord. Figure 3 is a dorsal view of the next stage to be described; about fifteen pairs of somites are present. Figure 3A is a transverse section through this embryo near the anterior end of the enteron, _ent_, which cavity, cephalad to this region, is bluntly pointed. As seen in the figure the enteron is here wide from side to side, and is depressed dorso-ventrally except for a wide groove in the ventral wall. This groove is lined with rather more closely arranged cells, and marks the region where the mouth will break through at a somewhat later stage. A short distance caudad to this region the groove disappears and the pharynx is reduced to a shallow slit extending almost to the superficial ectoderm on either side; then the slit-like pharynx becomes suddenly reduced in a lateral and increased in a dorso-ventral direction, to assume the outline shown in figures 3B and 3C. At a point about one-third of the length of the embryo from the tip of the head, the enteron opens to the yolk-sac, so that what now may be called the foregut has this considerable extent. There is, however, not the slightest indication of a tail-fold, so that there is no inclosed hindgut at all. As is shown in figure 3D, the neurenteric canal, _nc_, still opens ventrally, though the medullary canal, _mc_, has now no dorsal opening to the exterior. The medullary canal continues for a short distance (about fifteen sections of five microns thickness) posterior to the opening of the neurenteric canal. Figure 4 is a surface view of the next stage to be described. There are here about twenty pairs of somites, though the exact number cannot be determined. Although not visible externally in the surface view shown, the gill clefts are beginning to form, and the first one opens to the exterior as will be seen in sections of another embryo of this stage. The mouth has now broken through, putting the wide pharynx into communication with the exterior; probably the mouth opening is formed at about the time of the opening of the first gill cleft. Figure 4A represents a transverse section through the head of an embryo of the approximate age of the one just described; it passes through both forebrain, _fb_, and hindbrain, _hb_; through the extreme edge of the optic vesicles, _ov_, and through the anterior end of the notochord, _nt_. It is just cephalad to the anterior end of the pharynx and to the hypophysis. The chief purpose in showing this section is to represent the two large head-cavities, _hc_. The origin of these cavities may be discussed at a later time. They are irregularly oval in cross section, and extend in an antero-posterior direction for a distance about equal to their long axis as seen in cross section. The two cavities project towards each other in the middle line, and are almost in contact with the notochord, in the region figured, but they do not fuse at any point. These two head-cavities are the only ones to be seen, in this animal, unless the small evaginations from their walls represent other cavities fused with these. Their walls are thin but distinct, and consist of a single layer of cells. These cells are completely filled with their large, round nuclei, so that the wall has the appearance, under higher magnification than is used in this figure, of a band of closely strung, round beads. Figure 4B represents the eighteenth section caudad to the one just described. It passes through that region of the enteron, _ph_, which may be called the pre-oral gut, since it lies cephalad to the now open mouth. Owing to the plane of the section the upper angle of the first gill cleft, _g^1_, is seen on the left, although this would not naturally have been expected in a section through the pre-oral gut. The evagination to form the hypophysis, _p_, is seen against the floor of the forebrain, _fb_. The wall of this region of the enteron is comparatively thin, and consists of not more than two layers of compactly arranged cells with round nuclei. Figure 4C is about forty sections caudad to the one just described. It passes through the mouth, seen as a vertical opening between the two mandibular arches, _md_. The hyomandibular cleft, _g^1_, the only one which opens to the exterior in this embryo, is very wide, and may be traced through a number of sections; in this section the opening is seen only on the left. The pharynx, _ph_, is very wide; as it is followed caudad its ventral opening is gradually closed by the approach of the two mandibular folds. The dorsal wall of this region of the pharynx is very thin, consisting of a single layer of flat cells with round nuclei; while the ventral wall, leading through the mouth and lining the mandibular folds, is composed of two or three layers of compactly arranged cells. Figure 4D is through a plane sixteen sections caudad to the last. In this region, which is just caudad to the otic vesicles, the pharynx has still its rectangular outline, and its walls are of the same character as in the preceding figure. The posterior edges of the hyomandibular clefts are seen projecting in a ventro-lateral direction, _g^1_; while dorsal to these are the wider, second pair of clefts, _g^2_. Where the mandibular folds come together posterior to the mouth, they fuse first at their outer or ventral border, which leaves a deep, narrow groove in the anterior floor of the mouth. As this groove is followed caudad its ventral wall is seen to become much thickened, _tg_, to form the _anlage_ of the thyroid gland. In the present section the walls of the groove are just fusing, to cut off the cavity of the gland from the dorsal part of the groove. The next section caudad to this shows the thyroid as a round, compact mass of cells, with a very small lumen, still closely fused with the bottom of the oral groove. The lumen may, in this embryo, be traced for only a few sections, caudad to which the thyroid is seen as a small, solid mass of cells unattached to the oral groove. Close to the sides of the thyroid are seen two large blood vessels, _ar_, the mandibular arches, which unite into the single ventral aorta just caudad to the posterior end of the thyroid. High power drawings of the thyroid just described are shown in figures 4E and 4F. Figure 4G is about fifty-five sections caudad to the preceding figure, and passes through the middle region of the heart, _ht_. The enteron, _ent_, is cut caudad to the last gill cleft, but it is nearly as large as in the pharyngeal region described above; its walls are of a more even thickness than in the more anterior sections, though there is an area, just below the aorta, where the wall is still but one cell thick. In the ventral wall of this part of the enteron, and, to some extent, in the lateral walls, there seems to be a tendency for the nuclei to become collected toward the side of the wall away from the digestive cavity; this condition cannot be well seen in the figure owing to the amount of reduction in reproduction. Figure 4H is seventy-nine sections posterior to the last, and passes through the foregut, _ent_, just cephalad to the anterior intestinal portal and caudad to the heart. The outline of the enteron is here almost a vertical slit, and the lining entoderm consists, in its dorsal and lateral regions, of a single layer of columnar epithelium, while in its ventral region, where it adjoins the liver trabeculae, it is made up of several layers of cuboidal or irregular cells. The nuclei in the dorsal and lateral regions of the entoderm are arranged in a very definite layer at the basal ends of the cells, though an occasional nucleus may be seen near the center of the layer. The mesoderm that extends ventrad from the mesentery, on each side of the entoderm just described, consists of a thick layer of compactly arranged cells. The ventral end of the entodermal wall is fused with the wall of a small cavity, _li_, which may be traced several sections cephalad to this plane. This cavity is a part of the system of hollow liver trabeculae seen as a group of irregular masses of cells ventrad to the enteron at the opening of the anterior intestinal portal. The large blood vessel, _bv_, is the meatus venosus. Figure 4I is just four sections caudad to the preceding. It passes through the anterior intestinal portal, _aip_. The medial liver trabecula into which the enteron was seen to open, in the preceding figure, now opens ventrally to the yolk-sac as the anterior intestinal portal. A few liver trabeculae are to be seen on either side of the portal, but they show no lumena, and may be traced through only a few sections. The extent of this uninclosed region, the midgut, is very difficult to determine with accuracy, but, at this stage, it comprises about one-half of all the sections of the series. The difficulty is due partly to the unavoidable tearing of the tissues in removing the embryo from the yolk-sac, and partly to the indefiniteness of the posterior intestinal portal, where the walls of the enteron are very thin. As seen in figure 4I the location of the anterior intestinal portal is very distinct. A short distance caudad to the anterior intestinal portal there is constricted off from the roof of the midgut a narrow diverticulum, figure 4J, _i_, the meaning of which is not apparent; it extends through only ten to fifteen sections, tapering caudad till it disappears. The region of the hindgut, at this stage, is about one-fifth of the entire length of the embryo. Its anterior portion is wide and, as has been said, rather indefinite in outline. Figure 4K represents a typical section through the midgut region of an embryo of about the age of the one from which the preceding figures were drawn. This and the following figures of this stage were drawn from an embryo in which the posterior region was in better condition than in the embryo from which the other figures of the stage were taken. The mesentery, _ms_, is here of considerable length and continues around the yolk in a layer of diminishing thickness. The epithelium of this region of the enteron consists of a single layer of fairly regular cells, which are columnar in the dorsal region, just beneath the mesentery, and cuboidal or even flattened in regions more distant from the median plane. Figure 4L, through the region of the hindgut, shows at _i_ the completely inclosed intestine; it is a comparatively narrow tube, lined with columnar epithelium outside of which is a dense layer of mesoblast continuous with the mesentery. In the center of the figure the allantois, _al_, is seen as an irregular cavity, lined with a single layer of columnar or cuboidal cells, and surrounded by a thick mass of loosely arranged, stellate mesoblast cells. The allantois is probably somewhat larger here than in the other embryos used for this stage, in which it was torn away. The tail, _t_, of the embryo is shown at the lower side of the figure, surrounded by the amnion; it is cut in the region of a curve so that the caudal intestine, _i_, is cut longitudinally and has the outline of an elongated ellipse. In this embryo the caudal intestine could be followed to the end of the tail, through several dozen sections; for some distance posterior to the allantois it is extremely narrow, so that its lumen is almost obliterated, and its walls are made up, in any one place, of not more than a dozen cuboidal cells. Towards the posterior end of this region the intestine is considerably enlarged as seen in figure 4L. Figure 4M passes through the region where both the allantois and the Wolffian ducts open into the hindgut. The union of the allantois and the gut accounts for the elongated outline of the enteron in this section. The openings of the Wolffian ducts, _wdo_, are seen at the lower end of the section of the enteron. The cells lining the Wolffian ducts are smaller than those lining the enteron. In the lower side of the figure are seen the structures of the tail, including the outline of the tiny caudal intestine, _i_, mentioned above. No sign of a cloacal invagination could be made out with certainty. The next stage to be studied is shown in surface view in figure 5. Figure 5A represents a section through the head region of this embryo. Owing to the obliquity of the plane of the section the figure is quite asymmetrical. The pharynx, _ph_, is lined with a comparatively thin epithelium and opens, on the left, at two places, one the mouth and the other the second gill cleft, _g^2_. In the dorsal wall of this cleft, as well as in the corresponding wall of the opposite cleft, is seen a thickening of the epithelium; these thickenings, _ty_, are the rudiments of the thymus gland, whose development may be described in detail in another paper. Compared to the size of the gill clefts the cavity of the pharynx is, at this stage, comparatively small. Followed caudad the pharynx becomes depressed until, in the region shown in figure 5B, it is a mere narrow slit, _g_, extending transversely across the embryo and opening through the gill clefts to the exterior on each side. Figure 5C passes through the posterior region of the pharynx, _ph_, the tip of the forebrain, _fb_, the anterior edge of the heart, _ht_, and the curve of the tail, _t_. The chief point of interest in this section is the thyroid gland, _tg_. It now lies deep in the tissue of the floor of the pharynx, entirely separated from the pharyngeal epithelium. It consists of a compact mass of cells, now showing a bilobed structure in its anterior end, and extending through about twenty-five ten-micron sections. It is solid throughout most of its extent, but, in the section figured, which is near the anterior end, the lobe on the right side shows a small but distinct cavity scarcely visible in the figure. Caudad to the region just described the pharynx contracts suddenly to form the oesophagus, a narrow, V-shaped slit, which soon divides into an upper and a lower cylindrical tube, figure 5D, _ent_. Followed caudad the lower of these tubes divides into the two bronchial rudiments, figure 5E, _lu_, which, in the embryo here figured, extend through nearly one hundred sections. In the region shown in figure 5E the three tubes, _oe_ and _lu_, lie at the angles of an imaginary equilateral triangle, while in the region of the liver, where the bronchial rudiments end, the tubes lie in the same horizontal plane. A short distance caudad to the ends of the bronchial rudiments the oesophagus turns suddenly ventrad and becomes much enlarged to form the stomach, figure 5F, _i´_, which may be traced through twenty-five or thirty sections in this series. The epithelium of the stomach is fairly thick, and consists of five or six layers of compact, indistinctly outlined cells with spherical nuclei. Ventrad to the stomach is seen, in figure 5F, a section of the duodenum, _i_, which extends, with gradually diminishing caliber, for twenty-five or thirty sections caudad to the posterior limit of the stomach, where it opens to the yolk-sac and is lost. The section that cut this embryo in the posterior region of the stomach also passed through the hindgut in the region of the posterior appendages, figure 5G. There the intestine, _i_, is a distinct, cylindrical tube which extends, with not much variation in caliber, and with little variation in position, from this point to the cloaca. Followed cephalad, towards the posterior intestinal portal, it gradually diminishes in caliber, as did the foregut on approaching the anterior intestinal portal. The epithelium consists here of three or four layers of compactly arranged cells, and has about the same appearance as in the oesophagus and duodenum. Figure 5H represents a section through the cloacal region, _cl_, showing the openings into the cloaca of the Wolffian ducts, _wdo_. Just anterior to these openings the cloaca opens ventrally into a small, anteriorly-projecting pouch, the rudiment of the allantois. Caudad to the openings of the Wolffian ducts the cloaca extends ventrad as a narrow, solid tongue of epithelium towards the exterior, figure 5I, and fuses with the superficial ectoderm at the caudal end of a prominent ridge that lies in the mid-ventral line between the posterior appendages. In this embryo the cloaca has no actual opening to the exterior; the walls of the part that projects towards the exterior are in close contact, except in the region of the openings of the Wolffian ducts, as is shown in figure 5H. Owing to the coiling of the end of the long tail the plane of the section, as is seen in figure 5I, passes through the posterior end of the embryo no less than four times. In the most posterior of these four sections of the tail, beginning slightly caudad to the section here shown, is seen a small cavity which may be called the post-anal gut, _pag_. It has thick walls, and extends for about thirty-five sections in the series under discussion. Its lumen is very large in its caudal region, figure 5I, _pag_, and tapers gradually cephalad until it disappears. Posteriorly the post-anal gut ends quite abruptly not very far from the extreme tip of the tail. Figure 5J is a composite drawing from reconstructions of the enterons of two embryos of approximately this stage. One of these reconstructions was plotted on paper from a series of transverse sections; the other was made in wax from a series of sagittal sections. For the sake of simplicity the gill clefts are not represented, and the pharynx, mouth, and liver are represented in outline only. For the same reason the lung rudiment of one side only is shown. The relative size of the pharynx, _ph_, as seen in the figure, is smaller than it is in reality because of the small dorso-ventral diameter (the only one here shown) compared to the lateral diameter. The end of the lung rudiment, _lu_, is slightly enlarged and lies in a plane nearer to the observer than that of the oesophagus, _oe_, though this is not well shown in the figure. The oesophagus, _oe_, diminishes slightly in caliber for a short distance caudad to the origin of the lungs, then gradually increases in caliber until it suddenly bends to the side (towards the observer) and merges into the wide stomach, _i´_. The stomach, which is irregularly conical in shape, lies in a place slightly nearer the observer than the end of the lung rudiment mentioned above. Lying to one side of the stomach and duodenum, and extending cephalad beyond the end of the lung rudiment is the liver, _li_, whose outline is only roughly shown here by the broken line. The stomach opens rather abruptly into the duodenum, _d_, which slopes back towards the plane of the oesophagus (away from the observer). The projection from the side of the duodenum, _pan_, not well figured here, indicates the position of the pancreas, better shown in the next reconstruction. The duodenum extends only a short distance caudad to this point and then opens, _aip_, to the yolk-sac. The yolk-stalk, or unclosed region of the enteron, is still of considerable extent, though its exact boundaries are not easy to determine. The distance between the anterior and posterior intestinal portals is approximately shown in the figure under discussion. The hindgut is cylindrical in cross section and of about the same diameter throughout, except for a slight enlargement in the cloacal region. The post-anal gut is not shown here; it will be described in connection with the next reconstruction where it is figured. Figure 6 is a surface view in profile of an embryo of the next stage to be studied. The manus and pes are here well developed, and the general development of the embryo is in considerable advancement over the last stage studied. Figure 6A represents a reconstruction, from a series of transverse sections, of the enteron of an embryo of about the age of the one shown in figure 6. The outlines of the entire embryo, of the eye, _e_, and of the anterior, _aa_, and posterior, _pa_, appendages are shown by broken lines. Its position being coincident with that of the stomach, liver, and pancreas, the anterior appendage can scarcely be seen. The enteron, including one lung only, for the sake of simplicity, is shaded solid black, while the liver and pancreas, with their ducts, are outlines with unbroken lines. As in the preceding reconstruction no attempt is made to show the gill clefts, and only the dorso-ventral profile of the enteron is shown. Caudad to the pharynx, the enteron being more or less cylindrical in section, this profile gives a good idea of its shape, but in the pharyngeal region, where the lateral diameter is so much greater than the dorso-ventral, the reconstruction gives but a poor idea of the size of that part of the enteron. The widely-open mouth, _m_, leads, with no line of demarkation, into the pharynx, _ph_, which is of irregular outline and, as has been said, of much greater lateral than dorso-ventral diameter. The pharynx becomes gradually constricted to form the oesophagus, _oe_, a very long and slender structure, which, as will be seen in cross section, is, at this stage, solid for the greater part of its length. As in the case of the pharynx, the lateral diameter of the oesophagus is generally greater than the dorso-ventral diameter. From the floor of the caudal part of the pharynx is pushed out the trachea, _ta_. In the reconstruction, especially in the anterior end, the trachea appears several times the diameter of the oesophagus; this is due to the great thickness and indefiniteness of its walls rather than to a greater diameter of its lumen. At about the position of the line _ta_ the trachea divides into the two bronchi (only one shown in the figure), which are somewhat enlarged at the ends to form the lung rudiments, _lu_. While the trachea and bronchi lie ventrad to the oesophagus, the lungs lie laterad and even dorsad to the oesophagus and cardiac end of the stomach. Caudad to the heart and in the region of the anterior appendages, _aa_, the oesophagus suddenly enlarges to form the stomach, _i´_, which has now quite the outline of the typical human stomach. From the stomach the duodenum, _d_, extends, following a sort of V-shaped course, towards the yolk-stalk, _ys_. In the region of the yolk-stalk it is somewhat enlarged and ends in a blind sac like a caecum. At the side of this sac is seen the opening of the enteron to the yolk-stalk; the anterior and posterior intestinal portals are not distinguishable from each other. From this point the hindgut, _hg_, extends cephalad until it lies laterad to the middle region of the duodenum, then bends through 180° and extends, in an almost straight line, to the cloaca, _cl_, lying in the region of the posterior appendage, _pa_. The allantois, _al_, extends cephalad for some distance from the floor of the cloaca. Some distance caudad to the cloaca, near the end of the much coiled tail, is seen the post-anal gut, _pag_. This structure as has been noted above, is quite distinct from the other parts of the enteron. It is of elongated, pyriform outline, with the pointed end extending cephalad. In the narrow space between the stomach and the duodenum is the elongated pancreas, _pan_, opening by two or more short ducts into the duodenum. The liver, _li_, in the figure under discussion, has about twice the area of the stomach. It extends caudad and dorsal about the same distance as the latter organ, but it extends ventrad and cephalad far beyond the boundaries of the stomach. Extending along the ventral border of the liver is a long narrow duct, apparently the bile duct, _bd_. It connects, caudally, with the anterior end of the pancreas, while at its other extremity, near the antero-ventral corner of the liver; it ends blindly. The transverse sections now to be described have been selected from the series from which the reconstruction, just described, was made. Figure 6B represents a typical section through the pharynx. Its plane is approximately shown by the line 400 of figure 6A though the plane apparently does not cut the eye, _e_. The pharynx, _ph_, has here the outline of an irregular V. Its walls, except at the outer angles of the clefts, _g^1_, are composed of but a single layer of cells. In the dorsal wall these cells are flattened, while in the ventral wall they are more rounded. This difference in the shape of the cells accounts for the slightly greater thickness of the floor over that of the roof of the pharynx. The gill clefts no longer communicate with the exterior. Figure 6C represents the caudal half of the embryo in the plane 475 of figure 6A. The section of the pharynx, _ph_, is here crescentic in outline, and the pharyngeal walls, especially the floor, are somewhat thicker than in the more anterior section just described. Lying a short distance dorsad to the pharynx are seen two small, thick-walled openings, _ty_; these are the rudiments of the thymus glands. They are here quite distinct from the enteron, and may be traced through a large number of sections, being in some regions solid and of a smaller diameter than in the present section. Figure 6D is in the region of the line 500 in figure 6A. The thymus rudiments, _ty_, have about the same appearance as in the preceding figure, except that they are somewhat larger. The pharynx, _ph_, is much smaller than in the last section, and though somewhat crescentic in outline, its convex side is dorsal instead of ventral in position. The pharyngeal walls are here thicker, and consist of two or three layers of cells, instead of the single layer of more anterior sections. In the median plane the floor of the pharynx is pushed down, as a solid tongue of cells, _gs_, the anterior edge of the glottis. Ventrad and laterad to the glottis a crescentic condensation of mesoblast represents the beginning of the laryngeal cartilages, _la_. Two or three sections caudad to the one just described, the two layers of which the tongue of cells from the floor of the pharynx is composed separate slightly at the bottom to form a small cavity, the trachea, _ta_; this condition is shown in figure 6E, which represents part of a section through the plane 532 of figure 6A. The oesophagus, _oe_, is here a solid, crescentic mass of cells, the lumen being completely obliterated. The dorsal part of the tongue of cells, mentioned above, connects the ventral side of the oesophagus with the trachea, like a sort of mesentery. Above the oesophagus, on either side, is the thymus rudiment, _ty_, in this section practically a solid mass of cells instead of a tube. The epithelium of the trachea here consists of three or four layers of compactly arranged cells; this epithelium is surrounded by a dense mass of mesoblast which is responsible for the greater thickness of the trachea as seen in figure 6A. As has been said, the oesophagus here has no lumen, and when examined under high magnification its walls are found to be completely fused, not merely in close contact. The same is true of the tongue of cells between the oesophagus and trachea. Two or three sections caudad to the one under discussion this tongue of cells loses its connection with the trachea, and the latter structure is entirely independent of the oesophagus. The solid condition of the oesophagus continues through about fifty sections of this series, the horns of the crescent gradually shortening until only the central part remains as the hollow cylinder seen in figure 6F, _oe_, which is a section through plane 650 of figure 6A. From about this point to its opening into the stomach the oesophagus has essentially the same structure. Its epithelium is of the simple columnar type, the cells being long, with generally basally located nuclei. In the section under discussion the trachea, _ta_, is of about the same size as the oesophagus, but its epithelium is thicker and consists of two or three layers of cells. The trachea extends, as a separate and distinct structure, through about one hundred and fifteen sections, and then, at a point four or five sections caudad to the present section, it divides suddenly into the two bronchial tubes. Each bronchus, like the trachea, is lined with an epithelium of three or four layers of cells; but the epithelium is surrounded by a thin layer of much condensed mesoblast. The bronchi continue caudad, with slightly increasing caliber, through about fifty sections, when they suddenly enlarge to form the lungs. As seen in figure 6A the lungs are irregularly conical in outline and lie on either side of the posterior end of the oesophagus. Figure 6G is a section through the plane 750 of figure 6A. The oesophagus, _oe_, is seen as a small, circular opening between two much larger openings, the lungs, _lu_. The epithelium of the oesophagus is the same here as in the more anterior regions described above; that of the lung rudiments is very variable in thickness, even in different parts of the same section, being in some places composed of a single layer of cuboidal or even flattened cells, in other places consisting of four or five layers of cells (not well shown in the figure). Surrounding the epithelium of the lung rudiments is a thin layer of quite dense mesoblastic tissue. A fairly well defined mesentery, _ms_, is now present in this region. Filling the greater part of the body cavity, below the oesophagus and lung rudiments, is the liver, _li_; and ventrad to the liver the section passes through a loop of the duodenum, _d_. The epithelium of the duodenum consists of four or five layers of compactly arranged cells, near the center of an oval mass of fairly dense mesoblast. In a lateral projection of this mass of mesoblast lies a small, circular opening, the bile duct, _bd_. Its epithelium consists of a single layer of columnar cells. In more anterior sections the bile duct is larger in cross section, being about one-half the diameter of the oesophagus. As has been said it ends blindly at a point a short distance anterior to the antero-ventral edge of the liver. A few sections caudad to the one under discussion the bile duct connects with the liver, figure 6A, _bd´_; and some distance caudad to this the duct opens, _bd´´_, into the duodenum so close to the opening, _pan´_, of the pancreas that it is difficult to determine whether the latter organ has a separate opening into the duodenum or opens into the bile duct. At some distance ventrad to the structures just described the intestine is cut, by the plane of the section, in two places, _i_. The more dorsal of these is inclosed and has, under this magnification, the same appearance as the duodenum, _d_; a higher magnification, however, shows that its epithelium consists of a single layer of tall, rather clear, columnar cells. The more ventral of the two sections, above mentioned, which is continuous with the dorsal section a very short distance caudad to this point, is in the region that opens to the yolk--in fact a number of yolk-granules, _y_, may be seen in the opening. The epithelium of this part of the intestine consists of a single layer of clear, columnar cells, which, around the borders of the opening, are thrown into numerous folds and are almost of goblet form. Figure 6H represents a section through the plane 820 of figure 6A. The section is caudad to one lung and cuts the extreme tip of the other, _lu_. The liver, _li_, and pancreas, _pan_, are seen at the side of the stomach, _i´_, here cut through its greatest transverse diameter. The epithelium of the stomach varies somewhat in thickness and consists of two or three layers of cells, the variation in thickness being due to a variation in the length of the cells rather than to a variation in the number of layers. Ventrad to the stomach the intestine, _i_, is cut in three places, of which the most dorsal section is the largest. The epithelium of these intestinal sections, especially the lower two, consists of usually a single layer of columnar cells which are clearer than those of the stomach. A fairly thin mesentery, _ms_, supports this region of the intestine. In the region of the posterior appendages, _pa_, the section passes through the hindgut, _hg_, and allantois, _al_. The former is of about the same size as the more anterior sections of the intestine, but its epithelium is less clear and is composed of two or more layers of cells. The allantois is cut near its opening into the hindgut; its walls are thin, the epithelium consisting of but a single layer of more or less flattened cells. Figure 7 represents a reconstruction of the enteron of an embryo of 42 mm. crown-rump length. Because of the body flexure and large size of the embryo the head was amputated, in the plane _a-b_, and cut sagitally, while the body was cut transversely in the direction shown by the section planes. In the present figure the outline of the embryo, including the eye, appendages, and umbilical stalk, is shown by fine dotted lines; the outlines of the lungs and liver are shown by heavier, broken lines; while the outlines of the enteron proper and the trachea are shown in solid lines, filled in which fine stippling. For the sake of simplicity only one lung and one bronchus are shown. Since the head has now quite a reptilian form, the oral cavity, _m_, has more or less of the adult outline. A transverse groove near the anterior end of the lower jaw marks off the tongue, _tn_; and the rudiments of teeth are seen but not shown in the figure because of the low magnification used. The pharynx, _ph_, is a very extensive cavity that is sharply separated from the mouth by a prominent transverse fold of skin, the velum palitum, _vp_, just in front of the posterior nares, _pn_, and by a less marked fold from the base of the tongue; it is these two valves that enable the adult alligator to open its mouth under the surface without getting water into the lungs. The mouth and pharynx are lined at this stage with a thin, stratified epithelium, which consists of a basal layer of rather tall columnar cells and one or two superficial layers of flattened cells. The pharyngeal epithelium is rather thicker than that of the oral cavity. In the embryo from which this reconstruction was made the pharynx was in direct communication with neither the oesophagus nor the trachea, though the separation in each case was by a mere membrane. The trachea, _ta_, opens, except for this membrane, into the pharynx a short distance back of the transverse, dorsal and ventral folds mentioned above, and almost directly ventrad to the posterior nares. The anterior end of the oesophagus, _oe_, is in contact with the extreme postero-ventral wall of the pharynx. The trachea, which is already surrounded by distinct cartilaginous rings, is long, and of about the same diameter throughout. In the region of the anterior appendage, at the point marked _X_, it divides into the two very short bronchi, which almost immediately open into the lungs, _lu_. The lungs, whose structure will be shown in the sections of this stage, are large, irregular bodies, extending about equal distances cephalad and caudad to their openings into the bronchi. The caudal ends of the lungs overlap the cephalic end of the liver, _li_. The oesophagus, _oe_, is large, and is laterally compressed so that its dorso-ventral diameter, the one shown in the present figure, is two or three times as great as its lateral diameter. This gives the impression, in the reconstruction, that the oesophagus is nearly as large as the stomach. As has been said, the oesophagus does not open directly into the pharynx, but is separated from it by a membrane which consists of the flattened epithelial layers of both cavities separated by a thin layer of mesoblast. This partition between the pharynx and the oesophagus is not a mere fold of mucous membrane, but is a complete, though thin, wall, easily seen in the series of sagittal sections from which this region of the embryo was drawn. The anterior end of the oesophagus is suddenly constricted so that the actual opening closed by this partition is not large. Followed caudad the dorso-ventral diameter of the oesophagus varies somewhat, as does the lateral diameter, but it remains large throughout and opens into the stomach with no sharp line of demarkation. The character of the epithelium of the enteron caudad to the pharynx will be discussed in connection with the sections to be described below. The stomach, _i´_, is very different in outline from what was seen in the last stage described, figure 6A. Instead of having approximately the form of the typical mammalian stomach it is now so elongated that the opening into the duodenum, the pylorus, _py_, seems to be nearer the anterior than the posterior end. While the position of the pylorus is very distinct it is difficult to distinguish the line of demarkation between the stomach and the oesophagus. The extreme caudal region of the stomach is enlarged to form a blind sac, representing the gizzard, _gz_. A slight enlargement in the region of the pylorus may represent the glandular region of the adult stomach. The stomach opens, in a rather curious way, into the side of the duodenum, _d_, the anterior end of the latter structure having the appearance of a sort of caecum, to be seen in the next stage of development. The duodenum, _d_, makes a U-shaped bend at the side of the stomach, and then, in the region of the caudal edge of the gizzard, _gz_, dips suddenly ventrad and caudad towards the umbilical cord, _u_, where it apparently ends blindly, though this appearance is probably due to an artifact in the embryo from which the reconstruction was made. It is likely that, in removing the embryo from the yolk, the connection between the two loops, _i_, of the intestine was broken. The ascending intestinal loop is of slightly less caliber than the descending loop above mentioned; it passes dorsal and cephalad to the posterior border of the gizzard where its lumen is continuous, for a short distance, with that of the descending loop above described. This unusual condition is probably abnormal, but owing to lack of material only one series of this stage was studied. At the dorso-caudal angle of the gizzard the small intestine, _i_, opens into the ventral side of a larger tube which may be called the large intestine, _il_. The blind end of the large intestine, cephalad to the opening of the small intestine, projects forward, dorsal to the gizzard, as a sort of caecum, _ce_, though this structure is generally stated to be wanting in the crocodilia, and is not seen in the next stage. From the caecum the large intestine passes in a ventro-caudal direction, with gradually decreasing caliber, to the cloaca, from whose anterior wall the intromittent organ, _io_, projects. From the ventral wall of the large intestine, at a point about one-third the distance from the cloaca to the caecum, projects ventrad and cephalad the stalk of the allantois, _al_. Owing to its thin walls and small lumen the allantois was traced only a short distance into the umbilical stalk. The profile of the liver, _li_, has, at this stage, about the same area and even outline as that of the lung. It lies, of course, on both sides of the enteron proper, and overlaps, anteriorly, as has been said, the posterior end of the lung. Figure 7A represents a section through the plane 305 of figure 7. A considerable advance in the general development of the organs is seen over the last stage studied. The spinal column is well outlined in cartilage, and the ribs are cut at various places, _r_. In the body wall a considerable differentiation of muscular tissue has taken place, but it is only faintly shown in this series of figures. The scales, especially along the mid-dorsal line, are shown as an area of less closely dotted tissue. The lungs, _lu_, cut here through their anterior ends, are large, but do not nearly fill the cavities, _bc_, in which they lie; they have the sacculated appearance characteristic of embryonic lung tissue. The oesophagus, _oe_, is cut through about its middle region, where its caliber is greatest. As was said above, its dorso-ventral diameter is more than twice its lateral diameter, caused partly by the oblique angle at which it was cut. Its wall, figure 7H, is very thin and exhibits a dense layer of mesoblastic tissue, in which circular and longitudinal muscle layers are beginning to differentiate. It is lined by an epithelium which here consists of a single layer of columnar or cuboidal cells with large nuclei. On the ventral side, where the oesophageal wall is in contact with that of the trachea the epithelium is somewhat thickened by an increase in the number of cell layers. With the low magnification used these details could not, of course, be shown. The trachea, _ta_, is of much smaller caliber than the oesophagus, especially in its dorso-ventral diameter. While its epithelial lining is not yet appreciably different from that of the oesophagus, its connective tissue wall is much thicker and shows numerous condensations, the rudiments of the cartilaginous rings. In the region represented by this figure the connective tissue layers of the trachea and oesophagus are continuous with each other, but cephalad and caudad to this point they are distinct, though sometimes in contact. Several large blood vessels, _bv_, on each side of the oesophagus probably represent the carotids and jugulars, but they were not worked out to determine with certainty which they were. Eighty-five sections (figure 7, _X_) caudad to the one under discussion the trachea divides into the two bronchi. These bronchi gradually separate from each other until, at the point at which they open into the lungs, about eighty sections caudad to their point of separation, they lie on either side of the ventral third of the oesophagus. Figure 7B represents a section through the plane 480 of figure 7. The section is just cephalad to the heart, and passes through the caudal third of the lungs, _lu_, which have the same appearance as in the preceding figure; also through the extreme cephalic end of the liver, _li_. The lungs here much more nearly fill the body cavity than in the preceding figure. The section being caudad to their openings into the lungs the bronchi do not, of course, show. The oesophagus, _oe_, is here of much less diameter than in the preceding figure, but is still laterally compressed. Its wall is somewhat thicker than in the more cephalic region, the increase being mainly due to the greater thickness of the connective tissue layer, though the epithelium is also slightly thicker because of an increase in the length of the lining cells. Instead of lying almost entirely ventrad to the lungs, as in the preceding figure, the oesophagus here lies directly between them. Figure 7C represents a section through the plane 627 of figure 7. The plane of the section passes through the opening of the stomach, _i´_, into the duodenum, _d_. The cross section of the stomach is somewhat larger than that of the oesophagus, but it differs from the more anterior region mainly in the character of its walls. These are much thicker than in the oesophagus; in the mesoblast which forms the greater part of their thickness, muscle fibers are beginning to differentiate. The epithelial layer also is thicker than in the oesophagus; it consists of tall columnar cells that, at places, are thrown into small folds, figure 7I. These folds, even under the low magnification used, are more evident than is shown in the present figure. The pylorus, _py_, is wide and, as has been noted in connection with figure 7, is situated far cephalad to the caudal end of the stomach. It opens into the side rather than into the end of the duodenum, which projects cephalad as a short blind pouch, _d_. The stomach and duodenum, in this section, are almost completely surrounded by the liver, _li_. Figure 7D represents a section through the plane 680 of figure 7. The stomach, _i´_, which is cut through its middle region, is somewhat larger than in the preceding figures, though its walls have about the same character. Its outer walls are continuous, to a considerable extent, with the tissue of the surrounding body wall, especially in the region just caudad to the plane of the present section. The duodenum, being cut through a double loop (see figure 7), is seen in two places, dorsally where it is cut through the edge of one loop, and ventrally where it is cut square across. In both sections the structure is the same, as might be expected, figure 7J. The surrounding mesoblast is differentiated into muscle fibers, figure 7J, _ml_, which form a fairly distinct layer; inside of this layer is a tall columnar epithelium, _ep´_, which is thrown into prominent folds. A thin layer of mesoblast, probably the submucosa, _sl_, lies beneath the epithelium and projects up into the folds. About ten or twelve folds are seen in any one section; only the larger ones are well seen in figure 7D. Figure 7E shows a section through the plane 770 of figure 7. It is in the region of the umbilicus, _u_, and the extreme caudal end of the stomach which has been called the gizzard, _gz_. The small size of the gizzard is due to its being cut near its caudal margin. The enteron is here cut in no less than seven places: the reason for this will be evident on examination of the plane of the section as shown in figure 7. Dorsal to the gizzard the section cuts the so-called caecum, _ce_, a little nearer its anterior end than is shown in figure 7. The duodenum, _d_, is cut at five points, and has about the same structure as in the preceding figure. The character of the duodenal loops that causes the rather curious appearance of the present figure will be readily understood by reference to figure 7, though the reconstruction is not mathematically accurate. The ventral projection of the lower loops of the duodenum into the umbilicus is seen both in the present figure and in the reconstruction. The loop of the duodenum that, in the sections, is seen to lie directly ventrad to the gizzard, in the reconstruction is shown too much to the side of the latter organ. The descending loops of the duodenum are cut in such a way that the surrounding mesoblast forms a continuous mass of tissue. Figure 7F represents a section through the plane 901 of figure 7. The section passes through the kidneys, _k_, the edge of one posterior appendage, _pa_, the large intestine, _il_, and two regions of the small intestine, _i_. The large intestine is here a thick walled, cylindrical structure, _il_, hanging from a thin mesentery, _ms_, in the much reduced body cavity. The layers of its wall are much more fully differentiated than in the more anterior regions of the enteron. The epithelium is here stratified instead of simple columnar, and the folds into which it is thrown are broader and less numerous than in the duodenum above described. Ventrad to the large intestine, and almost in contact with it, is seen the allantois, _al_, whose general outline was noted in connection with figure 7. It is an irregular structure, consisting of a very thin outer layer of mesoderm, lined with a single layer of flattened epithelial cells. Lying at a considerable distance ventrad to the main body of the section, are seen the two sections of the small intestine, _i_, surrounded by irregular strands of tissue from the umbilicus. The structure of these two intestinal loops is about the same as in the more anterior region described above. Figure 7G, the last of this series, represents a section through the cloaca, caudad to the urinary openings, in the plane 1060 of figure 7. The epithelium of the cloaca is, of course, simply a continuation of that of the surface of the body, somewhat thickened, perhaps, in the deeper regions. The intromittent organ, _io_, which projects cephalad from the wall of the cloaca, is here seen as a three-pointed body of considerable size, projecting ventrally from the body. Figure 8 shows in outline the enteron, from the ventral aspect, of an embryo of 20 cm. total length, or at about the time of hatching. The drawing was made from a dissection and, for the sake of simplicity, only the enteron, respiratory organs, heart, and thymus are shown. The jaw is cut through on the left side and is turned over to the right, thus bringing into view the roof of the mouth, _m_, and the dorsal side of the tongue, _tn_. At the same time the pharynx, _ph_, and the wide anterior end of the oesophagus, _oe_, are cut open, exposing the glottis, _gs_, and vocal cords, _vc_. The lungs, _lu_, and trachea, _ta_, which are now fully formed, are dissected loose and drawn over to the right side of the animal, together with the heart, _ht_, and the thymus, _ty_; only one side of the thymus is shown, the other half being hidden by the trachea. The mouth has reached nearly the outline of the adult. The lips are formed and, in the anterior part of the lower jaw, four tooth rudiments, _to_, are externally visible. The mucous membrane of the roof of the mouth, _m_, is covered with rounded papillae, easily seen with a lens but not shown in the figure. The tongue, _tn_, is fully formed, and is free anteriorly and laterally to about the extent that is seen in the adult; the papillae with which it is covered are not so prominent as those seen on the roof of the mouth. At the base of the tongue is the prominent transverse fold, noted in connection with figure 7, that meets above the velum palitinum, not shown here but shown in figure 7. Caudad to these folds is seen the glottis, _gs_, a triangular opening with the vocal cords, _vc_, at its base. The mucosa of the inside of the pharynx and the anterior end of the oesophagus, exposed by the dissection, is thrown into numerous longitudinal folds, not shown in the figure; these well-marked folds extend throughout the length of the oesophagus. The oesophagus, _oe_, tapers gradually from the wide pharynx, _ph_, and then continues as a cylindrical tube of uniform diameter to the right side of the anterior end of the stomach, where it opens into the latter organ. Its walls are thick, and its lumen is almost obliterated by the longitudinal folds of the mucosa, mentioned above. The stomach, _i´_, is oval in outline, though somewhat flattened laterally; it is depressed, dorso-ventrally, to a little more than half the lateral diameter. As has been said, the oesophagus enters its right anterior border; the pylorus is on the right side, 3 or 4 mm. caudad to the oesophageal opening. The wall of the stomach is comparatively thin except in the region of the oesophageal and pyloric apertures, and at a point, opposite these apertures, on the left side. At the latter point is an oval or disc-shaped area that is several times as thick as the surrounding wall; it probably represents the gizzard structure of the adult. The thickening mentioned in the region of the two apertures seems to be mainly due to a wrinkling of the mucosa which, in other parts of the stomach, is nearly smooth, so far as can be seen with the naked eye. A sphincter thickening around the oesophageal and, to some extent, around the pyloric aperture, causes each of these structures to project into the stomach like an ileo-caecal valve. The pylorus, _py_, opens into a small, pointed, thin-walled diverticulum, _di_, and, at the same time, into the duodenum, _d_. The diverticulum noted, also, in connection with figure 7, has relatively thick, wrinkled walls; its significance is not known to the writer. From this diverticulum the duodenum, _d_, leads caudad and laterad for a short distance as a narrow tube, then suddenly expands into the widest part of the entire intestine. Into this wide part of the duodenum, 3 or 4 mm. from the pylorus, opens the bile duct, _bd_. The bile sac, _bs_, is an elongated oval body with thin walls, lying to the right of the pylorus, its connection with the liver was not seen. Lying between the anterior end of the duodenum and the posterior end of the stomach, and extending caudad for 10 to 15 mm., in the median plane of the animal is the pancreas, _pan_. It is a long narrow body of a whitish color; its duct or ducts could not be determined by dissection. The duodenum extends caudad, with gradually diminishing caliber, from the enlarged region mentioned above. About 10 to 15 mm. caudad to the stomach it makes a sort of double loop to the right, a wide loop, _lp_, and a close one, _lp´_, nearer the median plane. From the latter loop the intestine extends straight to the left, for a distance of about 10 mm., where it makes a small loop cephalad, _lp^2_, and then opens to the yolk-sac, _y_. The yolk-sac is shown here simply as an irregular piece of tissue, the yolk having been removed. The anterior intestinal portal, _aip_, and posterior intestinal portal, _pip_, are in close proximity with each other. From the posterior intestinal portal the intestine extends straight cephalad to the posterior end of the stomach, dorsal to which it forms a double loop, a wider one, _lp^3_, and a narrow one, _lp^4_. From the latter loop, _lp^4_, the intestine extends straight caudad, parallel and near to the straight region leading from the posterior intestinal portal, until it reaches the region of the loop _lp^2_, dorsal to which it forms a small loop, _lp^5_. From loop _lp^5_ the intestine, which is here of very small caliber, extends caudad for about 10 mm., where it forms another indistinctly double loop, _lp^6_. From loop _lp^6_ the large intestine, _il_, extends, with gradually increasing caliber, to the cloaca, _cl_, a distance of 10 to 15 mm. Except in the enlarged region near the pylorus the lumen of the intestine is almost obliterated by the folding of its thick walls, so that little or nothing can be told of its lining with the naked eye. A distinct mesentery holds the loops of the intestine in position and binds the entire enteron close to the dorsal body wall. Because of the lack of properly fixed tissue no sections of the enteron of this stage were made. REFERENCES 1. BRONN, H. G.: Klassen des Thier-Reichs. (Vols. on reptiles.) 1890. 2. CHAFFANJON, V.: Observations sur Alligator mississippiensis (Tractus intestinalis und Mesenterium). Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, vol. 28, p. 83 ff., 1881. 3. EISLER, P.: Zur Kentniss der Histologie des Alligatormagens. Archiv f. Mikr. Anat., vol. 34, pp. 1-10, 1889. 4. HERTWIG, O.: Comparative Embryology of Vertebrates. Especially vol. 2, pp. 1-241, 1906. 5. REESE, A. M.: The Nasal Passages of the Florida Alligator. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila., 1901. 6. REESE, A. M.: The Development of the American Alligator. Smith. Misc. Coll., vol. 51, No. 1791, pp. 1-66, 1908. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES 1-8, PLATES 1-15 [Transcriber's Note: The word "Plate" refers to the physical pages on which the Figures were printed. The word is not used as an illustration identifier. Based on the author's age at time of publication, "Miss C. M. Reese" is more likely to have been his sister than his daughter.] The surface views were drawn, under the author's direction, by Miss C. M. Reese. The first two of these views were copied, by permission, from S. F. Clarke; the others were drawn from the specimens themselves. All of the figures of any one stage are given the same number, followed by distinguishing letters, so that it is possible to tell at a glance what figures belong together. All of the figures except those from Clarke were drawn under a camera lucida. Figure 1. A surface view of an embryo, from the dorsal aspect, at the beginning of the formation of the enteron. Figure 1A. A sagittal section of an embryo of approximately the age of the one shown in figure 1. � 43. Figure 2. A dorsal view of an embryo with five pairs of mesoblastic somites. Figure 2A. A sagittal section of an embryo of the stage shown in figure 2. � 43. Figure 2B. A transverse section through the headfold of an embryo of the stage shown in figure 2. � 43. Figure 3. A dorsal view of an embryo with about fifteen pairs of somites. � 20. Figures 3A-3D. A series of transverse sections through an embryo of the stage of the one shown in figure 3. � 43. Figure 4. A surface view of an embryo with about twenty pairs of somites. � (about) 15. Figures 4A-4D. A series of transverse sections through the anterior end of an embryo of the approximate age of the one shown in figure 4. � 20. Figures 4E and 4F. Two transverse sections through the thyroid gland of this stage; more highly magnified. � 102. Figures 4G-4M. A series of transverse sections caudad to the preceding. Figure 4H, � 43; other figures, � 20. Figure 5. A surface view, in profile, of an embryo at the time of the origin of the limbs. � (about) 5. Figures 5A-5I. A series of transverse sections through an embryo of the age shown in figure 5. � 7. Figure 5J. A composite drawing of reconstructions of the enterons of two embryos of the age of the one shown in figure 5. One reconstruction was in wax, from sagittal sections, the other was a plotted reconstruction from transverse sections. � 14. Figure 6. A surface view, in profile, of an embryo with well developed manus and pes. � (about) 5. Figure 6A. A reconstruction, plotted from transverse sections, of the enteron of an embryo of about the age of the one shown in figure 6. � 14. Figures 6B-6H. Part of a series of transverse sections from which the preceding reconstruction was made. � 7. Figure 7. A reconstruction of the enteron of an embryo of 42 mm. crown-rump length. Figures 7A-7G. A part of the series of transverse sections from which the preceding reconstruction was made. � 7. Figure 7H. A high power drawing of a portion of the wall of the oesophagus in the region of figure 7A. � 190. Figure 7I. A high power drawing of a portion of the wall of the stomach in the region of figure 7C. Figure 7J. A high power drawing of a portion of the wall of the duodenum in the region of figure 7D. Figure 8. An outline drawing, from the ventral aspect, of the enteron of an embryo of 20 cm. length, at about the time of hatching; made from a dissection. � 1. LETTERING FOR ALL FIGURES _a_, head-fold of amnion. _aa_, anterior appendage. _ac_, anterior cardinal vein. _aip_, anterior intestinal portal. _al_, allantois. _an_, anterior nares. _ao_, aorta. _ar_, aortic arch. _au_, auricle. _b_, bulbus arteriosus. _bc_, body cavity. _bd_, bile duct. _bd´_, opening of bile duct to liver. _bd´´_, opening of bile duct to duodenum. _blp_, blastopore. _bp_, basilar plate. _bs_, bile-sac. _bv_, blood vessel. _c_, centrum of vertebra. _ca_, caudal artery. _ce_, caecum. _ch_, cerebral hemisphere. _cl_, cloaca. _cm_, circular muscle layer. _cn_, cranial nerve. _cp_, posterior choroid plexus. _cv_, cardinal vein. _d_, duodenum. _dc_, ductus Cuvieri. _di_, diverticulum of stomach. _e_, eye. _ec_, ectoderm. _ec´_, thickening of ectoderm. _en_, entoderm. _en´_, endocardium. _ent_, enteron. _ep_, epidermal layer of ectoderm. _ep´_, epithelium. _epi_, pineal body. _es_, embryonic shield. _f_, fronto-nasal process. _fb_, forebrain. _fg_, foregut. _g^1-5_, gill clefts. _gf^1-6_, gill folds. _gl_, glomerulus. _h_, head-fold. _gs_, glottis. _gz_, gizzard. _hb_, hindbrain. _hc_, head cavity. _hg_, hindgut. _ht_, heart. _i_, intestine. _i´_, stomach. _il_, large intestine. _in_, infundibulum. _io_, intromittent organ. _ir_, iris. _it_, iter. _k_, kidney. _la_, larynx. _li_, liver. _lm_, longitudinal muscle layer. _ln_, lens. _lp_, _lp´_, etc., loops of intestine. _lu_, lungs. _lv_, lens vesicle. _m_, mouth. _ma_, manus. _mb_, midbrain. _me_, medullary canal. _me´_, tip end of medullary canal. _md._, mandibular folds. _mes_, mesoderm. _mes´_, myocardium. _mf_, medullary fold. _mg_, medullary groove. _mk_, Meckel's cartilage. _ml_, muscle layer. _mp_, muscle plate. _ms_, mesentery. _mv_, meatus venosus. _mx_, maxillary fold. _myc_, myocoel. _n_, nasal cavity. _na_, neural arch of vertebra. _nc_, neurenteric canal. _nl_, nervous layer of ectoderm. _nt_, notochord. _o_, ear vesicle. _oc_, optic cup. _oe_, oesophagus. _on_, optic nerve. _os_, optic stalk. _ov_, optic vesicle. _p_, pituitary body. _pa_, posterior appendage. _pag_, post-anal gut. _pan_, pancreas. _pan´_, opening of pancreas. _pc_, posterior cardinal vein. _pe_, pes. _pg_, primitive groove. _ph_, pharynx. _pip_, posterior intestinal portal. _pl_, pelvis. _pn_, posterior nares. _pr_, pericardial cavity. _ps_, primitive streak. _pt_, pecten. _py_, pylorus. _r_, rib. _rt_, retina. _s_, somites. _sc_, spinal cord. _se_, spenethmoid cartilage. _sg_, spinal ganglion. _sl_, submucosa. _sm_, splanchnic mesoblast. _sn_, spinal nerve. _so_, somatic mesoblast. _st_, stomodaeum. _sy_, sympathetic nervous system. _t_, tail. _ta_, trachea. _tg_, thyroid gland. _tn_, tongue. _to_, tooth anlage. _tr_, trunchus arteriosus. _tv_, _tv´_, third ventricle of brain. _ty_, thymus gland. _u_, umbilical stalk. _v´_, _v´´_, _v´´´_, first, second, and third cerebral vesicles. _va_, vascular area. _vc_, vocal cords. _vm_, vitelline membrane. _vn_, ventricle of heart. _vp_, velum palitum. _vv_, vitelline blood vessels. _wd_, Wolffian duct. _wdo_, opening of Wolffian duct. _wr_, Wolffian ridge. _wt_, Wolffian tubule. _x_, point of origin of bronchi. _y_, yolk. _ys_, yolk-stalk. [Transcriber's Note: The Figures were printed on a series of 15 pages ("Plates") at the end of the book. Since the caption text has already been given in full, the individual Figure numbers will not be repeated here.] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Errata As seen in figure 6A the lungs are irregularly conical _printed as 6a_ at the point marked _X_ _text [two occurrences] unchanged: capital letter not explained_ _ep_, epidermal layer of ectoderm. [. for ,] _epi_, pineal body. [_epi_ not italicized] 
31574	----	UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 13, No. 3, pp. 73-84, pls. 9-12, 3 figs. August 16, 1960 A New Subspecies of Slider Turtle (Pseudemys scripta) from Coahuila, México BY JOHN M. LEGLER UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1960 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Henry S. Fitch, Robert W. Wilson Volume 13, No. 3, pp. 73-84, pls. 9-12, 3 figs. Published August 16, 1960 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED IN THE STATE PRINTING PLANT TOPEKA, KANSAS 1960 28-3860 A New Subspecies of Slider Turtle (Pseudemys scripta) from Coahuila, México BY JOHN M. LEGLER In September, 1958, the author and two colleagues collected a large series of _Pseudemys_ in small ponds and in a river in the basin of Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila. The specimens prove to represent a previously unrecognized subspecies of _Pseudemys scripta_. The subspecies is named in honor of Edward Harrison Taylor who has contributed more than any other person to our present knowledge of the herpetofauna of México. =Pseudemys scripta taylori= new subspecies (Pls. 9-12, Figures 1 & 2) _Holotype._--Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist., No. 46952, adult female, alcoholic; 16 km. S Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila, México; 6 September 1958; original number 1694 John M. Legler. _Paratypes._--A total of 52 specimens as follows (numbers or series of numbers marked with an asterisk are for specimens prepared as dry shell with soft parts in alcohol): KU 46932-4*, 46949-51, 46953-67, 46969 (females), 46935*, 46936-48, 46968 (males), same data as holotype, 6 to 8 September 1958; UU 3416 (male), same locality, 29 to 30 July 1959; KU 46971, 46973* (females), 46972 (male), 46970, 46974 (juveniles), 6 mi. W Cuatro Ciénegas, 3 to 6 September 1958; IU 43585, 43587-9 (females), 43586, 43590 (males), same locality, 11 July 1958; CNHM 55655 (female), same locality, 22 August 1939; KU 46976 (female), Río Chiquito, 10 km. S Cuatro Ciénegas, 9 September 1958; UU 3415 (female), 8.5 mi. SW Cuatro Ciénegas, 1 August 1959. _Diagnosis._--A subspecies of _Pseudemys scripta_ most closely resembling _P. s. elegans_, but differing from that subspecies in having: 1) extensive _black_ plastral pattern, all parts of which are interconnected, covering approximately half of plastron; 2) tendency toward melanism, in large adults of both sexes, especially noticeable on posterior part of plastron; 3) cutting edge of lower jaw coarsely serrate; 4) tendency for femoral edges of plastron to be reflected ventrally, especially in males; and, 5) pectoral scute longer than gular. _Description of holotype_ (measurements given in Table 1).--Carapace oval in dorsal aspect, slightly narrowed behind, nearly straight across anterior margin, bluntly serrate behind; shell deep, highly arched in cross section; height of shell 53 per cent of width; surface of shell having longitudinal striations; middorsal keel weakly developed, scarcely discernible except on third central lamina; lateral margin of carapace not at all reflected, posterolateral margins flared outward; central laminae all broader than long, the first urn-shaped. TABLE 1. MEASUREMENTS (IN MILLIMETERS) OF THE HOLOTYPE (46952) AND NINE ADULT, TOPOTYPIC PARATYPES OF PSEUDEMYS SCRIPTA TAYLORI NEW SUBSPECIES. HEIGHT WAS MEASURED IN A VERTICAL LINE FROM THE CENTER OF THE PLASTRON. KEY: A: Collection and Catalogue No. B: Sex C: Length of Carapace D: Width of Carapace E: Length of Plastron F: Width of Plastral Forelobe (Humeropectoral) G: Width of Plastral Hind Lobe (Mid-femoral) H: Height I: Width of Head ================================================================= A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I -----------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------ KU 46948 | [Male] | 179 | 127 | 157 | 71 | 69 | 69 | 28 KU 46941 | [Male] | 148 | 107 | 129 | 59 | 59 | 57 | 25 KU 46968 | [Male] | 139 | 99 | 116 | 55 | 54 | 57 | 25 KU 46937 | [Male] | 128 | 100 | 115 | 54 | 52 | 47 | 21 KU 46944 | [Male] | 105 | 82 | 93 | 46 | 43 | 38 | 19 KU 46932 | [Female] | 214 | 158 | 196 | 86 | 84 | 87 | 37 KU 46952 | [Female] | 202 | 149 | 186 | 87 | 86 | 79 | 33 KU 46957 | [Female] | 188 | 138 | 167 | 79 | 80 | 68 | 31 KU 46959 | [Female] | 156 | 118 | 149 | 71 | 71 | 70 | 29 KU 46962 | [Female] | 132 | 101 | 119 | 58 | 53 | 51 | 24 -----------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------ Ground color of carapace (hereinafter, colors are those of preserved specimen) dark olive; upper surface of each marginal scute having round or oval black mark, two such marks on each marginal of first pair; marks on margin of anterior half of carapace having pale orange-yellow borders, marks more posteriorly having indistinct borders or no border; upper surface of carapace having numerous, irregularly arranged black marks on a faint reticulum of pale lines; one or two large oval marks on each lateral scute arranged more or less vertically, other marks on laterals irregular in size and arrangement; central scutes having three to five longitudinally arranged, narrow black marks on each scute. Ground color of plastron pale yellow, anterior half extensively marked with black along laminal seams; all plastral markings interconnected; undersurfaces of marginals on anterior half of shell having pale centers; undersurfaces of posterior marginals and posterior half of plastron solid black. Plastron more or less evenly rounded in front, slightly indented on gular border; posterolateral free edge of plastron reflected slightly downward; posterior border of plastron having wide shallow anal notch; plastral laminae, in order of length--abdominal, anal, pectoral, gular, femoral, humeral; abdominal lamina longer than combined lengths of pectoral and humeral or humeral and gular. Head moderately wide; snout slightly pointed in dorsal view, curving evenly backward and downward from nostrils in profile; upper jaw notched in middle, cutting edges finely and unevenly serrate, crushing surfaces having distinct ridge bearing fine denticulations but no large teeth; cutting edges of lower jaw coarsely and evenly serrate, tooth at symphysis relatively large; raised ridges of lower crushing surfaces each having low blunt tooth and many fine denticulations. Major markings of head and neck as follows: narrow stripe beginning at posterior edge of eye and extending downward and backward (across tympanum) on side of neck to shoulder (stripe wider behind than at origin); wide stripe from lower posterior corner of eye extending downward, across mandibular articulation (and below tympanum) on throat to shoulder (wider at origin than behind); postorbital mark, four to five millimeters wide, approximately 26 millimeters long, connected to eye by narrow isthmus anteriorly and continuous with narrow stripe on upper part of neck posteriorly; stripe on mandibular symphysis widened and bifurcated posteriorly, its two branches enclosing one wide and two narrow stripes; wide stripe beginning in middle of mandibular ramus and running backward to point below mandibular articulation on each side; top of head, sides of snout, and areas between above-mentioned major stripes, marked with numerous, fine, often indistinct pale lines. Pale dorsal stripe on fleshy portion of each finger, those of second and fourth fingers continuous to mid-humeral region, those of other fingers broken on anterior face of antebrachium; upper and lower pale stripes of antebrachium joined in mid-humeral region. _Coloration of living specimens._--Ground color of soft parts dark olive to slate gray or black; ground color of carapace olive to slate gray; ground color of plastron pale yellow, markings blackish, tinged with brown in younger specimens, sooty black in most adults. Postorbital mark red; other markings on soft parts cream to buffy yellow. _Geographic range._--_Pseudemys scripta taylori_ is known only from ponds, and the Río Chiquito in the basin of Cuatro Ciénegas. The discovery of _taylori_ brings to six the number of valid subspecies of _scripta_ known in México (_elegans_, _gaigeae_, _hiltoni_, _nebulosa_, _ornata_, and _taylori_) and to three (_elegans_, _gaigeae_, and _taylori_) the number known in Coahuila. My own studies of these six subspecies indicate that they are, beyond reasonable doubt, members of a single polytypic species (_scripta_). I tentatively follow Williams (1956:153) in rejecting "_cataspila_" as an invalid name. Three specimens of _Pseudemys scripta_ obtained by Robert G. Webb in the Río Chiquito at a point 8 mi. W of Nadadores, 2100 ft., where the river flows out of the basin of Cuatro Ciénegas, have many characteristics in common with _taylori_, but resemble _elegans_ closely in several characters as follows: no extensive melanism; plastral markings tending to be brownish; anterior plastral markings smudgelike, isolated or nearly isolated; markings on lateral scutes tending to have vertical, linear arrangement; cutting edge of mandible weakly serrate; femoral edges of plastron not reflected ventrally; one or more fine, pale lines between two major stripes on antebrachium; gular longer than pectoral in one specimen, longer than femoral in both specimens. The nature of these specimens suggests that parts of the Río Salado drainage north and east of Cuatro Ciénegas are in a zone of intergradation between _taylori_ and _elegans_. I have examined what I consider to be typical examples of _P. s._ _elegans_ from the region of Múzquiz (CNHM 28843-45, 55625-45), and from Don Martín Reservoir (KU 33524). These localities are, respectively, approximately 70 miles north-northeast and 100 miles east-northeast of Cuatro Ciénegas. The specimens from Múzquiz are presumably the same that Carr (1952:262) treated as "... _elegans-cataspila_ intergrades, but with a strong leaning toward eastern _elegans_...." Populations of _P. scripta_ in central eastern Coahuila (between the above-mentioned localities and Cuatro Ciénegas) probably are a conglomerate of only two subspecies (_elegans_ and _taylori_), not including _gaigeae_ (as was suggested by Hamilton, 1947:65 and by Carr, op. cit.:241, map 17;262). Specimens reported by Schmidt and Owens (1944:101) as _P. s. gaigeae_ (from several localities in the region mentioned above) have been examined in the course of my study and prove to be _P. floridana texana_. A specimen reported by Shannon and Smith (1949:399; IU 4094, Hidalgo Co., Texas) as being either _gaigeae_ or an _elegans-gaigeae_ intergrade, has been examined and is here regarded as a typical specimen of _elegans_. I regard _P. s. gaigeae_ as a subspecies of the upper Río Grande and disrupted parts of that drainage; the range of that subspecies meets that of _P. s. elegans_ somewhere between the Big Bend region and Piedras Negras. In any event, the influence of _gaigeae_ is not so widespread as other authors (Carr, _loc. cit._; Hamilton, _loc. cit._; Hartweg, 1939:3-4) have indicated. Further collecting in the Río Salado and its tributaries east and north of Cuatro Ciénegas will be necessary before the exact range of _P. s. taylori_ can be determined. _Variation._--Characteristics ascribed to the holotype pertain in general to all specimens in the hypodigm, except as noted below. The postorbital mark is in contact with the eye on one or both sides in 46 per cent of the specimens (narrowly separated from eye in remainder) and is in contact with a neck stripe (on one or both sides) in 35 per cent of the specimens. The pattern of the antebrachium is as shown in Fig. 2 in all specimens except that the thin lateral stripe is obliterated by melanism in older specimens of both sexes. The lateral edges of the posterior plastral lobe are reflected downward, at least slightly, in all but one specimen (an adult, kyphotic female). The first central lamina is straight-sided in juveniles and becomes urn-shaped only in adults. The relative height of the shell tends to increase with a general increase in size in both sexes. [Illustration: FIG. 1. _Pseudemys scripta taylori_ new subspecies: left side of head, female paratype (KU 46933), × 1.] [Illustration: FIG. 2. _Pseudemys scripta taylori_ new subspecies: anterior view of left antebrachium, female paratype (KU 46934), × 1.] _Comparisons._--Of the five other subspecies of Mexican _P. scripta_ mentioned above, three subspecies (_gaigeae_, _hiltoni_, and _nebulosa_) form a natural group herein referred to as the _gaigeae_ group. _Pseudemys s. taylori_ is distinguished from members of the _gaigeae_ group by elongate, red postorbital mark (yellow or orange in the _gaigeae_ group), extensive black plastral pattern (narrow--or if wide, brownish--in _gaigeae_ group), and serrate lower jaw (nearly smooth in _gaigeae_ group). The subspecies _P. scripta taylori_ differs from _P. scripta elegans_ as indicated in the following comparative list of characteristics: _P. s. taylori_ _P. s. elegans_ 1. Extensive black plastral 1. Plastral pattern consisting pattern, all parts of which of separate brown smudges (at are interconnected. Plastral least anteriorly). Plastral pattern partly obliterated by pattern obliterated by melanism in old individuals melanism only in adult males. of both sexes. 2. Markings of carapace in form 2. Markings of carapace having of indistinct ocelli. linear and vertical. 3. Cutting edge of mandible 3. Cutting edge of mandible serrate. smooth. 4. Foreclaws of mature males 4. Foreclaws of mature males unmodified. greatly elongated. 5. Gular shorter than pectoral 5. Gular longer than pectoral (91 per cent of specimens), (90 per cent of specimens) gular and femoral subequal. and longer than femoral (all specimens). 6. Shell relatively higher, 6. Shell relatively lower, posterior lobe of plastron posterior lobe of plastron relatively narrower (Fig. 3). relatively wider (Fig. 3). 7. Lateral edges of posterior 7. Lateral edges of posterior plastral lobe reflected plastral lobe unmodified. downward. Four specimens of _P. s. ornata_ (MCZ 46392-3, 46397, 46400, two adult females and two adult males) from the Río Soto la Marina drainage of Tamaulipas differ from _P. s. taylori_ as follows: plastral pattern diffuse and brownish, not black; gular longer than pectoral; cutting edge of lower jaw only slightly serrate; stripe on mandibular symphysis isolated, not joined with ventral neck stripes to form inverted Y; postorbital stripe (yellow in preservative) connected to eye by narrow isthmus and continuous with neck stripe to shoulder. In _P. s. taylori_ there is an obtuse ridge or prominence across the bridge, on a line joining the free lateral edges of the plastron; the area between the ridges is nearly flat. The bridge forms a distinct plane on each side between the mentioned ridge and the outer edges of the marginals. In cross section this plane forms an angle of 30 to 45 degrees with the horizontal plane of the plastron. The higher bridge and deeper shell of _taylori_ result in a slightly higher center of gravity in this subspecies than in the specimens of _elegans_ and _ornata_ I have examined. In the two subspecies last named the longitudinal ridges on the plastron are indistinct or wanting and the bridge forms a lesser angle with the horizontal plane of the plastron. The largest female of _taylori_ (218 mm.) is shorter by some 30 mm. than the smaller female in the series of _ornata_ from Tamaulipas whereas the largest male of _taylori_ (179 mm.) is shorter by some 80 mm. than the smaller male from Tamaulipas. _Pseudemys s. taylori_ probably is smaller, on the average, than either _elegans_ or northern populations of _ornata_. There seems to be no reliable published record of the color of the postorbital mark in living examples of _P. s. ornata_ from Tamaulipas. Williams (1956:147, 154) indicated that this color may be red or yellow for Mexican and Central American populations of _ornata_ in general and Günther (1885: Pl. 6 b) indicated that the color was yellow in _Emys cataspila_; however, both of the observations mentioned were presumably based on preserved rather than living specimens. The postorbital marks of a live specimen of _ornata_ (KU 40131) from southern Veracruz were yellowish to buffy with a pinkish tinge anteriorly (_fide_ notes of Robert G. Webb and a color photograph by him). [Illustration: FIG. 3. Relative height of shell (expressed as a percentage of width) and relative width of posterior plastral lobe (expressed as a percentage of plastral length) in two subspecies of _Pseudemys scripta_. The data presented are for 62 specimens (40 [Female], 22 [Male]) of _P. s. taylori_ and 37 specimens (13 [Female], 24 [Male]) of _P. s. elegans_. Horizontal and vertical lines represent the mean and range, respectively, whereas open and solid rectangles represent one standard deviation and two standard errors of the mean, respectively.] [Illustration: PLATE 9 _Pseudemys scripta taylori_ new subspecies: dorsal view of holotype (KU 46952), approximately 11/16 natural size.] [Illustration: PLATE 10 _Pseudemys scripta taylori_ new subspecies: ventral view of holotype (KU 46952), approximately 11/16 natural size.] [Illustration: PLATE 11 Paratypes of _Pseudemys scripta taylori_ new subspecies: _Left_--dorsal and ventral views of KU 46943, male, 16 km. S Cuatro Ciénegas, × 3/8; _Upper right_--KU 46974, juvenile, 6 mi. W Cuatro Ciénegas, × 5/6; _Lower right_--KU 46968, male, 16 km. S Cuatro Ciénegas, × 3/8.] [Illustration: PLATE 12 Ventral views of four subspecies of _Pseudemys scripta_: _Upper left_--_P. s. ornata_ (KU 40131 [Female]), Río Playa Vicente, San Andrés Tuxtla, Veracruz, × 1/3; _Upper right_--_P. s. gaigeae_ (IU 43583 [Female]), 1 mi. E La Cruz, Chihuahua, × 3/8; _Lower left_--_P. s. elegans_ (CNHM 55627 [Male]), Múzquiz, Coahuila, × 2/3; _Lower right_--_P. s. taylori_ new subspecies (KU 46970 juvenile), paratype, 6 mi. W Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila, × 11/16.] _Natural history._--Specimens of _P. s. taylori_ were caught in hoop nets in clear deep pools and in the Río Chiquito. No specimens were collected or observed in marshy situations where the water was shallow or stagnant. Individuals were seen only near dusk and in early morning when a number floated just below the surface with only their heads showing. They were never seen on land during our short stay in the basin. The few stomachs that were opened contained vegetable material. In terms of number of specimens trapped, _P. s. taylori_ was the most abundant turtle in pools at and near the type locality (Webb and Legler, 1960). _Relationships and phylogeny._--The basin of Cuatro Ciénegas now drains, via the Río Salado, into the lower Río Grande. Brief descriptions of habitats and topography in the basin are given by Gilmore (1947:148-150, fig. 2) and Webb and Legler (1960). In the more northern parts of the Salado drainage (for example, in the Río Sabinas near Múzquiz) slider turtles are typical _P. s. elegans_. Assuming that conditions which permit genetic exchange between populations of turtles in the Salado drainage system differ in no major respect from conditions in other parts of the range of _Pseudemys scripta_, it is logical to suppose that the differentiation of _P. s. taylori_ at Cuatro Ciénegas was preceded by the isolation of a population in that basin. The Río Chiquito drains through a narrow gap in the northeastern end of the basin of Cuatro Ciénegas. Interruption of this stream would effectively isolate aquatic habitats in the basin. It is here proposed that _P. s. taylori_ is a relict of an earlier, lower Río Grande stock, part of which became isolated in the basin of Cuatro Ciénegas in postpluvial times. The morphological similarity of _P. s. taylori_ and _P. s. elegans_ indicates that both were derived from this parent stock; similarity of both subspecies to populations of _P. s. ornata_ in Tamaulipas suggests that the latter subspecies may also be a derivative of the mentioned stock of the lower Río Grande. The proposed former isolation of the basin of Cuatro Ciénegas is supported by evidence found in studies of other turtles in the basin. Of the four kinds of turtles known to occur there (_Terrapene coahuila_, _P. s. taylori_, _Trionyx spinifer emoryi_, and _Trionyx ater_), all but _T. spinifer_ seem to be endemic. These three kinds comprise a graded series, in regard to their degree of differentiation from closest known relatives, as follows: 1) _Terrapene coahuila_ is morphologically the most generalized and primitive of living box turtles; the species is unique in its highly aquatic mode of life (see Legler, 1960:532-534, for brief discussion of relationships within genus Terrapene); 2) _Trionyx ater_ seems to represent a relict population of pre-_Trionyx spinifer_ stock; presumably, _spinifer_ has reinvaded the basin of Cuatro Ciénegas in relatively recent times and, as noted above, _spinifer_ and _ater_ now occur sympatrically (at least in a geographic sense) in the basin (Webb and Legler, _op. cit._); and, 3) evidence presented above suggests that _P. s. taylori_ intergrades with _P. s. elegans_ outside the basin. The three endemic populations of turtles at Cuatro Ciénegas therefore, differ by varying degrees from their closest living relatives. This variation in degree of difference possibly results from varying periods of isolation. Probably the basin of Cuatro Ciénegas has been isolated from, and reconnected to, the lower Río Grande drainage at several times in the past. The relationships of fishes in the basin, now under study by other workers, also suggest that the basin was isolated more than once. _Remarks._--Local names for the above-mentioned localities in the basin of Cuatro Ciénegas are as follows: Anteojo (6 mi. W Cuatro Ciénegas); El Mojarral (8.5 mi. SW); and Ojo de Agua de Tío Candido, on Rancho Orozco (16 km. S). The Río Chiquito is referred to by some natives as "Río Colorado" and by some as "Río Salado." The local name for _P. s. taylori_ is _tortuga negra_ (the name is used also for _Terrapene coahuila_). _Acknowledgments._--For permission to examine specimens in their care, I wish to thank Doris M. Cochran, Smithsonian Institution (USNM), Ernest E. Williams, Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ), Rollin H. Baker, Michigan State University (MSU), Hobart M. Smith, University of Illinois (IU), and Robert F. Inger, Chicago Natural History Museum (CNHM). Pete S. Chrapliwy, John K. Greer, Robert G. Webb, and Kenneth L. Williams all contributed field data concerning the specimens of _P. s. taylori_ that they collected. I am especially grateful to Webb for donating two specimens to the University of Utah (UU). Special gratitude is expressed to Wendell L. Minckley and Robert B. Wimmer for assistance with field work at Cuatro Ciénegas. Daniel Rodríguez, Cuatro Ciénegas, guided us to the various ponds at and near the type locality. Robert R. Miller, Robert G. Webb, and Donald Tinkle read the manuscript and offered helpful criticisms. Figures 1 and 2 were drawn by Lorna Cordonnier. _Comparative materials examined_ (total of 135 specimens).--_P. s. elegans_ (52 specimens): KU 2897-8, 3195, 18337, 18341, 18345, 18347, 18364, 45027-31, 45033, 46750, 46863, and John M. Legler 1394 and 1435, various localities, Kansas; KU 16400, Howard Co., Texas; KU 39983-4, 8 mi. N and 2 mi. W Piedras Negras, Coahuila; KU 33525, 33527-9, La Gacha, Coahuila; CNHM 28843-5, 55625-45, Rancho las Ruscias, Múzquiz, Coahuila; KU 39982, 2 mi. S and 3 mi. E San Juan de Sabinas, Coahuila; KU 33524, Don Martín Reservoir, Coahuila; _P. s. elegans_ × _taylori_ (3): KU 53785-7, 8 mi. W. Nadadores, Coahuila; _P. s. gaigeae_ (39): MCZ 54724, Elephant Butte Reservoir [Sierra or Socorro Co.], New Mexico; KU 51158-61, 51202-3, Lajitas, Brewster Co., Texas; KU 51162-6, 51204-6, 51315, 1 mi. NW Ojinaga, Chihuahua; KU 33884, 51167-72, 51207-20, 3 mi. N and 5 mi. E Meoqui, Chihuahua; IU 43583-4, La Cruz, Chihuahua; _P. s. ornata_ (9): MCZ 46392-3, Río Purificación, Rancho Sta. Ana, Tamaulipas; MCZ 46397, E of Güémez, Tamaulipas; MCZ 46400, Jiménez, Tamaulipas; KU 40161-2, Alvarado, Veracruz; KU 40131, San Andrés Tuxtla, Veracruz; V. E. Thatcher 98, 15 mi. N Teapa, Tabasco; KU 40139, Cantemo[c], Tabasco; _P. s. taylori_ (23 in addition to type series): KU 51438, 51442, 53788-53801 topotypes; KU 53802-5, 8.5 mi. SW Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila; KU 51439-41, 10 km. S Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila; _P. floridana texana_ (10 from Coahuila): KU 39985, 2 mi. W Jiménez; CNHM 55654, Allende; CNHM 55646, Cd. San Juan; CNHM 55648, Hermanas; CNHM 55649-53, Lampacitas; KU 33526, Don Martín Reservoir. LITERATURE CITED CARR, A. 1952. Handbook of turtles: the turtles of the United States, Canada, and Baja California. Cornell Univ. Press, xv+542 pp., 82 pls., 37 figs., 15 tables, 23 maps. GILMORE, R. M. 1947. Report on a collection of mammalian bones from archeologic cave-sites in Coahuila, Mexico. Journ. Mammalogy, 28(2):147-165, 1 pl., 2 figs., 1 table. GÜNTHER, A. 1885. Biologia Centrali-Americana. Reptilia and Batrachia. Chelonia, pp. 1-18. HAMILTON, R. D. 1947. The range of _Pseudemys scripta gaigeae_. Copeia, 1947(1):65-66. HARTWEG, N. 1939. A new American _Pseudemys_. Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, no. 397, 4 pp. LEGLER, J. M. 1960. Natural history of the ornate box turtle, _Terrapene ornata ornata_ Agassiz. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 11(10):527-669, pls. 15-30, 29 figs. SCHMIDT, K. P., and OWENS, D. W. 1944. Amphibians and reptiles of northern Coahuila, Mexico. Zool. Ser., Field Mus. Nat. Hist., 29(6):97-115. SHANNON, F. A., and SMITH, H. M. 1949. Herpetological results of the University of Illinois field expedition, spring 1949. I. Introduction, Testudines, Serpentes. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 52(4):494-509. WEBB, R. G., and LEGLER, J. M. 1960. A new softshell turtle (genus _Trionyx_) from Coahuila, Mexico. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 40(2):21-30, 2 pls., April 20. WILLIAMS, E. 1956. _Pseudemys scripta callirostris_ from Venezuela with a general survey of the scripta series. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 115(5):145-160, Pls. I-III, 4 figs. _Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, Transmitted May 23 1960._ 28-3860 
21049	----	[Illustration: ONE OF THE TRICKS WAS TO RUN AND JUMP THROUGH A PAPER HOOP. "The Curlytops and Their Pets" Page 240] THE CURLYTOPS AND THEIR PETS OR _Uncle Toby's Strange Collection_ BY HOWARD R. GARIS AUTHOR OF "THE CURLYTOPS SERIES," "UNCLE WIGGILY SERIES," "BEDTIME STORIES," ETC. _Illustrations by JULIA GREENE_ NEW YORK CUPPLES & LEON COMPANY THE CURLYTOPS SERIES By HOWARD R. GARIS 12mo. Cloth. Illustrated. _THE CURLYTOPS AT CHERRY FARM Or, Vacation Days in the Country_ _THE CURLYTOPS ON STAR ISLAND Or, Camping Out With Grandpa_ _THE CURLYTOPS SNOWED IN Or, Grand Fun With Skates and Sleds_ _THE CURLYTOPS AT UNCLE FRANK'S RANCH Or, Little Folks on Ponyback_ _THE CURLYTOPS AT SILVER LAKE Or, On the Water With Uncle Ben_ _THE CURLYTOPS AND THEIR PETS Or, Uncle Toby's Strange Collection_ CUPPLES & LEON COMPANY, New York COPYRIGHT, 1921, BY CUPPLES & LEON COMPANY THE CURLYTOPS AND THEIR PETS Printed in U.S.A. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I UNCLE TOBY'S LETTER 1 II AN AUTOMOBILE RIDE 14 III THE QUEER OLD LADY 28 IV UNCLE TOBY'S PETS 40 V TIP AND TOP 52 VI WHERE IS TIP? 65 VII A FUZZY BURGLAR 79 VIII SLIDER GOES SLIDING 92 IX MRS. JOHNSON'S BABY 104 X MR. CAPPER'S BUNS 116 XI TOP ACTS STRANGELY 128 XII MR. NIP'S ALARM 141 XIII THE HAND-ORGAN MAN 154 XIV TURNOVER AND SKYROCKET 166 XV PLANNING THE CIRCUS 182 XVI TOP IS GONE 193 XVII THE DOG SHOW 203 XVIII THE BLACK POODLES 212 XIX A HAPPY REUNION 221 XX THE CURLYTOPS' CIRCUS 231 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ONE OF THE TRICKS WAS TO RUN AND JUMP THROUGH A PAPER HOOP. "The Curlytops and Their Pets." Page 240 THE SECOND DOG BEGAN TURNING SOMERSAULTS. "The Curlytops and Their Pets." Page 50 SLIDER WENT SLIDING DOWN THE SMOOTH SLANTING BOARD. "The Curlytops and Their Pets." Page 102 JACK MADE ONE LEAP AND LANDED SAFELY IN TEDDY'S ARMS. "The Curlytops and Their Pets." Page 174 THE CURLYTOPS AND THEIR PETS CHAPTER I UNCLE TOBY'S LETTER "What you going to put on your ship, Ted?" "Oh, swords and guns and gunpowder and soldiers. What you going to load on your ship, Jan?" "Oranges and lemons and pineapples," answered the little girl, who was playing with her brother at sailing boats in the brook that ran back of the house. "And maybe I'll have gold and diamonds and chocolate cake on my ship, Teddy," went on Janet Martin. "If you do I'll be a pirate and sink your ship! Oh, Jan, let's play that! I'll be a pirate!" Teddy Martin jumped up so suddenly from the bank of the brook, where he was loading his ship with what he called "swords, guns and gunpowder," that he tipped the vessel over and the whole cargo was spilled into the water. "Oh, look what you did!" cried Janet. "Your gunpowder will be all wet!" "I'm not ready to play the pirate game yet," explained Teddy. "Anyhow, I can get more powder." This would be easy enough, it seemed, as the children were only pretending that stones, pebbles and bits of sticks were the cargoes of their toy ships, and, as Teddy had said, he could easily get more stones. The brook was filled with them. "Where are you going?" Janet called after her brother, as she saw him hurrying toward the house, which was out of sight behind the trees and bushes that grew on the edge of the brook. "I'm going to get a black flag so I can be a pirate and sink your ship with gold, diamonds and chocolate cakes on!" answered Teddy over his shoulder as he ran on. "I--I don't guess I want you to be a pirate," said Janet slowly, as she looked at her ship, on which the pebbles, stones and bits of wood were neatly arranged in piles. "I'm not going to play that game! I don't want you to be a pirate, Ted! It's too scary!" But her brother was beyond the reach of her voice now, hurrying toward the house after his "black pirate flag." Janet shoved her ship out from the shore--her ship laden with diamonds, gold and chocolate cakes. Of course it was not a real ship. The Curlytops would not have had half as much fun with real ships as they were having with the pieces of boards which they were making believe were steamers and sailing vessels. "I'll sail my ship away down to the end of the brook before Ted gets back to be a pirate," said Janet to herself, as, with a long stick, she directed the flat board which was piled high with brook-pebbles. "Then when he comes back he can't sink it." Janet pushed her ship slowly at first, and then a little faster, moving it along by means of the stick while she stood on the bank. Then, hearing a noise in the bushes behind her, she thrust harder on the stick. "I don't want Teddy to pirate my ship!" she thought. "I'll fool him! I'll sail it around the bend, and then I'll hide behind the big buttonball tree and he won't know where I've gone!" In order to do this Janet wanted to make her ship go as fast as possible, so she shoved harder and harder on the stick. And then, all of a sudden, her ship upset. With a splash the stones, pebbles and bits of wood went into the brook. The whole cargo was sunk and lost as surely as if Ted's pirate vessel had captured that of his sister. That is, everything sank but the ship itself and the cargo of little sticks, some of which Janet was pretending were chocolate cakes. Even at that, I suppose, the chocolate cakes would be wet and soggy. And soggy chocolate cake isn't good to eat. The best thing you can do with it is to make it into a pudding. "Oh, Ted! look what you made me do," cried Janet sadly, as she saw the ship, which she had loaded with such care, capsized and cleared of its cargo. "It's all your fault!" And then she started in surprise as a babyish voice replied: "I 'idn't do nuffin! I 'ust comed! What's matter, Jan?" "Oh, it's you, is it, Trouble?" asked the girl, as she turned and saw, instead of Teddy, her smaller brother William, more often called "Trouble," because he was in it so often. "Yep! Me is here!" announced Trouble. Sometimes he talked more correctly than this, and his mother had told Janet and Teddy to try to cure him of his baby talk and the wrong use of words. But Ted and Jan thought it was "cute" to hear Trouble say queer things, so they did not mend his talk as often as they might. "I thought you were Ted," went on Janet. "Did you see him? He went up to the house to get a flag." "Flag," returned Trouble, in a questioning voice. "Goin' to be soldiers an' have a 'rade?" He meant parade, of course. "No, we aren't going to have a parade now, Trouble," said Janet. "Ted went to get a black flag to be a pirate, so he could sink my ship that was loaded with diamonds, gold and chocolate cakes." "I want chocolate cake--two pieces!" demanded Trouble, who had ears only for the last words of his sister. "There wasn't any chocolate cake--really, dear," explained the little girl, as she ruffled up her curly hair. "Ted and I were just pretending. He is going to have a pirate ship. I didn't want him to get mine, so I was shoving it hard down the brook, but I made it go too fast and it upset. Now I've got to load my ship all over again." "I want s'ip!" demanded William, as Jan began to guide her empty vessel back to shore by means of the long stick. "Trouble have a s'ip?" he asked. "Yes, you may have a ship, and play with us," Janet said, and as she was looking about for a board which might serve her little brother to play with, she heard someone coming through the bushes. "I guess this is Ted," thought Janet. "Anyhow he can't sink my ship now. I did it myself." It was her older brother, and he now came bursting through the shrubbery that lined the bank of the brook, holding in his hands a piece of black cloth. "I got the pirate flag!" cried Teddy. "Whoop-la! Now I'm going to sink your ship! Why, what happened?" he asked, as he saw that Janet's craft was empty. "Did Trouble upset it?" "No, I did it myself," Janet answered. "But I didn't mean to. I was trying to hide it from you, 'cause I don't want you to be a pirate and upset my ship full of chocolate cakes." "Oh, I must be a pirate! Here's the black flag and I must be a pirate!" shouted Teddy. "Whoop! I'm a pirate! I'm a pirate!" "Hoo! Hoo! Hoop!" yelled Trouble, trying to make as much noise as his brother. "You sound more like an Indian than you do a pirate," said Janet, as she began to pile more pebbles on the board that was her ship. "Well, Indians and pirates are 'most the same," declared Teddy. "Wait till you see my ship, with swords and guns and powder! It will blow your ship out of the water, and I'll have a black flag on it and everything! Whoop!" "I'm not going to play if you upset my ship, now there!" and Janet pouted her lips and ceased loading pebbles aboard her craft. Teddy, who was cutting a flagstaff with his knife, stopped to look at her. If Janet was going to act this way, and not send out her ship, there was no use in being a pirate. What fun could even a make-believe pirate have if there were no ships to sink? Teddy thought of this, and then he said: "All right, Jan, I won't be a pirate if you don't want me to. But I'll have a black flag, anyhow, and maybe I'll be a pirate some other time. Let's have a race with our ships--see which one gets to the water-wheel first." "Yes, I'll do that," agreed Janet. At the lower end of the brook she and Teddy had built a little dam, and where the water flowed over the top, like a tiny Niagara Falls, Teddy had fastened a wooden paddle wheel which turned as the water flowed on it. "Me want a s'ip!" wailed Trouble, as he saw his brother and sister getting their vessels ready for the race. "Can't you give him a piece of board for his ship, Ted?" asked Janet. "If we don't he'll get in our way and spoil the race." "Here, Trouble, take this," and Teddy paused long enough in his work of loading pebbles on his ship to toss his little brother a small chip he picked up off the shore. "Hu! I want bigger s'ip 'n' _him_!" declared Trouble, with a grunt. Then he arose and toddled off through the bushes. Teddy and Janet were so busy getting their own vessels ready for the coming race that they paid no more attention to their small brother. And Trouble was going to get into trouble--you may be sure of that. "Don't put too many stones on your ship, Jan," called Ted to his sister, as he saw that she was piling on the pebbles. "Why not?" she asked. "'Cause you'll make it so heavy that it won't sail fast. Course I want to beat you," Ted went on, "but I want to beat you _fair_." "Oh, thank you," Janet answered. "But these aren't stones I'm loading on my ship this time." "What are they?" asked Ted. "Feathers," his sister answered. "I'm making believe the stones are feathers, and I'm going to sell them to make pillows for dolls. My ship won't be too heavy!" "Hu!" grunted Ted, as he placed the pebbles carefully on the middle of his ship, so it would not turn over. "Stones are heavy, whether you make believe they're feathers or not. Don't put too many on, I'm telling you!" "All right, I won't," agreed Janet. The boy and the girl went on with their game, and they were almost ready to start their ships off on the race when there was a racket in the bushes back of them. It was a bumping, banging sound that Ted and Janet heard, then followed the bark of a dog. "That's Skyrocket!" said Ted. A moment later came a voice, calling: "Whoa-up! Don't go so fas'! You is spillin' me!" "That's Trouble!" declared Janet. They were both right. A moment later there burst through the bushes the little boy and the dog. The dog was Skyrocket, and he was made fast to a box which he was dragging along by a rope tied around his neck. Trouble was holding to the rear of the box, and in his eagerness to pull it along Skyrocket was also dragging Trouble, "spillin'" him, in fact--that is, pulling Trouble off his feet every now and then. "Why, William! what are you doing?" asked Janet. Trouble was hardly ever called by his right name of William unless he had done something wrong. "Were you trying to have Skyrocket ride you in that box?" asked Teddy. "If you were, he can't. Sky can't pull you in that box unless it has wheels on it. Then it's a wagon." "Don't want wagon--dis my s'ip!" announced the little fellow, as he began to loosen the rope from the dog's neck. But as soon as Trouble started to do this, Skyrocket, who loved the children, began to lick William's face with a red tongue. "'Top it! 'Top it!" commanded Trouble, but Skyrocket only licked the more. "Oh, Ted, unfasten Sky, or he'll eat Trouble up!" laughed Janet. "Are you going to sail that big box for your ship, Trouble?" asked Ted, as he loosed the dog. "Yep! Dis box my s'ip," announced the small boy. "I sail it!" "Well, don't sail it near ours or you'll upset our ships--yours is so much larger, dear," begged Janet. "I be ca'eful!" Trouble promised. "I find this big box for my s'ip in kitchen, an' Sky drag it here for me!" "Yes, Skyrocket is a good dog," said Ted. "Hi there! Don't wag your tail so near my ship, or you'll upset her before I beat Jan in the race!" shouted Teddy, as the dog, in his joy at being with the Curlytops, nearly spoiled their plans for having fun. "Here! Go chase that!" cried Ted, tossing a stick far down the brook. And as Skyrocket splashed into the water after it, a loud whistle was heard across the field on the other side of the brook. "There's the postman!" called Janet. "Yes, he's coming here, and he's got a letter in his hand," announced Teddy. "He's taking the short cut." Sometimes the mail carrier came across the lots near the Martin home, as he was doing on this occasion. The Curlytops ceased the loading of their ships long enough to run and meet the carrier. "There's a letter for your mother," the postman said, as he handed the missive to Ted. "Don't drop it in the brook." "I won't," promised the boy. "I wonder who the letter is from?" he went on, as the postman continued over the lots to his next stopping place, blowing his whistle on the way. "Any mail, children?" called a voice. "There's mother, now!" said Janet. "Yes, here's a letter," called Ted. His mother had walked down to the brook from the house, along the back path, to see what her Curlytops and Trouble were doing. Mrs. Martin opened and read the letter as Ted and Janet went back to their play, and as she turned the pages she gave an exclamation of wonder. "What is it?" asked Ted, looking up as he placed the last pebble on his ship. "This is a letter from your Uncle Toby," said Mrs. Martin, "and there is strange news in it. I wonder what it means? This is very queer!" She started to read the letter again, but at that moment Janet cried: "Oh, look at Trouble! Just look at him! He's sailing away down the brook! Oh, he'll be drowned!" CHAPTER II AN AUTOMOBILE RIDE Mrs. Martin dropped the letter from Uncle Toby. It fluttered to the ground as she hastened down the bank of the brook in which Trouble was sailing away, aboard the small box he had brought to play with as his "s'ip." "William! William Anthony Martin! Come right back here!" called Mrs. Martin. "Come back!" Poor William would have been glad enough to do this, but he could not. He had stepped into the box, shoved it out from shore with a pole as he had seen Janet poling her tiny ship along, and then the current of the stream had carried poor Trouble away. He was floating down the brook, which was quite deep in some places. "Oh, Trouble! Trouble! What shall I do?" cried his mother. "I'll run up to the house and get the rake, and we can hook it on the edge of his box and pull him out!" shouted Janet. "I'll get him myself!" called Ted, and, not thinking that he had on his shoes and stockings, into the water he dashed, following after the floating box in which Trouble was riding. As for the little fellow himself, he had been overjoyed, at first, when he found that he was afloat. But as the water came leaking through the cracks in the box Trouble became frightened. "Oh, Momsie! Come an' det me! Come an' det me!" he wailed. "Mother's coming!" called Mrs. Martin, as she caught up a long stick and, running along the edge of the brook, tried to reach out and hook it over the side of the box-ship in which William was sailing away. And while the mother, brother and sister of the little chap are going to his rescue, I will take just a moment or two and tell you something about the Martin children, and why they are called the "Curlytops." The reason for the odd, pretty name is not hard to find. It was in their hair--they had the cutest, curliest curly hair that ever grew on the heads of any children anywhere in the world. So it is no wonder they were called "Curlytops." Some of you were introduced to them in the first book of this series, "The Curlytops at Cherry Farm," which told of their adventures in the country. After that they had more adventures on "Star Island," where they went camping with Grandpa. The fun on the island was wonderful, even more wonderful were their adventures when they were "Snowed In" and when the Curlytops went to Uncle Frank's ranch, and rode on ponyback. Ted, Janet and Trouble thought they had never seen such good times in all their lives. They helped solve a strange mystery, too. The book just before this one that you are reading is named "The Curlytops at Silver Lake," and in that you may learn what Ted, Janet and Trouble did when they went on the water with Uncle Ben, and how they helped capture some bad men. The summer had been filled with adventures, and there were some good times in the winter that followed. Now it was summer again, and the Curlytops were ready for more fun. Mr. Richard Martin was the father of the Curlytops. He was a storekeeper in the city of Cresco, in one of our eastern states. There were just three of the Curlytops, Theodore Baradale, Janet and William Anthony Martin. But Theodore was nearly always called Ted or Teddy, Janet's name was shortened to Jan and William answered to the call of Trouble as often as to any other. In addition to the children there was Skyrocket, the dog, and Turnover, the cat. The cat was called that name because she had a trick of lying down and rolling over when she wanted something to eat. There had also been Nicknack, a goat, and Clipclap, a pony, but these had been sent away for a time, and the dog and cat were the only pets the children had at present. But they were soon going to have more, as I will tell you presently. It was a warm, pleasant, sunny day when Ted and Jan went down to the brook to play that pieces of boards were their "ships." Then Trouble had joined them, and, just after the mail carrier left the strange letter from Uncle Toby, Trouble had, as usual, gotten into trouble. Janet and Teddy were not quite certain who Uncle Toby might be. They had heard of him, once or twice, as a distant relative of their father or their mother, but they had not seen him in a number of years. They only dimly remembered him as an old man who lived in a city about fifty miles from Cresco, but they had not visited him in some time. Just now the plight of Trouble so filled the minds of Ted and Jan that they had no thought for Uncle Toby or his strange letter. Nor did Mrs. Martin give any heed to the missive she had dropped. "Be careful, Teddy!" she called, as she saw her older son splashing his way through the water. "Don't fall!" "I--I won't, Mother! Not if--if I--I can help----" But just as Teddy got that far he stumbled on a round stone in the brook, and down he went with a splash! "Oh, he'll be drowned!" screamed Janet, who was following her mother along the bank of the brook, while Trouble was out in the middle in his leaking, packing-box ship that Skyrocket had pulled to the stream for him. The dog, who had found the stick which Teddy threw, had rushed back, and was now barking as loudly as he could. But the water was not deep enough to drown Teddy. It, however, made him very wet. Up he rose, dripping all over, and gasping for breath. Mrs. Martin paused only long enough to look back and see that Teddy was all right, and then hurried along, trying to pull toward her, with the long stick, the floating box and her little son. "Det me out! Det me out! I is all wet--I is!" cried Trouble. "My hoots is all wet!" Sometimes the letter "f" bothered him, and he put an "h" in its place, as saying "hoots" for "foots." Of course neither word was right, but who minded a thing like that when poor Trouble was in such a plight? "I'll get him!" cried Teddy, as he caught his breath. Then he wiped some of the water from his face, and dashed on down the brook. But by this time the packing box, in which Trouble was taking more of a ride than he had counted on, was some distance down the brook. However, Mrs. Martin was keeping alongside of it, though it was beyond even the reach of her long stick. "If we were on the other side you could reach him and pull him to shore, Mother!" called Janet. "Oh, I must get over on the other side--but the brook is deep here!" said Mrs. Martin. She was going to forget that, however, and splash in, when the box, by some twist of the current, suddenly floated near the bank along which she was running. "Grab it--quick!" cried Janet. "Let me get it--I'm coming!" shouted Teddy, and, indeed, he was splashing his way down the brook, but some distance behind his little brother. "Oh, det me out! My hoots is awful wet!" wailed the small chap in the packing-box boat. And just then Mrs. Martin was able to reach out her stick, hook one end of it over the edge of the box and pull it to shore. "You poor little fellow! Was mother's Trouble frightened to pieces?" murmured Mrs. Martin as she lifted her youngest out of the box, and, never minding his wet feet, hugged him tightly. The packing box drifted off downstream, Skyrocket racing after it and barking as though it was the best joke in the world. "Were you frightened, William?" murmured his mother. Trouble looked at her, and then at the floating box. "I had a nice wide, but my hoots is all wet," he announced. "I should say they were!" laughed Janet, feeling them. "They're soaking wet! But you're all right now, Trouble!" "And I'm wet, too," said Teddy, coming along just then. Together they walked back along the edge of the brook, Skyrocket following when he found that no one was going to help him play with the empty box, which floated ashore near the dam Teddy had made. As she passed the place where she had dropped Uncle Toby's letter Mrs. Martin picked up the fluttering paper. "I nearly forgot all about this," she said. "Your father will want to know about it. I never heard anything so strange in all my life." "What is it?" asked Teddy. "I'll tell you when you have dry clothes on, and we can sit down and talk it over," his mother promised. And when Trouble, smiling and happy, with a picture book in his hands and dry shoes and stockings on his feet, was safe in a chair, and when Janet and Teddy sat near her, Mrs. Martin read the letter again. "It is from Uncle Toby Bardeen of Pocono," said the mother of the Curlytops. "At least he is your father's uncle, but that doesn't matter. He is an old bachelor, and lives with a distant relative, a Mrs. Watson, in an old, rambling house." "Does he want us to come there for the summer vacation?" asked Janet. It was time, so she and Ted thought, to begin thinking of the summer fun. "No, Uncle Toby doesn't say that," went on Mother Martin, as she glanced over the pages of the letter. "What he wants is for your father to go and take charge of everything that is in the old house--everything, that is, except the housekeeper, Mrs. Watson. She is going off by herself, Uncle Toby says." "Is Uncle Toby--is he--dead, that he wants daddy to take everything in his house?" asked Janet. "Course not! How could he be dead and write this letter?" asked Ted. "Well, maybe he wrote it before he died," Janet suggested. "No, Uncle Toby isn't dead, I'm glad to say," remarked Mrs. Martin. "But he is going away on a long voyage for his health, he writes, and he wants daddy to come and take charge of everything in the old mansion." "Do you s'pose there's a gun there I could have?" asked Teddy hopefully. "I'd like an old-fashioned spinning wheel," said Janet. "Is there one of those, Mother?" "I wants suffin' to eat!" announced Trouble suddenly, but whether he thought it was to be had at Uncle Toby's house or not, it is hard to say. Teddy and Janet laughed, and Trouble looked at them with wondering eyes. "You shall have something to eat, love!" his mother murmured. "I guess your voyage in the packing-box ship made you hungry." "Do you s'pose Uncle Toby would have a gun?" asked Ted again. "If there is one in his house _you_ can't have it, my dear," objected Mrs. Martin. "But I could have the spinning wheel, couldn't I?" asked Janet. "Yes, I suppose so. But maybe there isn't one," her mother answered. "If there is we can play steamboat!" cried Ted, getting quickly over his disappointment about a possible gun. "A spinning wheel is just the thing to steer a make-believe steamer with!" "You're not going to have my spinning wheel for your old steamboat!" declared Janet. "Hush, children!" their mother warned them. "I haven't the least idea what is in Uncle Toby's house, that he should be so mysterious about it, and be in such a hurry for your father to come and take charge." "Is Uncle Toby mysterious?" asked Janet. "Well, yes. He says he hopes the collection will not be too much for us to manage," went on Mrs. Martin, with another look at the letter. "A collection of what?" Ted wanted to know. "That's just it--Uncle Toby doesn't say," his mother replied. "We shall have to wait until your father makes the trip to Pocono." "Oh, may we go?" begged the two Curlytops at once. "We'll see!" was the way in which Mrs. Martin put them off. "I wish your father were here so we could talk over this queer letter from Uncle Toby." "I wis'--I wis' I had suffin' t' _eat_!" put in Trouble wistfully. "And so you shall have, darling!" exclaimed his mother. "It is nearly time for lunch, and daddy will soon be here. Then we'll see what he says." And what Mr. Martin said after, at the lunch table, he had read Uncle Toby's letter was: "Hum!" "What do you think of it?" asked his wife. "I think it's as queer as he is," said the father of the Curlytops, smiling. "Uncle Toby is a dear old man, but very queer. So he wants me to come and take charge of his 'collection,' does he? It's strange that he doesn't say what his collection is." "Maybe it's postage stamps," suggested Ted. Once he had started to make a collection like that but he had given it up. "And maybe it's a collection of--money!" said Janet. "That would be very fine!" laughed her father. "But though Uncle Toby is well off, I hardly think he has a collection of money lying around his old mansion. However, I suppose I must go and see what it is the queer fellow wants me to take charge of for him." "May we go?" chorused Ted and Janet again. "Oh, I suppose so," agreed their father, and this was better than the "I'll see," of their mother. "Me tum too!" declared Trouble. He never wanted to be left behind. "We'll all take an auto trip over to Pocono to-morrow and see what Uncle Toby has," decided Mr. Martin. Accordingly, the next day, Mr. Martin left his manager in charge of the store, and, in the comfortable family automobile, the Curlytops and their father, mother and Trouble--not forgetting Skyrocket, the dog--started off. It was just as fine a day as the previous one, when Trouble had sailed down the brook. The grass was green, the birds sang, and the wind blew gently in the trees. "Oh, it's summer, and there's no school and well have lots of fun!" sang Janet. "Maybe we'll have fun with what we find at Uncle Toby's house," suggested Ted. And neither of the Curlytops realized how much fun nor what strange adventures were in store for them. The automobile started down a rather steep hill, and Mrs. Martin, who was on the front seat with her husband, looked back to see that the three children were safe. "Hold on to Trouble!" she told Janet. "He might bounce out. The road is very rough!" "Yes, it isn't very safe, either," murmured Mr. Martin. "I hope nothing happens." Hardly had he spoken than there was a loud bang close behind him. He jammed on the brakes and cried: "Tire's burst! Hold tight--everybody!" Then the automobile slid over to one side of the road and Janet cried: "Oh, Trouble! Trouble!" CHAPTER III THE QUEER OLD LADY For a little while it seemed as though something serious had happened in the automobile which was taking the Curlytops to Uncle Toby's house. Mr. Martin had all he could do to slow up the machine, bringing it to a stop beside the road, and under a tree. If a tire had burst or been punctured Daddy Martin wanted to be in the shade to fix it. Mother Martin, holding tightly to the side of the seat when the banging noise sounded, turned to look behind her to see if the three children were all right. She saw Trouble sitting between Ted and Janet, and William was looking at something in his chubby hand. "What happened?" asked Mrs. Martin. "Were any of you hurt when the tire burst?" "The tire didn't burst, Mother," answered Teddy. "Why, I heard it," said Mr. Martin, as he prepared to get out of the machine, which had now come to a stop. "I must have run over a sharp stone or a broken bottle." "No, it wasn't the tire," said Janet, and she laughed. "It was Trouble's toy balloon. He blew it up too big and it burst." "That's what it was! And a piece of the rubber hit me in the eye!" laughed Ted. "My 'loon all gone!" wailed William. "So that's what it was--a burst toy balloon," said Daddy Martin. "Well, I'm glad it wasn't one of my tires." "So am I," said Mother Martin. "It is too hot to have to change a tire to-day. Besides, I'm in a hurry to get to Uncle Toby's and see what it is he wants us to take charge of while he is away. I hope he doesn't go until we get there." "You never can tell what Uncle Toby is going to do," said Mr. Martin, smiling, now that he knew he had no tire to change. "And so you burst your toy balloon, did you, Trouble? Well, I'll have to get you another, but not while we're on this auto ride. I don't want to be frightened again, and I might be if you blew up another balloon and it burst." "I didn't know he had one with him," remarked Mrs. Martin, as Trouble looked sadly at what was left of his toy. "I didn't either," Janet said. "All of a sudden he took it out of his pocket and began to blow it up." "I was makin' be'eve it were a wed soap bubbles," explained Trouble. "Well, soap bubbles or not, it burst," said Teddy. "It sure did make a noise! But now we can go on. I want to see if Uncle Toby is going to leave any guns." "And I want a spinning wheel," Janet murmured. "But you can't take it to play steamboat with," she told her brother. "I shan't want it if I have a gun!" retorted Ted. "Now, children, be nice," begged their mother. Daddy Martin started the automobile again, first getting out to look at the four tires, to make sure none was flat, punctured or burst. They were all round, plump and as fat as big bologna sausages. "Now we go to Uncle Toby. Maybe I get a kittie cat!" said Trouble, when he decided to smile after feeling so bad about his burst balloon. "A kittie cat!" exclaimed Janet. "Why, we have a lovely cat, Trouble. Don't you like Turnover?" "Yep! But I 'ikes a kittie cat, too. Maybe Uncle Toby hab one for me!" "Probably Uncle Toby is too old a man to bother with pet cats," said Mrs. Martin. But it only goes to show that you never know what is going to happen in this world--sometimes you don't even know what you are going to have for dinner. Along rolled the automobile, taking the Curlytops nearer and nearer to the city of Pocono, where Uncle Toby lived with his housekeeper, Mrs. Watson. But it was rather a long ride, and, about half way, the party stopped in a little village for lunch. "Did we bring any lunch with us, or are we going in a place to eat?" asked Ted. "Oh, I hope we go in a place to eat!" exclaimed Janet. "I like a restaurant, don't you, Ted?" "Sure!" answered the Curlytop boy. "Yes, we are going to a restaurant," his mother told them. "Daddy wants to get some oil and gasoline for the auto, too." "It's sort of feeding the auto, isn't it, Mother?" asked Janet, as they alighted. "In a way, yes," admitted Mrs. Martin. A little later the Curlytops were having a fine meal, and when I say the Curlytops I mean also Daddy and Mother Martin, and Trouble. The hair of Mr. and Mrs. Martin did not curl, though it must have done so when they were younger; or else how would Ted and Janet have had such beautiful ringlets? Nor did Trouble's hair curl, though when he was smaller his mother used to wind little ringlets around her finger, hoping he would have locks as pretty as those of Janet and Ted. But, really, the older boy and girl were the only ones who could, truly, be called Curlytops, though I sometimes speak of the "Curlytop family." So you know, when I say that the "Curlytops" were eating lunch, that all five of them were enjoying their meal. There were several things that Janet, Teddy and Trouble liked to eat, and toward the end of the meal there was a piece of pie for each of them. And it was toward the end of the meal that something happened, and Trouble, as usual, was the cause of it. Just before the waiter had brought the pie there had sounded, out in the street, the music of a hand organ. No sooner had he heard this than Trouble slipped from his chair (where he had been sitting on a hassock to make him higher) and ran to the window. "No monkey!" called out the little fellow, after he had stood for a moment with his nose pressed against the pane of glass, making his "smeller," as he sometimes called it, quite flat. "Hand-organ grinder got no monkey!" Trouble was disappointed. He had hoped to see a little monkey scrambling around to gather pennies in his cap. But this hand-organ player did not have any. And there was nothing much for Trouble to see. So the little fellow came back to the table, but not before he had stopped at the big water-cooler in one corner of the dining room. Trouble paused to watch a waiter turn the shiny little faucet and draw a glass of water for a customer. "Come and get your pie, William," his mother called to him. She very seldom mentioned him as "Trouble," before strangers. So this time Mrs. Martin called her little boy by his right name. "Do you want me to eat your pie?" teased Ted. "No! I eat my own pie!" Trouble exclaimed, and he climbed up into his chair, being helped by his father, next to whom he sat. The meal was almost over, and Daddy Martin was wondering what his Uncle Toby could want him to take charge of, when Mrs. Martin gave a sudden start, a sort of shiver, and said: "Why, my feet are getting wet!" "Your feet wet!" exclaimed her husband. "Surely it isn't raining in here! It isn't even raining outside!" he laughed, as he looked from a window. "But my feet are damp," went on Mrs. Martin. Then she raised the cloth, which hung down rather low on each side of the table, and glanced at the floor. "There's a big puddle of water under our table!" she cried. Then Ted looked over toward the big water-cooler in one corner of the restaurant. "Somebody left the faucet open!" cried Teddy. "The ice water is all running out! No wonder your feet are wet, Mother!" Mr. Martin hastily left his chair and turned off the faucet, and, as he did so, he looked at Trouble. Something in the face of that youngster caused Daddy Martin to ask: "William, did you do that?" "I--I dess maybe I turned it on a 'ittle bit!" confessed the mischievous one. "A _little_ bit!" cried Janet, as she looked under the table. "Why, there's almost as much water as there is in our brook at home!" "Oh, not quite so much," said her mother gently. "Though there is enough to have wet through the soles of my shoes. I was wondering why my feet felt so damp and cold. And did Trouble turn on the water? Oh, Trouble!" All eyes gazed at the little fellow, and he seemed to think he should explain what he had done. "I 'ist turned de handle a teeny bit," he said, "to make a 'ittle water come out. An' den I fordot 'bout it!" That was just what he had done. Seeing the waiter draw a glass of water from the cooler had given Trouble the idea that he soon afterward carried out. When he saw no monkey with the hand organ, the little fellow had gone back to his seat and, on the way, opened the faucet so that the water ran out in a little stream. Soon the drip-pan was full and then the water began trickling over the floor. No one noticed it until it had made a little puddle under the table, just at the point where Mrs. Martin's feet were. "Oh, Trouble! what will you do next?" sighed the little fellow's mother. "No harm done at all! None whatever!" said the waiter, coming up to the table smiling. "That little water on the floor I will wipe up so quick you will never see it." "No, it won't hurt the floor much," Mr. Martin said. "And I suppose your shoes will dry out," he told his wife. "But, all the same, William should not have done it." "I won't do it any more," said the little fellow. "I be good now! I sorry!" He generally was when he had done something like that. However, as the waiter had said, little real harm was done, and Mrs. Martin's shoes would dry, for it was a hot, summer day. The meal was finished and they all took their places in the automobile again to finish the ride to Uncle Toby's place, about twenty miles farther on. Once again Trouble, Ted and Janet sat in the rear seat, while their father and mother rode in front. And this time Trouble had no red balloon which he could blow up, making it burst with a noise like a punctured tire. The children talked among themselves, wondering over and over again what it could be that Uncle Toby wanted their father to come and take charge of. "Maybe he's got a little boy or a girl from an orphan asylum, and he wants us to take it to live with us," suggested Janet. "A boy would be all right," decided Ted, as he thought of this. "I could have fun with another fellow." "And I'd like a girl," said Janet. "I always wished I had a sister." "Maybe they're twins--a boy and a girl," Ted went on. "That would be fun!" "What would be fun?" asked his mother from the front seat, where she had heard the talk of the children. She often asked a question like this, as it sometimes stopped a bit of mischief that, otherwise, might happen. "What fun are you talking about?" asked Mrs. Martin. "Uncle Toby," answered Janet. "I thought maybe what he wanted daddy to take charge of was a little orphan girl." "And I thought maybe it was a boy," added Ted. "And then we both thought maybe it was twins--a boy and a girl, and we'd each have someone to play with," went on Janet. "My! I don't believe Uncle Toby has adopted any orphan children that he wants us to take," Mrs. Martin said. "I can't imagine what he really has, but we'll soon find out." On and on they rode in the automobile, until, after a while, they reached the small city of Pocono and, a little later, they pulled up in front of Uncle Toby's house. It was a rambling, old mansion that once had looked very nice, but now it was rather shabby and needed painting. "Here is where Uncle Toby lives," said Daddy Martin. "Do you children remember it?" "A little," admitted Ted. Neither he nor Janet had been there in years, and Trouble had never visited Uncle Toby. "I wonder if he's at home," went on Daddy Martin, as he alighted from the automobile. "There's someone on the porch," said Mrs. Martin. "Oh, it's Mrs. Watson, the housekeeper," she added. "But something seems to be the matter! I wonder what can have happened?" As Mother Martin spoke a queer little old lady came down off the porch and along the walk, hurrying out to meet the Curlytops, all of whom were now at the front gate. "Wait! Don't go in! Don't go in!" cried the queer old lady, holding up her hand like a traffic policeman stopping a fast automobile. "Don't go in! They're having a terrible time! Oh, that Mr. Bardeen ever should have gone away and left me to look after 'em! Oh, the trouble I have had! Such trouble! Don't go in! Listen to 'em!" As she spoke there came strange sounds from the grim old house where Uncle Toby lived! Very strange sounds! CHAPTER IV UNCLE TOBY'S PETS "Listen to that noise!" called Teddy, pausing with his hand on the gate that led into Uncle Toby's yard. "It's two boys having fun. I guess Uncle Toby left two fellows that you can take home and I can have fun with," Teddy added laughingly to his father. "Two boys! Oh, my goodness!" exclaimed Mrs. Martin. Just then a shrill scream sounded from within the queer, old house. "It's girls!" said Janet. "Girls cry just like that when they're having fun! Oh, I'll be glad to have a sister to play with!" Mr. and Mrs. Martin looked at each other in surprise and wonderment. What could it mean? The queer, little old lady--Mrs. Watson, the housekeeper--murmured again: "Listen to 'em! I can't do a thing with 'em since Uncle Toby went away. I'm so glad you came to take charge of 'em as he asked you to. You did come for that, didn't you?" she asked eagerly. "You got Uncle Toby's letter, asking you to come and take charge of the collection he left, didn't you?" "Oh, yes," answered the father of the Curlytops. "We got Uncle Toby's letter all right, and we came to take charge. But----" "We'd like to know _what_ we are going to take!" interrupted Mrs. Martin. She felt she must say something, with all those queer noises going on in the house. "Maybe it's babies!" suggested Trouble, as he listened to what seemed to be a crying sound from the old mansion. "They're worse than babies!" declared Mrs. Watson. "I don't mind children and babies. But these things make so much noise I can't hear myself think. That's why I came out on the steps to sit down and be quiet! Oh, I'm so glad you've come to take charge of 'em!" "But what are they? You haven't told us what they are," said Mr. Martin, as the screeching, yelling noises kept on sounding from within the house. "Do they always screech like that?" "Only when they're hungry," said the queer old lady. "And I expect they're hungry now. I just hate to go in to feed them, they make such a fuss, and I'm afraid some of 'em will bite me. Not on purpose you know," she quickly added, "but just because they're so playful and full of fun." "My dear Mrs. Watson," said Mr. Martin in slow tones, "will you _please_ tell us what it is my Uncle Toby has left for me to take charge of! Is it an insane asylum?" "Yes, for goodness' sake, please tell us!" begged the mother of the Curlytops. "Why, I thought you knew!" replied Mrs. Watson, in some surprise. "Didn't Uncle Toby speak of them in his letter?" "No, he did not say what they were," answered Mr. Martin. "He only mentioned a collection. Please tell us. What is making all that racket?" "Uncle Toby's pets," was the answer. "Uncle Toby said he was going to leave them to you when he went away on a long trip. He may be gone for several years, and he said he might live the rest of his life in South America, where he is going. So he told me to give you his pets to take charge of. You are to take them, and do as you please with them, though I guess Uncle Toby would like to have you keep them and be kind to them." "Uncle Toby's _pets_!" exclaimed Mrs. Martin. "Is there a dog?" asked Teddy, his eyes shining in delight. "Won't Skyrocket be glad? Do you hear that, old fellow?" went on Teddy, leaning down to pet the dog that had jumped from the automobile and was looking as if in wonder at the house whence came such strange noises. "You're going to have another dog to play with. Uncle Toby did leave a dog, didn't he?" Teddy asked of Mrs. Watson. "I hear a dog barking in the house." "A dog!" exclaimed the queer little old housekeeper. "He left _two_ dogs, Uncle Toby did!" "Two dogs!" murmured Mrs. Martin, with a hopeless look at her husband. "Did he leave a cat?" asked Janet. "I thought I heard one mewing. And Turnover would like another cat to play with." "Yes, Uncle Toby left you a cat, also," said Mrs. Watson. Just then shrill screams, barks, squeaks and squawks, all mixed together, seemed to float out of the opened windows of the old house--windows in which were strong wire screens. "Two dogs and a cat!" exclaimed Mr. Martin. "My dear Mrs. Watson," he went on, as he sat down on the top step of the porch rather limply, "will you please tell us, as fast as you can, just how many and what pets Uncle Toby has left us? We may as well hear the worst at once," he said to his wife. "I never imagined Uncle Toby cared for animal pets." "Oh, indeed he did," replied Mrs. Watson. "Of late years he grew very fond of animals. All his pets are animals, and he'd have gotten more only I said I wouldn't stay and keep house for him if he brought in what he spoke of last." "What was that?" Mrs. Martin wanted to know. "_Snakes_!" declared the little old lady. "I don't mind monkeys and parrots so much, but I can't bear _snakes_! They give me the shivers, though Uncle Toby said some snakes do a lot of good in this world, by catching rats and mice. But he didn't bring in any snakes!" "Do you mean to say he has a parrot?" asked Mr. Martin. "Don't you hear him?" questioned Mrs. Watson. "Listen!" As she finished speaking the Curlytops heard a shrill: "Cracker! Cracker! Give Polly a crack-crack-cracker!" "Oh, it _is_ a parrot!" cried Janet in delight. "And is there a monkey, too?" demanded Ted. "An' a han' ordan! Is dere a han' ordan?" asked Trouble. "No hand organ, child, no," answered Mrs. Watson. "But there is a monkey, a parrot, two dogs, and a cat, a----" "Stop! Wait a moment!" begged Mrs. Martin. She took a seat beside her husband on the top step. "I just wanted to sit down before I fainted when I heard the worst," she went on. "Now go ahead, Mrs. Watson. Tell me the rest. I'll have something to lean against in case she tells me there's an elephant." "An elephant!" cried Janet. "Oh, I don't mean I want to lean on the elephant," said her mother. "I just want to lean against the piazza post. This is the worst I ever heard of--Uncle Toby leaving us a menagerie!" "'Tisn't quite as bad as that, though 'tis, almost," said Mrs. Watson. "There isn't an elephant, but there is an alligator." "An alligator! Oh, that's great!" cried Ted. "Where is it?" "This is terrible!" declared his mother. "It's only a little alligator," explained the housekeeper. "He's real friendly, though his tail scratches when he rubs it against your hand as you feed him." "Anything else?" asked Mr. Martin. "Please go on. We may as well hear the worst. It sounds like a circus that Uncle Toby kept in his house. What else, Mrs. Watson?" "Well? that's about all, except some white rats and mice and the pigeons. Uncle Toby didn't get the snake he wanted." "Let us be thankful for that," murmured Mrs. Martin, "though it is bad enough as it is." "Bad?" cried Teddy. "I think it's jolly! Can't we go in and see Uncle Toby's pets?" he asked. "They're going to be our pets, aren't they, Daddy?" asked Jan. "Didn't Uncle Toby say you could have them?" "That's what he said," replied the father of the Curlytops. "But I don't know whether to take him at his word or not. But we may as well go in and look at the--the menagerie!" he said to his wife, with a smile. "They'll need feeding--the animals will," said Mrs. Watson. "I'm glad you're here to help me. I was staying only until you came. Uncle Toby said you'd be over in a day or two. I'm leaving to-night, now you're here." "What? And make us take care of all the pets?" cried Mrs. Martin. "Oh, they're real kind and gentle--every one, even the little alligator," Uncle Toby's housekeeper made haste to say. "And as long as you have children the pets will be just the things for the Curlytops. Only I can't stay much longer. I was just waiting for you. I went outside as it was quieter," she concluded, as, once again, the pet animals set up a screeching, barking and mewing. "Well, let's get it over with," suggested Mr. Martin. "Maybe they'll be quieter if we feed them. Is there anything in the house for the menagerie to eat?" he asked the little old housekeeper. "Oh, yes, Uncle Toby always fed them well," she answered. "Oh, I'm so glad you came to take charge of the pets!" "I don't know whether we are or not," remarked Mrs. Martin. "I suppose, though," she said to her husband in a low voice, as they prepared to enter the house, "we can sell them. We don't have to keep them." "Yes, I guess that would be best--to sell them," agreed Mr. Martin, but he did not let the Curlytops hear him say this. Led by Mrs. Watson, the Curlytop party entered the house. As the door was opened the different noises sounded more loudly than before. The dogs barked--and Ted could now hear the tones of two different animals--the cat mewed, the monkey screeched and chattered, and the parrot cried: "Give Polly a cracker! Polly wants a crack-crack-cracker!" "I guess the alligator is the only one that isn't saying anything," remarked Mr. Martin to his wife as they entered. "And I never heard that alligators make a noise." "Yes they do!" said Janet, eagerly. "I read it in my natural history book. They make a noise like a grunt. At least it's either alligators or crocodiles, I've forgotten which. But one kind bellows like a bull." "Goodness! Let us hope this one doesn't!" sighed Mrs. Martin. "Who would ever think that Uncle Toby would keep a menagerie!" she murmured. "I never did," agreed her husband. "They're all in one big room--a sort of addition to the house. It opens off the dining room," explained Mrs. Watson. "Uncle Toby liked to eat when his pets did, that's why he had 'em so near him in the dining room. I'll show 'em to you." "Are the pigeons out there, too?" asked Mrs. Martin. "No, Uncle Toby kept them in the barn," the housekeeper replied. "If you don't want the pigeons, Uncle Toby told me to tell you there's a boy in this same street who will take them. But Uncle Toby said he wished you'd take charge of all the other pets." "Oh, yes, Mother--Daddy! Let's keep 'em _all_!" pleaded Janet. By this time Mrs. Watson had opened the door leading into the extra room that Uncle Toby had built to house his pets. No sooner was the door opened than the noise sounded louder than ever, and several things happened. "Oh, look at the lovely cat!" cried Janet, as one with very fluffy fur walked forward as though to meet the Curlytops. "It's a Persian, I guess. Oh, I just love a Persian! Turnover is very nice, but I love this one a lot," and she reached down to stroke the beautiful cat that seemed very friendly. "Oh, look!" suddenly cried Ted. "See! The dogs do tricks!" As he spoke one white poodle came walking along on his hind legs, with his front paws held in a funny fashion before him. "Bow wow!" barked the poodle. And then, as if this might be a signal, there suddenly came from the end of the room another white poodle, so nearly like the first that it was difficult to tell them apart. "Oh, see! More tricks!" cried Ted. The second dog began turning somersaults. One after another he turned, making his way, in this fashion, to where Ted was patting the head of the poodle that was standing on its hind legs. "Say! I can have a regular circus with these trick dogs!" cried Ted in delight. "And my Persian cat can be in it," added Janet. Just then a cry, as if of fear, came from Trouble. Turning around the Curlytops and others saw a strange sight. A brown monkey was hanging by its tail from an electric chandelier in the middle of the room, and, thus reaching down, was trying to pull Trouble's cap from the little fellow's head. "'Top! 'Top it!" shouted William. "Make han'-ordan monkey let my cap alone!" he wailed. And then, with a flutter and a screech, a green and red parrot flew from its perch and landed on Mrs. Martin's shoulder. The pets of the Curlytops were having a lively time! CHAPTER V TIP AND TOP With the barking of the trick dogs, in which Skyrocket joined, and with the mewing of the Persian cat, the shrieking of the parrot, and the chattering of the monkey, for a time there was so much noise in Uncle Toby's "menagerie," as it was called, that the voices of Mr. and Mrs. Martin could scarcely be heard. But you could hear the voice of Trouble above everything. "Take him off! Make him 'top!" cried the little fellow. For by this time the monkey, having hung down by his tail from the chandelier, and having taken off Trouble's cap, was now trying to pull the little boy's hair. "Bad monkey! Make him go 'way!" cried Trouble. [Illustration: THE SECOND DOG BEGAN TURNING SOMERSAULTS. "The Curlytops and Their Pets." Page 50] "And I don't like this parrot!" said Mrs. Martin, though, to be sure, the bird was gentle enough. It only sat on her shoulder and shrieked: "Crack! Crack! Cracker! I'm a cracker-acker!" "Say, this is great!" cried Ted, as he watched the two dogs, one of which was marching around on his hind legs while the other was turning somersaults. "Oh, it's terrible!" said Mrs. Martin. "Dick," she called to her husband, "can't you make that monkey stop hurting William?" "He isn't exactly hurting him, my dear," replied Mr. Martin. "Though I fancy Trouble is a bit frightened. I was going to take that parrot off your shoulder." "Well, look after William first. He needs it more than I." Mr. Martin advanced toward the monkey, swinging by his tail from the chandelier, when Mrs. Watson, the housekeeper, said: "I'll attend to him! I know how to manage Jack if I don't any of the other animals. I found a way to make him behave. Here!" she suddenly cried, catching up a feather-duster and shaking it at the long-tailed creature. "Get back to your cubby-hole, Jack!" With a shrill chatter the monkey dropped Trouble's cap, which he was trying to make stick on his own head, and a moment later he jumped down from the chandelier and scampered into a box at the side of the room. "That's where he belongs!" said Mrs. Watson. "He's always afraid of that feather-duster. Maybe he thinks it's a big eagle coming to bite his tail. Anyhow, show him the feather-duster whenever you want to quiet him." "That's a good thing to know," said Mr. Martin, when it was a little quieter in the room, because Jack, the monkey, had stopped chattering. "But what shall we do about the parrot on my wife's shoulder?" "Oh, Mr. Nip is all right. He's very gentle," said the housekeeper. "Uncle Toby named him Mr. Nip because he used to nip and bite when he first came. But Uncle Toby soon cured him of that. Mr. Nip is a nice polly." "I'm a crack! I'm a crack! I'm a crack-crack-cracker!" shrieked the parrot, and then he flew from Mrs. Martin's shoulder to the regular perch, near the little cage of the monkey--the "cubby-hole," as Mrs. Watson called it. "Thank goodness!" sighed the mother of the Curlytops. "You scared, Mother?" asked Trouble, who was now wishing the monkey would come back, for after his first fright, the little fellow rather liked the fuzzy chap. "Only a little," said Mrs. Martin, for she thought if the Curlytops were to have anything to do with Uncle Toby's pets, it would not be well for her to say they frightened her. "I 'ike 'em all," remarked Trouble, while Janet was rubbing the big Persian cat and Ted was playing with the two dogs. "Uncle Toby nice man to have all nanimals 'ike dis!" and he looked around the room. Surely there were quite a number of animal pets there. "How in the world did my uncle ever come to have so many?" asked Mr. Martin. "And what in the world are we going to do with them?" "I'll tell you about it after we've fed them," said Mrs. Watson. "They'll be quieter after they're fed, and you might as well start in now to give them something to eat. If you're going to take 'em with you and keep 'em you'll have to feed 'em." With the help of Ted and Janet, who set out food to the dogs and cat, Uncle Toby's animals were soon all being given things to eat, and this made them quiet. Then, while the children stood and watched the animals eat, Mrs. Watson took Daddy and Mother Martin into the next room and told them about Uncle Toby and the pets. "I never knew that my uncle was so fond of animals," said Mr. Martin. "He wasn't, when I first came here to keep house for him," explained Mrs. Watson. "But he made friends, once, with a sailor, who had the parrot. When the sailor started off on his next sea voyage, and didn't want to take Mr. Nip, the parrot, with him, Uncle Toby said the bird could stay here. I didn't much mind that, as it was rather lonesome when Uncle Toby--as I always call him--went out. So I got to liking Mr. Nip. "Then, after a while, another sailor gave Uncle Toby Jack, the monkey. The house was more lively after that, for the monkey and parrot used to fight, though they don't any more. I thought this would be about all the pets Uncle Toby would get; but lo and behold! about a month after that another sailor, hearing that Uncle Toby had a monkey and a parrot, came and asked us if we wouldn't take Slider." "Who is Slider?" asked Mrs. Martin. "It sounds like a pair of roller skates." "Slider is the pet alligator. He came from Florida," explained Mrs. Watson. "Uncle Toby took him in, as he had the monkey and the parrot, and I began to wonder what would happen next." "Did anything?" asked Daddy Martin, as he watched the Curlytops playing in the next room with the pets. "Oh, my land, yes!" exclaimed Mrs. Watson. "It wasn't more than two weeks after he got Slider--that's the alligator--that an old circus man came along with the two dogs, Tip and Top." "Are those their names?" asked Mrs. Martin, watching Ted as he made one of the dogs turn somersaults. "Yes, one of the white poodles--the one with the black spot on his tail--is named Tip," the housekeeper said. "You see the spot is on the tip of his tail." "I can see that--yes," replied Mr. Martin from where he sat. He was wondering where all this was going to end. "And the other dog is named Top," said the housekeeper. "He has a black spot on the top of his head." "They are both very nice, and I like the names, too--Tip and Top," remarked Mrs. Martin. "See!" she exclaimed. "Our own dog, Skyrocket, is making friends with them." Indeed Skyrocket, the Curlytop's dog, was doing this very thing. Perhaps he wanted to learn how to walk on his hind legs and turn somersaults, as Tip and Top could do. "Tip and Top are two valuable dogs," said Mrs. Watson. "They were once in the circus, and it was there they learned to do their tricks, though Uncle Toby taught them others." "Why didn't the circus man keep them if they were so valuable?" asked Mrs. Martin. "The circus man had made friends with the sailor who gave Uncle Toby the alligator," explained the housekeeper, "and the circus man decided to become a sailor, too. He said he didn't want to keep the dogs on a ship, so he gave them to Uncle Toby." "And that's how the menagerie started?" asked Daddy Martin. "That's how it started," said Mrs. Watson. "There were times when I thought it would never end. That was when a lady, who was going to travel for her health, asked Uncle Toby to keep Snuff, her Persian cat." "Is Snuff the cat's name?" asked the mother of the Curlytops. "Yes," answered Mrs. Watson. "It is just the color of snuff, you see, a sort of yellowish brown. Many Persian cats have that color, I'm told. Anyhow this lady--I've forgotten her name--said she saw that Uncle Toby loved animals, as he had so many of them, so she asked him to keep her cat." "And Uncle Toby did," remarked Mrs. Martin. "Uncle Toby surely did!" declared the housekeeper. "It seemed he couldn't say 'no' where animals were concerned. By this time the house began to be rather overrun with pets, so he built this room out of the dining room, with special cages--cubby-holes I call 'em--for the pets. I did think Snuff would be the last one, but after that came the white mice and rats." "It's usually the other way about," said Mrs. Martin, with a smile. "When the cat comes the mice go. But this time the mice came after the cat arrived." "Yes," agreed the housekeeper. "Snuff, the cat, and the white mice--I don't know their names--are great friends. The mice and rats belonged to a boy down the street. His family moved to another state last summer, and his folks made him get rid of the mice. He brought them to Uncle Toby, and of course Uncle Toby couldn't say no, so he kept them. It was then I first threatened to leave. The house was too full of animals." "But you didn't go," said Mrs. Martin. "No, I stayed on, because Uncle Toby begged me to, and he said he wouldn't add to his collection. But then came the pigeons. They were brought by another boy, whose folks moved away and he couldn't keep 'em any more. I didn't so much mind the pigeons, as they stay out in the barn. But we certainly had a houseful of pets! After a while I got rather to liking them, and Uncle Toby was very fond of 'em, and taught 'em many tricks." "But finally, as you know from the letter he wrote you, he decided to take a long trip, and perhaps he may never come back, if he finds he likes it in South America. So he decided to ask you to take charge of his collection, and I said I'd stay until you arrived, as Uncle Toby had to leave in a hurry, to catch a ship that was sailing for South America." "Why did he go there?" asked Mr. Martin. "I think it was because he heard that monkeys and parrots come from there," the housekeeper answered. "He seemed to like those animals better than any others, though Tip and Top, the two dogs, are more valuable, because they can do circus tricks." "They certainly are cute," said Mrs. Martin. "Well, there you have the story of Uncle Toby's pets," said Mrs. Watson, "though I suppose they'll be the Curlytops' pets now, for Uncle Toby said he was going to give you his collection." "Hum! Yes," mused Mr. Martin. "If I had known what the collection was I don't believe I would have come after it." Mrs. Watson began putting on her hat, and from a corner of the room she picked up her valise, which she had already packed. "Where are you going?" asked Mrs. Martin. "I am going away," answered the housekeeper. "My plans are all made. I am going to live with my sister. All she keeps is a cat, and she puts that outside and winds the clock every night before she goes to bed. I'm going to her house. I told Uncle Toby I'd stay until the Curlytops came to take charge of the pets, and, now that you are here, I'll be going." "But I say! Look here! What are we going to do?" asked Mr. Martin. "Why, you're to take charge of the collection," said the housekeeper. "That's what Uncle Toby said in his letter. You are to have the pets!" "But I don't want them! That is, we can't keep so many!" protested Daddy Martin. "Two dogs, a cat, a monkey, a parrot, an alligator and some white rats and mice, to say nothing of the pigeons! And we have a dog and cat now, and we just got rid of a goat and a pony! Oh, I say, my dear Mrs. Watson! This is too much!" "Can't help it!" said the housekeeper as she fastened on her hat. "Uncle Toby said you were to take charge of his collection of pets. That's all I know. If he never comes back--and I don't believe he ever will--the pets are yours to keep. I'd keep them if I were you--all except the pigeons. There's a boy down the street who will take them and be glad to get 'em. The pets are valuable--especially Tip and Top, the dogs. They do tricks separately, but they do more tricks together--a sort of team, you know. Those dogs are very valuable for a show." "Then I know what we can do," said Mr. Martin. "We can sell the pets Uncle Toby left and give the money to a home for children, or something like that. I'll do it--we'll sell the pets!" In another moment--just as if they had been waiting for their father to say this--there came a storm of objections from Ted and Janet. In they ran from the room where they had been playing with the animals. "Oh, don't sell 'em!" pleaded Janet. "Let us keep 'em!" begged Ted. "Those dogs are the best I ever saw! They can do dandy tricks! I could get up a show with them and Skyrocket." "And this cat and our other cat, too," added Janet. "Don't sell Uncle Toby's pets, Daddy! Let us keep them!" Daddy Martin looked at his wife. And then, as if they had been waiting for something like this, Tip and Top did one of their best tricks. Tip began turning somersaults again and Top walked around on his hind legs. Then the two dogs barked, and, without anyone saying a word to them, they did another trick. Tip stopped turning somersaults and stood still. In an instant Top jumped up on Tip's back and stood there on his hind legs. Then Tip walked around the room. "Oh, aren't they too sweet for anything!" cried Janet. "That's a dandy trick!" declared Ted. "Do, please, let us keep Uncle Toby's pets for our own." "Well," said his father slowly, "I don't see how in the world----" But at that moment there came a knock at the door, and the dogs began to bark, the parrot shrieked, the monkey chattered and Snuff, the Persian cat, began to mew. What was going to happen now? CHAPTER VI WHERE IS TIP? "Someone is at the door," said Mrs. Martin to Uncle Toby's housekeeper. "Yes, I hear 'em," answered the queer little old lady. "I 'spect it's the boy after the pigeons. I told him to call as soon as he saw the Curlytops arrive, and he's probably been watching for you. I'll let him in as soon as I finish putting on my hat so I can go." But before this Mr. Martin, who was nearest the door, had opened it, and in came a boy about as old as Teddy, though without the curly locks of that little lad. "Can I have the pigeons?" asked the new boy, taking off his cap and making a little bow to Mrs. Martin, Mrs. Watson and Daddy Martin. "Uncle Toby said I could have 'em if you folks didn't want 'em, and I've been waiting for you to come. I just saw you get here." "Yes! Yes! Take the pigeons! Take any of the animals you want!" begged Mrs. Martin. "I don't see what in the world we are going to do with these animals!" "Oh, keep Tip and Top--the dogs!" begged Teddy. "And Snuff, the cat!" added Janet. "I 'ike monkey if he don't pull my cap off," said Trouble. "'Et's keep him!" "And the white mice and rats wouldn't be much bother," went on Teddy. "We never had a parrot that I can remember," cried Janet. "I could feed him, Mother." "The alligator doesn't make much noise," Ted said. "Dear me! We'll end up by keeping them all, I see!" laughed the father of the Curlytops. "That is, all but the pigeons," he added quickly, as he saw a look of disappointment on the face of the new boy. "You may have them, since Uncle Toby promised them to you." "The pigeons are all I want," said the boy, whose name was Bob Nelson. "My mother won't let me have any of the other pets. And, anyhow, I have a dog and a cat. Could I get the pigeons now? I've got a basket and they are so tame I can pick 'em up. They know me. I used to help Uncle Toby feed 'em." "Yes, you may get them," Mrs. Martin said. "We'll get rid of a few of the pets in that way. But what we are to do with the others, I'm sure I don't know." "You'd better keep 'em," advised Mrs. Watson, who was now almost ready to go. "Uncle Toby wouldn't like it, I'm sure, if you didn't take care of his pets." "Oh, I wouldn't, for the world, have anything happen to them, as he was so fond of them and kind to them," said the mother of the Curlytops. "But we could sell them to some animal store, and, as my husband says, give the money to a home for children. Uncle Toby would like that." "Yes, he was very fond of children and animals," said the housekeeper, as she seemed about to leave. "It's a pity he never had any of his own--any children, I mean," she quickly added. "He did have enough animals. You'd better keep 'em, your children seem fond of 'em," she added. "Oh, the Curlytops love animals," agreed Mr. Martin. "In fact I like them myself, especially Tip and Top, the dogs. I never saw any better trick animals." Tip and Top had quieted down now, as had the other animals after Bob had come in to get the pigeons. "You'd better keep all of Uncle Toby's pets," she concluded. "I'm going now. Just pull the door shut after you and it will lock. The water is turned off and the house is all cleaned out. There isn't any food to spoil, except what the animals need, and you can take that with you. Uncle Toby said I was to go as soon as you arrived to have charge of his collection, and, as you are here, I'm going. Uncle Toby has hired a man to look after the house so it will be all right. Go and get your pigeons, Bob," she added. "Good-bye, everybody," and away she went. For a moment Mr. and Mrs. Martin looked at each other. Then Mr. Nip, the parrot, broke the silence by saying: "I'm a crack-crack-cracker!" "You're a fire-cracker--at least your feathers are red enough for that," laughed Mrs. Martin. "Well, we seem to have the pets whether we want them or not," she told her husband. "We can't go away and leave them here. We can't stay in this house, and try to sell them, if the water is turned off and there is nothing to eat. I guess we'll have to take the pets home with us, Dick." Mr. Martin looked puzzled. "Oh, yes! Please keep them!" begged Ted and Janet. "An' det a han'-ordan fo' de monkey!" begged Trouble, speaking rather more in baby fashion than he usually talked, because he was so excited, I suppose. "At least we'll have to take charge of Uncle Toby's pets until we decide what to do," said Mr. Martin, after a while. "We might keep some of them and sell the others." "Oh, keep them _all_!" exclaimed Ted. "We'll see," his father answered, and from the tone of his voice Ted and his sister were almost sure they would be allowed to have all the animals for their very own. Of course Trouble could hardly expect a hand-organ to go with Jack, the monkey, but that was not much of a loss. "We can't get back home to-night," said Mrs. Martin, "that's sure. It's too far. We'll have to stay either here, at Uncle Toby's house, or at a hotel." "I suppose we could stay here, if we had to," her husband remarked. "I can turn the water on, and it is easy enough to get something to eat, even if we have to buy it at the delicatessen shop." "I just love delicatessen stuff, don't you?" whispered Jan to her brother. "I hope they get a lot! I'll give some to Snuff, the Persian cat." "If we stay it will be just like camping," agreed Ted. While Mr. and Mrs. Martin were considering what to do, Bob, the boy who had come for the pigeons, put his head in through the doorway and called out: "I got 'em all, thank you! I'm going now. I hope you have good luck with Uncle Toby's pets!" "Goodness knows we'll need it," said Mrs. Martin, and then she had to laugh. The whole affair seemed to her to be so very funny. Neither she nor her husband had imagined that Uncle Toby's "collection" could be anything like this--dogs, a parrot, a monkey, a Persian cat and a little alligator, not forgetting the white rats and mice. "Well, we'd better stay here for the night," finally decided Daddy Martin. "It is warm, and Uncle Toby had quite a number of beds. The house is in good order. I'll turn on the water, and you and the children might go to the store and get things for supper," he added. "It will soon be night." "Oh, what fun! We're going to stay here!" cried Janet, dancing around the Persian cat, who was trying to rub against her legs. "And I'll teach Tip and Top some new tricks, so we can have a circus when we get home," remarked Ted. "There's circus enough here," his father said, with a smile. "But trot along, Curlytops, if you are going to get something for us to eat. The animals have been fed and now it is time for us. I'm getting hungry." "Me hundry, too!" declared Trouble. "We mustn't let that happen!" laughed his mother. "We'll go to the store. Come along, Curlytops!" As the children walked down the street with their mother to look for the nearest delicatessen store, they saw the boy Bob carefully wheeling his basket of pigeons toward his own home. He had gotten the birds out of Uncle Toby's barn. When Mrs. Martin and the Curlytops, with Trouble, of course, came back to Uncle Toby's house, they found Daddy Martin sitting in front of the kitchen stove in which he had kindled a fire. In his lap was the Persian cat, purring contentedly, and Mr. Martin was rubbing the long, soft silky fur of Snuff. In front of the father of the Curlytops were Skyrocket, Tip, and Top, the three dogs. They were lying asleep near the fire. In the other room were the mice, the rats, the alligator, the monkey, and the parrot, all the animals quiet, for a wonder, as Mrs. Martin said. "Oh, Daddy! you love 'em, don't you?" exclaimed Jan, as she saw her father surrounded by some of the pets. "We may keep them, mayn't we?" "I'll see about it," was the answer, and Janet whispered to Teddy that she was almost sure this meant "yes." It did not take long to get up a little supper. Daddy Martin ran the automobile into the side yard of Uncle Toby's house, and the Curlytop family, as I sometimes call them, prepared to stay all night. There were plenty of beds, and in the morning they could turn off the water again, take the pets away, close the house, and everything would be as Uncle Toby wished it. You can easily guess that neither of the Curlytops, nor Trouble, for that matter, wanted to go to bed early that night. The children were thinking too much of the pets. And, indeed, the pets seemed to like the children. Mr. Nip, the parrot, let Jan scratch his head, a form of caress of which he seemed very fond. Jack, the monkey, no longer snatched off Trouble's cap. But perhaps that was because baby William did not wear it near the lively chap. Snuff, the Persian cat, seemed to have taken a great liking to Mr. Martin, and as for the dogs, Tip and Top, they were hardly out of the sight of Jan and Ted. Nor was Skyrocket neglected or jealous. He entered into the fun of playing around on the lawn and porch with the white poodles after supper. Even Slider, the little alligator, seemed very friendly. He took bits of meat from the fingers of Ted, though Janet said she was afraid of the scaly creature. "I'm going to teach him some tricks, so he can be in the animal circus," declared Ted. "Are you going to have a circus?" asked his sister. "Sure!" he answered, though, to tell the truth, he had not begun to think of it until he saw all the pets Uncle Toby had left. "We'll have a fine circus!" The evening passed pleasantly. Finally Trouble became sleepy, even though he was much interested in watching Jack, the monkey, crack peanuts. "Come, laddie, you must go to bed!" called Mrs. Martin. "Mr. Nip, the parrot, has gone to sleep long ago, with his head under his wing, poor thing!" and she sang part of the "Robin Song." "Me want see head's under swing," murmured Trouble. "Me see!" "Oh, no! I don't want to wake up Mr. Nip. He has a cloth over his cage to keep him quiet," and Mrs. Martin carried Trouble over to where the parrot's cage had been covered with a table-cover for the night. "Goo'-bye," murmured the little fellow sleepily, and then he was carried up to his bed in Uncle Toby's house. A little later Ted and Janet also went to their rooms, having given farewell pats and rubs to the dogs and cat. Mr. Martin went about, seeing that the house was locked up, and then he and his wife sat downstairs, talking while the children were asleep. "Do you really intend to take all those pets home with us?" asked Mrs. Martin. "I don't see what else we can do," her husband replied. "The children will be disappointed if we don't. And I don't really want to sell them. Uncle Toby might not like it. I think I'll take them home with us, and write to him, if I can get his address. He must have left it, even if he is going to live in South America." "But how can we take home a monkey, a parrot, three dogs, a cat, an alligator and some rats and some white mice?" asked the mother of the Curlytops. "Oh, there is plenty of room in the auto," her husband answered. "We'll load it up in the morning." The night passed quietly enough, except that about twelve o'clock the parrot suddenly began shrieking: "Police! Police! Burglars! Police! I'm a crack-crack-cracker!" "Dick! Dick! Wake up!" called Mrs. Martin. "Someone is at the front door!" "Police! Police!" chattered the parrot again. And, surely enough, it was the police, though how the red and green bird knew it is more than I can say. A passing policeman, seeing the light in Uncle Toby's house, and having been told by Mrs. Watson, the housekeeper, on her way to her sister's, that the place was to be closed, had stopped to inquire. "I thought it was burglars," said the policeman, after Daddy Martin had gone down to the front door and explained. "That's what Mr. Nip did, too, I guess," said Mr. Martin. "Who's Mr. Nip?" asked the officer. "The parrot," said the father of the Curlytops. "He awakened us by his shrieking." After the policeman had gone, the house became quiet again, and nothing more happened until morning. After breakfast the water was turned off, and the home of Uncle Toby was made ready for closing up until the old gentleman should return. The parrot's cage, the box for the monkey, the little tank of water and pebbles in which Slider lived, and the wire cage of the white mice and rats--all these were taken out to the automobile. It was a large one, and there was plenty of room for the Curlytops and their new pets. "Take Snuff, the cat, in between you and Trouble, Janet," her father advised. "Tip and Top can snuggle down with Skyrocket on the floor near Ted. Are we all ready now?" "As ready as we ever shall be," his wife answered. "My, what a queer load!" she said, with a laugh, as she looked back at the collection and the children. "People will think we're a traveling menagerie!" This, however, did not worry the Curlytops. They liked it, and, a little later, they were on their way back toward Cresco. The Curlytops liked their new pets, and they also loved those they had had for a longer time--Skyrocket and Turnover. "We'll try to get home early," said Mr. Martin to his wife, as he steered the automobile through the streets of Pocono. "We'll have to fix up a place for these pets." "Yes," agreed his wife. "They are going to be quite a care. But the children will love them." They stopped for lunch at a little restaurant, and the children were afraid lest some of their pets might escape while the meal was being served. But Mr. Martin saw a young man, sitting in front of a barber shop next to the restaurant, and said to him: "Will you watch may automobile and the animals while we are in the dining room? I'll give you fifty cents." "I'll be glad to do it," said the young man. So long as he was on guard the Curlytops were satisfied. But when they came out they made a sad discovery. Ted jumped up on the running-board and looked down into the automobile to make sure all the pets were safe. The alligator, the parrot, the white mice and rats, the cat, the monkey, and two dogs were there. But there was no sign of Tip, the white poodle with a black spot on the end of his tail. "Where is Tip? Oh, where is Tip?" cried Ted. "He's gone!" CHAPTER VII A FUZZY BURGLAR "What's that?" asked Mr. Martin, who was the last of the Curlytop family to come out of the restaurant. "Who is gone? One of the pets?" "Tip is gone," answered Teddy. "Oh, where is he?" "Maybe he's hiding back of the monkey's cage," suggested Janet, for Jack, the pet monkey, lived in a sort of cage, or box, and he had been moved from Uncle Toby's house in it. "No, Tip isn't here at all," said Teddy. "Top is here and Skyrocket, but Tip is gone." "That can't be," said the young man who had said he would guard the animals while the Curlytops ate. "I've been here all the while, and I didn't see even one of the white mice get away." He seemed to be a nice, good-natured young man, and appeared to be as much surprised as Teddy and Janet were over the loss of Tip. As for Trouble, he was not worrying much. He had climbed into the front seat of the automobile, and was playing with Snuff, the yellow Persian cat. As long as Trouble had some animal near him he did not worry much about anything else. "Have you been right here all the while, young man?" asked Mr. Martin of the youth who had been left on guard. "You didn't go away, did you, and give someone a chance to come up and take one of the dogs?" "Oh, no, sir! I stayed right here all the while. I sat down on the running-board and waited. The only thing that happened was that the alligator tried to crawl out, but I put him back. I was sitting here, thinking how funny it was that anybody should have so many pets, when, all of a sudden, I felt something rough on my neck." "What was it?" asked Janet, while Teddy was looking under the automobile, thinking that perhaps Tip might be hiding there. "It was the little alligator, with his rough tail," explained the young man, who said he was called "Shorty" by his chums. He was very tall, and perhaps that was why he was called "Shorty," in fun you know. "It was the little alligator that was crawling up my shoulder and scratching my neck," he explained. "I put him back in his cage, or tank, or whatever you call it, though I was afraid he'd bite me." "Oh, no, Slider is very gentle," said Ted, who came up on the sidewalk, after having peered under the automobile. "Oh, dear, I don't see where Tip can be!" he said. "It is queer that he should go away and leave Top," said Mrs. Martin, for the other white poodle dog was there, safe in the automobile. Top looked up at the friends gazing down at him, barked and wagged his tail. Perhaps he, too, was asking what had become of his chum, Tip. "The dog must have jumped out on the opposite side of the car from where you were sitting," said Mr. Martin to Shorty. "Though if that had happened I should have thought you would have heard him," and the father of the Curlytops looked rather sharply at Shorty. "No, sir, I didn't hear a thing," was the answer. "All I know is that the alligator tried to crawl up my neck. I didn't see the dog run away." "Perhaps he didn't run away," suggested Mrs. Martin. "What do you mean?" asked Janet. "I mean someone may have stepped up softly, when this young man had his back turned, and, reaching over, may have lifted Tip up and taken him away. I wish you had sat in the auto, Shorty, instead of outside on the step." "Yes'm, I wish so myself," agreed the young man. "But there were so many animals in there I thought I'd better be on the outside so I could chase 'em quicker in case any got away. And one did get away and I never saw him! I'm terribly sorry! I'll go down the street and see if I can find him." "I wish you would," remarked Mr. Martin. "Just take a look, and ask everyone you meet if he saw a white poodle with a black tip on the end of his tail. If you find him I'll give you a dollar besides the fifty cents for watching the auto." "I'd like to earn that dollar!" said the young man. "I'll go look!" "I'll come, too," offered Teddy, "but I don't want a dollar if I find Tip. I just want to get our dog back." "So do I," added Janet. "I'll come and look with you." "This was a valuable dog," explained Mr. Martin, as Shorty moved off down the street. "He could do tricks. I'd like very much to get him back." "I'll do my best," promised the young man. "It was my fault, in a way, that he got a chance to go away. I should have been looking on both sides of the auto at once, but I didn't. I'll see if I can't find him." "I think I'll take a look, myself," said Mr. Martin to his wife, who had now gotten in the automobile with Trouble. "I don't like the way things have happened." "Why, do you think that young man had anything to do with Tip's going away?" asked Mrs. Martin, as Ted and Janet went down the street one way while Shorty took the other direction. "I can't be sure," answered the father of the Curlytops. "He looks like an honest young man, but if he knew what a valuable dog Tip was he might have let some friend of his step up and take away the pet animal." "But wouldn't he have allowed both of the dogs to be taken--Top as well as Tip?" asked Mrs. Martin. "Maybe there wasn't time to take but the one," her husband explained. "And perhaps I am wrong, and Shorty is right. Tip may have seen some other dog on the far side of the street, and have jumped out of the car to go up to him. It's too bad, but maybe we'll get him back." "I hope the children don't go so far away that they are lost, too," remarked Mrs. Martin. "I think they'll not go far," said her husband. "Oh, no, you don't!" he suddenly exclaimed. "Come back here! We don't want to chase _you_!" and he made a hasty grab for Slider, the pet alligator, who seemed to want to get out of his glass-sided tank. "I'll be glad when we get Uncle Toby's menagerie safely home," said Mr. Martin. "So shall I," his wife added. "Though the animals seem very nice. Trouble loves Snuff already." "Oh, I suppose we shall get to like them all," agreed Mr. Martin. "We'll have to let Ted and Janet make places for them in the barn. It is warm weather now, and even the tropical animals, like the monkey, can stay out there." "I wonder if the parrot will talk much?" ventured Mrs. Martin. "I have always rather wished for a talking parrot. Hello, Polly!" she called to the red and green bird in his cage. "Hello, Polly!" answered Mr. Nip. "I'm a crack-crack-cracker!" he shouted at the top of his voice, and several persons, passing along the street, turned to smile at the Martins with their automobile load of pets. Then Mr. Nip began to whistle, so very much like a boy, that Skyrocket, Ted's dog, imagined his master was whistling to him, and barked in answer. Then Top, the remaining pet poodle, also began to bark, and Jack, the monkey, chattered in his own queer way. "I'm a crack-crack-cracker!" Mr. Nip shouted at the top of his voice, and by this time quite a little crowd had gathered around the automobile. "I wish we were at home!" exclaimed Mrs. Martin, who did not like so many strange persons staring at her and her husband and Trouble. But Trouble, who was trying to smooth down the fluffy fur of the Persian cat, did not seem to mind. "What's this--a traveling circus?" asked a policeman, stepping up to the side of the car. "You have to get a permit if you're going to give a parade," he added to Mr. Martin. "Oh, I'm not going to give a parade," answered the father of the Curlytops. "We are just waiting to see if we can find one of our pets, a trick dog that ran away--or that was taken away," and he explained what had happened. "Do you know anything about that young man--Shorty he called himself--who watched our auto while we ate?" asked Mrs. Martin. "I know him--yes," the policeman answered. "Sometimes he is bad, again he is good. I'd say he was bad more often than he was good." "Just what I was afraid of!" exclaimed Mr. Martin. "I think Shorty knows more about the missing dog than he has told us. I don't believe he'll come back to get the dollar I promised him." "Here come Ted and Janet," said their mother. "They didn't find Tip, either." The Curlytops were hurrying along the street toward the automobile. They saw the policeman and began to run. "Oh, did you find him? Did you get Tip back?" gasped Janet, as she reached the car. "Did the policeman find him?" "No," answered her mother. "Did you see anything of our new dog, Curlytops?" Ted and Janet sadly shook their heads. They had looked up and down several streets, they explained, but Tip was nowhere in sight. Nor had they seen Shorty since he, also, started to look for the missing animal. "Well, we can't stay here much longer," decided Mr. Martin. "If we do, some more of Uncle Toby's pets may run away. We'd better get home. I'll leave you my name and address," said the father of the Curlytops to the policeman. "And if you hear anything of the missing dog please let me know." "I will," promised the officer. "And if I see Shorty I'll make him tell me what really happened. Sometimes he plays jokes, and this may have been one of those times." Mr. Martin waited a little longer, and when the young man did not come back, and when there was no sign of the missing Tip, it was thought best to start for Cresco. So, with one of Uncle Toby's pets missing, the trip was resumed. "You certainly have pets enough, even without Tip," said Mrs. Martin, as they neared the home of the Curlytops. "Yes, but we want Tip," said Teddy. "We can't give a good show with only one trick dog, 'specially when they are supposed to work as a team--one on the other's back." "Are you going to give a show?" asked his mother. "Yes," Teddy answered. "We'll give a show and make money. We can ask real money to see all the animals we have," and he looked down at the parrot's cage, the box of Jack, the monkey, the cage of the white mice and rats, and the tank of the alligator. "Perhaps you could train Skyrocket to take the place of Tip," said Mr. Martin. "Maybe," agreed Teddy. "But Skyrocket isn't the same kind of a dog, and Tip and Top looked so cute together." "Just like twins," added Janet. "Oh, I hope we get Tip back." They could not be sure whether the pet dog had run away himself, or whether someone had reached in over the side of the car and lifted him out. Someone may have done that while Shorty turned his back, saying nothing and not trying to stop him. "I am sorry, but I think Shorty had something to do with Tip getting away," said Mr. Martin. "If that young man had been honest he would have come back and told us he couldn't find the dog. I should not have allowed Shorty to watch our auto. But it is too late, now, to be sorry." The Curlytops reached their home just before supper, and there was so much to do, making places in the barn for Uncle Toby's pets, seeing that they were comfortable, and that they could not get out during the night, that, for a time, Ted and Janet forgot about the loss of Tip. If he had been the only pet, of course they would have missed him very much. But they had so many now that they were kept busy. Still, they wished, very much, that Tip could be found. "For if we don't find him, we can't have half so many tricks in our circus show," said Teddy. In due time the pets were put away for the night. The barn was a good place for them, and after they had been fed and given fresh water, which all pets need as much as they do food, the children left the animals to themselves. "In the morning we'll start getting ready for the circus," declared Ted. "Will dey be han'-ordan music?" asked Trouble. "Well, we'll have some kind of music, if I have to toot on some tissue paper over a comb," answered Teddy. Tired out with their two days' automobile trip, the Curlytops were soon ready for bed. Trouble went to sleep earlier than did Ted or Janet, but soon they, too, were ready to go to their rooms. "Let us feed the animals--don't you do it, please," Ted begged of his father and mother. "Janet and I want to make believe we are keepers in a circus, feeding lions and tigers." "All right, you may feed them," agreed their mother. How long they had been asleep neither Ted nor Janet knew, but they were suddenly awakened in the night by hearing screams. The screams came from the open window of the house next door, where Mrs. Blake, a very nice lady, lived with her two servants. Her husband was dead, and her children had married and gone away. Mrs. Blake's bedroom was opposite the adjoining sleeping rooms of Ted and Janet, and often the Curlytops would call "good morning" across to Mrs. Blake. But this time it was Mrs. Blake who called, and she did not exactly call, she screamed in the middle of the night. "Help! Help!" cried the lady from her open window. "Mr. Martin! Mary Ann! Patrick!" (these were her servants) "come and get him. A little fuzzy burglar is in my room! Come and get the fuzzy burglar!" CHAPTER VIII SLIDER GOES SLIDING Teddy and Janet, sleeping in their rooms on the side of their house nearest to the home of Mrs. Blake, were the first to be awakened by the screams of the frightened lady. For that Mrs. Blake was frightened anyone could tell who heard her cry. "Come and take the fuzzy burglar! Take the fuzzy burglar out of my room!" she exclaimed again and again. By this time Teddy had jumped out of his bed and had run to his window. At the same time Janet, in the next room, had jumped out of her bed and had run to her window. Both children looked across the yard to the home of Mrs. Blake. They could see her, in the moonlight, standing at her window. "What's the matter, Curlytops?" called their mother, across the hall. She had been awakened, not so much by the cries of Mrs. Blake as by the movements of Ted and Janet. "What's the matter?" asked Mrs. Martin. "There's a funny burglar over in Mrs. Blake's house, and she wants someone to come and get it," answered Janet. "No, she didn't say _funny_ burglar--she said _fuzzy_!" declared Ted. "Well, anyhow, it's a _burglar_," declared Janet. And from the other house again came the appeal: "Patrick! Mary Ann! Mr. Martin! Somebody! Come and get the fuzzy burglar!" By this time Mr. Martin, who had gotten up, had been told by his wife that something was wrong in Mrs. Blake's house. He put on some clothes and hurried downstairs, carrying a flashlight in one hand and his revolver in the other. "Oh!" exclaimed Janet, who, with Teddy, watched her father go, "Daddy's going to shoot the funny burglar." "_Fuzzy_ burglar!" corrected Ted. But Janet had covered her ears with her hands, so she would not hear her father shoot his revolver--in case he found anything to shoot at--so the little girl did not hear what her brother said. Mr. Martin ran across the lawn to the front porch of Mrs. Blake's house. By this time several other neighbors had been awakened be the lady's screams, and some of the men came out, partly dressed, to see what was going on. "Come in, Mr. Martin," said Patrick, as he opened the door for the father of the Curlytops. Patrick was Mrs. Blake's gardener. "What is it, Patrick?" asked Mr. Martin, holding his revolver in one hand and the flashlight in the other. "Where is the burglar?" "I didn't see anything, Mr. Martin," answered the gardener. "I heard Mrs. Blake scream, and I got up, and so did Mary Ann, the cook, but we can't find anything!" "But there _is_ a burglar here!" said Mrs. Blake from the head of the stairs, where she now stood. "I was awakened by a noise in my room, and when I looked at the window, I saw in the moonlight, sitting on the sill, a fuzzy little old man. He's a burglar, I'm sure of it, and I wish the police would come!" "I think there are enough of us here now, Mrs. Blake, to look after two or three burglars without the police," said Mr. Martin, as he glanced at several neighbors who had come in. "Let's have a look around," he went on. "I fancy, if there was a burglar, that he has gotten away by this time." "I hope he has gotten away, and will never come back," said Mrs. Blake. "But I wish you gentlemen would look, just the same." So Mr. Martin and the other men neighbors, with Patrick, the gardener, to help, began a search of the house. They went to Mrs. Blake's room first. "I don't see any burglar," said Mr. Martin. He did not need his electric flashlight now, as the house had been lighted from top to bottom by Mrs. Blake's two servants. "There he is! There he is!" suddenly cried Mrs. Blake. "Under that big chair. There's the fuzzy burglar!" Mr. Martin and two or three other men rushed over to the chair at which Mrs. Blake pointed. Mr. Martin stooped down, and then he laughed. "What's the matter?" asked Mr. Tyndall, a neighbor from across the street. "I'll show you," answered Mr. Martin, as he thrust his arm under the chair. "Come out of there, Jack!" he went on, and out from beneath the chair he pulled--Jack, Uncle Toby's pet monkey! Poor Jack was as much frightened as Mrs. Blake had been, but he cowered down in Mr. Martin's arms and looked up into the face of the father of the Curlytops as if saying: "Please don't whip me! I didn't mean to be bad!" The men who had come in to help hunt a burglar looked at the fuzzy monkey in Mr. Martin's arms, and then burst out laughing. "Yes, it must have been him that I saw perched on my window," said Mrs. Blake. "In my alarm, it did look like a fuzzy, little old man, and of course I thought it was a burglar. I was foolish. It was a very small burglar. I didn't know you kept monkeys, Mr. Martin." "I only keep one," he said, "and I don't exactly keep that, myself. It's one of the children's pets. It used to belong to my Uncle Toby, and we just brought Jack home this afternoon. We put him in the barn with the white mice and the alligator----" "Don't tell me there's an _alligator_ running around loose!" cried Mrs. Blake. "Oh, a monkey is bad enough, but an _alligator_----" "It's only a little one," said Mr. Martin. "And I'm sorry Jack got loose and frightened you. I'll see, after this, that the pets don't get out at night." "Oh, I'm sure I don't want to spoil the children's pleasure in the least," went on Mrs. Blake. "But I didn't know you had such a menagerie next door to me, Mr. Martin." "We didn't have until to-day--or rather, yesterday, for it is now past midnight," Mr. Martin explained. "My Uncle Toby left me his collection of animals when he went away suddenly, and Ted and Janet say they are going to have a circus." "Save me a ticket!" cried Mr. Hanson, who lived two or three houses down the street. "And I want one," added Mr. Fenton. "If the Curlytops give a circus I want to come to it!" "So do it!" cried several other neighbors, who had turned out to see what all the excitement was about. "I'll tell Teddy and Janet," promised Mr. Martin, as he carried Jack out of Mrs. Blake's house, much to the relief of that lady, though she was rather fond of animals in general. So the excitement quieted down, and after it was all over a policeman came along, one of the neighbors having telephoned in the first alarm. But there was nothing for the officer to do. "Now, Curlytops," said Mr. Martin, at breakfast the next morning when the excitement of the night was being talked over, "if you are to keep Uncle Toby's pets here, we must be careful that they do not bother the neighbors. Your own dog and cat are very good, and make no trouble. But with a monkey, a parrot, another dog and cat, to say nothing of the alligator and the white mice, we may cause a lot of trouble to our good neighbors. And we wouldn't want to do that." "What do you want us to do, Daddy?" asked Ted. He had just fed the two dogs--Skyrocket and Top, while Janet had poured out some milk for Turnover and Snuff, the two cats. "We must make cages that can be locked at night, or else we must make sure that the barn is tightly closed," said his father. "I don't suppose, during the day, that there will be much trouble. It is at night we must be careful. No one likes to be awakened by seeing a monkey on the window sill." "I wouldn't care," said Teddy. "Well, ladies like Mrs. Blake don't care for such thrills," returned Mr. Martin, with a laugh. "So we must be sure that all the members of our menagerie are safely caged each night. I shall depend on you Curlytops for that." "We'll be careful!" promised Teddy. "I'll help you lock up every night," added Janet. "Well, then I will leave the pets to you Curlytops," said their father. "It is on your account that your mother and I are keeping them instead of selling them, and while they will be some care, we do not mind if you do your share." "The first thing I'm going to do," said Teddy, when he and Janet were left to themselves, their father going to his store, "is to see how many tricks Top can do." "Isn't it too bad we haven't Tip?" said Janet. "They were so cute together!" "Yes," agreed her brother. "But maybe I can make Skyrocket let Top ride on his back, and teach 'em some other tricks. Come here, Top!" he called to the white poodle with the black spot on top of his head. "Let's see you walk on your hind legs." Top was very willing to do this, and while Ted and Janet sat on boxes in the barn, with their other pets around them, Uncle Toby's poodle went through his performance. When he had walked on his hind legs in a little circle he suddenly sneezed. "Oh, maybe he's catching cold!" cried Janet. "No, I think that was a trick," suggested Teddy. "Sneeze, Top!" he ordered. Surely enough, the poodle sneezed, and he would do it every time Teddy or Janet told him to. "Oh, he knows two tricks, besides the one he does with Tip," Teddy said in delight. "Maybe he does a lot more. I wish Uncle Toby had written them down, so we'd know what the dogs can do for our circus." "We can write to Uncle Toby, when daddy gets the address, and ask about the tricks," Janet said. "Yes," agreed Teddy, "we can do that. I wonder if Slider can do any tricks?" he asked, when Top had been rewarded for his efforts with a little bone to gnaw. [Illustration: SLIDER WENT SLIDING DOWN THE SMOOTH SLANTING BOARD. "The Curlytops and Their Pets." Page 102] "Do alligators do tricks?" asked Janet, as she reached in through the bars of Mr. Nip's cage and scratched the head of the red and green parrot. "I guess they do," Teddy answered. "If they don't we'll teach our Slider to do a trick. I'm going to take him out of his tank." The cage of the little pet alligator was a sort of tank, in the bottom of which was some water, and in this were little pebbles, like those in some goldfish bowls. The tank stood near a window in the barn where the sun shone in, for Mr. Martin had told the Curlytops that their pets who lived in warm, or tropical, countries must be kept where it was warm and sunny. That was what they were used to in their native lands. So Slider had a warm, sunny place, and now Teddy took the scaly creature out of the tank and put him on a box, where the sun could shine on the long-tailed fellow. As it happened, there was a long, smooth board resting on the upper edge of this box and extending down to the barn floor. Teddy had laid the board slanting fashion on the box when he was making room for the cage of Jack, the monkey. For a little while, after he had been placed in the warm sun on top of the box, the alligator remained quiet, slowly blinking his eyes. Then he began to crawl. "That isn't much of a trick," declared Janet. "Oh, I haven't started to teach him a trick yet," her brother answered. "I'm trying to think what an alligator can do best." But Slider, as he was called, because he seemed to slide around in such a slow, easy fashion, took matters into his own claws, so to speak. He crawled around on his box top and then managed to clamber up on the slanting board, one edge of which rested on the box. "I wonder if he is going to slide down-hill," said Janet in a low voice, as if she did not want to disturb the little alligator. And then, just as if he had made up his mind to do that very thing, Slider wiggled along until he was only holding to the edge of the slanting board by his two hind feet, while his long tail was only partly on the box. A moment later, giving himself a hitch like a boy getting his sled over the top of the hill, Slider went sliding down the smooth, slanting board. Down he slid until he reached the barn floor, and as there was some smooth straw at the point where the board rested, Slider slid across this straw for several feet. "Oh, did you see that?" cried Janet. "See it? I should say I did!" cried Teddy. "Slider slid all right! That's going to be his trick! I'll make a longer board slide, and I'll put the lower end in a pan of water, so when Slider slides down he'll make a splash! That will be a fine trick for the circus! Come on, Slider, slide again!" Teddy was just lifting up his pet alligator, intending to put him on the top of the slanting board, when Trouble was heard calling: "Oh, come an' 'ook at Snuff! Come an' 'ook at Snuff! He's doin' suffin' funny!" CHAPTER IX MRS. JOHNSON'S BABY Teddy and Janet turned their attention from Slider, the pet alligator whose new trick they had just discovered, to Trouble, their little brother. "What's that you say?" asked Teddy, putting the alligator back again on the box on which stood the tank of water. "You ought to see Snuff," repeated the little fellow. "What's he doing?" asked Janet. "Oh, he's rollin' ober an' ober in yard," explained Trouble, so excited that he did not take time to talk as straight as usual. "He's rollin' funny!" "Oh, maybe the poor cat has a fit!" exclaimed Janet. "That would be too bad, Ted! He couldn't be in our circus." "I'll go see," offered Teddy. He had been among animals so long, and was so kind to them, and he liked them so much, that he was not afraid to try to help even a sick one. And a cat that has a fit is ill, and needs medicine. Sometimes Turnover became ill, and had to be doctored, and more than once Skyrocket, the dog, was in need of some simple home remedy. So the first thought of Janet and Ted, when Trouble told them that Snuff, the cat they had brought from Uncle Toby's, was "rollin'"--their first thought, I say, was that Snuff had a fit. "You stay here and watch Slider," said Ted to his sister, "and I'll go out into the yard and see what's the matter with the cat." "I go, too," added Trouble. "I 'ike to see Snuff roll!" "No, you had better stay here with me," suggested Janet, and she ran to the barn door to catch hold of her little brother before he could toddle after Teddy. "I want to go! Lemme go!" cried Trouble, and he struggled to get away from Janet. "No, you must stay with sister," said the little girl, as pleasantly as she could. "Look, I'll show you a new trick that Slider, our pet alligator, can do. Trouble like to see Slider do a trick?" she asked. "Come on, Trouble! See Slider do his sliding trick!" Baby William was not proof against this attraction. He ceased trying to pull away from Janet and let her lead him back to the alligator's tank. There Janet took up the scaly, long-tailed creature, which was idly crawling around, and put him on top of the slanting board, as Teddy had been about to do when Trouble told about Snuff. Janet did not mind picking up Slider. The Curlytops were not afraid of animals that many girls and boys do not like to handle. Janet and Teddy knew a great deal about snakes, and they knew that only two kinds that lived in their State were harmful. These were the rattlesnake and the copperhead. All other kinds, such as black snakes, milk snakes and garter snakes can never harm a person. Teddy and Janet knew this, and they had been taught by their father that these harmless snakes did a great deal of good by eating rats and mice that, otherwise, would spoil the farmers' grain. So it was that Janet had learned to pick up even large black snakes, knowing they would not harm her, and once she and her brother had even tamed a good-sized black snake, so that it would let the children pick it up, and it would lie, coiled, in their lap. Snakes can not be tamed, or made to do tricks like other animals, and the stories of "snake charmers" are mostly untrue. Some snakes may rise and sway when music is played, and the snakes that circus performers handle are just as harmless as the garden snakes you see. Some of the larger ones, however, are very powerful, and can twist themselves around a person or an animal strongly enough to kill. But the performers know how to handle snakes, using slow and gentle movements, so the reptiles do not mind it. Thus it was that Janet had no fear of Slider, the pet alligator. She lifted him up, put him on top of the slanting board and, just as he had done before, Slider went sliding down. "Oh! Oh!" cried Trouble in delight. "Isn't that a good trick?" asked Janet, laughing with her little brother. "Aren't you glad you stayed with me." "Yes, I is glad," declared Trouble. "Now Trouble make Slider slide." "All right," agreed Janet. Baby William was not much more afraid of animals, snakes included, than were Teddy and Janet. So his sister let him pick up Slider and give the alligator another coast down the board hill. I am not saying that Slider would have done this trick himself, even after much practice. It was mostly an accident, I believe, his coasting down the board when he got to the slanting edge. The alligator just naturally crawled around and, reaching the edge, he fell over, and coasted down. Janet and Trouble put him close to the edge on purpose, so he would go down, knowing that it did not hurt the alligator in the least. I suppose a mud turtle would have done the same "trick." Reptiles have a very small brain, and can not be taught to do tricks as can dogs, horses and cats, and the alligator, the turtle and the snake belong to the class known as reptiles. So though the children called what Slider did a "trick," it was more like an accident, though it was not a harmful one. "Me make Slider slide," exclaimed Trouble, and, surely enough, when he had put Uncle Toby's scaly pet on the board, down the alligator slid. Trouble and Janet were enjoying themselves in this fashion, and Janet was wondering what Teddy was doing, when that young member of the Curlytop family stuck his head in through the open barn door and called: "Come on out and see Snuff!" "Oh, has he a bad fit?" asked Janet. "He hasn't got a fit at all!" answered Ted. "He's doing one of the best tricks you ever saw, and it will be dandy in our circus! Come and look at him!" "Oh, I'm glad he hasn't a fit!" cried Janet. "Come on, Trouble!" But now there was more trouble with Trouble, for he wanted to stay and play with Slider. "Me see Slider slide more!" demanded the little fellow. And it was as hard for Janet to get him to come out of the barn now, as it had been to make him stay in before. "Oh, come on and see Snuff do his funny trick!" she begged, and finally Trouble came away from the alligator. "And it sure is a funny trick!" laughed Ted, who had waited for his little brother and Janet to come out. "Just you see!" When the two Curlytops and Trouble hurried around the corner of the barn, Teddy pointed to Snuff, the new, big cat that had been brought from Uncle Toby's house. Snuff was on top of a large leather ball, and it was rolling around the yard, with him on top of it, just as a clown in the circus stands upright on a large, painted ball, and rolls himself around the ring. This ball was a football that Teddy had owned for some time. The outside was leather, and inside was a rubber bladder that could be blown up. It was a round ball, of the kind used in "Association" games, and not for "Rugby," which most of the football elevens play in this country. The "Rugby" ball is shaped like a watermelon, but the other is more like a muskmelon, and it was on this latter kind of a ball that Snuff was rolling around the yard, just like a circus clown. "Was this what Trouble meant when he said Snuff was rolling?" asked Janet. "Yes," answered Teddy. "I'm glad Uncle Toby's cat didn't have a fit. Now we can make him do this trick in our animal circus." "Oh, it's a lovely trick," declared Janet. "I wonder how he learned it?" "Maybe Uncle Toby or the lady who owned him first taught Snuff to roll on top of a football," Ted answered, while the yellowish brown cat kept on stepping lightly this way and that, making the ball turn over and over. "I guess Trouble left the ball out here in the yard. He was playing with it last. Then Snuff must have come out, and when he saw the ball he remembered that he knew how to do a trick on it. And he got up and did it without anyone telling him." "Maybe he won't do it any more," suggested Janet. "We can soon see," Teddy said. "Here, Snuff!" he called to the big, friendly cat. "Come over here," and Teddy whistled as he did for Turnover. Snuff came as he was called, almost as a dog might do, and Turnover, also hearing the whistle by which Teddy summoned him to meals, came running around the corner of the barn. "No, we haven't anything for you to eat now, pussies," said Ted, with a laugh. "But I'll give you something in a little while if Snuff does the football trick again." After petting the two cats, and scratching them under their ears, which they seemed to like very much. Teddy held Snuff in his arms, and told Janet to take up the football. "We'll put it down in front of Snuff and see if he gets up on it," suggested Teddy. And when this was done the big cat from Uncle Toby's jumped out of Ted's arms, and leaped on top of the football, rolling it over and over just like a clown in a circus. "Oh, it is a trick--a real trick!" cried Janet. "Wouldn't it be great if we could dress Snuff up in a little suit like a clown?" "Maybe we can," said Teddy. "But it will be hard, as cats don't like to have fixin's on 'em as much as dogs do. I wonder who taught Snuff that trick? I guess it must have been Uncle Toby." And, some time afterward, the Curlytops learned that it was their father's queer, animal-loving uncle who had taught Snuff to roll around on a football. "I'm terrible glad Uncle Toby left us his collection, aren't you?" asked Janet of her brother, when Snuff had grown tired of doing his trick, and both cats were being fed. "Yes," agreed Teddy, "I am. First I thought it might be a collection of stamps or coins. But I'm glad it was pets." The Curlytops were going to have a great deal of fun with their pets, they were sure of that. "If we only had Tip back," sighed Janet, as she and Teddy sat watching the cats eat, talking, meanwhile, about the circus they were going to have with all their animals. "Yes, it's too bad one of Uncle Toby's dogs is gone," agreed Teddy. "Of course we can do some tricks with Top, but it would be better with the two of them." "I wonder if he jumped out of the auto and ran away, if someone picked him up off the seat, or if that man Shorty knows where he is?" "That's what I wonder, too," replied Teddy. "And I wonder if we shall ever get Tip back?" But many strange things were to happen to the Curlytops and their pets before this came about. Teddy and Janet were so busy talking about the circus they were to get up with their animals that, for a time, they did not watch Trouble. That little chap wandered back to the barn, for he had been much interested in watching the alligator do his trick. "Me make Slider slide some more," said Trouble, talking to himself, as he had a habit of doing. Into the barn he toddled. The alligator was swimming around in his small tank of water, but, being a tame and pet reptile, he came out when Trouble stood near the cage. Unafraid of animals, as were Teddy and Janet, baby William picked Slider up and put him on the slanting board. Down went the alligator as nicely as you please! It was about half an hour after this that Teddy and Janet decided they would try to teach their dog Skyrocket some tricks to do with Top. "Let's bring 'em both out here in the yard together," suggested Ted. "You get Skyrocket, Jan, and I'll hunt Top." "All right," agreed his sister. But before they had gone far, looking for the two dogs, they heard a cry of alarm from Mrs. Johnson, one of the neighbors across the street. "Oh, my baby! My baby!" cried Mrs. Johnson, as she ran down off the porch toward a mosquito-netting covered carriage in the front yard. "A big snake is going to sting my baby! Oh, Trouble! what shall I do?" "Ha! is Trouble over there?" asked Ted of Janet. "Yes, and something else, too, I guess," was the answer. And Mrs. Johnson called again: "Oh, a big snake is in the carriage with my baby!" CHAPTER X MR. CAPPER'S BUNS Forgetting in the excitement, all about teaching Skyrocket and Top to do some tricks together, as Tip and Top did before Tip was lost, Teddy and Janet ran across the street toward Mrs. Johnson, who was standing beside the carriage in which was her baby. Near her was Trouble, but the little fellow did not seem to be as excited as was Mrs. Johnson. "Trouble," cried Janet, as she took hold of her little brother's arm, "did you tease Ruth?" Ruth was the name of Mrs. Johnson's baby, and though Trouble was, usually, a good little chap, he might have done something to make a baby cry, Janet realized. "I didn't do nuffin'!" declared Trouble. "Oh, no, Trouble is all right!" said Mrs. Johnson. "It's a big, black snake that has crawled into my baby's carriage. I put Ruth out here to have her sleep, and I looked from the window every once in a while to see that she was all right." "And she was, for quite a while. But a moment ago, when I looked, I saw Trouble near the carriage, and then I saw a big, ugly snake crawling over Ruth's robe. Oh, where is it? Where's the snake, darling? Did the snake bite you?" and Mrs. Johnson caught Ruth up from the carriage in her arms. "I never knew a snake would crawl up into a baby carriage," said Teddy. "I don't see any; do you, Jan?" "No," answered his sister, "I don't!" "There it is! Look!" cried Mrs. Johnson, pointing with one hand, while she held Ruth close to her in her other arm. The baby had been rather rudely awakened from her sleep, and she was just getting ready to cry. Her lips were puckering up, and in another moment she would let out a yell. Janet and Teddy knew this, for they had, often enough, watched Trouble do the same thing when he was smaller. "There's the snake!" exclaimed Mrs. Johnson, and, as she spoke and pointed, the Curlytops saw something black crawl out from among the folds of the robes in the baby carriage. Ted had one glimpse of the head of the reptile, and then the boy cried: "That isn't a snake! It's Slider, our pet alligator! How did he get here?" "A pet alligator?" cried Mrs. Johnson. "In my Ruth's carriage! How did it get here?" "I bringed it!" said Trouble, in the silence that followed. "You what?" cried Janet. "I bringed Slider ober to play wif Ruff!" said Trouble. "I play wif Slider in barn, and den hims hoots get tired, so I bringed him over to ride in de carriage wif Ruff." "What does he mean?" asked Mrs. Johnson, crooning to "Ruff," as Trouble called the baby, and making the little one quiet. For William was using some of his "baby talk," which he often did when he was excited. "He means that the alligator's feet got tired, I suppose," translated Janet. "He says 'hoots' for 'feet.' He must mean that Slider got tired of sliding down the board." Mrs. Johnson looked from one Curlytop to the other, and then at Trouble. A puzzled look was on her face. "Really, children dear," she said, "_you_ may know what you are talking about, but _I_ don't. What with hoots, Slider and a board I'm all mixed up!" "I bringed him--I bringed Slider," explained Trouble. "Yes, we know you did that," said Teddy. "But you shouldn't have, Trouble. It was wrong to take our pet out of the barn, and it was wrong to put Slider in the baby carriage." "Yes, we didn't know Trouble was going to do anything like this," said Janet, apologizing for her little brother's misdeed. "But Ted and I were talking about what tricks we'd get Skyrocket and Top to do, now that Tip is gone. And we'd just got through watching Snuff do a new trick on top of a football, so we didn't watch Trouble very much." "How many pets you have!" exclaimed Mrs. Johnson. "I suppose those are pets you have been talking about?" she asked. "Ours and Uncle Toby's," answered Teddy. "We have more pets than we ever had before, and we're going to give a circus. Will you come, Mrs. Johnson?" "An' bring Ruff!" invited Trouble. There was a laugh at this. "If you love Ruth you mustn't put Slider in her carriage any more," cautioned Janet, as she lifted the pet alligator out from among the blankets. "Little babies don't like alligators." "All wite. I like 'em," said Trouble, and then he ran back across the street. "We'll be going now," said Teddy to Mrs. Johnson. "We're sorry William made trouble." "Oh, he didn't mean to," said Ruth's mother. "He's a dear little fellow. I must come over and see your pets. Ruth loves a pussy or a dog, but she doesn't know much about alligators." "We have a monkey, too," said Janet. "And a parrot named Mr. Nip," added her brother. "And white rats and mice! They're real cute!" exclaimed Janet. "I don't believe I would like the mice!" said Mrs. Johnson. "But ours are white," Janet explained. "That makes a big difference. They're as nice as rabbits!" "They wouldn't be for me," said Ruth's mother, with a laugh. "Good-bye, Curlytops! Come over again, and bring a pussy or doggie with you." Ted and Janet promised they would, and then they hurried back across the street after Trouble. They wanted to make sure he would not get into any more mischief with the pets. Daddy Martin was told, that evening after supper, all that had happened during the day, from the discovery that Slider and Snuff could do tricks, to the finding of the pet alligator in baby Ruth's carriage. "Well, it seems you had lots of excitement to-day," he said to his wife. "Just a little," she agreed. "But if Uncle Toby's pets are to make trouble I don't know that we can keep them," Daddy Martin said. Teddy and Janet looked at each other. "Oh, we can't let them go now!" exclaimed Teddy. "We're just getting to love them!" his sister added. "And we haven't found out any tricks yet that the white mice can do," Teddy went on. "We haven't even named 'em!" "Well, I suppose if the neighbors don't complain I shouldn't," admitted Mr. Martin. "But with the monkey scaring Mrs. Blake, and the alligator scaring Mrs. Johnson----" "They weren't very _much_ scared," interrupted Ted. "Please let us keep Uncle Toby's pets! We want to give a circus." "We'll see," said Mr. Martin. "I hope nothing more will happen, though, to annoy the neighbors." "We'll watch our pets so they won't get out," promised Ted and Janet. The next few days were spent by the Curlytops in getting better acquainted with the animals that had been brought from Uncle Toby's. They liked their new pets more and more the more they saw of them. Of course they wished they could get Tip back, but that trick dog seemed to have vanished. Daddy Martin put an advertisement in the paper, and offered a reward to whoever would bring Tip back, but there were no answers--at least none that amounted to anything. It is true that several men and boys came with strange dogs they thought answered the description of the missing Tip, but none of the animals was the pet so much wanted. Nor was anything heard of the missing youth "Shorty." He seemed to have disappeared with the poodle, and the police said they believed Shorty knew where Tip was, and had, perhaps, taken him away in order to sell him. "Well, of course we have enough animals without Tip to give a show," said Teddy. "But I'd love to get Tip back. And I guess Top is lonesome without him." "I guess so, too," added Janet. But if Top was lonesome he showed no signs of it after one or two days. He made friends with Skyrocket, as Snuff did with Turnover, and the dogs and cats lived happily together. But alas for the hopes of Mr. Martin that his neighbors would not again be troubled by the pets of the Curlytops. It was about a week after the animals had been brought from Uncle Toby's house that, as Mr. Martin was coming home from the store rather early one afternoon, he saw a crowd in front of the bakeshop of Mr. Capper, just around the corner from the home of the Curlytops. "I hope that isn't a fire in Mr. Capper's bakery," thought Daddy Martin, for more than once hot grease had boiled over in the bakeshop and caused slight fires. As Mr. Martin approached Mr. Capper's store he heard loud laughter from the crowd of men and boys in front of the show window. "It can't be a fire, or they wouldn't laugh," said the father of the Curlytops. "I wonder what it is?" He hastened on, and as he came within view of the bakery window he uttered an exclamation of surprise. For there, among the buns, eating them and playing among the other cakes, were several large white rats and mice. "Look at that one big one stand up on his hind legs and nibble a bun just like a squirrel!" said a man watching the antics of the white rats and mice among Mr. Capper's buns. If this man had only known it, squirrels and rats belong to the same family, that called "rodents," only a squirrel has a much larger tail than a rat or a mouse. "I wonder what in the world Mr. Capper lets those white rats stay in his bakeshop window for?" thought Mr. Martin, as he ran up. "They are not harmful, of course, but people will not like to eat bakery stuff after rats and mice, even if they are white, have run around them. It's a poor advertisement." At that moment the baker himself, who had been out in his oven-room, came running into the shop. He gave one look at his window, saw the white rats and mice playing around in and nibbling his choice buns, and then the baker cried: "Oh, who did this? Who played this trick on me and spoiled my buns? Who let those mice in there?" "Didn't you do it yourself?" asked Mr. Martin, who knew the baker very well, having traded with him for a number of years. "Let those mice in my window? Never!" cried Mr. Capper. "Why should I do a thing like that?" "I thought maybe it was for an advertisement--to attract customers to your store," said Mr. Martin. "Though I thought it was rather funny." "It is too funny!" cried the baker. "All my buns are spoiled, and I just baked them. As for customers--I have a crowd, yes, but they will not buy what the mice have nibbled. "Whose mice are they? Whose white rats are they? I ask you that!" cried the baker, who was much excited. "A little while ago two boys come in to buy cookies. I wait on them, and I go back to my oven. Then the next I know I see a crowd and I come out to find--these!" He pointed to the white rats and mice that were having a fine time among the buns in the bakeshop window. "You say two boys were here a little while ago?" asked Mr. Martin, and he began to have a suspicion of what had happened. "Two boys," replied the baker. "They have a box with them--Ha! here is the box now. It is the cage that the mice got out of!" he cried, pointing to a box with a wire front on the floor of the store, in a corner. "Uncle Toby's box!" exclaimed Mr. Martin, in a low voice. "What's that?" cried the baker. "You know these white rats and mice, Mr. Martin?" "I'm afraid I do," said the father of the Curlytops. "My children got some new pets from an uncle of mine--Uncle Toby. Among the pets were white mice and rats. That is the box we brought them in from Pocono. But how did the box get here?" "Some boys brought it in, I am telling you," the baker answered. "Two boys." "Did you know them? Was one my son Teddy?" asked Mr. Martin. "I do not know--I forgot to look I was in such a hurry, for my bread was almost burning in my oven. I run to the store quick, as I am all alone now; I wait on the boys, they want cookies; and I run back to my oven. Now I come--the rats--the mice!" and Mr. Capper, who was a Frenchman, raised his hands in the air over his head in despair. "I wonder if Ted could have done this?" mused Mr. Martin. And then he heard Teddy's voice calling: "Come on, Jim! Here they are! We left the rats here, and--Oh, I say! Look! They got out of the cage, and look what they're doing to the buns!" A moment later Teddy Martin came pushing his way through the crowd now in the bakery. CHAPTER XI TOP ACTS STRANGELY Mr. Martin, the father of the Curlytops, Mr. Capper, the baker, and the crowd of persons in the shop looked at Teddy and his friend, Jimmy Norton, as the two boys hurried into the place. Nearly everyone guessed what had happened, but Mr. Martin wanted to make sure, so he asked: "Teddy, did you let your white mice and rats get loose among Mr. Capper's buns?" "Well, I--I didn't exactly do it, Daddy," Teddy answered. "But I guess they did get loose, didn't they?" he asked, with half a smile. "There is no doubt about it--they are loose, and they have done a lot of damage," and Mr. Martin spoke rather sternly. "Damage! They have eaten up over two dollars' worth of buns--or they have as much spoiled!" said the excited baker. "How did it happen?" asked Teddy's father. "Well, it was an accident," the little Curlytop boy answered. "Jimmy and I were taking the cage down to the store to have some new wire put on. There's a place where the wire is broken, and it needed fixing so the rats couldn't get out. So Jimmy and I took the cage, and the rats and mice in it, down to the hardware store." "Why didn't you take the mice out, and leave them in the barn?" asked Mr. Martin. "'Cause there wasn't anything I could leave 'em in," Teddy replied. "I was afraid they'd get out, and maybe go over in Mrs. Johnson's baby carriage, just as Slider did. So I thought if we took the rats and mice right in the cage the man at the store could put some new wire netting over the old, and they couldn't get out." "And did he do it?" Teddy's father went on, while the crowd listened to the talk. "Yes, sir," Teddy replied. "The cage was fixed all right, and on the way back, Jimmy and I got tired of carrying it, so we stopped in here to get some cookies. We were hungry." "It is as I told you!" broke in Mr. Capper. "Two boys did come in for cookies. These are the two--I remember now." "Well, why didn't you boys take the cage of rats and mice with you when you went out?" asked Mr. Martin. "If you hadn't left them here they wouldn't have gotten loose and gone into Mr. Capper's show window to eat or spoil all his buns. Why did you leave the cage here?" "We--we forgot it, I guess; didn't we, Jimmy?" asked Teddy of his chum. "Yes," agreed Jimmy, "we did." "But if the man at the hardware store put new wire on the cage, I don't see how the rats and mice got out," Mr. Martin went on. Teddy looked at the empty cage which had been set down in a corner when he and his chum bought the cookies. "The door came open!" Teddy exclaimed. "See, Daddy, the door sprang open and the white mice got out that way. It wasn't our fault at all!" "But it was your fault for leaving the cage here," went on Mr. Martin. "I don't see why you did it." "I guess it was on account of the fire engine," spoke up Jimmy Norton. "The fire engine!" cried Teddy's father. "What has the fire engine to do with white mice eating buns?" "Well, after we'd bought the cookies, and were going to take up the cage of mice and go out," Jimmy explained, "the fire engine came past, and Ted and I ran out to see it and we went to the fire, but it wasn't a big one, and we forgot about the mice; didn't we, Teddy?" "Yes," said Teddy, "we did. And I didn't think about 'em until a little while ago, 'cause we started to play marbles, and--and----" "Yes, and by your thoughtlessness you have made a lot of trouble," Mr. Martin remarked. "I am sorry for this, Teddy. If many more things happen I shall have to get rid of Uncle Toby's pets." "Oh, don't do that!" begged the little Curlytop boy. "I'll put the rats and mice back in the cage and I'll fasten the door so they can't get out again. Don't send Uncle Toby's animals away, Daddy! We want to have a circus with them!" "And I'll help pay for the buns the rats ate," added Jimmy. "It was partly my fault for making Ted forget." "Oh, no, I can't allow that," said Mr. Martin, "though it is very good of you to offer, Jimmy. I will pay Mr. Capper for the buns the rats ate, and after this Teddy must be more careful." "Can we take away the buns and cookies the mice didn't eat?" asked the little Curlytop chap, as he and his chum began picking up the pets and putting them back in the cage. The animals were tame and did not mind being handled. "Take away all the buns in the window! They are of no more use to me!" exclaimed the baker. "But, Mr. Martin, I will not charge you full price for the things--only what it cost to make them. For, as you say, it was an advertisement. And I know the boys did not mean it." "Indeed we didn't!" cried Teddy. "We can take the broken buns and feed them to Skyrocket and Top, and Mr. Nip and Jack will eat them, too," he said to his father. "It will be just as good as buying stale bread for the monkey and the parrot, Daddy. I guess they'll like buns better." "I shouldn't be surprised if they did," laughed Mr. Martin. "Well, as you say, Teddy, it will save buying stale bread." Some of the pets were fed on this, and now the broken buns would take its place for a few meals. By this time the crowd began leaving the bakery, as the excitement was over. Teddy and Jimmy picked up the last of the rats and mice, putting them back in the mended cage. "And make sure the door of the cage is fastened," Mr. Martin said to Teddy, as the baker was paid for the buns. "We don't want the creatures getting loose again." "It's good and tight," Teddy said. "They won't get out again except when we take them out to do circus tricks." Carrying the cage of white mice and rats between them, Teddy and Jimmy walked down the street in front of Mr. Martin, and soon the pets were safely back in the barn. "I'm a crack-crack-cracker!" cried the green, red and yellow parrot, as the boys entered. The talkative bird whistled, at which sound Skyrocket and Top, who were asleep in one corner of the barn, awakened and began to bark loudly. "Your parrot whistles just like one of us fellows," said Jimmy to Teddy. "Yes, he does," admitted the Curlytop chap. "I have been trying to think what tricks we could make him do in the circus. But the trouble is he doesn't always talk or whistle when you want him to. And when you don't want him to he nearly always does it." "Well, anyway, he'll be nice to look at in the pet circus," said Jimmy. "And in the regular circus they have animals and birds to look at, as well as the kind that do tricks." "Yes," agreed Teddy, "I guess so." "I'm a crack-crack-cracker!" shrieked the parrot again, pulling himself up to the top of his cage by means of his big beak, his black tongue licking the bars as if he liked them. "Well, if you're a crack-crack-cracker, here's a bun-bun-bunner for you," laughed Teddy, and out of the bag Mr. Martin had carried from the bakeshop Teddy took several of the broken pieces and fed them to the parrot. Seeing this, Jack, the monkey, who was in his cage, set up a chattering such as he must have learned in the jungle where he came from. "What's the matter with him?" Jimmy wanted to know. "I guess he wants some of the broken buns, too," said Teddy. "Here, you give the monkey some, and I'll feed Skyrocket and Top. They want some, too." Soon such of Uncle Toby's pets as liked this form of food were having all the buns they wanted. Mr. Nip, the parrot, tore his pieces of the buns apart to get at the currants. But Jack, Top and Skyrocket ate theirs down, currants and all, as if they liked every crumb. The white rats and mice were not given any of the broken buns, as it was thought they had had enough in the bakery, and Teddy knew it was not wise to overfeed any pet animals. Cats, dogs and other pets should not be fed too much, though of course they should not be allowed to go hungry very long. When animals can run around as they please, or when they live wild in the jungle or forest, they never eat too much. They know when to stop. But often persons, wishing to be kind, will give their dogs and cats too much meat, or other rich food. And as these pets do not run around and exercise very much, they cannot digest all they eat, so they often become ill. Teddy did not want this to happen to any of his pets. Another thing he was careful about was always to see that they had plenty of fresh water. Nothing is more important than this. It is cruel to have any pet suffer for water to drink, especially in summer. So if you keep pets of any kind, don't feed them too much, but give them plenty of water. They never can take too much of this. "When you going to have your circus?" asked Jimmy of Teddy, when the animals had quieted down, eating the pieces of buns. "Oh, pretty soon, I guess. Janet and I are going to teach them a lot of new tricks." "I wish I could help," said Jimmy. "You can," Teddy promised. "Jan and I will need someone to help us with the circus. I'm going to ask Jack Turton and Harry Kent, too. Jack is so funny and fat he'll make a good clown." "I'd rather be one of the animal trainers," said Jimmy. "That's what you and I'll be--animal trainers," decided Teddy. "My sister Jan's good with animals, too. She isn't afraid of even a snake." "That's good," decided Jimmy. "Maybe we could get some snakes to have in the circus--little ones, you know." "It would be fine!" exclaimed Teddy. "But where can we get any?" "Oh, in the woods, I guess. I'll see if I can find any. But I've got to go home now." "All right. Come over to-morrow and we'll start training the animals," replied Teddy. And the next day Teddy, Janet and Jimmy began to teach the pets some new tricks. I will tell you about them when the time comes. It was not easy work, and more than once the Curlytops and their friend were discouraged. For just when they thought they had Top and Skyrocket so they would do a trick together, one or the other of the dogs would run away, wagging his tail, however, in friendly fashion, to show there were no hard feelings. The cats were the hardest to teach. Snuff did very well with his ball rolling trick and one or two others, and Turnover would turn in a sort of side-somersault whenever told to do so by Janet. But to teach the two cats to do tricks together was much harder. It was this--the tricks they could do together--that made Tip and Top such a valuable team of dogs. "Do you think you'll ever get Tip back?" asked Jimmy, as he, with the Curlytops, was resting one day after putting the pets through some of their tricks. "We keep hoping so," said Janet. "But it doesn't look so now," added her brother. "He's been gone so long, and not even the police can find him. They can't find Shorty, either. I guess Shorty and Tip ran a way together." "And maybe Shorty has Tip in a circus, making him do tricks," added Janet. "Maybe," agreed Teddy. "But now we've got to think where we're going to get a tent for our show. If we give a pet animal circus we've got to have a tent." "Sure!" agreed Jimmy. "It wouldn't be a circus without a tent. But maybe my father can get us one. He used to be in the army." "Oh, let's go ask him!" cried Janet. "We can leave our pets here in the barn now, for they've been fed and watered." Off the children hurried to Jimmy's house. His father was not at home, but Mrs. Norton said she thought her husband could get a tent that would do for the circus. "And since you have been feeding the animals, wouldn't you like to feed yourselves now?" asked Jimmy's mother, with a smile at the Curlytops and her own son. "Feed ourselves--how?" asked Teddy. At the same time he noticed a most delicious smell coming from Mrs. Norton's kitchen. "I have just baked some molasses cookies," went on Jimmy's mother, "and I have some lovely, cool milk. Would you like some glasses of milk and molasses cookies?" "Sure!" exclaimed Teddy. "Fine!" cried Jimmy. "We'd like it very much, if you please," said Janet, and she was extra polite, to make up for the rather boisterous manner in which Teddy spoke. But the boys meant to be polite and, after all, that is what counts. Soon the Curlytops and their friend were out on the side porch, drinking the cool, rich milk and eating the fresh molasses cookies. It was while they were thus sitting, talking about the circus they were going to give, that into the yard came running Top, Uncle Toby's trick dog. "Hello, Top!" called Teddy. "Were you looking for us?" Top barked and wagged his tail. Then he acted in a strange manner. He ran up to Teddy, and caught hold of the boy's coat. "Oh, he's trying to bite you!" exclaimed Janet. "He is not! Top would never bite me!" declared Teddy. But he wondered what the dog was trying to do. Then Top let go his hold of the coat, and ran a little way toward the gate. There he stopped and looked back toward the children. "What makes him act that funny way?" asked Jimmy. "I don't know," answered Teddy. With another bark, and wagging his tail, Top again ran up to Teddy and pulled on his coat. "I know what it is!" exclaimed the Curlytop boy. "Something has happened, and Top has come to tell us and get us to go with him! Come on, Jimmy! Come on, Jan!" CHAPTER XII MR. NIP'S ALARM Together the two Curlytops and their friend Jimmy Norton ran out of Jimmy's yard and down the street, following Top, the trick dog. For as soon as Top had seen that Teddy was following after him, which, evidently, was just what Top wanted, the dog raced on, barking wildly. "Do you think he came to call you?" panted Janet, as she ran beside her brother. "Sure he did," Ted answered. "Didn't you ever read in books how dogs do that when they want you to come to help somebody who's in trouble--like somebody in the water?" "I've read lots of stories like that," said Jimmy. "Oh, maybe something has happened to Trouble!" cried Janet. "Mother took Trouble down town with her," Teddy answered. "So if Trouble is in trouble Top wouldn't know it." "Maybe our house is on fire," went on Janet, who seemed quite determined to have something dreadful happen. "You'd hear the alarm bell and see the engines if there was a fire," declared Jimmy. "Well, it's _something_!" exclaimed Janet. "Isn't it a pity dogs can't talk like parrots? If they could, Top could tell us just what the matter was." "We'll see pretty soon," said her brother. "We're almost at our house, and it must be there that something is the matter." As the children were racing down the street, with Top running in front of them, looking back every now and then to make sure the Curlytops and Jimmy were following, a man stopped the children and said: "Why are you chasing that poor dog? Don't you know it is wrong to tease and annoy animals?" "We're not teasing him," Teddy answered. "He's our dog, anyhow." "That is no matter," the fussy man said. "I think it is wrong to chase dogs or to tie tin cans on their tails." "As if we'd tie a tin can to the tail of our nice Top!" exclaimed Janet. "We _never_ tie cans to dogs' tails!" she added. "And we're running after Top because he wants us to. He came to get us because something has happened at our house." Seeing that the children had stopped, because the strange man had halted them, Top came running back, barking and wagging his tail. He caught hold of Teddy's coat, and again pulled it. "See!" exclaimed Ted. "He wants us to follow him. He did that before, and that's why we ran after him, not because we're chasing him, Mister." The man looked at the excited dog and at the kind-faced children. He must have known they would never have harmed animals, for he said: "Oh, excuse me! I guess I made a mistake. I thought you were chasing the poor dog. Excuse me!" The strange man turned and hurried off down the street, and after looking toward him for a few seconds the Curlytops and their chum again hastened along, following Top, who grew more excited all the while. Into the yard of the Martin house dashed Top, closely followed by the children. But the dog did not stop at the house, nor did he run toward the barn where the other pets were kept. When Ted, Janet and Jimmy went over to Jimmy's house they had left the two dogs and the two cats playing outside the barn. Now there was no sight of Snuff and Turnover, nor of Skyrocket, the other dog. Down past the barn and toward the brook into which Trouble had more than once fallen, ran Top, the trick dog. "Oh, Trouble must have come back and have fallen in!" cried Janet. "I don't believe so," said her brother. "If Trouble was in the water you'd hear him howling." "Unless his head was under," suggested Jimmy. "Yes, unless his head under," agreed Teddy. "But I don't believe it's Trouble. If it was anything like that, Top wouldn't come all the way to your house after us, Jimmy. He'd have barked and have gotten someone around here to come to the rescue." "There isn't anybody home at our house but us, and we weren't home," explained Janet. "Mother and Trouble are down town, and Susan, our new girl, has gone out." "I guess that's why Top came to us," Teddy said. "But where is he going, anyhow, and what is the matter?" Barking and still wagging his tail, to show how glad he was that the children were coming where he wanted them, Top led the way down along the brook. The Curlytops passed the place where they had played ships the day Trouble was sent afloat in the box--the day Uncle Toby's letter came, telling about the pets he was leaving. "What is it, Top? What's the matter, old fellow?" asked Teddy. A bark was the dog's answer. But a moment later, as the children turned a bend in the stream, they heard a howl coming from a bunch of tall cat-tail plants growing on the edge of a swamp not far from the brook. It was the mournful howl of a dog in pain. "That's Skyrocket!" cried Teddy. "And he's in trouble!" added Janet. "And that's why Top came to get us," declared Jimmy. Top was barking louder than ever now, and as the Curlytops and their friend hurried along they could hear, more plainly, the howls of the dog they felt sure was their own, dear Skyrocket. And a moment later, as they parted the green spears of the cat-tails, they saw, lying on the ground in the mud and water, poor Skyrocket. Their pet looked up at them and howled mournfully. "Oh, he's drowning!" cried Janet, as she saw that Skyrocket was partly covered by the water of the swamp. "He's got a broken leg!" said Jimmy. "Dogs can go on three legs, if one is broken, though they can't go very fast," said Teddy. "Skyrocket is caught fast, that's what's the matter." Top seemed overjoyed that he had brought help to his dog friend. Close up beside Skyrocket Top crawled, whining in sympathy, and then Top began licking, with his red tongue, one of Skyrocket's legs. "Oh, I see what the matter is!" cried Teddy. "Skyrocket's leg is caught in a trap! That's why he couldn't get loose! Look!" Teddy pointed to where, half hidden in the mud, water, and grass, was a spring trap. It was fast to a chain, and the chain was attached to a wooden stake, driven into the ground. But, worst of all, the steel jaws of the trap had snapped shut on the lower part of Skyrocket's left hind leg. The poor dog tried to stand up, but could not, as whenever he attempted to move the chain held him back. "Poor Skyrocket!" murmured Janet, almost ready to cry. "I'll get him loose!" said Teddy. "It's a good thing Top came and told us what the matter was, or maybe we'd never have known it," remarked Jimmy. "Come on, Jim! Help me open the trap and get Sky's leg out," said Teddy. "You pat his head--I mean Sky's head, Jan, and that will let him know we aren't going to hurt him." So while Top looked on, whining in sympathy with his injured dog friend, and while Janet softly rubbed the head of Skyrocket, the two boys opened the trap. While Jimmy held it steady Teddy stepped on the strong spring with his foot. This was the only way to open it. In another moment the trap was gently pulled loose from the leg of Skyrocket, and the poor dog, with a whine of thanks, managed to stand up. He tried to step on the injured leg, but quickly drew it up with a howl of pain. "Oh, maybe it's broken!" half sobbed Janet. "A dog can get well with a broken leg, but a horse can't," said Jimmy. "At least a horse never does, because he is so big he can't be kept off his leg until it heals. A horse can't go on three legs like a dog." "A horse can stand up on two legs, and walk a little. I've seen 'em in a circus!" declared Janet. "But I never saw a horse go on three legs." "There goes Skyrocket on three legs!" called Teddy, for his pet hobbled along a little way, to a drier part of the swamp, and then lay down and began licking with his red tongue the leg that had been caught in a trap. "Look and see if it's broken," suggested Jimmy. "If it is, we'd better tie sticks around it like the principal of our school did one day when Tommy Hicks broke his leg." "I remember that time," responded Teddy. "Easy now, old fellow," he said to Skyrocket. "Let me feel your leg to see if it is broken." Gently, very gently, Teddy moved his fingers along the injured leg. Skyrocket whined a little, but remained lying there quietly. At last Teddy stood up. "I don't believe it's broken," he said. "I guess it was only pinched hard in the trap." "It's a smooth-jawed trap, not the kind with the teeth like a saw," said Jimmy, looking at the trap which had been allowed to spring shut after Skyrocket's leg was drawn out. "They use big traps, with terrible sharp teeth and jaws, to catch bears," said the little boy. "I'm glad this wasn't that kind of trap," said Janet. "But who put it here, anyhow?" "It's an old one, and rusty," went on Jimmy, looking at the trap, while Teddy got some water from the swamp in the top of his cap, and poured it over the bruised place where Skyrocket's leg seemed to hurt most. The water appeared to ease the pain a little, and the dog whined gratefully. Top, now that his work of bringing someone to the rescue was over, stretched out in a cool place and rested, breathing with his mouth open and his tongue hanging out. This is the way dogs always cool themselves. "Yes, it's an old, rusty trap," agreed Teddy, coming up to look at the thing that had caught Skyrocket. "I guess some muskrat hunter left it here, all set and ready to catch some animal that came along, ever since last winter. Maybe the spring was rusty, and not so strong, and that's why it didn't break Skyrocket's leg." "I'm glad it didn't!" voiced Janet. "So'm I," echoed Jimmy. "But how are you going to get Skyrocket home?" "Oh, it isn't far, and he can go on three legs," said Teddy. "Come on, old fellow," he called, and Skyrocket managed to hobble along the brook path and up to the house. Top walked along beside him, every now and then putting out his tongue and gently licking his companion. "He's kissing him 'cause he's sorry," observed Janet. "We're all sorry," declared Teddy. "I'm going to ask mother if we can't have the animal doctor look at Skyrocket's leg." "Why, children! what is the matter? Has anything happened, Curlytops?" asked Mrs. Martin, who had reached home with Trouble by the time the two boys and Janet made their way up the back path to the house. "Skyrocket's leg was caught in a trap, and can't we have the animal doctor see if it's broken?" Teddy asked. Then the story was told, not forgetting the brave and intelligent part played by Top, and Mrs. Martin examined Skyrocket's sore leg. "I don't believe it is broken, but we'll have the doctor look to make sure," she said. And you can just imagine how glad the Curlytops were, and Jimmy also, when the doctor said: "The leg is not broken, but it is badly bruised. However, it will be well in a week or so. Keep Skyrocket as quiet as you can." "We will!" promised Janet. "We want him to get well so he can be in the circus," added Teddy. "Oh, I guess he'll be all right for that," said the doctor, with a laugh as he hurried away to look after a sick horse. A soft bed was made for Skyrocket in the barn, and a basin of fresh water was placed near him. He licked Teddy's hands in gratitude as the little boy patted him in coming away. It was several days after the adventure with Skyrocket and the trap that something else exciting happened at the home of the Curlytops. Mr. Nip, the red, green and yellow parrot, became ill. His feathers were ruffled up, he sat all in a lump on his perch, and he would not eat. "I guess you'd better have the man from the bird store come up to see your parrot," said Mr. Martin, when he went out to the barn at the children's request to look at Mr. Nip. "Your mother will call the bird man on the telephone." And when the bird man--that is to say the man who kept the bird and fish store--came to see Mr. Nip, he said the parrot should be kept in the kitchen and fed special food with a little medicine in it for a few days. So that is how it happened that Mr. Nip was moved in from the barn to the house. And it was the third night that the parrot had slept in the house that something happened. In the middle of the night the Curlytops were awakened by hearing Mr. Nip cry out loudly: "Go 'way! Go 'way! I'm a crack-crack-cracker! Get out of here!" Teddy and Janet, who seemed to be the only ones awakened by this alarm of Mr. Nip, listened, half shivering in their beds. "Did you hear that?" called Teddy to his sister in the next room. "Yes. What is it?" inquired Janet. "It's Mr. Nip," whispered back the Curlytop boy. "He's calling to someone. Maybe daddy or mother's down there giving him medicine." But just then the parrot set up such a screeching as the children had never heard, since he came from Uncle Toby's at least. "Go 'way! Go 'way!" cried the bird. "I'm a crack-crack-cracker! Police! Fire! Burglars!" And then, to the surprise and terror of the Curlytops, a strange voice, somewhere downstairs in their house, exclaimed in a harsh whisper: "Do something to that parrot! Throw a rug over his cage, or he'll have the whole house awake. Make him be quiet!" CHAPTER XIII THE HAND-ORGAN MAN The Curlytops cuddled down in their beds. Janet said afterward that she pulled the clothes over her ears. Teddy did the same at first, and then he began to think. And his first thought was that someone besides those who had a right to be there, were in his mother's kitchen. And of course the next thought that came to Teddy was: "Burglars!" Somehow or other he happened to hit on just exactly the very thing that was happening downstairs. "Jan! Janet!" hoarsely whispered Teddy, thrusting his head out from under the sheet he had pulled over himself. But Janet did not answer. From down in the kitchen, however, the little Curlytop boy could plainly hear the parrot saying: "I'm a crack-crack-cracker!" "I'll hit him a crack if he doesn't keep quiet!" said a harsh voice. "Do you hear anyone coming, Bill?" "No," replied another voice, which, Teddy thought, must belong to the man called Bill. "They're burglars trying to get our parrot!" quickly thought Teddy. "I'm not going to let them have Mr. Nip. If they take him away he can't be in our circus. Course he can't do tricks like Skyrocket and Top, but he's nice to look at. The burglars shan't get Mr. Nip!" Teddy slipped out of bed and went, as softly as he could, to the room where his father and mother slept. They were sound in slumber, which is the reason neither of them heard the parrot talking and screeching. Besides, the rooms of Teddy and Janet were nearer the kitchen. "Daddy! Mother! Wake up!" whispered Teddy. The sound of his parents' heavy breathing was the only answer the little boy received. "Daddy! Mother!" he called again. "Wake up! There's a burglar downstairs, and he's trying to take Mr. Nip!" There was silence for a moment, and then Teddy reached over and gently pulled his mother by her hand, which was hanging down outside the bed. "What is it? What's the matter?" suddenly asked Mrs. Martin. In another instant she had pulled the cord attached to an electric light over her bed, and the room was bright in a moment. Then Mr. Martin awakened, and both parents looked at the little Curlytop boy. "What's the matter, Ted? Walking in your sleep?" asked his father. For sometimes Teddy did do that. In answer the little fellow put his finger to his lips to make his father and mother understand that he wanted them to keep quiet. "It's burglars--two of 'em!" whispered Teddy. "One is named Bill, but I don't know the other one's name. They've come to get Mr. Nip." "What's that--our parrot? Nonsense!" exclaimed Mr. Martin. "You have been dreaming, Teddy, my boy. Go back to bed." But just then, from down in the kitchen, came the voice of the parrot shrieking: "I'm a crack-crack-cracker! Police, Fire! Burglars!" Then came a banging, clashing sound, and a man's voice cried: "There! See if that will keep you quiet!" An instant later there was a sound as if the parrot's cage had been knocked over, or had tumbled over, and Mr. Nip cried: "Help! Help! Help!" Out of bed jumped Mr. Martin, going toward the closet where he kept his revolver. "It is burglars!" he whispered. "Oh, you mustn't go down! They might shoot you! Go to the window and call the police!" begged Mrs. Martin, clinging to her husband. Mr. Martin did both. He went to the window and fired a shot from his revolver up into the air. My! what a loud noise it made, and it set Skyrocket and Top to barking out in the barn. Perhaps the monkey chattered also, but he could not be heard. However, Mr. Nip's shrill shrieking seemed to resound all over the neighborhood. There was a moon, and as he looked from his bedroom window Mr. Martin, by its light, saw two men running out of the side gate. "There go the burglars!" he cried, and again he fired a shot. This made the strange men run all the faster, and by this time Trouble had awakened and was crying. "Janet, you come in and stay with Trouble," called Mrs. Martin "I'll get dressed, and then, when the police come, we must see what the burglars have taken! Oh, what a dreadful night! I hope they haven't stolen much!" "And I hope they didn't take Mr. Nip," echoed Teddy. "I don't believe they carried away much of anything," Mr. Martin remarked, as he slipped on his bath robe. "I didn't see them carry much as they ran." By this time Janet had gone in to Trouble, comforting him, stopping his frightened sobs, and telling him a little story. And then several neighbors, roused by Mr. Martin's shooting, came in, and a little later the police arrived. An examination was made in the kitchen, and it was found that the burglars had broken open a window and had thus come into the house. But no sooner had they entered than Mr. Nip roused up and began to talk. And it was his talk and his loud voice that had awakened Janet and Teddy. The burglars, fearing the parrot would awaken someone, had tried to silence him by throwing something over the cage. But the bird, who was always more excited when strangers were around, kept on screeching and yelling. Then one of the burglars, in his anger, must have thrown something at the parrot's cage, knocking it over, and this was one of the crashes heard upstairs. "Poor Mr. Nip!" said Teddy, when he was allowed to come down with his father and mother. The parrot's cage was set upright again, no damage having been done. The excitement seemed to have made Mr. Nip feel better, for he showed no signs of illness as he cried again and again: "Police! Fire! Burglars! I'm a crack-crack-cracker!" "You're a good polly!" declared Mrs. Martin. "You saved our house from being robbed!" And there is no question but what Mr. Nip had done that. Bringing the sick parrot into the kitchen had been the means of scaring away the burglars. No thieves will stay in a house at night if they hear someone moving around, or hear voices, and these bad men may have thought at first that Mr. Nip was some real person, calling for the police. At any rate the burglars ran away, not getting anything that they came to steal. And it was all due to Mr. Nip. "He'll sure be in our circus now," said Teddy, as he made ready to go back to bed again, the neighbors and police having left. "Everybody will want to see a parrot that drove away two burglars, won't they, Daddy?" "They probably will, Teddy boy," his father replied. "Well, one of Uncle Toby's pets has more than paid for his board bill by to-night's work." "Aren't you glad we got 'em?" asked Teddy. "Yes, I guess I am," his father answered, laughing. "Say! I wish I'd been over to your house last night," exclaimed Jimmy Norton to Teddy, when the story of the attempt to rob was being talked over among the children. "Well, I was wishing I was somewhere else," said Janet. "Oh, but I was scared!" "I was at first, but I knew I had to tell my mother or my father," remarked Teddy. "So I got out of bed." "Teddy was brave," declared Janet. "Oh, that wasn't anything," the little Curlytop boy said modestly. "I wasn't as brave as Mr. Nip. He called the burglars names!" "Everybody will be glad to come to the circus to see him," said Harry Kent, who was going to help with the show. "We'll put Mr. Nip in a special cage, and put a sign on so people will know he's the parrot that scared the burglars," suggested fat Jackie Turton. In fact, Mr. Nip became quite celebrated. For there was an account in the newspaper of the attempted burglary at the Martin house, and the part the parrot had played was well told, so that all over Cresco Mr. Nip was talked about. "It's a good advertisement for our circus, isn't it, Daddy?" asked Teddy, for the paper mentioned that the Curlytops had a number of pets they were getting ready to place on exhibition in a show. "Yes," said Mr. Martin, "it is." "What are you going to do with the money you get from your circus--if you get any?" asked Mrs. Martin of the Curlytops one day about a week after the burglars had gotten in. By this time Mr. Nip was quite well again, and could go back to the barn to be with the monkey, the alligator and the white mice and the rats. "Oh, we'll get _some_ money," declared Teddy. "But I don't know what we'll do with it. Maybe we'll buy more pets." "Oh, I hope not!" laughed his mother. "You have enough now." As the days passed the Curlytops and their friends worked with Uncle Toby's animals, teaching them several new tricks. More than once Teddy and Janet wished they had Tip, the missing dog, as he had performed so well with Top. But no word had come about him, and it was felt he was gone forever. "Skyrocket is good," Teddy told his boy chums, "but he isn't as good a trick dog as Tip and Top were when they did their tricks together." "Maybe we can teach Jack, the monkey, some new tricks," suggested Harry Kent. "Oh, yes, Jack must learn a lot of tricks," agreed Teddy. "We'll start on him now, I guess, as about the only tricks Snuff can do are to roll around on the football and jump through a paper hoop." That last trick was a new one, and really had not been intended for Snuff. One day Teddy and Janet were getting some paper-covered hoops ready for Skyrocket or Top to jump through, as the dogs seemed to like that trick. Snuff and Turnover were playing together near by, and when Turnover chased Snuff, the Persian cat leaped right through a paper hoop. "Oh, if we could only make him do that for the circus!" Janet cried. "It would be great!" "We'll try," Teddy had said. And, after many trials, they did succeed in getting Snuff to leap through a paper hoop. It was a fine trick. But now the Curlytops planned to teach Jack, their monkey, some tricks in addition to a few that he had learned from Uncle Toby or the sailor. So Jack was brought out from his cage and given a banana, fruit of which he was very fond. "What trick shall we teach him?" asked Janet. "I think a jumping trick would be good," Teddy answered. "I'll go and get some boxes, and we'll make a high thing, like a tower, of them. We'll get Jack up on top, and have him jump down. That will be great, won't it?" "Fine," agreed Janet. "I'll help you get the boxes." The Curlytops left their monkey sitting on a bench in the yard while they went back into the barn after the boxes. Jack was peacefully eating his banana when Teddy and Janet left him. But when the children came out with the boxes, it having taken longer to find them than they had thought, Jack was not to be seen. "Oh, Jack is gone!" cried Janet, looking around. "Maybe he's up in a tree," suggested Teddy. "Here, Jack! Jack!" he called. But there was no chattering answer, and the monkey was not to be found. He had not gone back into the barn, where the other pets were, and Trouble, who was playing in the back yard, said Jack had not passed him. "Where can he be?" asked Janet. She and Teddy were beginning to worry, when Mrs. Johnson, into whose baby carriage Slider had once been put by Baby William, called from across the street: "Are you looking for your dog, children?" "No'm. For our monkey," answered Teddy. "Oh, maybe the hand-organ man has him," said Mrs. Johnson. "I saw an Italian with an organ go into your yard a little while ago." "Did he have a monkey with him?" asked Teddy. "I don't much believe that he did. I saw the man go in, but I didn't notice a monkey. But I remember now that when the organ man came out, he had a monkey with him. Maybe it was yours." "I'm sure it was!" cried Janet. "Oh, Ted! The hand-organ man has taken Jack! He took Jack when we were in the barn!" "I didn't hear any hand-organ music," Teddy said. "Course he wouldn't play when he came to get Jack!" exclaimed Jan, with tears in her eyes. "Oh, Ted, go for the police! The hand-organ man has taken our monkey! Oh dear!" CHAPTER XIV TURNOVER AND SKYROCKET Perhaps it would have been better for the Curlytops to have run into the house and have told their mother about the missing monkey. But neither Janet nor Teddy thought of this, because they were so excited over the news that Mrs. Johnson gave them--the news that Jack had been taken away by a hand-organ man. "We've got to get him back!" cried Teddy. "Of course!" agreed Janet. "It won't be half a circus without a monkey in it." "Come on!" called Ted, and out of the yard he ran, followed by Janet. The Curlytops took one look to make sure that Trouble was safe before going away and leaving him. The little fellow was playing with Turnover and Skyrocket. He would do that for a long time. Out of the yard and down the street ran the little boy and girl, thinking only of getting their monkey back. "Did he go this way?" Teddy called to Mrs. Johnson, who was watching him and his sister. "Yes, right down that street," answered the mother of Baby Ruth. "But you had better not chase after him. He might not give Jack back to you, and he might be cross, and maybe it wasn't your monkey he had at all, Curlytops!" But Teddy and Janet did not stay to hear all this. They hurried on, Teddy a little ahead of his sister, because, being a boy and a year older, he could go faster. But every now and then he stopped to wait for her. They turned the corner of a street, and Teddy, being in the lead, had the first glimpse down it. "Do you see him?" gasped Janet, hurrying up to the side of her brother. "No, he isn't here," was the answer. Mr. Anderson, who left groceries at the home of the Curlytops, came along just then in the delivery wagon. "Whoa!" he called to his horse. And then, seeing that Teddy and Janet were worried about something, he asked them: "Have you lost your little brother?" Mr. Anderson knew how often Trouble ran away. "No, sir," answered Teddy. "We're looking for our monkey." "And the hand-organ man," added Janet. "Monkey? Hand-organ man?" exclaimed Mr. Anderson. "Are you going to give a party, and do you want the hand-organ man to play at it, and the monkey to do tricks?" "Oh, no, this is our own pet monkey," exclaimed Janet. "The hand-organ man took him away when he was eating a banana," added Teddy. "Our monkey--his name is Jack--he was eating the banana--not the hand-organ man," said Jan, fearing Mr. Anderson might not understand what her brother meant. "And he does tricks, and we're going to have him in our little circus--I mean our monkey does tricks," went on Teddy. "Well, I guess I'll get the straight of it after a while," said Mr. Anderson, with a little laugh. "Anyhow it seems that some stray hand-organ man has taken your monkey, has he?" "Yes. And we want our monkey back!" cried Janet. "Then you'd better get up here in the wagon with me," went on the grocery man, "and I'll drive you down the street. It will be quicker than walking, and, as I've delivered all the orders, I'm in no hurry to get back to the store. Hop up, Curlytops!" He helped Janet and Teddy to the seat beside him, and drove off. It was not the first time the children had ridden with Mr. Anderson, for he often took them with him when he had occasion to stop at their house. "Do you know which street he went down?" asked the grocery man, as he called to his brown horse which started off again. "We don't know," answered Teddy. "We didn't see him. We were in the barn, getting some boxes so Jack--that's the monkey--could do some tricks. We left him eating a banana, and when we came out he was gone. But Mrs. Johnson said she saw a hand-organ man come out of our yard and he had a monkey." "And it must 'a' been Jack!" added Janet. "Well, we'll try to get him back for you," promised Mr. Anderson, as he guided the horse down the street. "And we'll ask some of the people we meet if they have seen Jack." "Oh, now I know we'll get him back!" exclaimed Janet, and there was a smile on her face where, before, there had been a sad look, which always came just before she cried. "I'm glad we met you, Mr. Anderson," she said. "So am I," agreed Teddy. The first person they met was Patrick, the man who worked for Mrs. Blake, the lady into whose house Jack made his way one night, making Mrs. Blake think he was a fuzzy burglar. "Oh, Patrick!" cried Teddy, "a hand-organ man took our monkey away. Have you seen him?" "Which? The hand-organ man or the monkey?" asked Mrs. Blake's gardener. "Either one," said Janet. "He's the same monkey that was once in your house, you know." "Yes," returned Patrick, with a smile, "I know. Well, I'm sorry, but I didn't see either the hand-organ man or the monkey." "Giddap!" called Mr. Anderson to his horse. "We must try someone else." They drove along a little farther, and next they met Sam White, a colored man, who cut grass and did other work for the neighbors of the Curlytops. "Oh, Sam! have you seen our monkey, Jack?" called Teddy. "Seen a monkey? No'm, I hasn't," answered the colored man, who had been wheeling a lawn-mower. "Did you see a hand-organ man?" asked Janet. "Yes'm, I done seen a hand-organ man," was the answer. "He's jest 'round de corner ob de next street. But I didn't see him hab no monkey." "Maybe he has our monkey hidden inside the hand-organ so no one will see Jack!" cried Teddy. "Please hurry, Mr. Anderson!" "I will," promised the grocery man. "Giddap there, Molasses!" he called to his horse. "We're in a hurry!" And as they turned the corner of the street, toward which Sam White had pointed, there came to the ears of the Curlytops the strains of hand-organ music. "There he is! I see him!" cried Janet, pointing. "He's stopped, and he's playing!" "Yes, and I see our monkey, too!" added Teddy. "Please hurry down there, Mr. Anderson, and we'll take Jack away from that bad hand-organ man." "Maybe it isn't your monkey," said the grocer. "All monkeys look alike to me. I couldn't tell one from the other, but maybe you can. Giddap, Molasses!" he called again to his horse, and down the street clattered the Curlytops. They came to a stop in front of the organ grinder just as the dark-colored Italian ground out the last strains of a tune. And there, surely enough, perched on the top of the organ, was a monkey. "Jack! Jack! Come here!" cried Teddy, getting ready to jump down from his seat in the wagon. "Come away from that bad man!" added Janet. The organ grinder turned quickly, gave one look at the Curlytops and at Mr. Anderson, and then, slinging his organ up on his back, started hurriedly up the street, taking the monkey with him. "Here! Hold on a minute!" called the grocer, getting down off the seat, and then helping Teddy and Janet down. "If you have a monkey belonging to these children you must give it back, or I'll call a policeman!" [Illustration: JACK MADE ONE LEAP AND LANDED SAFELY IN TEDDY'S ARMS. "The Curlytops and Their Pets." Page 174] "No! No!" jabbered the Italian. "Dis a-monk mine! Long time mine! No belong childerns! Goo'-bye!" He would have been off down the street and around the corner in another few seconds, but Teddy, rushing after him, looked and made sure it really was Jack that the organ player had with him. There was a queer little tuft of white hair on the end of Jack's tail, and this monkey had the same mark. "Jack! Jack!" cried Teddy. "Come on, to me! I'll give you all the bananas you want!" "Dis-a my monk!" jabbered the Italian. "He is not! He's ours!" declared Janet, as she hurried up to the side of her brother. "Make him give back our monkey that we got from Uncle Toby!" she appealed to Mr. Anderson. "If he doesn't," said the grocer, "I'll call a policeman and----" But just then Jack acted for himself. With a shrill chatter he broke loose from the string that was tied to the collar about his neck. There had been no cord on him when he was eating a banana in the yard of the Curlytops, and the hand-organ man must have tied it there after he took the children's pet. Once free, Jack made one leap and landed safe in Teddy's arms. Now, Jack was rather a large monkey, and, jumping from a distance, as Jack did, he knocked Teddy over. Flat down on the sidewalk sat Teddy, the monkey clinging with its hairy arms about the little boy's neck. "Oh! Oh!" exclaimed Janet, and then she stopped, for she did not know what else to say. "Look out!" cried Mr. Anderson. "Maybe that's a savage monkey, and he'll bite you!" "This is Jack all right," declared Teddy. "I know him and he knows me. He didn't hurt me. I--I just sat down, that's all," and the little Curlytop boy laughed. Jack chattered, clung tighter to his master, and then the crowd that had gathered also laughed. For it looked so odd to see Teddy sitting on the sidewalk, with a monkey, quite a large one, clinging to his neck. "What's the matter here? What's the trouble?" asked a gruff but not unkindly voice, and on the outside of the crowd appeared Policeman Cassidy. "Oh, Cassidy," said Mr. Anderson, "this Italian took the Curlytops' monkey, and they just got him back--I mean they got the monkey back. The Italian----" But with a half-smothered cry of anger, the Italian started to run down the street, his hand-organ swaying from side to side on his back. He had no wish to meet Policeman Cassidy and be arrested for having taken Jack. And that is just what the Italian had done. He had sneaked into the yard and, seeing the monkey unfastened and eating a banana, had picked up the pet and hurried off with him. The Italian must have known how to talk to and handle monkeys, for Jack made no outcry, but went peaceably with his captor. Perhaps the monkey was afraid of being beaten. And, so that Jack could not get away, the Italian had tied a string to the collar. But, thanks to Mr. Anderson and the grocery wagon, the Curlytops had gotten back their pet. The Italian had not played his organ very near the home of Teddy and Janet for fear of their hearing it, I suppose. But when he thought he was far enough away he started, and Sam White had heard him. "Maybe the hand-organ man kept Jack hidden under his coat until he got down here," said Janet. "Perhaps," agreed the grocer, as the crowd began to melt away, seeing there was to be no more excitement. "And now if you Curlytops, and your monkey, will get into the wagon, I'll drive you back home." "Do you want me to chase after that Italian and arrest him?" asked the policeman. "No, thank you, I guess not," answered Teddy, as he rubbed Jack's fuzzy head. "We got our monkey back, and now we can start to teach him some tricks for the circus. We'll send you a free ticket to the show, Mr. Anderson, 'cause you helped us get Jack back." Janet whispered something to her brother. "Oh, yes," added the little fellow, "we'd like to have you come, too, Mr. Policeman Cassidy." "I'll come and stand guard at the ticket wagon," laughed the big, good-natured officer. "And if I see that Italian sneaking up I'll chase him." "I guess he won't come," said Teddy. Then he and his sister climbed up on the seat beside Mr. Anderson and were driven back to their home. It was time, too, for their mother was out at the gate, holding Trouble by the hand, and looking up and down the street. "Where have you been, Curlytops?" she asked them. "And what are you doing in Mr. Anderson's wagon--and with the monkey? Did Jack run away?" she asked. "He was taken away," explained Teddy. "By an old organ grinder," added Janet. And then the story was told. "Dear me," said Mrs. Martin, when it was finished. "I'm sure if your father and I had known all the things that were going to happen because of Uncle Toby's pets, we would not have brought them home." "Oh, it's fun!" laughed Teddy, slipping down with Jack. "And Policeman Cassidy is coming to our circus," said Janet. "Don't forget me!" called Mr. Anderson, as he drove away with the wagon. "We won't!" promised the Curlytops. "You been take Jack to barber's?" asked Trouble, letting go his mother's hand to pat the monkey. "The barber's?" repeated Teddy, as he put Jack down on a box and gave the pet a banana, as had been promised. "What made him think that?" Teddy asked his mother. "He's been singing that Mother Goose verse, 'Barber, barber! shave a pig. How many hairs will make a wig? Four and twenty, that's enough, give the barber a pinch of snuff.' I suppose Trouble thought maybe Snuff, the cat, had something to do with a barber, and he got Jack mixed up in it somehow. But I am glad you Curlytops are home again. I was getting worried about you. What are you going to do now?" "Teach Jack to jump off a high tower of boxes," explained Ted. "We were getting ready to do that when the Italian took Jack. Come on, Janet, we'll make the box tower." "Me help!" cried Trouble. "Oh, you'll be more bother than you will help," replied Janet. "You'll be knocking the tower over all the while, or trying to climb up on it. You go and play with Skyrocket and Turnover," she advised, as the dog and cat came around the path. "All wite! Me make Turn an' Sky do circus twicks!" said Trouble, talking half to himself. Having made sure that Jack was comfortable and had not been harmed by the Italian who took him away, the Curlytops set about building, of old packing boxes, the tower off which they hoped their monkey would leap, thus doing a new trick for the pet circus. Teddy and Janet were so busy they paid no attention to Trouble, except to notice, now and then, that he was playing at the end of the yard with Skyrocket and Turnover, or "Sky" and "Turn", as he shortened the pets' names. "There, I guess the tower is high enough for the first few jumps," Teddy remarked, as he nailed in place the last of the boxes. "We don't want Jack to jump down from too high a place at first." "No," agreed Janet, "we don't. He might hurt himself, or he might get scared, and then he wouldn't want to be in the circus. But we ought to have some sort of net for him to jump into, didn't we ought, Teddy?" "I guess we did," said the Curlytop boy. "Then we can make the tower higher. Oh, I know what we can have for a net!" he suddenly cried. "What?" asked Janet. Her brother pointed to a clothesline in the yard, across which were drying some lace curtains that had just been washed. "They'll be just dandy for a circus net!" Teddy went on. "You can hold one end, and I'll hold the other. But we won't make the tower any higher for a while. I'll get a curtain for a net." "S'pose mother will mind?" asked Janet. "Oh, no, I don't s'pose so," answered Teddy. "It won't hurt the curtain. Jack isn't so big that he'll tear it, and if it gets dirty, an' maybe it will a little, we can wash it again. You get Jack now, and I'll get the curtain. Then we'll make Jack climb up to the top of the box tower and jump off." "How you going to get him to go up?" asked Janet, when Ted came back with his mother's lace curtain which he had taken off the line. "I'll put a piece of banana up there on the top box," Teddy answered. The pile of boxes, nailed together, was higher than his head, but he had brought out the stepladder so he could reach up with that. "How you going to get Jack to jump down into the lace curtain net?" Janet went on. "I'll hold out another piece of banana," Teddy replied. "Come on here, Jack, and learn a new trick!" he called to the monkey. But just then both Teddy and Janet saw a sight that made them cry out in surprise. And the sight was that of Trouble, coming around the corner of the barn, driving before him Turnover and Skyrocket, the first cat and dog pets the Curlytops had ever owned. But Turnover and Skyrocket had never looked so funny as they did now, with Trouble urging them on and crying: "I dot a new twick! I dot a new twick! Look what me make Turn an' Sky do!" CHAPTER XV PLANNING THE CIRCUS "Well, look what that little tyke has done!" cried Teddy, with a laugh. "All by himself, too!" added Janet. "How did he ever think of it?" "And how he got Turnover and Skyrocket to stand still long enough to be harnessed up is a wonder!" said Teddy. For that is what baby William had done. With bits of string, straps and strips torn from some pieces of cloth he had found in the barn, he had made a crazy jumble of a harness for the dog and the cat. They were tied and fastened together. But this was not all. Besides harnessing the dog and cat together, like a team made up of a big horse and a little pony, Trouble had made the two pets fast to a small express wagon that he claimed as his very own, though it had once belonged to Teddy. "And look what he has in the wagon!" cried Janet, now laughing as heartily as was Teddy. "My old rag doll--Miss Muffin!" In her earlier days Janet had a large rag doll, which had been named Miss Muffin, just why no one knew. But as she grew older and had other dolls, and finally had come to play more with her brother and the pets than with such toys, Janet had forgotten all about Miss Muffin. So the rag doll had been tossed here and there, sometimes in one corner and sometimes in another, getting more ragged, torn and dirty as the weeks went by. But Baby William had found this old doll and had tied it to the little seat in his express wagon. And there sat Miss Muffin, one eye partly scratched off her painted cloth face, and the other eye, by some accident, skewed around until it was standing up and down, and did not lie sideways as most eyes do. "I give Miss Muffin a wide," announced Trouble. "She 'ike it, an' maybe it's a twick for de circus!" Teddy and Janet looked at one another and then they both laughed. "Say, it _would_ be a good trick!" said Teddy at length. "We could dress Trouble up funny like, and have him come in driving Turnover and Skyrocket. The people would clap like anything." "I believe they would," agreed Janet. "Did Turnover scratch you when you tied all those strings on, Trouble?" she asked her little brother. "Nope! Turn, he 'ike it," declared Baby William. "An' Sky, he puts hims tongue on my hands and 'ick me." "I guess he wouldn't have much trouble with Skyrocket," said Teddy. "I've harnessed the dog to little carts before. But I never hitched the dog and cat together. You made a fine trick there, Trouble." "I be in circus?" asked the little fellow. "Sure you may be in the circus," said Janet. "It will be one of the best acts. And we can tie ribbons on the necks of Sky and Turn, as Trouble calls them, to make it look prettier. Go on, Trouble," she said to her little brother, "let's see you drive 'em around the yard. Maybe they'll break away, or get all tangled up, and then it wouldn't be a good act for our show," she said to Teddy. But Trouble seemed to have charmed Skyrocket and Turnover to do just what he wanted them to do, and they walked slowly around the paths in the yard, giving Miss Muffin a fine ride. "Don't keep 'em hitched up too long, Trouble," advised Janet. "If you do they'll get tired, and won't like it next time." "I undwess 'em now," said the little boy. By "undressing" he meant taking the string and strap harness off the dog and cat. Turnover and Skyrocket seemed very glad to be set free, and they ran off together, while Trouble stayed with his brother and sister, as they had told him they were going to make Jack do a trick now. It was time to see if they could get the monkey to do what was wanted of him. The tower of boxes had been built, and Teddy had two bananas, one to get Jack to climb up on top of the pile, and another yellow fruit to induce the monkey to leap down. The lace curtain net had also been provided. "Now, Jack, we'll see what good you are," said Teddy, as he climbed up on the stepladder and placed the banana on the top-most box, letting part of the fruit stick out over the edge. "Here, Jack!" called Teddy, standing half way up the ladder. "Come on and do your trick!" The monkey chattered a little, but came to Teddy, who picked the fuzzy creature up in his arms. Holding Jack up, Teddy showed him the banana on top of the pile of boxes. With another chatter, Jack scrambled out of Teddy's arms, and with the usual quickness of monkeys, was soon on top of the pile of boxes--the "tower" as Ted and Jan called it. When they gave their circus they planned to cover the pile of boxes with green boughs and pretend it was a big tree in the jungle. "Oh, see!" cried Janet in delight, as she saw Jack on top of the pile, eating the banana he found there. "He's done the first part of the trick all right, Teddy!" "Yes, and if he does the last part as well it will be fine!" declared the little Curlytop boy. "But the last is the hardest part. Jack may want to climb down instead of jumping. But first we'll let him eat the banana, and get hungry for the second one." So the three children stood on the ground, and watched Jack, up on the tower, eating his banana. The monkey looked down, making funny faces, which he seemed to be doing most of the time, and Trouble laughed. "He is funny!" laughed Janet. "I'm sure the people who come to our circus will like Jack." "They'll like him a lot more if he does tricks," said Teddy. "Come on, Jan," he called, after a while. "We'll get the net ready now. I guess it's time he jumped for the other banana." Mrs. Martin had not seen the Curlytops take her lace curtain off the line to use for a circus net. If she had, she would, of course, have stopped them. But Teddy and Janet did not think they were doing anything very wrong. As for Trouble, he never bothered his head about it. Whatever Ted or Janet did was all right to him. "If we each have to hold one end of the curtain net, how are we going to hold out the banana so Jack will see it?" asked Janet of her older brother. "We'll lay the banana in the middle of the net," decided Ted. This was done, and when the curtain was held stretched as tightly as Janet and Teddy could pull it, as they had once seen the Cresco firemen stretch out a life-net in a practice drill, the banana was placed in the center. "Come on now, Jack! Jump down!" called Teddy. "Jump down and get your other banana!" Jack chattered, but did not jump. He clung to the edge of the tower of boxes, made two or three motions as if he were coming down, but he did not descend. "I guess he doesn't see the banana," remarked Janet. "One of us ought to hold it up." "We can't, and hold the net too," Teddy declared. "And if we don't hold the net, and Jack jumps, he may hurt himself, and then he can't be in the show." "Oh, I know what we can do!" Janet declared. "What?" asked Teddy. "We can have Trouble hold the banana! Let him stand right near the outside edge of the net, near the middle, and hold up the banana. Then Jack will see it and jump." "That is a good idea," remarked Teddy. He was always willing to give his sister credit for thinking of things to do. "Come on, Trouble," called Teddy to his brother. "Hold the banana up for Jack!" "Eess, me do dat!" replied Baby William, so excited he could hardly talk at all, much less talk properly. Eager to do his share in getting ready for the circus, Trouble held the banana up as high as he could reach, so that Jack could see it. And this time the monkey caught sight of the fruit. With a chatter of delight at the good things he was getting to eat, Jack came down, but not exactly in the way Janet and Teddy wanted him to. For the pet _climbed_ down the boxes, which were of different sizes, making many places where he could hold on by his hands and tail. He didn't jump at all! With a chatter and a scramble, Jack reached the ground, ran around the net to where Trouble stood, and then just reached up, plucked the fruit from the little chap's hand and began to eat it. And it was all done so quickly that Ted and Janet hardly had time to say a word. Finally, however, after laughing at the funny look on Trouble's face when he saw the monkey snatch away the banana, Teddy said: "Oh, Jack! I didn't mean for you to come down that way! I wanted you to jump into the net! Here, you can't have the rest of that banana until you jump for it." Teddy took the fruit away from his fuzzy pet, and Jack jabbered and chattered at the top of his voice, for he did not like this at all. To have a banana taken away when he was just half finished with it! That didn't seem fair! "Come on! We'll try again, Jan," said Teddy, holding the half-eaten yellow fruit out of Jack's reach. For the monkey was jumping up trying to get back the banana. "You'll have to get him up on top of the boxes again," Janet said. "Yes, and I guess I'll have to break off a piece of this banana to get him to go up after it," her brother said. "Come on, Jack!" he cried. Breaking what was left of the banana in half, Teddy once more climbed the step ladder and put the pulpy mass on top of the pile of boxes. Jack saw what was done, and in an instant he had climbed up. "He's learning to go up fine!" declared Teddy, as he got down and moved the ladder away, so Jack would not use that in his descent. "If we can only make him jump now. Get ready, Trouble, to hold up the banana again." "There isn't much left of it," Janet remarked. "It's all there is until we go to the store for more," answered Teddy. "I guess it will do. We'll wait until he swallows what he's eating now, and then Trouble can hold up what is left." Anxiously the Curlytops and their little brother watched Jack perched rather high on the tower of boxes. The monkey made short work of the small piece of banana that had been put on his high perch. Then he looked down for more. "Hold it up, Trouble! Hold it up!" cried Teddy, at one end of the curtain net, while Janet held the other end. "I hold it, but my hoots is gettin' tired," said the little fellow. "Never mind, dear," consoled Janet. "If Jack doesn't jump this time we'll let you go. We can put a stick in the ground near the edge of the net, and tie the banana to that if Trouble is tired," she said to Teddy. "Yes, but it won't be so good as Trouble, 'cause Jack likes him," Teddy answered. "Look out! I think he's going to jump!" And that is just what Jack did! With a chatter of delight as he saw Trouble holding up the piece of fruit, Jack stood for a moment on the edge of the pile of boxes, and then he leaped. Straight down he jumped toward the lace curtain and toward Trouble, who held up the banana. But before the monkey landed there was a scream from the house, and Mrs. Martin came running out. "Don't let Jack jump into my lace curtain! Don't do it, Curlytops!" exclaimed their mother. "He'll tear it to pieces. Stop him!" But it was too late. Jack had jumped! CHAPTER XVI TOP IS GONE Mrs. Martin ran as fast as she could from the back door of the house to that part of the yard where the Curlytops and Trouble were planning and practicing the new circus trick. Ted and Janet heard their mother's cry, and, for the first time, realized that perhaps they had done wrong in taking the lace curtain for a net. And by the time Mrs. Martin reached the place where Trouble was standing, Jack had jumped into the curtain. Right into the middle of it he landed, and you can guess what happened. Yes, Jack tore through, making a big hole in the lace. For it was not strong enough for even a play circus net, and, really, Ted and Janet should have known this. Down through the hole in the curtain fell Jack, but he did not go quite all the way through. That is parts of the torn lace clung to him. In another instant, after landing lightly on the ground, Jack sprang up, grabbed the banana away from Trouble, and then made a flying leap for the nearest tree, trailing the lace curtain after him, dragging it on the ground, catching it on the branches of the tree and tearing it worse than ever. So suddenly did Jack snatch the piece of banana away from Baby William that the little fellow was knocked down, just as Jack, leaping away from the Italian hand-organ man, had knocked Teddy to the sidewalk. "Oh! Oh!" wailed Trouble, and then he began to cry. "Oh, Curlytops! Curlytops! What have you done?" exclaimed Mrs. Martin in dismay. Teddy and Janet could not say a word. They seemed frightened and dazed when Jack, in his wild leap, pulled the curtain from their grasp. "We--we----" began Janet. "Didn't mean to," finished Teddy. And then Jack began to chatter as he tried to tear loose the lace curtain which was tangled all about him as he sat perched in a tree, licking from his paws some bits of crushed banana. With the crying of Trouble, the chatter of the monkey, and Mrs. Martin saying: "Oh dear! Oh dear!" again and again, there was quite a little excitement in the yard of the Curlytops just then. "Poor Trouble!" sighed Janet, as she walked over to her little brother, who was crying and sitting on the ground where Jack had knocked him. "Did the monkey scratch you?" But Trouble was sobbing too hard to answer. "What in the world were you doing?" asked Mrs. Martin, as she picked Trouble up in her arms, and finally made him stop crying. "Why did you take one of my nice curtains?" "We didn't know it was nice," Teddy answered. "And we had to get something for a net to have Jack jump in. I thought it was an old curtain." "It wasn't one of my best ones," said his mother, "still I didn't want it torn. And it is of no use now. Look! All in shreds!" Indeed that was the state of the curtain. For by this time Jack had managed to tear it off him, and it dangled in the tree like the tail of a broken kite. "It will be good for dolls' dresses," said Janet. "And we can make other things to dress the animals up in for the circus." "Oh, you Curlytops!" cried Mrs. Martin, trying not to laugh, for it was all rather funny in spite of the fact that one of her curtains was ruined. "However, it can't be helped," she went on. "Only, next time, come and ask me when you want a circus net." "We will," promised Teddy. "But, anyhow, I guess we have taught Jack his new trick. He jumped like anything, and from the top of the tower, when he saw the banana." "Oh, doesn't he look funny now!" cried Janet, pointing to the monkey, that was now sitting on a box and looking at the children and their mother. "He's got a lace frill on." Part of the torn lace curtain was around Jack's neck, making him, indeed, look as though he wore a fancy collar. "Him's got a bib on!" declared Trouble, now over his fright and crying spell, the first having caused the second. "Him's got a bib on 'ike Trouble when him eats bread and 'ilk." "So he has, dear!" laughed Mrs. Martin. "And I guess Jack would rather be eating bread and milk than doing tricks in this pet show." "Oh, no! He likes the circus! Or he will when we get it started," declared Teddy. "We've got lots to do yet, but I guess we can have it in about two weeks. We'll get Jack to practice his jump some more." "Then we'll need more bananas--he ate the last one," remarked Janet. "And Mr. Nip likes them, too." "We'll get more, but we won't make Jack do any more tricks to-day, Jan," decided Teddy. "Animals get cross if you keep 'em at their tricks too long." "And I think I'll take Trouble into the house. He's had enough excitement for the day," said Mrs. Martin. "Don't take any more of my lace curtains," she added, as she moved toward the house. "We won't," promised the Curlytops. Then they pulled from the tree, where Jack had torn his way out of it, the remainder of the lace curtain they had used for a landing net for the pet monkey. It was two or three days after this, during which time the Curlytops had taught their pets several new little tricks, that their mother called Janet and Teddy to her one afternoon. Mrs. Martin held a letter in her hand, the postman having just left it for her. "Here is something I want to talk to you children about," said their mother. "Oh, is that a letter from Uncle Toby, and is he coming back to take his pets away before we've had the show?" asked Janet. "No, indeed," answered her mother, with a laugh. "We haven't heard from Uncle Toby since he left for South America. I suppose, by this time, he is sitting in the jungle, watching hundreds of parrots and monkeys." "I wish he'd send some more to us!" said Teddy. "Oh, gracious sakes! I don't!" laughed Mrs. Martin. "I think we have quite enough as it is." But of course the Curlytops did not think so. "What I called you for," went on Mrs. Martin, "was to ask if you really intend to go on with this circus of yours. Do you really intend holding it?" "Sure we do, Mother!" Teddy answered. "We're going to have a tent, and seats and everything." "Are you going to charge money for persons to come in?" "Yes," said Janet. "It's to be five cents for big boys and girls, and three cents for little ones like Trouble. Of course Trouble won't have to pay, 'cause he's going to be part of the show. But what is your letter about, Mother?" "It's about your circus," was the answer. "At least now that I know you are really going on with the performance this letter will have something to do with it. This is a note from some ladies who, like me, belong to a charitable society," said Mrs. Martin. "The secretary has just written me, asking if I can not think up some plan to raise money so some poor orphan children may be sent to the country to board for a few weeks this summer." "Oh, can't we help the orphan children, as we helped the crippled children once?" asked Teddy. "Just what I was going to say," went on his mother. "You may take in quite a few dollars giving your animal show, and I can think of no better way of spending it than to give it to the orphans. Besides, if it is known that the circus is for charity, many more people will come than would otherwise. So do you Curlytops want to help the orphans?" "Of course!" said Janet. "Sure!" cried Teddy. "Me help, too! What is it?" asked Trouble, coming up just then. "Oh, you're going to help all right!" laughed Janet. "You're going to drive Turnover and Skyrocket with my old rag doll, Miss Muffin, in the express wagon, and I'm sure you'll be so darling and funny that everyone will laugh." "And I hope Jack does his jumping trick," said Teddy. "It would be great if we had Tip and Top to perform together. We could charge twenty-five cents for big people to come in if we had the two trick dogs." "Well, one is better than none," said Janet. "It's a good thing we have Top." "Yes," agreed Teddy, "I suppose it is. But I wonder where Tip can be?" But of course no one could tell him that. So it was settled that the money that was taken in for the show of the Curlytops and their pets should go to the orphans, so they might have a few weeks in the green country during the hot summer. The Curlytops were much excited that evening, telling their father about the performance for the orphans, and Mr. Martin agreed that no better use could be made of the money. "You must take good care of your pets from now until the time of the show," he said. "Don't let them get away or become ill, or you will not be able to give a good circus." "Let's go out to the barn now, and see if they are all right," proposed Janet. "All right," agreed Teddy. It was early evening, and light enough to see in the barn. Top and Skyrocket barked a welcome, Snuff and Turnover mewed their delight at seeing the children, and while Mr. Nip shrieked away about being a "crack-crack-cracker" Jack chattered. About the only quiet ones were the white rats and mice, and Slider, the alligator. "They're all right, and ready for the circus," said Teddy as he came out and locked the door after him. "Yes, I can hardly wait!" murmured Janet. But in the morning there was bad news for the Curlytops. Their mother, who had gone out to the barn to open the door for the animals, came hurrying back to the house as Teddy and Janet descended for their breakfast. "Where is Top?" asked Mrs. Martin. "Top!" exclaimed Teddy. "Why, isn't he in the barn with Sky and the other pets?" "No," answered his mother, shaking her head. "Top is gone! The barn door was locked, and all the other animals are there, but Top is gone!" CHAPTER XVII THE DOG SHOW Teddy and Janet looked at each other in sorrow and dismay. It seemed that the worst had happened--Top missing just when they were getting ready for the show! First Tip was gone, and now Top! Could it be true? "Are you sure, Mother?" asked Teddy. "Maybe Top is hiding behind a box or something." "Let's go look!" proposed Janet. "Oh, I'm sure he isn't there," said Mrs. Martin. "I called him, as I always do, when I go to let him and Skyrocket out. But Top did not come." "Did Skyrocket?" asked Janet. "Yes, he came rushing out of his kennel, barking and wagging his tail as if he would wag it off. And Snuff came out, and so did Turnover. But there was no Top." Teddy started for the barn on the run, and so did Janet. Their mother followed more slowly. She felt very sorry for her Curlytops, as she knew they would be very sad over the loss of their second pet dog. "The barn door is locked!" said Teddy, as he reached it and tried to go in. "Yes, I locked it after me when I came out," his mother said. "I wanted to make sure that none of the other pets would get away. But the door was locked when I first went in this morning. It was locked just as you left it last night." "Then I don't see how Top could have gotten out," Janet said. "Unless there is some other place open in the barn--like a window," Mrs. Martin suggested. "Let's look!" cried Teddy. His mother turned the key in the padlock on the outside of the barn door. As the door opened and the Curlytops went in, they were greeted by barks of welcome from Skyrocket, by mews from Snuff and Turnover, the cats, by chattering from Mr. Jack, the monkey, and by shrill cries from Mr. Nip, the parrot, who called as loudly as he could: "I'm a crack-crack-cracker!" "They're all here but Top," said Mrs. Martin. And as the Curlytops looked around the barn they saw that this was so. Top was not in sight. "Here, Top! Top! Top!" called Teddy, and he whistled. Mr. Nip also whistled, as loudly and clearly as the little boy himself. But there was no answer from his pet trick dog. Janet ran over and looked in the box where Top always slept on a piece of carpet. The box was empty. "Where do you s'pose he can be?" she asked her mother. "That's what we must find out," was Mrs. Martin's answer. "We must look all through the barn. There are several places where he may have gotten out--or been taken out," she added a moment later. It was Teddy who finally discovered the open window by which it was thought someone had entered the barn and taken Top out. The window was near the stalls used by the horses before Mr. Martin bought an automobile. In a corner, at the left of the stalls and too high from the floor of the barn for Top to have reached, even in his best jump, was a swinging window. This was open, as Teddy found, and when his mother and Janet came at his call, Mrs. Martin saw that the bolt had been broken. "That is how it happened," she said. "Someone opened that window from the outside last night, crawled in, and took Top away. The dog himself could not have gotten out of that high window. Someone must have taken him." "But wouldn't he bark and bite them?" asked Janet. "Top was too friendly to bite anyone unless they harmed him," said her mother. "And I have no doubt but that this man--it must have been a man or a big boy--knew how to be nice to Top. Maybe they gave him a little piece of meat to chew on while they took him away." "Oh dear!" sighed Janet. "How shall we ever get him back?" "I'll call your father, and ask him what to do," remarked Mrs. Martin. "This is getting serious! Two of Uncle Toby's best pets gone! If he comes back he will think we did not take very good care of his animals." "It wasn't our fault that a burglar came and took Top," said Teddy. "No, dear," answered his mother. "But we must do what we can to get the dog back. I'll call your father." Mr. Martin came quickly when he heard what had happened. He went to the barn to look, and he agreed with his wife that, during the night, someone had broken open the barn window, had crawled in, and had taken out Top. "But why didn't they take Jack or Mr. Nip or Slider?" asked Teddy. "All our pets are nice. Why didn't they take more?" "Maybe they didn't have time, or perhaps they were frightened away, or they may have wanted only Top," said Mr. Martin. "I think that last is the real reason. A trick poodle, like Top, is valuable. And if he could be placed in a show with his chum Tip, the two would earn a lot of money for whoever had them." "Then," said Teddy, "we've got to find out who has Tip, and maybe then we'll get back Top." "Yes," agreed his father, "but it isn't going to be easy. I'll report it to the police and also to the police of that town where Tip was taken." "We can't have much of a show with Tip and Top gone," said Janet sadly. "Well, not so very," answered Teddy, trying to make the best of it. "But if we don't get Top back we still have some pets left. The only thing is that Skyrocket has learned to do some tricks with Top, and if Top doesn't come back Sky can't do those tricks. Oh dear, I wish I knew who had our two trick poodles!" "So do I!" chimed in Janet. Mr. Martin called up the Cresco police and told them of the theft. Word was also sent to the town where the Curlytops had stopped for lunch the day they had brought home Uncle Toby's pets, when "Shorty" had been left on guard. After that there was nothing to do but wait, though Ted and Jan wanted to go around among their friends, asking if, by chance, any of them had seen Top. And after breakfast their mother allowed them to do this. To house after house of their friends and neighbors went the two Curlytops, telling the story of the theft of Top, and asking if anyone had seen him. But it was a hopeless search, as Mrs. Martin knew it would be. For whoever had taken Top, she felt sure, would hide him away, and not let him be seen in or about Cresco, where the pet animal was well known. "What's the matter, Curlytops?" asked Policeman Cassidy, as he saw Teddy and Janet going along the street one day, having called at several houses, without getting any word about Top. "What's the matter? Can't you have the circus you were counting on?" "We can't have it as nice as we want it with Top gone," answered Teddy, and then he explained about the theft, of which the policeman had not heard, having been away on his vacation. "We've been looking all over for Top," added Janet, when her brother had finished, "but we can't find him." "You aren't looking in the right places," said the policeman. "You won't find him at the houses of any of your friends. If he was there he'd run back to you as soon as he got outside. Where you want to look is in some dog show." "Dog show?" exclaimed Teddy. "Yes," went on Mr. Cassidy. "I've heard about stolen dogs before. They are taken by men who want to make money. And since Top was a trick dog, as well as Tip, I'm sure someone has them who would put them in a show. So look for a dog show, and when you find it go in and look at the dogs. That's where you'll find Top, and maybe Tip, too. It's in a dog show you should be looking!" "Yes," agreed Teddy, after thinking the matter over, "I guess we should. Thank you, Mr. Cassidy. Come on, Jan, we'll look for a dog show. Do you think there's one in Cresco, Mr. Cassidy?" "None that I've heard of," the officer answered. "You'll see bill posters, and advertisements on the fences when there's a dog show around. Look for a dog show, and maybe you'll find your pets." The Curlytops thanked him again, and walked off down the street together, filled with a new idea. Eagerly they scanned the walls and fences, seeking for some poster that would tell of a show. And it was not long before they saw just what they were looking for. "See!" cried Janet, pointing to a red and black poster on a fence. "That tells of a show, Ted." "Yes," agreed her brother, "so it does. But it's over in Canfield." The advertisement told of "Professor Montelli's" wonderful collection of trained and trick dogs. A show would be given every afternoon and evening, the bill said, and, as Teddy had remarked, it was over in the neighboring town of Canfield. "Maybe Tip would be there," suggested Janet, as she and her brother looked at the poster. "And Top," added Ted. "Let's go!" suddenly cried Janet. "I've got most of my allowance that daddy gave me. We can go on the trolley. It isn't far!" Teddy thought it over for a moment. Then he made up his mind. "All right!" he said. "Let's go to the dog show!" CHAPTER XVIII THE BLACK POODLES Once they were in the trolley, going to Canfield, the two Curlytops felt quite happy. They were happy for one reason, because they were having a ride. Teddy and Janet always liked to be doing things and going somewhere, and this was one of those times. And they were happy for another reason, because they felt sure they would find Top, and perhaps Tip. Who knew? Policeman Cassidy had said the most likely place to find the missing poodles would be in a dog show. And they were going to a dog show. "Do you s'pose mother will mind?" asked Janet of Ted, after they had ridden for a little way in the trolley. "Oh, I don't guess so," he answered. "We'll soon be back, for it isn't very far to Canfield, and she said we could go out and hunt for Top." "But maybe she didn't mean we were to go so far, and on a trolley." "She didn't tell us _not_ to!" declared Teddy. "All right," went on Janet. "We're going, anyhow." "Whereabout in Canfield do you--you Curlytops want to get out?" asked the trolley-car conductor. "Oh, do you know us?" asked Janet, for the conductor had called the little boy and girl by the name so often given them. "Well, I don't exactly know you," he answered. "But I would call you Curlytops if you were my children. For the tops of your heads are curly," he added with a laugh. "Everybody calls us Curlytops," said Teddy. "And could you please let us out near the dog show?" "The dog show," repeated the conductor, wonderingly. "This one," went on Ted, taking from his pocket a hand bill of "Professor Montelli's Wondrous Aggregation of Canine Cut-ups." Teddy had found the bill in the street. "Oh, that show!" exclaimed the conductor, with a laugh. "Why, that's only a little side-show in a tent near where this car runs. I'll let you get off there if you want to, but it isn't much of a show. It isn't a circus, you know," he said, as he started the car again, after a very fat lady had gotten off. "If you're looking for a circus this isn't it. The dog show is only a little side one--the kind they used to charge ten cents to go in and see after or before the regular circus. I hope you Curlytops aren't running away to see a circus," he added doubtfully. "Oh, no, sir!" exclaimed Janet. "We're looking for our lost dog, and we thought maybe it was with this show. Two dogs we had, Tip and Top," she went on. "They were white poodles and they belonged to Uncle Toby and they could do tricks. But one was stolen when we were bringing them home, and the other night Top was taken from our barn. It's our dogs we're looking for, not a circus." "Besides, we're going to have a circus of our own," added Teddy. "That is, we are if we get Tip and Top back." "Do you think your dogs ran off to join a show?" the conductor asked. "Oh, no!" answered Teddy. "They were taken away. But Mr. Cassidy--he's a policeman--said the right place to look for our dogs was in a dog show, so we're looking." "Well, this Professor Montelli, as he calls himself, has a dog show near the end of my trolley line," said the conductor. "I don't know much about it, as it only came there yesterday. It's in a little tent--a regular side show. I'll put you off near it. But do you think it will be safe for you to go there alone and ask for your lost dogs?" "Oh, we won't go right in and ask for them," explained Teddy. He and his sister had talked it over, and they had made up their minds what they would do. "We'll just go into the show--'cause we have money to pay for our tickets," the Curlytop boy explained. "Then if we see Tip and Top there we'll take 'em right away." "That's what we will!" declared Janet. "And if that show man won't give our dogs to us we'll call a policeman." "Well, I guess you Curlytops can take care of yourselves," laughed the conductor. "You get off three blocks from here, and then you'll be right near the dog show. Good luck to you!" "Thank you," replied Teddy and Janet. They saw the tent--a small one with a few flags on it--almost as soon as they alighted from the trolley car. It was about three o'clock, and a crowd about the tent showed that the performance was going on, or would soon start. Professor Montelli's name was painted on a strip of canvas over the entrance to the tent, and on either side were painted pictures of dogs doing all sorts of queer tricks. One picture was that of a dog jumping off a high platform into a tank of water. "Oh, if we could only make our monkey Jack do a trick like that!" whispered Janet to Teddy. "Maybe we can," he whispered back, as they walked up to the tent. "But monkeys don't like water, I guess. We might get Skyrocket to do the jump. We'll try. But now let's see if Tip or Top are here in this show." A man standing in a booth outside the tent was calling out in a loud voice: "Step right up, ladies and gentlemen! Step right up, boys and girls! The big show is about to begin!" He ruffled a bundle of red tickets in his hand and went on: "Pay your dime and step right up. You'll see the world-famed aggregation of canine cut-ups! The funniest dogs you ever saw doing the funniest tricks! There are hound dogs, bulldogs, setter dogs, fox terriers, big dogs, little dogs, all good dogs, and some poodle dogs!" Ted and Janet looked at each other. "Poodles!" whispered the Curlytops. Tip and Top were white poodles! "Come on! Let's go in!" said Teddy boldly. He stepped up to the booth, bought two tickets, and he and Janet went into the tent. At one end was a raised platform, hung about with red cloth. On the platform were some chairs, a table, some pedestals, some paper-covered hoops and other things used in the dog tricks. There were also some board benches, like circus seats, in the tent. "Come on up front, where we can see the dogs better," said Ted to his sister. "If we see Tip or Top we'll call them right down to us off the platform." There were as yet not many persons in the tent, and the Curlytops had no trouble getting front seats. Then they anxiously waited for the performance to begin, which it did in a little while. Out on the platform came a man with a very black moustache and a little whip. The moustache was under his nose and the whip in his hands. He looked around at the audience, and then in a sing-song voice said: "Ladies an' gen'men: With your kind attention an' permission I will now show you what my dogs can do. Let 'em on, Jack," he called to someone back of the platform. A moment later about ten dogs rushed up on the platform, barking and wagging their tails. Every one of the dogs looked anxiously at the black-eyed and black-moustached man, as if afraid he would hit them with the whip he carried. Each dog seemed to know his or her place, and went to chair, box, or platform, until all were arranged in a half circle back of the man. "First Lulu, the highest jumper in the world, will perform some tricks," said Professor Montelli. "Here, Lulu," he called, and a long, thin greyhound leaped from a chair and stood ready. This dog jumped over a pile of high baskets, and through some of them, there being no bottoms to them. Then the greyhound leaped over a high pile of chairs. In turn the other dogs did tricks, some of which the Curlytops had seen before, and some of which were new. They quite enjoyed the show, or they would have done so had they not been worrying about getting their own dogs back. They looked anxiously at the dogs on the platform. None of them was Tip or Top. I shall not tell you all about the tricks the dogs in this show did, for I want to tell you about the circus the Curlytops had. Enough to say that Professor Montelli seemed to know a great deal about dogs, though I can not say the trick animals loved him. They seemed more afraid than anything else. "Well, I guess we shan't find Tip or Top here," said Ted to Janet after a while. "There aren't any white poodles like ours." "No, I guess not," sadly agreed the little girl. But just then Professor Montelli stepped to the edge of the platform and said: "This ends our regular performance, ladies an' gen'men, but I have two more dogs to show you. I have not finished training them yet, an' they can do only a few tricks, but I want you to be satisfied, an' think that you got your money's worth, so you will recommend my show to your friends. I will now show you two more trick dogs. Bring on the poodles, Jack," he called to his assistant. Ted and Janet looked at each other, quickly. "Poodles!" they murmured, but they did not speak out loud. The same thought was in each of their minds. If the poodles should be Tip and Top! A barking was heard back of the platform, and, a moment later, on rushed two dogs, exactly the same kind of poodles as were Tip and Top, and exactly the same size. But alas! Tip and Top were white, while these poodles were jet black! CHAPTER XIX A HAPPY REUNION The hearts of the Curlytops had beaten high with hope when they heard Professor Montelli speak of some poodles. But when they saw that the two dogs were black, instead of white, their hearts sank. "They look just like Tip and Top, but of course they can't be," whispered Janet, as the showman began clearing the stage platform in readiness for the poodles to do some tricks. "No," answered Ted, in disappointed tones, "Tip and Top were white--not black, except for little spots. These dogs are black all over. We might as well go home. Maybe Policeman Cassidy knows of another dog show." "Oh, let's stay and see just one poodle trick," begged Janet. "All right," agreed Teddy. So the Curlytops remained in their seats, with the others of the audience. The two black poodles barked, wagged their tails, and looked at Professor Montelli. "Come on now, King! Turn a somersault!" suddenly cried the dark-moustached man. Instantly one of the black poodles--the one called "King," began turning somersault after somersault. Right out to the end of the platform he turned them, and then he stood there, wagging his tail and waiting for the applause, which he seemed to expect. And the people did clap. They liked the poodle's trick. Janet leaned over and whispered to Teddy: "That's just the same trick Tip did!" "Yes," agreed the Curlytop boy. "But it can't be Tip." "No, I s'pose not," sighed Janet. "Come back here, King," suddenly called the trainer. "Now, Emperor," he went on, pointing his whip at the other poodle. "It is your turn. Walk on your hind legs!" The other dog did not seem to understand. It slunk away and growled a little. "Here! None of that!" cried the trainer. "You must do as I say! Walk on your hind legs!" Still the dog would not mind. "Emperor is not so good a dog as King," said the man, apologizing to the audience. "I have not had him so long, and he does not do his tricks very well. But I will make him!" Suddenly he flicked the dog he called "Emperor" with the whip! The dog let out a howl of pain. "Here! Stop that!" cried Teddy, almost before he knew what he was saying. "Yes, don't hurt the dogs," added a lady, looking kindly at the Curlytops. "The little boy is right." "I did not mean to hurt him," explained Professor Montelli, smiling, but his smile was not a kind one. He seemed to be a cruel man, but he seemed to know that he must not be cruel to his dogs in public. "Come, Emperor!" he called more gently. "Walk on your hind legs!" This time the black poodle did so, walking around the stage. Again Janet leaned over and whispered to her brother: "Top used to do that same trick!" "Yes," agreed Teddy. "That's right." And then a strange thing happened. All at once the two poodles put their noses together, as though talking, which they may have been doing in dog language. And then the one the man had called Emperor suddenly jumped on top of the back of the dog called King, and King began walking around the stage, giving the other a ride! The people clapped at this trick, and the two Curlytops grew strangely excited. Ted and Janet looked at each other, standing up in their seats. "Ted, do you know what I think?" said his sister. "I think those two dogs are really Tip and Top--our poodles! That's exactly the same trick they did in Uncle Toby's house." "But how could they be Tip and Top when they're black, and Tip and Top were white?" asked Teddy. "I don't know," Janet answered. "But I'm sure they are our dogs. Maybe they've been in the coal bin and got all black. And, oh, Ted! Look!" Something else happening on the platform of the dog show tent. The black poodle called King began walking around in a little circle in the middle of the stage. And, while thus moving, the other poodle began to jump over its companion's back. First this way and then that one poodle jumped over the other poodle's back. "Why! Why!" cried Teddy. "That's the other trick we saw them do, Janet! That's the trick Mrs. Watson said Uncle Toby taught them--I mean taught Tip and Top." "Yes," agreed Janet. "And I know these dogs are our poodles--I don't care if they are black!" Then, before Ted could stop her, she called: "Here, Tip! Here, Top! Come on!" Instantly the two black poodles jumped down off the stage, and with barks of joy, and mad waggings of their little tails, ran to the Curlytops. "Oh, Top!" cried Janet, as she patted his head, "I'm so glad we found you! I'd know you anywhere, even if you are black!" Both dogs knew the children, though of course Top, having been with them longer, knew them best. Tip had been taken away soon after being removed from Uncle Toby's house, but when Tip saw that Top was friendly with the children, Tip was joyful also. I call the black dogs Tip and Top, for they were really the missing poodles, and I will explain how it was their color was changed. No sooner did Ted and Janet call the black poodles to them than Professor Montelli grew very angry indeed. He jumped down off the platform, and, going to where the Curlytops stood at their seats, with the dogs frisking around them, the trainer cried: "Here! What do you mean by calling my dogs away when I am making them do tricks? What do you children mean?" "These aren't your dogs--they're _ours_!" declared Ted. "Yours! Nonsense!" blustered the trainer. "These are my dogs. I have had them a long while!" "Not both of them!" said Janet, who remembered what the man had said. "You told us you hadn't had Emperor very long." "Well, I have the other! They are both my dogs!" cried the angry man. "If you have lost any dogs you had better look somewhere for them. Get out of my tent and give me back the poodles!" He made a move to thrust Ted and Janet to one side and pick up the poodles, but a man in the audience said: "Not so fast, Professor. It seems to me that by the way these dogs came to this girl and boy when called that there may be something in their claim. Did you lose two dogs?" he asked Ted and Janet. "Yes, sir," they answered. And then Ted told how Tip was taken out of their automobile some weeks before, while Top was stolen from their barn a night or two previous. "Nonsense! As if I had their dogs!" sneered the trainer. "What kind of poodles did you lose, as you say?" he asked. "Just exactly the same kind as these, and they did the same tricks," Ted answered. "We can make these do the same tricks you did, and some more, too," he added. "I don't believe it!" growled the trainer. "Let's show 'em, Ted!" cried Janet. And then and there, down on the ground in the tent, while the crowd looked on, the Curlytops put the two black poodles through the tricks Tip and Top used to do. "It begins to look as though there was something in their claim," said the man who had acted as the friend of Ted and Janet. "Those are my dogs!" declared the Professor, getting more and more angry. "Tell me--what color were the poodles you had?" he asked Janet and Ted. "Well," Ted answered slowly, "Tip and Top were white, except Tip had a little black spot on the end of his tail, and Top had a black spot on his head--on the top." "There! What did I tell you?" cried the Professor. "Their poodles were _white_ and mine are _black_! They can't be the same! Here, King and Emperor!" he cried, and, stooping down he made a grab for the little dogs that were staying near Ted and Janet. With barks and growls the poodles sprang away from the angry man. And, as it happened, the one the man had called "King" ran against a pail of water that was near the bottom of the platform. The pail was upset and some of the water splashed over the black dog. Then a queer change took place. Instead of being pure black, the poodle became streaked black and white! The black color began running out of its hair, and formed a little inky pool on the ground beneath the animal. "Look! Look!" cried Janet, pointing. "Those dogs were _colored_ black--they're white poodles dyed black!" cried the man who had taken the part of the Curlytops. "Now what have you to say?" he asked the animal trainer. "Well--er--those dogs are mine! I don't know who stained 'em black. But I bought 'em of a young man----" "Was his name Shorty?" asked Ted. "Well, maybe it was," admitted the showman. "What has that got to do with it? Those are my dogs!" "They're ours!" insisted Ted. "Shorty was watching our auto when Tip was stolen," he went on, "and he knew where we were taking Top. I guess Shorty broke into our barn the other night, and took Top and colored him black. These are our poodles, and we're going to have them!" "It looks as though they had you, Professor," said the kind man. "And we're going to get a policeman!" added Janet. "Oh, well, if you're sure they are your dogs, take 'em!" growled the showman. "I didn't know they were stolen. A young fellow sold me one some time ago, and I bought the other of him day before yesterday. I did color the dogs black," he admitted, "because they don't get so dirty as white ones. The dye will wash off," he said. "If you are sure these are your poodles, take 'em along!" he said to Ted and Janet. "Oh, we're sure all right!" cried Janet. And then she took Top up in her arms, while Teddy carried the partly black and partly white Tip out of the tent, while the audience laughed and some clapped. "The show's over!" growled the black-moustached man. "And if I get hold of that Shorty I'll have him arrested for selling me stolen dogs. They were valuable, too--as good trick dogs as I ever saw. Do you want to sell them to me?" he asked the Curlytops. "No, sir!" cried Teddy and Janet as they hurried out of the tent. "We're going to have a circus of our own with 'em!" And, happy and joyful, with the delighted Tip and Top in their arms, the Curlytops started for home. CHAPTER XX THE CURLYTOPS' CIRCUS Hurrying along, as if afraid that Professor Montelli might run after them and take Tip and Top away again, Teddy and Janet went to the corner where they had left the trolley car. Some boys and girls who had been in the dog show followed the Curlytops, and men and women smiled at the children. "Here comes a car!" cried Ted, as he saw one approaching. "Have we got enough money left to take us home, Jan?" he asked, for his sister had the cash. "I guess so," she answered. "If we haven't we'll ask the conductor please to charge it." The car stopped and with Janet holding Top and Ted with Tip in his arms, the children got aboard. "Well, I see you got your dogs back," came a voice, and, looking up, the Curlytops saw the same conductor they had ridden out with from Cresco. "I didn't think I'd have you back with me so soon," he said. "But I'm glad to see you. It's sort of against the rules to bring dogs on trolley cars, but I guess yours will be all right, as long as they're trick circus dogs." "Shall we make 'em do some tricks for you?" asked Teddy, as he and his sister took their seats. "Well, not now, thank you," the conductor answered, with a smile as the car started off, leaving behind the curious crowd. "I'll soon be so busy collecting fares that I won't have time to watch." "Then we'll send you a ticket to our circus," promised Janet, "'cause you were so kind to us." "Thank you," replied the conductor. "I shall be glad to come. You can take my name and mail the ticket to me at the car house. I like animals," and he patted the heads of Tip and Top. "But what makes one black, and the other streaked black and white?" he asked. "They're colored, but it will wash off," answered Ted. "The Professor, or maybe Shorty, dyed our white poodles black." You can imagine how surprised Mr. and Mrs. Martin were when Ted and Janet came in with the lost dogs--one black and the other white and black. "I was just going to telephone to the police and have them start to look for you!" cried their mother. "I was worried. Where have you been?" "To a dog show, where we found Tip and Top," said Janet. Then they told the whole story, and Mr. and Mrs. Martin were much surprised at what the Curlytops had done. "As it was, you did just the right thing," said their father. "Though I wouldn't like to have you do it again. However, I'm glad you have your pets back, though Tip isn't exactly a beauty." "They'll be all right after they have had a bath," said Janet. And the poodles were, coming from the tub as white as snow. Later it was learned that the young man known as Shorty had not really taken Tip from the automobile. But he had gotten a chum of his to do it, and afterward the two had sold the dog. They sold him to Professor Montelli, who used to have a side show with a circus, but who, after a quarrel, started out for himself, traveling around the country giving exhibitions. Shorty, having heard the talk of the Martin family while he was acting as guard of the automobile load of pets, knew where Top was being taken, to Cresco. And it was he who broke into the barn and took away the poodle. For, as I have told you, while one dog was valuable for the tricks he could do, the two, doing tricks together, were worth much more. Professor Montelli may not have known the poodles were stolen, and he may, as he said, have dyed them with harmless black color to keep their white coats from getting dirty. But the police said they thought the dog trainer had a hand, with Shorty, in the thefts, and this may have been so. At any rate the Curlytops had their pet poodles back, and they heard nothing more of Shorty or the showman. "And now we can give our circus!" cried Janet one afternoon, when she and Teddy, with Trouble, were feeding their pets in the barn. It did not take long to make arrangements for the show. Jimmy Norton's father secured a large tent for the Curlytops and their friends, and the tent was set up in a lot not far from the Martin house. Several boys and girls helped make the arrangements, and Mr. Martin sent up from the store a pile of boxes and boards which some of his men made into seats. Mrs. Martin told the ladies who had asked her to help raise money for the orphans that the Curlytops were going to give all they took in at the circus to help the poor children. And when this became known many grown folk, as well as boys and girls, bought tickets for the performance. It was to be given one afternoon, and you can imagine all the work that had to be done to get ready. But some of the fathers and mothers of the chums of the Curlytops helped, leaving to Ted and Janet the work of getting the animals ready to do their tricks. Jack Turton was to be a fat little clown, riding on a pony his father had bought for him. Harry Kent and some other boys were to help Teddy, and some of Jan's girl friends offered to help her. And we must not forget Trouble. As arranged, he was to come into the tent at a certain time, driving Skyrocket, the dog, and Turnover, the cat, hitched to his little express wagon, with funny Miss Muffin on the seat. At last the day of the circus came. Into the tent were moved the cages of the white mice and the white rats, the tank containing Slider, the pet alligator, the cage of Mr. Nip, the parrot, and the box of Jack, the monkey. Snuff, Skyrocket and Turnover were on hand. Tip and Top were all ready to perform their tricks. "Do you think we'll have a big crowd?" asked Janet of Ted, when everything was arranged and it was almost time for the show to begin. "Sure we will!" he answered. "Everybody I met is coming--all the fellows and girls and a lot of men and women. We'll make a lot of money for the orphans." "I wish Uncle Toby could be here to see it all," went on Janet, as she took a last look inside the tent to make sure everything was in order "He'd be surprised at some of the things his pets can do." "Yes, I wish Uncle Toby could be here," said her brother. "It's queer about him. He never answered any of daddy's letters. South America must be a good way off, for Uncle Toby hasn't gotten there yet." "Well," began Ted. "I guess----" and then Harry Kent called: "Hey, Ted! You'd better look at Slider! He's trying to crawl out of his tank." "It isn't time for him to start his act yet!" answered the Curlytop boy. "I'll have to give him a bit of meat to quiet him!" And a little while after that the audience began to enter the tent. Boys and girls, of course, were the first, but there were a number of men and women, too, and it was not long before every seat was taken. Mr. and Mrs. Martin just had to be there--they couldn't stay away when the Curlytops were giving a show. Besides, Mother Martin had to help Trouble dress for his act. "Oh, we're going to have a big crowd!" said Janet excitedly to Teddy, in the little dressing room behind the stage. There was a stage almost like the one Professor Montelli had in his dog show. "You better go out and make your talk now," went on Janet to her brother. "The tent won't hold many more, and we want to start." "All right," agreed Teddy. It had been decided that he was to make a little speech of welcome. Soon he was out in front, bowing as he did when he "spoke a piece" in school. "Ladies and gentlemen," began Teddy, "and boys and girls. We're glad you came to our circus, and we hope you will like our pets and what they do. And my little brother, Trouble, is going to do an act by himself. He----" "Here I is!" suddenly cried Trouble, coming out behind Teddy. "I do my act now!" "No! No!" said Teddy, while the audience laughed. For Trouble was only half dressed, having rushed out of the room back of the stage when he heard his name mentioned. "Here, William! Come back and let me finish!" said his mother, and she reached out her hand and pulled Trouble back to her. "Now the show will start," Teddy finished, amid laughter. The first act was a tableau with Ted, Janet and their boy and girl helpers, not forgetting Trouble, of course, posing on the stage with their pets. Gathered about the children were the dogs, the cats, Mr. Nip, the parrot, Jack the monkey, the white mice and the white rats in cages, and Slider, the pet alligator. Down in the audience Harry Weldon played the mouth organ. He was the "orchestra." No sooner had Harry started to play than Tip, Top and Skyrocket barked, the cats mewed, the monkey chattered and Mr. Nip cried: "I'm a crack-crack-cracker!" You should have heard the audience clap then! One after another the animals did their tricks, Ted, Janet and the other boys and girls helping. Mr. Nip, the parrot, after he had been quieted down, walked up and down a little ladder, that was balanced like a see-saw over a tiny board. Mr. Nip would walk to one end of the ladder, and it would go down with him. Then he would walk to the other end, which would then sway downward. And when he had finished this trick Mr. Nip cried: "Help! Fire! Police!" and flew over on Janet's shoulder. "He's as good as a watch dog, that parrot is," said Policeman Cassidy, who had come to the show, as had also the kind trolley car conductor. "He's a regular burglar alarm, he is!" Snuff and Turnover did their tricks, some separately and some together. One of the tricks they did together was to run and jump through a paper hoop, and when Turnover had landed on the other side, through the hoop, he lay down and rolled over and over--one of the first tricks the Curlytops had taught their pet. Again the audience clapped and laughed. But there was more to come. Tip and Top did the tricks for which they were famous, separately and together, one dog walking on his hind legs, and the other turning somersaults. Then one dog got on the other's back, the two going around the stage together. And as a climax they did the trick by which Ted and Janet had recognized their pets in Professor Montelli's tent, one dog leaping over the other's back, while moving along. "Now, Jan, you do your trick with the white mice and the alligator while Harry Kent and I fix up the tower for Jack to jump from," said Ted. "And Jack can do his clown tricks, too." It had been decided that while Teddy and his helper were putting in place the tower for the monkey to leap from something must be done to amuse the audience. So Janet had said she would do some little tricks with the mice, rats, and alligator, while Harry, the fat little boy clown, would turn somersaults and handsprings on the stage. This went off very well. Janet fixed the slanting board for Slider to coast "down hill," and when the alligator had done this the audience laughed its hardest. Then some of the rats and mice did simple tricks, two of the larger rats pulling a little toy wagon in which rode two mice. However, these pets did not do as well as the others, for the two in the wagon kept jumping out and Janet had to keep putting them back. Jack, the fat little clown, made a big "hit." He was really very funny, and when, toward the end of his act, he got too near the edge of the stage and fell into the lap of big Oscar North, the audience thought it was all part of the show, and not an accident, and clapped most loudly. However, Jack was not hurt, and only laughed at the mishap. By this time the tower was ready. It reached nearly to the top of the tent, and as the boxes had been covered with green branches they made a nice appearance. "Up, Jack! Up!" called Ted, climbing up the stepladder and placing the banana on top of the tower. Then Ted had to hurry the ladder away, after Jack had climbed up to the top, for fear the monkey would climb down that same way instead of jumping as he was wanted to do. Ted and Harry Kent held the net at the foot of the tower. This time the net was not a lace curtain, but some old bags sewed together. Janet held up the bit of banana, and, after he had eaten the piece on top of his perch, the monkey looked down at the other bit of fruit. "Come on, Jack! Jump!" cried Teddy. And to the delight of the Curlytops, Jack jumped his very best, landing in the net and bouncing up and down. "Good trick! Good trick!" cried the trolley car conductor, clapping the loudest of all. After that Jack did a number of other simple tricks, and then it was time for Trouble to come on in his act. Only a few knew what the little fellow was to do. But when the curtains on the stage were pulled apart by Mrs. Martin and the little fellow walked out, dressed like the pictures of Cupid on valentines, driving the dog and cat harnessed to the wagon, with queer Miss Muffin on the seat, you should have heard the people laugh and clap! "Didap! Didap!" cried Trouble to his dog and cat team. "Didap an' go fast!" Around the stage went Skyrocket and Turnover, behaving very nicely; and when he had made one round Trouble stood in the middle of the stage and made a low bow, as his mother had taught him to do. "He's a cute little chap!" said Policeman Cassidy. And then came the last scene of all, where Ted, Janet, Trouble and their boy and girl helpers, with all the pets, except the parrot, alligator and rats and mice, marched around the stage, while the mouth organ was loudly played. "That's the end of the show! Much obliged to you all for coming!" called out Teddy. "And let's see how much we made for the orphans!" exclaimed Janet, before any of the audience had a chance to leave. There was a laugh at this. "You did very well, Curlytops, and Trouble also," said Mrs. Martin, as the children began to take off their costumes, for they had all dressed especially for the occasion. "I never thought the pets would act so well," added Mr. Martin. "And did we make much money?" Janet wanted to know. Mr. Martin was counting it. As he dropped the last penny back into the cash box he announced: "It is ninety-nine dollars and one cent." "Well, here's ninety-nine cents to make it an even hundred dollars!" cried a jolly voice at the tent entrance, and in walked a man who seemed to be a stranger. But at the second look Mr. Martin cried: "Uncle Toby!" "Yes, Uncle Toby!" laughed the man. "I got here a little too late for the show, but you can give it over again for me, and I'll put as much again in the collection box as you have there. How are all my pets?" and he laughed again and looked at the Curlytops as well as at the animals. "We're well, thank you," said Janet, shyly. "And Tip and Top were taken away but we got them back," added Ted. "An' Mr. Nip he catch a bu'glar!" lisped Trouble. "My! My! There must have been a lot of excitement while I have been gone!" laughed Uncle Toby, for it was, indeed, he. "When did you get back from South America?" asked Mr. Martin. "I didn't go," answered Uncle Toby. "I got all ready to go, but changed my mind and went to Canada instead. I'm going back to live in my old house." "And will you--will you take your pets?" asked Teddy. "Well, not right away," answered Uncle Toby. "You may keep them as long as you like. I wish I had been here for the show, but here's the ninety-nine cents I promised, and if you give the show for me later on I'll give a hundred dollars for the orphans." "Oh, how lovely!" cried Janet. "Let's start and give it now!" It was, however, a little too late in the day for that. But, a week later, Uncle Toby did see all the pets put through their tricks and he gave another hundred to the orphan fund, so that many of the poor children had a fine vacation time in the country. "Well, we certainly had a lot of fun with all the animals," said Janet one day, when she and Teddy were playing out under the trees with the dogs and the cats. "Yes," he agreed, "we did. We had as much fun this summer as if we had gone away. And I wonder what we can do next?" "Oh, something, I guess," said Janet. "What I'm going to do now is go in and get something to eat." "I'm a crack-crack-cracker!" shrieked Mr. Nip from his perch. "Well, I want something more than crackers!" laughed Janet. "So do I!" agreed Teddy. "We'll get some bread and jam and also feed our pets. I guess they're hungry, too." And while the Curlytops are thus engaged we will say good-bye to Janet, Teddy and Trouble. THE END THE CURLYTOPS SERIES By HOWARD R. GARIS _12mo. Cloth. Illustrated. Jacket in full colors Price per volume, 50 cents. Postage 10 cents additional._ [Illustration] =THE CURLYTOPS AT CHERRY FARM= _or Vacation Days in the Country_ A tale of happy vacation days on a farm. =2. THE CURLYTOPS ON STAR ISLAND= _or Camping Out with Grandpa_ The Curlytops camp on Star Island. =3. THE CURLYTOPS SNOWED IN= _or Grand Fun with Skates and Sleds_ The Curlytops on lakes and hills. =4. THE CURLYTOPS AT UNCLE FRANK'S RANCH= _or Little Folks on Ponyback_ Out West on their uncle's ranch they have a wonderful time. =5. THE CURLYTOPS AT SILVER LAKE= _or On the Water with Uncle Ben_ The Curlytops camp out on the shores of a beautiful lake. =6. THE CURLYTOPS AND THEIR PETS= _or Uncle Toby's Strange Collection_ An old uncle leaves them to care for his collection of pets. =7. THE CURLYTOPS AND THEIR PLAYMATES= _or Jolly Times Through the Holidays_ They have great times with their uncle's collection of animals. =8. THE CURLYTOPS IN THE WOODS= _or Fun at the Lumber Camp_ Exciting times in the forest for Curlytops. =9. THE CURLYTOPS AT SUNSET BEACH= _or What Was Found in the Sand_ The Curlytops have a fine time at the seashore. =10. THE CURLYTOPS TOURING AROUND= _or The Missing Photograph Albums_ The Curlytops get in some moving pictures. =11. THE CURLYTOPS IN A SUMMER CAMP= _or Animal Joe's Menagerie_ There is great excitement as some mischievous monkeys break out of Animal Joe's Menagerie. =12. THE CURLYTOPS GROWING UP= _or Winter Sports and Summer Pleasures_ Little Trouble is a host in himself and his larger brother and sister are never still a minute, but go from one little adventure to another in a way to charm all youthful readers. _Send for Our Free Illustrated Catalogue._ =CUPPLES & LEON COMPANY, Publishers New York= BUDDY SERIES By HOWARD R. GARIS _Author of the Famous "Curlytops Series"_ _12 mo. Cloth. Illustrated. With colored jacket._ _Price 50 cents per volume._ _Postage 10 cents additional._ [Illustration] The author presents a distinctly modern juvenile series of stories for boys. Here we observe a really fascinating character-study of an up-to-date young lad, whose exceedingly energetic mind, and whose overflowing youth and vitality, are constantly leading him into new and more tangled situations, from which by wit, courage and luck, he manages to extricate himself in safety. You will more than like Buddy with his carefree ways, his cheerful smile, his boundless enthusiasm, and his overflowing youth. Buddy is certain to linger in your memory long after you have finished these stories. 1. BUDDY ON THE FARM Or, A Boy and His Prize Pumpkin 2. BUDDY IN SCHOOL Or, A Boy and His Dog 3. BUDDY AND HIS WINTER FUN Or, A Boy in a Snow Camp 4. BUDDY AT RAINBOW LAKE Or, A Boy and His Boat 5. BUDDY AND HIS CHUMS Or, A Boy's Queer Search 6. BUDDY AT PINE BEACH Or, A Boy on the Ocean 7. BUDDY AND HIS FLYING BALLOON Or, A Boy's Mysterious Airship CUPPLES & LEON COMPANY, _Publishers_ NEW YORK FOUR LITTLE BLOSSOM SERIES By MABEL C. HAWLEY _12mo. Cloth. Illustrated. Jacket in full colors. Price per volume 50 cents. Postage 10 cents additional._ [Illustration] =1. FOUR LITTLE BLOSSOMS AT BROOKSIDE FARM= Mother called them her Four Little Blossoms, but Daddy Blossom called them Bobby, Meg, and the twins. The twins, Twaddles and Dot, were a comical pair and always getting into mischief. The children had heaps of fun around the big farm. =2. FOUR LITTLE BLOSSOMS AT OAK HILL SCHOOL= In the Fall, Bobby and Meg had to go to school. It was good fun, for Miss Mason was a kind teacher. Then the twins insisted on going to school, too, and their appearance quite upset the class. In school something very odd happened. =3. FOUR LITTLE BLOSSOMS AND THEIR WINTER FUN= Winter came and with it lots of ice and snow, and oh! what fun the Blossoms had skating and sledding. And once Bobby and Meg went on an errand and got lost in a sudden snowstorm. =4. FOUR LITTLE BLOSSOMS ON APPLE TREE ISLAND= The Four Little Blossoms went to a beautiful island in the middle of a big lake and there had a grand time on the water and in the woods. =5. FOUR LITTLE BLOSSOMS THROUGH THE HOLIDAYS= The story starts at Thanksgiving. They went skating and coasting, and they built a wonderful snowman, and one day Bobby and his chums visited a carpenter shop on the sly, and that night the shop burnt down, and there was trouble for the boys. =6. FOUR LITTLE BLOSSOMS AT SUNRISE BEACH= The Four Little Blossoms start on the happy road to fun and vacation at Sunrise Beach. Their delightful adventures will amuse and interest you. _Send for Our Free Illustrated Catalogue._ =CUPPLES & LEON COMPANY, Publishers New York= PEGGY LEE SERIES By ANNA ANDREWS _12mo. Illustrated. Jackets in full colors. Price 50 cents per volume. Postage 10 cents additional._ [Illustration] _A charming series of stories of a young American girl, Peggy Lee, living with her family (including many unusual pets) on a large coffee plantation in Central America, and her many adventures there and in New York._ _The action is rapid, full of fun, and takes the reader not only to many interesting places in Central America, but in the country as well, where Peggy attends a school for girls. The incidents are cleverly brought out, and Peggy in her wistful way, proves in her many adventures to be a brave girl and an endearing heroine to her friends and readers._ =1. PEGGY AND MICHAEL OF THE COFFEE PLANTATION= =2. PEGGY LEE OF THE GOLDEN THISTLE PLANTATION= =3. PEGGY LEE AND THE MYSTERIOUS ISLANDS= (Other Volumes in Preparation) _Send for Our Free Illustrated Catalogue_ =CUPPLES & LEON COMPANY, Publishers New York= THE LINGER-NOTS SERIES By AGNES MILLER _12mo. Cloth Binding. Illustrated._ _Jacket in full colors._ _Price 50 cents per volume. Postage 10 cents additional._ [Illustration] _This new series of girls' books is in a new style of story writing. The interest is in knowing the girls and seeing them solve the problems that develop their character. Incidentally, a great deal of historical information is imparted._ =1. THE LINGER-NOTS AND THE MYSTERY HOUSE= _or the Story of Nine Adventurous Girls_ How the Linger-Not girls met and formed their club, and how they made their club serve a great purpose, introduces a new type of girlhood. =2. THE LINGER-NOTS AND THE VALLEY FEUD= _or the Great West Point Chain_ The Linger-Not girls had no thought of becoming mixed up with feuds or mysteries, but their habit of being useful soon entangled them in some surprising adventures. =3. THE LINGER-NOTS AND THEIR GOLDEN QUEST= _or The Log of the Ocean Monarch_ For a club of girls to become involved in a mystery leading back into the times of the California gold-rush, and how the girls helped one of their friends to come into her rightful name and inheritance. =4. THE LINGER-NOTS AND THE WHISPERING CHARM= _or The Secret from Old Alaska_ Whether engrossed in thrilling adventures in the Far North or occupied with quiet home duties, the Linger-Not girls could work unitedly and solve a colorful mystery. =5. THE LINGER-NOTS AND THE SECRET MAZE= _or The Treasure-Trove on Battlefield Hill_ The discovery of a thrilling treasure-trove at the end of the maze where the Linger-Nots learn many useful facts and the real secret of the hidden maze. _Send for Our Free Illustrated Catalogue._ =CUPPLES & LEON COMPANY, Publishers New York= THE RUTH FIELDING SERIES By ALICE B. EMERSON _12 mo. Illustrated. Jacket in full colors._ _Price 50 cents per volume._ _Postage 10 cents additional._ [Illustration] Ruth Fielding was an orphan and came to live with her miserly uncle. Her adventures and travels make stories that will hold the interest of every reader. Ruth Fielding is a character that will live in juvenile fiction. =1. RUTH FIELDING OF THE RED MILL= =2. RUTH FIELDING AT BRIARWOOD HALL= =3. RUTH FIELDING AT SNOW CAMP= =4. RUTH FIELDING AT LIGHTHOUSE POINT= =5. RUTH FIELDING AT SILVER RANCH= =6. RUTH FIELDING ON CLIFF ISLAND= =7. RUTH FIELDING AT SUNRISE FARM= =8. RUTH FIELDING AND THE GYPSIES= =9. RUTH FIELDING IN MOVING PICTURES= =10. RUTH FIELDING DOWN IN DIXIE= =11. RUTH FIELDING AT COLLEGE= =12. RUTH FIELDING IN THE SADDLE= =13. RUTH FIELDING IN THE RED CROSS= =14. RUTH FIELDING AT THE WAR FRONT= =15. RUTH FIELDING HOMEWARD BOUND= =16. RUTH FIELDING DOWN EAST= =17. RUTH FIELDING IN THE GREAT NORTHWEST= =18. RUTH FIELDING ON THE ST. LAWRENCE= =19. RUTH FIELDING TREASURE HUNTING= =20. RUTH FIELDING IN THE FAR NORTH= =21. RUTH FIELDING AT GOLDEN PASS= =22. RUTH FIELDING IN ALASKA= =23. RUTH FIELDING IN HER GREAT SCENARIO= =24. RUTH FIELDING AT CAMERON HALL= =25. RUTH FIELDING CLEARING HER NAME= =26. RUTH FIELDING IN TALKING PICTURES= =27. RUTH FIELDING AND BABY JUNE= =28. RUTH FIELDING AND HER DOUBLE= =CUPPLES & LEON COMPANY, Publishers New York= 
34554	----	Selected Records of Reptiles and Amphibians from Kansas BY JOHN BREUKELMAN AND HOBART M. SMITH University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History Volume 1, No. 5, pp. 101-112 August 15, 1946 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1946 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Donald S. Farner, Donald F. Hoffmeister Volume 1, No. 5, pp. 101-112 Published August 15, 1946 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1946 21-2762 Selected Records of Reptiles and Amphibians from Kansas By JOHN BREUKELMAN AND HOBART M. SMITH Preparation of a handbook of reptiles and amphibians by the junior author has led to a survey of the collections of these animals at Kansas State Teachers College in Emporia. Numerous locality records of interest and importance have been accumulated there through the efforts of the senior author and a number of his students, particularly Mr. Allen Downs. The more important records, including the first record for Kansas of _Rana sylvatica_, are reported here. We have not mentioned specimens that are from counties from which the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History already has specimens. Specimens examined by Smith are indicated by an asterisk *; those identified by the late Dr. F. N. Blanchard are indicated by an encircled period ¤ (none of these specimens are now available). All other specimens here recorded have been examined either by the senior author or by Mr. Allen Downs, or by both. Specimen numbers, unless otherwise indicated, are those of the Kansas State Teachers College collection. #Triturus viridescens louisianensis# (Wolterstorff), Newt.--_Cherokee Co._: 1 mile north and 4 miles east of Crestline (No. 164).* This is a terrestrial adult, and provides the second known locality for the species in the state. #Ambystoma texanum# (Matthes), Narrow-mouthed Salamander.--_Lyon Co._: Emporia. #Ambystoma tigrinum mavortium# (Baird), Tiger Salamander.--_Lyon Co._: (No. 292); 2 miles east of Americus. _Ness Co._: Ness City (No. 591). #Scaphiopus bombifrons# Cope, Plains Spadefoot.--_Ness Co._: 4 miles west, 1.5 miles north of Ness City (No. 592). #Bufo americanus americanus# (Holbrook), American Toad.--_Chase Co._: 10 miles southwest of Saffordville. _Cherokee Co._: 4 miles southeast of Columbus. _Lyon Co._: 6 miles south of Plymouth (No. 290)*; Emporia (Nos. 442, 443).* The records from Chase and Lyon counties represent the westernmost localities for the species in Kansas. #Bufo cognatus# Say, Great Plains Toad.--_Ness Co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of Ness City (No. 594). #Bufo woodhousii woodhousii# (Girard), Rocky Mountain Toad.--_Clark Co._: 11 miles south of Bucklin (No. 401).* _Decatur Co._: Sappa Creek near Oberlin (2 spec.).* _Ford. Co._: 5 miles southwest of Dodge City (1 spec.).* _Lyon Co._: Emporia (No. 352).* _Ness Co._: Ness City (Nos. 502-504, 595, 596)*; 4 miles west, 1.5 miles north of Ness City (No. 593).* _Sheridan Co._: Sheridan County State Park (Nos. 565-568). #Acris crepitans# Baird, Northern Cricket Frog.--_Ness Co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of Ness City (Nos. 506, 507, 597-606).* #Pseudacris nigrita triseriata# (Wied), Striped Chorus Frog.--_Lyon Co._: 10 miles south of Plymouth; 3 miles north of Emporia (No. 300); 7 miles west of Olpe; 2 miles northeast of Emporia (Nos. 434-441).* _Neosho Co._: 3 miles west of Erie. #Hyla versicolor versicolor# (Le Conte), Common Tree Toad.--_Chautauqua Co._: Elk City (No. 621). #Rana catesbeiana# Shaw, Bullfrog.--_Ness Co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of Ness City (No. 607).* _Wallace Co._: 3 miles east of Sharon Springs (1 spec.).* #Rana pipiens brachycephala# Cope, Leopard Frog.--_Clark Co._: 11 miles south of Bucklin (Nos. 398-400).* _Ness Co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of Ness City (Nos. 505, 508, 509, 608).* #Rana sylvatica cantabrigensis# Baird, Wood Frog.--_Lyon Co._: extreme southwestern corner, 3 miles east of Chase County line, between the Verdigris River and the corner of the county (1 specimen, now Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kans., No. 23149).* This specimen provides for the first time a basis for inclusion of the species in the fauna of Kansas. It measures 50 mm. snout to vent; hind leg from vent 80 mm.; tibia 23 mm. The ratio of hind leg to snout-vent measurement is 0.625, and that of the tibia to snout-vent measurement is 2.17. Both figures are too high for _Rana s. sylvatica_, in which the former ratio varies between 0.53 and 0.62, the latter ratio between 1.6 and 1.88. The ratios agree well with those of _R. s. cantabrigensis_, in which the former ratio varies from 0.62 to 0.75, the latter from 1.93 to 2.3. Direct comparison of the specimen with typical examples of both subspecies substantiates its allocation to _R. s. cantabrigensis_. In the vicinity of Kansas, specimens of this species are known from Missouri (St. Louis and Stone Counties only) and northwestern Arkansas (Washington County: Winslow and Prairie Grove, Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kans., Nos. 16526, 18820, 18823). Reëxamination of these specimens confirms their identity as _Rana sylvatica sylvatica_ to which the Missouri specimens from Stone County undoubtedly also belong. Accordingly this race is still to be anticipated in extreme southeastern Kansas. Reference of the specimen from Lyon County to _Rana s. cantabrigensis_ presents a problem in distribution, for the race is not known from nearer Kansas than North Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin and southern Illinois, except for a record given by Cope (Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 34:437, 1889) from "western Missouri." Hurter (Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., 20:123, 1911) restricts this record to Cooper County, and presumably verifies Cope's identification. Hurter, too, recognized the other form, _R. sylvatica_, in Missouri (Marble Cave, Stone County). Cope distinguished between the two races (as they are now recognized) and recorded typical _R. sylvatica_ from St. Louis. Accordingly the specimen from Cooper County may be considered properly identified racially. It apparently is from the locality nearest to Kansas at which the race has been taken. It seems highly probable that the Kansas occurrence, and possibly those in Arkansas and Missouri also, is a relict one. It is highly improbable that the species has a continuous distribution in either state. A wider or more southern distribution in the past seems evident. The group to which it belongs certainly has had a more southern range, as indicated by Taylor's discovery in Meade County, Kansas (Univ. Kans. Sci. Bull., 28:217, 1942), of a fossil species of _Rana_ (_parvissima_), from the Upper Pliocene, presumably related to _sylvatica_. It may or may not have been a direct ancestor of the living species. #Microhyla olivacea# (Hallowell), Northern Narrow-mouthed Toad.--_Lyon Co._: 6 miles southwest of Emporia. _Wilson Co._: 7 miles northeast of Fall River. #Crotaphytus collaris collaris# (Say), Collared Lizard.--_Geary Co._: 4 miles south of Fort Riley. _Wabaunsee Co._: 2 miles northeast of Alma. #Holbrookia maculata maculata# (Girard), Earless Lizard.--_Chase Co._: 7 miles south of Saffordville (No. 350)*; 6 miles southwest of Saffordville; 1 mile south of Saffordville (No. 338)*; 10 miles southwest of Olpe. _Hodgeman Co._: Jetmore. _Lyon Co._: 5 miles south of Plymouth; 6 miles southeast of Emporia; 9 miles southwest of Emporia. _Ness Co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of Ness City (Nos. 480, 481, 484-497, 609-611)*, 6 miles west and 0.5 miles south of Ness City (Nos. 482, 483, 498).* #Sceloporus undulatus garmani# Boulenger, Northern Plains Lizard.--_Ellsworth Co._: Carneiro; 10 miles south of Ellsworth. _McPherson Co._: 4 miles west of Roxbury (No. 133). _Ness Co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of Ness City (No. 479, 612).* #Phrynosoma cornutum# (Harlan), Texas Horned Lizard.--_Ellsworth Co._: 10 miles south of Ellsworth. _Lyon Co._: 1 mile south of Emporia; 8 miles southwest of Emporia. _Saline Co._: Coronado Heights; 3 miles northwest of Lindsborg. #Ophisaurus ventralis# (Linnaeus), Glass-snake Lizard.--_Lyon Co._: Emporia; 1 mile southwest of Emporia (No. 288).* _Rooks Co._: 5 miles southwest of Stockton (No. 407).* #Cnemidophorus sexlineatus# (Linnaeus), Six-lined Racerunner.--_Ellsworth Co._: Carneiro. _Lyon Co._: 1.5 miles northwest of Reading. _Shawnee Co._: 5 miles east of Topeka (No. 14).* #Leiolopisma laterale# (Say), Brown Skink.--_Labette Co._: 7 miles northwest of Mound Valley (No. 301).* _Lyon Co._: 1.5 miles northwest of Reading. _Wilson Co._: 4 miles southwest of Coyville (No. 281).* #Eumeces fasciatus# (Linnaeus), Common Five-lined Skink.--_Bourbon Co._: 1 mile north of Fulton. _Chase Co._: 7 miles southwest of Saffordville; 6 miles south of Clements; 2 miles south of Saffordville. _Franklin Co._: 8 miles east of Ottawa; 2 miles south of Ottawa; 2 miles southwest of Lane; 4 miles east of Ottawa; 5 miles southwest of Ottawa. _Labette Co._: 2 miles southwest of Dennis; 7 miles northwest of Mound Valley. _Lyon Co._: 1.5 miles northwest of Reading. _Miami Co._: 2.5 miles south of Fontana. _Montgomery Co._: 5 miles west of Independence. _Neosho Co._: 4 miles northwest of Erie (No. 318).* #Eumeces obsoletus# (Baird and Girard), Sonoran Skink.--_Coffey Co._: 4 miles south of Gridley (No. 467).* _Ellsworth Co._: 10 miles south of Ellsworth. _Franklin Co._: 2 miles south of Lane. _Linn Co._: 0.5 miles north of Trading Post. _Lyon Co._: 1.5 miles northwest of Reading; 10 miles south of Plymouth; 2.5 miles northeast of Dunlap; 4 miles southwest of Bushong; Emporia (No. 433)*; Dunlap (No. 444).* _McPherson Co._: 4 miles west of Lindsborg. _Morris Co._: 5 miles east of Skiddy; 1 mile east of Skiddy. _Neosho Co._: 15 miles north of Parsons. _Wilson Co._: 3 miles east of Buffalo. #Eumeces septentrionalis septentrionalis# (Baird), Northern Prairie Skink.--_Chase Co._: 6 miles south of Clements; 1 mile south of Saffordville; 11 miles southwest of Olpe (No. 348). #Diadophis punctatus arnyi# (Kennicott), Prairie Ring-necked Snake.--_Bourbon Co._: 1 mile north of Fulton. _Chase Co._: 5 miles southwest of Saffordville (No. 334)*; Elmdale (No. 146)*; 3 miles west of Bazaar. _Franklin Co._: 2.5 miles southeast of Peoria; 2 miles south of Lane. _Linn Co._: 0.5 miles north of Trading Post. _Lyon Co._: 1.5 miles northwest of Reading (Nos. 6, 372)*; Emporia. _Morris Co._: 5 miles south of Council Grove (Nos. 469-472). _Neosho Co._: 4 miles northwest of Erie (No. 316).* _Osage Co._: 8 miles southwest of Auburn. _Shawnee Co._: 5 miles east of Topeka. _Wabaunsee Co._: 2 miles northeast of Alma. _Wilson Co._: 3 miles east of Buffalo. #Carphophis amoena vermis# (Kennicott), Western Worm Snake.--_Bourbon Co._: 6 miles northwest of Fort Scott. _Chase Co._: 6 miles southwest of Cottonwood Falls (No. 365).* _Geary Co._: 5 miles southwest of Wreford. _Greenwood Co._: 4 miles northwest of Lamont (Nos. 516, 517).* _Johnson Co._: 3 miles east of De Soto. _Labette Co._: 9 miles northeast of Parsons (No. 313).* _Linn Co._: 3.5 miles south of Pleasanton. _Lyon Co._: 2 miles northeast of Reading; 5 miles northwest of Emporia. _Neosho Co._: 4 miles northwest of Erie (No. 314).* _Shawnee Co._: Wakarusa. _Wilson Co._: 2 miles northwest of Neodesha (No. 322).* #Heterodon contortrix contortrix# (Linnaeus), Common Hog-nosed Snake.--_Saline Co._: Coronado Heights; 3 miles northwest of Lindsborg. #Heterodon nasicus nasicus# Baird and Girard, Western Hog-nosed Snake.--_Chautauqua Co._: Peru. _Ness Co._: 6 miles west and 0.25 miles south of Ness City (No. 501)*; 5 miles northwest of Ness City (Nos. 619, 620).* _Rooks Co._: Stockton (No. 418). _Scott Co._: Near Scott City (Nos. 511-513, 515).* #Coluber constrictor flaviventris# (Say), Blue Racer.--_Butler Co._: 3 miles south of El Dorado. _Chase Co._: 5 miles south of Saffordville (Nos. 4, 110, 122-129, 656, 657).* _Chautauqua Co._: 1 mile south of Chautauqua (No. 375).* _Geary Co._: 5 miles southwest of Wreford. _Labette Co._: 7 miles northwest of Mound Valley (No. 356).* _Lyon Co._: 5 miles northwest of Reading (No. 226)*; 2 miles west of Olpe (No. 341)*; 5 miles northwest of Emporia (No. 397)*; 17 miles southwest of Emporia (No. 655).* _McPherson Co._: 4 miles west of Roxbury. _Morris Co._: 4 miles west of Delavan. _Neosho Co._: 4 miles northwest of Erie; 8 miles southeast of Chanute. _Ness Co._: 5 miles northwest of Ness City (No. 617).* _Wilson Co._: 3 miles east of Buffalo; 2 miles northwest of Neodesha; 7 miles northeast of Fall River. #Masticophis flagellum flagellum# (Shaw), Eastern Coachwhip.--_Wilson Co._: 2 miles northwest of Neodesha (No. 302).* _Elk Co._: 5 miles west of Grenola (No. 3).* #Masticophis flagellum testaceous# (Say), Western Coachwhip.--_Ness Co._: 5 miles northwest of Ness City (No. 616).* _Rooks Co._: Stockton (Nos. 411, 412).* #Elaphe laeta laeta# (Baird and Girard), Emory Rat Snake.--_Chase Co._: 5 miles southwest of Saffordville (Nos. 117-120, 130, 326, 354)*; Wolf Creek; 2 miles northeast of Strong City (No. 366).* _Coffey Co._: 7 miles east of Lebo. _McPherson Co._: Lindsborg. _Morris Co._: 10 miles south of Council Grove (No. 230).* _Saline Co._: Salemsborg. _Wilson Co._: 3 miles east of Buffalo (No. 161).* #Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta# (Say), Pilot Black Snake.--_Atchison Co._: Atchison (No. 15).* _Labette Co._: 4 miles north of Oswego (No. 320).* _Lyon Co._: Emporia (Nos. 12, 374, 514)*; 5 miles northwest of Emporia (No. 337); 1.5 miles northwest of Reading (No. 634).* _Morris Co._: 0.5 miles north of Wilsey. _Neosho Co._: 4 miles northwest of Erie (Nos. 321, 359).* _Wabaunsee Co._: 4 miles southwest of Alma. _Wilson Co._: 7 miles northeast of Fall River. #Pituophis catenifer sayi# (Schlegel), Common Bull Snake.--_Atchison Co._: Atchison. _Chase Co._: 4 miles east of Elmdale; Toledo; 13 miles west of Emporia; Saffordville (No. 212).* _Cherokee Co._: 4 miles southeast of Columbus. _Coffey Co._: 6 miles west of Waverly. _Ford Co._: Bucklin (No. 405).* _Franklin Co._: 2 miles southwest of Lane. _Hodgeman Co._: Jetmore. _Jefferson Co._: 3 miles south of Nortonville. _McPherson Co._: Lindsborg. _Morris Co._: 3 miles southeast of Diamond Springs; 6 miles west of Council Grove; 4 miles west of Dwight; 3 miles north of Burdick; 3 miles east of Delavan. _Ness Co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of Ness City (Nos. 499, 500, 615).* _Rooks Co._: 5 miles southwest of Stockton (Nos. 409, 410).* #Lampropeltis calligaster calligaster# (Harlan), Yellow-bellied King Snake.--_Butler Co._: U. S. Highway 54 near Greenwood County line. _Coffey Co._: 13 miles east of Emporia. _Franklin Co._: 5 miles southwest of Ottawa (No. 207).* _Lyon Co._: 8 miles east of Emporia (No. 2)*; 3 miles east of Emporia; 3 miles southeast of Olpe; southwest of Emporia (No. 216); 6 miles south of Plymouth (No. 22)*; 1.5 miles northwest of Reading (No. 633).* _McPherson Co._: Western edge of Lindsborg. _Osage Co._: 4 miles northeast of Overbrook. #Lampropeltis getulus holbrooki# (Stejneger), Speckled King Snake.--_Chase Co._: 5 miles southwest of Saffordville (No. 109); 2 miles southwest of Elmdale (No. 363).* _Hodgeman Co._: Jetmore. _Lyon Co._: 5 miles east of Emporia; 4 miles southwest of Bushong (No. 200).* _Marion Co._: 4 miles east of Antelope (No. 10).* _Morris Co._: 1 mile east of Skiddy. _Woodson Co._: Lake Fegan (No. 626).* _Wilson Co._: 3 miles east of Buffalo (No. 162).* #Lampropeltis triangulum gentilis# (Baird and Girard), Western Milk Snake.--_Chase Co._: 5 miles southwest of Saffordville (Nos. 121, 131, 406).¤ _Gove Co._: Fair Grounds (No. 18). _Greenwood Co._: 4 miles southwest of Lamont (No. 376)¤; 6 miles south of Wilbur. _Scott Co._: near Scott City (No. 510).* #Lampropeltis triangulum syspila# (Cope), Red Milk Snake.--_Cherokee Co._: 3 miles east of Crestline (No. 559). _Franklin Co._: 2 miles southwest of Lane (No. 174).¤ #Sonora episcopa# (Kennicott), Great Plains Ground Snake.--_Wilson Co._: 2 miles northwest of Neodesha (Nos. 303-305, 323-325).* #Natrix erythrogaster transversa# (Hallowell), Yellow-bellied Water Snake.--_Chase Co._: 6 miles south of Clements; 6 miles southwest of Saffordville; 3 miles east of Cottonwood Falls; 10 miles east of Matfield Green; 7 miles south of Plymouth (No. 287); Elmdale Hill, 0.5 miles east of Elmdale (No. 291)*; 10 miles southwest of Olpe (No. 343).* _Lyon Co._: 9 miles south of Plymouth (No. 25); Emporia (No. 30)*; 5 miles northwest of Emporia (No. 67); 1 mile north of Hartford (No. 108)*; 7 miles southeast of Saffordville (No. 283). #Natrix grahami# (Baird and Girard), Graham Water Snake.--_Lyon Co._: Admire; 5 miles south of Plymouth (No. 19)*; 6 miles east of Emporia (No. 40)*; 0.5 miles north of Hartford (No. 85)*; 2 miles east of Emporia (No. 208)*; Emporia (No. 588).* #Natrix rhombifera# (Hallowell), Diamond-backed Water Snake.--_Lyon Co._: 1 mile south of Emporia (Nos. 218-225)*; 8 miles northwest of Emporia (Nos. 28, 29, 240, 261)*; 2 miles southeast of Emporia (Nos. 32-35)*; 5 miles northwest of Reading. #Natrix sipedon sipedon# (Linnaeus), Common Water Snake.--_Barber Co._: 8 miles west of Medicine Lodge. _Bourbon Co._: 1 mile north of Fulton (No. 184).* _Lyon Co._: 5 miles northeast of Emporia (No. 5)*; 9 miles south of Plymouth (No. 23)*; 1 mile west of Neosho Rapids; 2 miles southeast of Emporia (No. 142, 211)*; 9 miles northeast of Emporia (No. 41); 3 miles northwest of Emporia (No. 66); 8 miles northwest of Emporia (Nos. 75, 78, 241, 254, 272)*; 5 miles south of Hartford (No. 86); 1 mile north of Hartford (Nos. 91, 100); 7 miles southwest of Emporia (No. 116); Emporia (No. 239). _Morris Co._: 3 miles southwest of Council Grove. _Shawnee Co._: 4 miles east of Topeka (No. 31).* #Haldea striatula# (Linnaeus), Southern Ground Snake.--_Cherokee Co._: 3 miles east of Crestline (No. 317)*; 2 miles north of Baxter Springs; 1 mile north and 4 miles east of Crestline. #Thamnophis radix radix# (Baird and Girard), Plains Garter Snake.--_Chase Co._: 5 miles southwest of Saffordville. _Lyon Co._: Emporia (Nos. 209, 210)*; 1.5 miles northwest of Reading. _Ness Co._: 5 miles northwest of Ness City (No. 618).* #Thamnophis sauritus proximus# (Say), Western Ribbon Snake.--_Chase Co._: 1 mile south of Saffordville (No. 340).* _Lyon Co._: 2 miles southeast of Emporia (No. 38)*; 5 miles northwest of Emporia (Nos. 68-70)*; 12 miles southeast of Emporia (No. 215)*; 5 miles northwest of Reading (No. 229).* _Wilson Co._: 3 miles east of Buffalo. #Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis# (Say), Red-sided Garter Snake.--_Barber Co._: 8 miles north of Medicine Lodge. _Dickinson Co._: 1.5 miles northwest of Herington. _Lyon Co._: 2.5 miles southeast of Emporia (No. 39)*; 1 mile northeast of Emporia (Nos. 43-48)*; 5 miles northwest of Emporia (No. 71)*; 8 miles northwest of Emporia (No. 84).* _Wabaunsee Co._: 2 miles northeast of Alma. #Tropidoclonion lineatum# (Hallowell), Lined Snake.--_Chase Co._: Saffordville; 3 miles northeast of Bazaar. _Labette Co._: 1 mile north of Montana (No. 362).* _Lyon Co._: Emporia; 9 miles south and 5 miles west of Emporia. _Marion Co._: 4 miles east of Antelope (No. 11).* _Morris Co._: 3 miles east of Woodbine (Nos. 518-520).* _Rooks Co._: 5 miles northwest of Stockton (Nos. 414, 415).* #Tantilla gracilis# Baird and Girard, Slender Tantilla.--_Cherokee Co._: 3 miles east of Crestline (Nos. 540-544). _Geary Co._: 4 miles south of Fort Riley. _Wilson Co._: 3 miles east of Buffalo; 7 miles northeast of Fall River; 2 miles northwest of Neodesha. #Tantilla nigriceps nigriceps# Kennicott, Great Plains Black-headed Snake.--_Rooks Co._: 5 miles northwest of Stockton (No. 416); Stockton (No. 417). This is the northernmost known record for the species. #Agkistrodon mokeson mokeson# (Daudin), Southern Copperhead.--_Atchison Co._: Atchison (Nos. 201, 202, 573, 578)*; 5 miles north of Atchison (No. 653).* _Bourbon Co._: 6 miles northwest of Fort Scott (No. 294).* _Cherokee Co._: 1 mile north and 4 miles east of Crestline (Nos. 165-170)*; 2 miles east of Riverton (No. 293).* _Coffey Co._: 4 miles northeast of Burlington. _Franklin Co._: 2 miles southwest of Lane (Nos. 187-192, 194).* _Lyon Co._: 1.5 miles northwest of Reading (No. 7).* _Wabaunsee Co._: 2 miles northeast of Alma (No. 195).* _Woodson Co._: Lake Fegan (Nos. 627, 628, 630-632, 649).* #Sistrurus catenatus tergeminus# (Say), Western Massasauga.--_Chase Co._: 5 miles southwest of Saffordville (Nos. 8, 26, 112, 113, 295)*; 3 miles southwest of Elko (No. 145)*; 11 miles northeast of Matfield Green (No. 231)*; 8 miles south of Clements; 2 miles southwest of Elmdale (No. 333); 10 miles southwest of Olpe (No. 344).* _Lyon Co._: 10 miles south of Plymouth (Nos. 20, 121)*; 8 miles southwest of Emporia (No. 114)*; 5 miles northwest of Bushong (No. 353)*; 11 miles northeast of Emporia (No. 474). _Wabaunsee Co._: Kansas State Highway 99 just north of Lyon County (No. 641).* #Crotalus horridus horridus# (Linnaeus), Timber Rattlesnake.--_Atchison Co._: Atchison (Nos. 204-206)*; 5 miles north of Atchison (Nos. 642-652).* #Crotalus viridis viridis# (Rafinesque), Prairie Rattlesnake.--_Hodgeman Co._: Jetmore. #Sternotherus odoratus# (Latreille), Common Musk Turtle.--_Cherokee Co._: 1 mile north and 4 miles east of Crestline (No. 171). #Kinosternon flavescens flavescens# (Agassiz), Yellow Mud Turtle.--_Ford Co._: Rattlesnake Creek 2 miles south of Bucklin (1 spec.).* _Pratt Co._: 5 miles southeast of Pratt. _Sheridan Co._: Sheridan County State Park (No. 569). #Chelydra serpentina serpentina# (Linnaeus), Common Snapping Turtle.--_Chase Co._: 10 miles southwest of Olpe (No. 345); 3 miles east of Cottonwood Falls; 5 miles northeast of Strong City. _Greenwood Co._: (1 spec.).* _Lyon Co._: 1.5 miles northwest of Reading (No. 336); 5 miles south of Plymouth; 10 miles north of Emporia; Admire; 4 miles northwest of Olpe; Emporia. _Sheridan Co._: State Lake; 7 miles northeast of Quinter. #Terrapene ornata# (Agassiz), Ornate Box Turtle.--_Chase Co._: 14 miles southwest of Olpe; 6 miles south of Clements; 5 miles southwest of Saffordville. _Coffey Co._: 4 miles south of Gridley (No. 468)*; 1 mile west of Agricola (No. 638).* _Ellsworth Co._: 10 miles south of Ellsworth. _Greenwood Co._: (1 spec.).* _Hodgeman Co._: Jetmore. _Lyon Co._: 6 miles south of Plymouth; 8 miles southwest of Emporia; 7 miles west of Olpe. _Morris Co._: 5 miles northwest of Council Grove; 1 mile east of Skiddy; 5 miles south of Council Grove. _Rice Co._: Sterling. _Rooks Co._: Solomon River near Stockton (No. 408).* #Terrapene triunguis# (Agassiz), Carolina Box Turtle.--_Coffey Co._: 1 mile west of Agricola (No. 637).* #Chrysemys picta bellii# (Gray), Painted Turtle.--_Chase Co._: Kahola Creek, near Morris County line. _Dickinson Co._: 1.5 miles north of Herington. _Ford Co._: Rattlesnake Creek; 2 miles south of Bucklin (1 spec.).* _Lyon Co._: 3 miles north of Emporia; 6 miles south of Plymouth. _Ness Co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of Ness City (Nos. 613, 614).* _Sheridan Co._: Sheridan County State Park (No. 570). _Wilson Co._: 4 miles southeast of Buffalo. _Woodson Co._: Owl Creek north of Yates Center (1 spec.).* #Pseudemys floridana hoyi# (Agassiz), Toothed Turtle.--_Greenwood Co._: Holmer Creek south of Hamilton on Kansas State Highway 99 (Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kans., No. 23148).* This is the second published locality for the species in Kansas; it has previously been reported from a locality 5.5 miles northeast of Coyville, Woodson County (Burt and Hoyle, Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., 37:198, 1934). #Pseudemys scripta elegans# (Wied), Scribe Turtle.--_Chase Co._: 7 miles southwest of Saffordville. _Lyon Co._: 10 miles northwest of Emporia; 7 miles south of Plymouth. #Amyda mutica# (Le Sueur), Spineless Soft-shelled Turtle.--_McPherson Co._: Lindsborg. #Amyda spinifera spinifera# (Le Sueur), Spiny Soft-shelled Turtle.--_Chase Co._: 10 miles southwest of Olpe; 7 miles southwest of Saffordville (No. 351).* _Lyon Co._: 5 miles east of Emporia. _Ness Co._: 5.5 miles northwest of Ness. _Sheridan Co._: State Lake; 7 miles northeast of Quinter. 21-2762 
34127	----	Transcriber's Notes This Plain Text version represents italic typeface with _underscores_ and small caps typeface with ALL CAPS. Only a few changes were necessary to the text in the case of typographical errors, as follows: Page 623 Table 3 column heading: changed "or" to "of" (Number of specimens). Page 625: changed "percent" to "per cent" (92 per cent of the time). * * * * * UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 17, No. 15, pp. 613-629, 6 figs. May 14, 1968 Morphological Variation in a Population of the Snake, Tantilla gracilis Baird and Girard BY LAURENCE M. HARDY AND CHARLES J. COLE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1968 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Frank B. Cross, Henry S. Fitch, J. Knox Jones, Jr. Volume 17, No. 15, pp. 613-629, 6 figs. Published May 14, 1968 University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY ROBERT R. (BOB) SANDERS, STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1968 31-9422 Morphological Variation in a Population of the Snake, Tantilla gracilis Baird and Girard By LAURENCE M. HARDY AND CHARLES J. COLE INTRODUCTION Variation of selected taxonomic characteristics of flat-headed snakes (_Tantilla gracilis_ Baird and Girard) from several midwestern states was studied by Force (1935), but she did not attempt a comprehensive evaluation. Taylor (1936) reported on variation in _T. gracilis_ from various localities in Kansas; Kirn, Burger, and Smith (1949) studied selected structures of specimens of _T. gracilis_ from throughout its range. The present study was undertaken to determine the variation in both currently used and potential taxonomic characteristics of _T. gracilis_ from one locality. We are thankful to Charles W. Myers, Gorgas Memorial Laboratory, for suggestions concerning characteristics examined. We are indebted to Drs. William G. Degenhardt, University of New Mexico, Herndon G. Dowling, New York Zoological Society, Charles H. Lowe, University of Arizona, and Richard G. Zweifel, American Museum of Natural History, for criticizing the manuscript. Dr. William E. Duellman permitted us to study specimens in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. Materials and Methods The specimens examined were donated to the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, by the late Paul Anderson of Independence, Missouri. All specimens (KU numbers 83435-83680; N = 246) were collected in the vicinity of Winfield, Cowley County, Kansas, by Charles E. Burt and students from Southwestern College in the period from 1938 to 1941, inclusive. Both authors gathered data on most characteristics and examined each atypical individual. Hardy determined characters of the maxillae (which were removed; N = 20), body and total lengths, and the scale formula of KU 83620. We examined 22 characteristics of external morphology and 10 of the maxillae. All paired characteristics (excepting those of the maxillae) were examined on both sides of each snake and are referred to from the left side to the right side (for example, "preoculars 1-2" means there is one preocular on the left side and there are two on the right). Oviducts and oviducal eggs were observed on specimens designated as females; hemipenes were examined on specimens designated as males. Total length was measured by straightening each snake along a 300 mm. scale. Tail length was measured only on snakes having complete tails, and body length (snout-vent) was considered as total length minus tail length. The body length was measured on snakes having incomplete tails. Supralabials, infralabials, preoculars and postoculars were counted, and we followed Peters (1960:9) in determining the nature of the temporals. Occasionally the primary (anterior) temporal is separated from the postocular by contact of the parietal and a supralabial (Taylor, 1936:338). We followed Peters (1964:219-220) in determining characteristics of the nasal and we looked for contact of the prefrontal with particular supralabials (Taylor, 1936:338). We determined which supralabials are in contact with the eye and whether the mental is in contact with the anterior pair of chin-shields. The number of rows of dorsal scales was determined at five locations: a) around the neck--counts were made from each side diagonally and posteriorly from the anteriormost dorsal scale in contact with the first ventral (see below)--counts from the left and right sides are the first and second counts, respectively, recorded in the scale formula; b) one head length posterior to head--counts were made either diagonally and posteriorly or in a zig-zag pattern, beginning at the end of the second count around the neck--this is the third count recorded in the scale formula; c) midbody (approximated)--counts were made either diagonally and posteriorly or in a zig-zag pattern--this is the fourth count in the scale formula; d) anterior to anus (preanal)--counts were made in a zig-zag pattern beginning on one side and ending on the other at the first dorsal scale in contact with the anal plate--this is the fifth count in the scale formula. We followed the method of Dowling (1951:98-99) in counting ventrals, and the anal plate was determined as entire, divided, or partly divided. Subcaudals were counted on only the right side beginning at the first scale that contacts a corresponding scale from the opposite side; fusion of particular pairs of subcaudals was determined. The "spine" at the tip of the tail was not counted. The head scutellation of each specimen was examined for abnormalities. We determined the number of fangs and the number of maxillary teeth anterior to them and recorded the presence or absence of a diastema between the anterior fang and the maxillary tooth immediately preceding it. The diastema, if present, is a space distinctly wider than the spaces separating the prediastemal teeth. The point of intersection of two perpendicular lines of an ocular grid determined which tooth-socket occurs directly opposite the distal tip of the suborbital process (Fig. 5b), but if that point occurs between two sockets then the number recorded was the number of the tooth immediately anterior to that point plus one-half. The anterior and posterior edges of the suborbital process were determined as parallel or not at any point by aligning them with parallel lines on an ocular grid (Fig. 5b). The angle of the posterior edge of the lateral flange was determined as an acute, obtuse, or right angle by fitting it to a pair of perpendicular lines of an ocular grid (Fig. 5b). The number of lateral anterior foramina (Fig. 4b) was determined. If only two are present, their lengths (anterior to posterior) were compared by measuring them with an ocular micrometer. Also, if two lateral anterior foramina are present, the point of intersection of two perpendicular lines of an ocular grid determined which tooth-socket occurs directly below the center of the posterior foramen (Fig. 4b). RESULTS General Characteristics From the data given by Force (1935), Taylor (1936), and Kirn _et al._ (1949), and from our own data, we conclude that a typical specimen of _gracilis_, meaning a specimen having the usual characteristics of the species, has the following characteristics in combination: supralabials 6-6; infralabials 6-6; preoculars 1-1; postoculars 1-1; temporals 1 + 1 on each side; nasal divided below naris; supralabials 3 + 4 entering orbit; mental in contact with chin-shields; all five dorsal scale counts 15; and plate divided. (In the present work we use the words usual, unusual, typical, and atypical with neither quotation marks nor apology). Of the 244 specimens on which we could examine each of these characteristics, only 125 (51.2%) have all of the typical characteristics in combination. The 119 specimens that do not possess all of the typical characteristics in combination include 31 (12.7% of the 244) that lack at least two of the typical characteristics. Sex The sample (N = 246) is composed of 107 (43.5%) females and 139 (56.5%) males. Measurements Females have total lengths from 96 to 244 mm. (mean, 173.3; N = 79). One female (KU 83480) measuring 244 mm. may be the longest specimen known (Conant, 1958, reports the longest as 9-1/8 inches--approximately 232 mm.). Males have total lengths from 96 to 215 mm. (mean, 162.4; N = 109). Females have tail lengths from 16 to 50 mm. (mean, 34.6; N = 79), and males have tail lengths from 21 to 53 mm. (mean, 37.8; N = 109). The ratio of tail length to total length in females is from 0.17 to 0.22 (mean, 0.20; N = 79); in males it is from 0.21 to 0.27 (mean, 0.23; N = 109; Fig. 1). Juveniles (those less than 125 mm. in total length according to Force, 1935: tables 1 and 2) have proportionally shorter tails than do adults; the ratio of tail length divided by total length is 0.17-0.21 (mean, 0.18; N = 14) in females and 0.21-0.23 (mean, 0.22; N = 16) in males. Adult females (125 mm. or more in total length) have ratios from 0.18 to 0.22 (mean, 0.20; N = 65) and adult males have ratios from 0.21 to 0.27 (mean, 0.23; N = 93). [Illustration: FIG. 1. Ratio of tail length to total length in females and males of _T. gracilis_.] Of the 246 specimens examined, 58 have incomplete tails. Of these 58 specimens, six had freshly broken tails, so we assume that 52 (21.1% of the 246) have incomplete tails resulting from natural causes; the remaining six specimens could have had their tails broken at or soon after capture, assuming that none of the snakes was retained in captivity for an extended period. Supralabials The supralabials are either six (usually) or seven on a side (Table 1). When seven supralabials are present on either one or both sides, the addition results from one of the following conditions: a) 5 is divided to form 5 and 6 (N = 6); b) 2 and 3 form 2, 3, and 4 (N = 1); c) 5 and 6 form 5, 6, and 7 (N = 12); d) 4, 5, and 6 form 4, 5, 6, and 7 (N = 1); e) 1 and 2 form 1, 2, and 3 (N = 1); f) 1, 2, and 3 form 1, 2, 3, and 4 (N = 1); g) 2 is fused with the nasal, and 3 and 4 are reduced to granules (N = 1); h) type of addition unknown (N = 5). TABLE 1. Variation in Number of Supralabials (N = 245) and Infralabials (N = 246) of Tantilla gracilis. ------------+----------+-----------+------------+---------+---------- Number |Number |Per cent |Number |Number |Per cent of |of |of |of |of |of Supralabials|specimens |occurrence |infralabials|specimens|occurrence ------------+----------+-----------+------------+---------+---------- 6-6 | 221 | 90.2 | 5-5 | 5 | 2.0 6-7 | 10 | 4.1 | 5-6 | 4 | 1.6 7-6 | 10 | 4.1 | 6-5 | 5 | 2.0 7-7 | 4 | 1.6 | 6-6 | 229 | 93.1 | | | 6-7 | 1 | 0.4 | | | 7-6 | 2 | 0.8 ------------+----------+-----------+------------+---------+---------- In three of the four specimens with 7-7 supralabials, the type of addition is the same on each side, whereas the other specimen has a different type of addition on each side. Of the 23 examples for which the type of addition is known, 19 (82.6%) have the increase in number on the posterior half of the series. In one specimen the third supralabial on the right is diagonally divided and the resulting upper part does not contact the edge of the lip; hence the specimen has 6-6 supralabials. Infralabials The infralabials are five, six (usually), or seven on a side (Table 1). When five infralabials are present on either one or both sides, the reduction results from one of the following conditions: a) 2 and 3 are fused (N = 3); b) 1, 2, and 3 form 1 and 2 (N = 6); c) 2, 3, and 4 form 2 and 3 (N = 3); d) 5 is separated from the edge of the lip by a projection from an adjacent infralabial (N = 1); e) 1, 2, 3, and 4 form 1, 2, and 3 (N = 2); f) type of reduction unknown (N = 4). Of the specimens with 5-5 infralabials, two have the same type of reduction on each side, one has a different type of reduction on each side, and the type of reduction is unknown for the other two specimens. When seven infralabials are present on either one or both sides, the addition can result from infralabials 2 and 3 forming 2, 3, and 4 (N = 2); the type of addition is unknown in one specimen. In one specimen the second infralabial on the right side is reduced to a small wedge-shaped granule and in another specimen several infralabials on both sides are irregularly divided horizontally, although both specimens have six infralabials on the sides having the abnormalities. Preoculars Of the 245 specimens examined, 242 (98.8%) have one preocular on each side. Both preoculars are absent from two specimens, and one specimen has 1-0. In each case when a preocular is lacking, the "preocular" and prefrontal are fused. One specimen having 1-1 preoculars has both of them reduced to small vertical slivers. Postoculars Of the 245 specimens examined, 242 (98.8%) have one postocular on each side. Postoculars are 2-1 in two specimens and 1-2 in one. In one specimen the lower of the two postoculars on each side is very small, being approximately 1/6 the diameter of the upper one (measured with an ocular micrometer). Temporals Of the 245 specimens examined, 235 (95.9%) have 1 + 1 temporals on each side. Four specimens exhibit addition of temporals: one specimen has two secondary temporals on the left, and one has a tertiary temporal on the left. Two specimens have partly healed head injuries that probably caused atypical temporal conditions: one specimen has two primary temporals on the left, and one has two secondary temporals on the left and two upper and one lower secondary temporal on the right. Six specimens exhibit reduction of temporals: one lacks a primary temporal on the left ("temporal" is fused with sixth supralabial), two lack secondary temporals on the right, and three lack secondary temporals on the left. The right secondary "temporal" of one specimen is separated from the supralabials by a posterior extension of the primary temporal. Of the 246 specimens examined, 200 (81.3%) have both primary temporals in contact with their adjacent postoculars. Thirteen specimens (5.3%) have only the left primary temporal in contact with the postocular and eight (3.3%) have only the right primary temporal in contact with the postocular. Twenty-five specimens (10.2%) have both primary temporals separated from the postoculars. Separation of the primary temporal from the postocular, whenever it occurs, results from contact of mutual extensions from the adjacent parietal and supralabial (usually the fifth). Nasal Of the 243 specimens examined, 237 (97.5%) have the nasal divided below the naris on both sides. Three specimens have the nasal completely divided (above and below the naris) on only the left side; one specimen has a completely divided nasal on only the right side. A groove, but not a complete division of the nasal, is present above the left naris of one specimen. One specimen lacks the typical division below the naris on both sides, but a complete suture is present posterior to the naris and the resulting postnasal scales are, according to position, loreals. Contact of prefrontal with supralabials Of the 243 specimens examined, 147 (60.5%) have the prefrontal separated from the labials on each side. Of the remaining 96 specimens, 53 (21.8% of the 243) have the prefrontals in contact with the second labial on each side; five other variations of this characteristic were observed (Table 2). TABLE 2. Variation in Contact of the Prefrontals and the Labials in 243 Specimens of Tantilla gracilis. ----------------------------------------------------+---------+---------- |Number |Per cent CHARACTERISTIC |of |of |specimens|occurrence ----------------------------------------------------+---------+---------- No contact | 147 | 60.5 Contact of prefrontal with second labial on right | 26 | 10.7 Contact of prefrontal with second labial on left | 10 | 4.1 Contact of prefrontal with each second labial | 53 | 21.8 Contact of prefrontals with labial two on left and | | labial three on right | 1 | 0.4 Contact of prefrontals with labial three on left and| | labial two on right | 3 | 1.2 Contact of prefrontals with labial two on left and | | labials two and three on right | 3 | 1.2 ----------------------------------------------------+---------+---------- The specimen having the prefrontal in contact with labial 2 on the left and labial 3 on the right has seven supralabials on the right, the extra labial being added anterior to the eye. In two of the three specimens with the prefrontals in contact with labial 3 on the left and labial 2 on the right, the preoculars and prefrontals are fused on each side; the third specimen has each preocular reduced to a small vertical sliver. Of the three specimens having the prefrontals in contact with labial 2 on the left and labials 2 and 3 on the right, two are typical with respect to other characteristics that might result in this atypical condition, but one has the prefrontals and preoculars fused. Supralabials entering orbit Of the 246 specimens examined, 233 (94.7%) have the third and fourth supralabials entering each eye (Table 3). All snakes that have the fourth and fifth labials entering the orbit on either side also have seven supralabials on the same side. One specimen having only the fourth labial entering the eye on the right side also has six supralabials on that side, but the third supralabial is split diagonally and the part contacting the eye does not contact the lip and hence is not a supralabial. The remaining three atypical conditions (4/3 + 4; 3 + 4/3 + 4 + 5; 3 + 4 + 5/3 + 4) occur only one time each and on snakes having 6-6 supralabials. Contact of mental with chin-shields Of the 246 specimens examined, 190 (77.2%) have the mental in contact with both anterior chin-shields. The mental is in contact with only the left anterior chin-shield in 15 specimens, only the right anterior chin-shield in 2 specimens, and the mental does not contact either anterior chin-shield in 39 specimens. Separation of the mental and an anterior chin-shield always results from the posterior elongation of a first infralabial. TABLE 3. Variation in Number of Supralabials Entering the Eye in 246 Specimens of Tantilla gracilis. ----------------------+-----------+------------ SUPRALABIALS | Number of | Per cent of ----------------------+ specimens | occurrence Left | Right | | ----------+-----------+-----------+------------ 3 + 4 | 3 + 4 | 233 | 94.7 4 + 5 | 3 + 4 | 4 | 1.6 4 | 3 + 4 | 1 | 0.4 3 + 4 | 4 + 5 | 5 | 2.0 3 + 4 | 4 | 1 | 0.4 3 + 4 | 3 + 4 + 5 | 1 | 0.4 3 + 4 + 5 | 3 + 4 | 1 | 0.4 ----------+-----------+-----------+------------ Dorsal scale rows Of the 245 specimens examined for this characteristic, 228 (92.7%) have scale counts of 15-15-15-15-15. The number of scale rows around the neck and one head length behind the head are 15 except in a single specimen that has 14 scale rows at these three places. The number of scale rows around midbody is 15 in 244 of 246 specimens (99.2%); two specimens have 14 scale rows around midbody. The number of preanal scale rows is more variable; counts of 14 through 17 were recorded. Fourteen specimens have 14 preanal scale rows (5.7%), 229 have 15 preanal rows (93.1%), two have 16 preanal rows (0.8%), and one has 17 preanal rows (0.4%). Known causes for atypical numbers of preanal scale rows are listed in Table 4. A preanal count at one head length anterior to the anus would have omitted most of the above variation in numbers of preanal scale rows. TABLE 4. Atypical Numbers of Preanal Scale Rows in Specimens of Tantilla gracilis. -------+---------+--------------------------------------------+---------- Preanal|Number | |Per cent scales |of | CAUSE |of |specimens| |occurrence -------+---------+--------------------------------------------+---------- | |Scale rows seven and eight on left fuse | 14 | 10 |within the last five ventrals | 4.1 | | | | |Scale row two on the right is lost adjacent | 14 | 1 |to the penultimate ventral | 0.4 | | | | |Scale row eight on the left divides adjacent| 16 | 1 |to the last ventral | 0.4 | | | | |A scale row is added on the right adjacent | 16 | 1 |to and anterior to the anal plate | 0.4 | | | | |A scale row is added on each side adjacent | 17 | 1 |to and anterior to the anal plate | 0.4 -------+---------+--------------------------------------------+---------- The complete dorsal scale formula for KU 83620, a male, is as follows: 6 + 7(2) + 7(4) 6 + 7(11) 15 --------- 13 --------- 14 --------- 15 ---------- 13 --------------, 6 + 7(2) +7(5) 6 + 7(11) 6 = 6 + 7(17) 14 ------------- 13---------, 6 + 7(18) +7(25) + 7(26) 6 + 7(38) +7(39) 14 ---------- 15 ---------- 14 ------------ 13---------- 14----------, 6 + 7(36) +7(42) 15 --------- 14 ---------, -6(45) +7(53) 7 + 8(67) + 7(69) 15 ------------ 14 ----------- 15 ----------- 14 ---------- 15----------, 6 + 7(90) +7(93) 6 + 7(99) 14 ------------ 15(122). + 7(100) Specimen 83620 is the only one for which we have determined the complete dorsal scale formula. Obviously the formula is complex, and possibly the specimen is atypical in this regard. Nevertheless, addition and reduction of scale rows is apparent on other specimens and can be easily observed by examining specimens under a dissection microscope. Anal plate Of the 246 specimens examined, 232 (94.3%) have the anal plate divided. Of the 14 specimens having undivided anal plates, four have an incomplete groove anteriorly in the plate. Ventrals [Illustration: FIG. 2. Number of ventrals in females and males of _T. gracilis_.] Females have from 122 to 137 (mean, 130.8 ± 0.26; N = 107) ventrals; males have from 117 to 131 (mean, 122.3 ± 0.21; N = 139; Fig. 2). Of the 246 specimens examined, 29 (11.8%; 11 females and 18 males) have an added half-ventral immediately anterior to the anal plate. Of these specimens, 27 have the added half-ventral on the left side and two have it on the right. Five specimens have the last ventral divided similar to the normal division of the anal plate. One specimen has the last ventral incompletely divided transversely. Excluding the last ventral, seven specimens have divided ventrals (half-ventrals). Four of these specimens have added half-ventrals on the right side (two specimens with one half-ventral each, one specimen with two half-ventrals, and one specimen with three half-ventrals), and four have added half-ventrals on the left side (one half-ventral on each specimen). Subcaudals Females have from 37 to 47 (mean, 42.0 ± 0.20; N = 79) subcaudals; males have from 43 to 55 (mean, 48.4 ± 0.23; N = 109; Fig. 3). Of the 187 specimens examined, 13 (7.0%) have the last pair of subcaudals fused. One specimen has left subcaudal 28 fused with both adjacent subcaudals (also fused) on the right. While reading proof we found two omissions in Fig. 3; there should be illustrated two males with 43 subcaudals and three males with 44 subcaudals. [Illustration: FIG. 3. Number of subcaudals in females and males of _T. gracilis_.] Ventrals minus subcaudals The value for number of ventrals minus the number of subcaudals varies from 80 to 96 (mean, 88.8 ± 0.39) for 79 females, and from 67 to 83 (mean, 73.8 ± 0.28) for 109 males. Additional scale characteristics Of the 246 specimens examined, four (1.6%) have the rostral in contact with the left prefrontal, and hence the internasals are separated from one another. One snake has approximately one-fourth (anteriorly) of the suture between the parietals fused. One specimen has the posterior edge of the frontal fused with the left parietal. One specimen has the parietal shield on the right side abbreviated posteriorly. One specimen has both prefrontals fused with the frontal, although an incomplete suture is present. Maxillary characteristics (_Figs. 4 and 5_) Maxillary teeth anterior to fangs 10-14 (mean, 12.1; N = 20); tooth-socket number 6.5-8.5 (mean, 7.2; N = 20) directly opposite distal tip of suborbital process; lateral anterior foramina 1-3 (mean, 1.8; N = 20); tooth number 6-9 (mean, 6.9; N = 12) directly below center of posterior foramen (if only two foramina present). Three specimens lack a diastema and 17 specimens have a diastema. The anterior and posterior edges of the suborbital process are parallel in two specimens and not parallel in 14; the process is broken in four specimens. The lengths (anterior to posterior) of the lateral anterior foramina (if only two are present) are approximately equal in six specimens, and in six the anteriormost one is the longest; six specimens have one foramen and two specimens have three foramina. All specimens examined have two fangs, with the posterior edge of the lateral flange forming an obtuse angle. [Illustration: FIG. 4. Lateral view of right maxilla of _T. gracilis_ (KU 83484), � 39. Actual length of bone is 2.44 mm. A. Detail of bone. B. Outline sketch of bone to illustrate characteristics examined. Lateral anterior foramina (LF); fangs (F); "prediastemal" maxillary teeth (MT); lateral flange (PLF); perpendicular lines, A-B and C-D, are used to determine which tooth-socket occurs directly below the center of the posterior foramen (the specimen illustrated is atypical because there are three foramina present).] Discussion and Conclusions Generic characteristics of _Tantilla_ are as follows: size small, body slender, head not noticeably distinct from body; preoculars one; postoculars one or two; nasals two; loreal absent; smooth dorsal scales in 15 rows; anal plate usually divided but sometimes single; subcaudals paired; usually two enlarged, posterior, grooved fangs on the maxilla separated by a small diastema from the other maxillary teeth (Baird and Girard, 1853:131; Cope, 1900:1110; Dunn, 1928:24; Blanchard, 1938:369; Schmidt and Davis, 1941:268; Wright and Wright, 1957:722; Conant, 1958:180). Of these characteristics, only the following were invariable in our sample: size small, body slender, head not noticeably distinct from body; postoculars one or two; smooth dorsal scales; posterior grooved fangs on maxilla. The dorsal scales, anal, and subcaudals were "correct" 92 per cent of the time; the preoculars and nasals were "correct" 97 per cent of the time. [Illustration: FIG. 5. Ventral view of right maxilla of _T. gracilis_ (KU 83484), � 39. Actual length of bone is 2.44 mm. A. Detail of bone. B. Outline sketch of bone to illustrate characteristics examined. Lateral flange (PLF) forms an obtuse angle (ADC) with main axis of bone (AB); a reference line (2), perpendicular to the main axis of the bone, is used to locate the tooth-socket directly opposite the tip of the suborbital process (SOP); the anterior and posterior edges of the suborbital process are not parallel at any point (reference lines 1 and 3).] _Tantilla_ reportedly has two nasals (Baird and Girard, 1853:131; Cope, 1900:1110; Wright and Wright, 1957:722). _Tantilla gracilis_ usually has a single nasal that is divided below the naris; variation in this characteristic is discussed above. In addition to the generic characteristics, specific characteristics for _T. gracilis_ are as follows: supralabials 5-8 (usually 6); supralabials 3 and 4 entering orbit; infralabials 5-7 (usually 6); temporals 1 + 1; ventrals 115-138 in females, 106-132 in males; subcaudals 33-53 in females, 40-57 in males; tail length 13-27 per cent total length in females, 15-30 per cent in males (Baird and Girard, 1853:132; Cope, 1900:1111-12; Force, 1935:653-54; Taylor, 1936:337-38; Blanchard, 1938:371-72; Kirn, Burger, and Smith, 1949:240-49). Excepting the number of temporals and the supralabials entering the orbit, the characteristics of the specimens in our sample are within the ranges of variation mentioned above. Of the 10 maxillary characteristics studied, no variation was observed in number of fangs or angle of lateral flange. Because our data have some bearing on the problem of geographic variation in _T. gracilis_ and the recognition of subspecies, we comment briefly on the status of subspecies in _T. gracilis_. Kirn, Burger and Smith (1949) proposed the recognition of two subspecies of _Tantilla gracilis_ (_T. g. gracilis_ Baird and Girard and _T. g. hallowelli_ Cope). These subspecies were diagnosed on the basis of differences in ventrals, subcaudals, and the ratio of tail length to total length; sexual dimorphism in each characteristic was considered. We do not recognize these subspecies for the reasons given below. The data of Kirn _et al._ (1949) appear to be presented inaccurately in part. Both of us independently recalculated the mean given for each characteristic for each subspecies, using the data in figures 2-4 of Kirn _et al._ (1949:242, 244-245). Of their 12 means presented (table 1, p. 247) only two agree with our recalculated means, although the means calculated by each of us independently are in complete agreement (Table 5). Also, we independently calculated the percentages of specimens of each "subspecies" that are included in the ranges of variation given in their diagnoses (Table 5); again, our independent calculations are in complete agreement. In our opinion the differences between the populations for the characteristics analyzed do not warrant recognition of subspecies (Fig. 6). TABLE 5. Means of "Diagnostic" Characteristics of T. g. gracilis Baird and Girard and T. g. hallowelli Cope. ============================================================================= | _T. g. gracilis_ | _T. g. hallowelli_ -----------------+-----------------------------+----------------------------- | | |Per cent | | |Per cent CHARACTERISTICS | | Mean |specimens | | Mean |specimens | Mean | (Kirn, |of Kirn, | Mean | (Kirn, |of Kirn, |(Kirn, |_et al._)|_et al._ | (Kirn, |_et al._)|_et al._ |_et al._|recalcu- |included |_et al._ |recalcu- |included | 1949) | lated |their |in 1949) | lated |in their | | by us |diagnosis | | by us |diagnosis -----------------+--------+---------+----------+---------+---------+--------- Ventrals--females|125.67 | 125.71 | 69.4 | 130.07 | 130.07 | 79.6 Ventrals--males |115.97 | 116.61 | 70.0 | 121.22 | 120.87 | 69.7 | | | | | | Caudals--females | 40.99 | 40.82 | 62.8 | 46.79 | 43.82 | 77.4 Caudals--males | 47.75 | 48.29 | 78.3 | 51.67 | 50.29 | 51.0 | | | | | | Tail L./total L. | | | | | | females | .1976| .1976| 69.0 | .2084| .2076| 74.2 Tail L./total L. | | | | | | males | .2336| .2362| 56.1 | .2477| .2423| 79.6 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- The data presented by Kirn _et al._ do not demonstrate intergradation between two populations. Moreover, the diagnostic ranges of the number of subcaudals in males of _hallowelli_ and the ratio of tail length to total length in males of _gracilis_ do not include the recalculated means for those characteristics. Furthermore, the means for the following characteristics are dangerously close to being excluded from their respective "diagnostic" ranges: in _hallowelli_, the number of ventrals in males; in _gracilis_, the number of subcaudals in females, and the ratio of tail length to total length in females. It is incongruous that Kirn _et al._ state (p. 243) that "the coefficient of geographic divergence is .6 per degree latitude" for ventrals, and on the same page they state that "The average number of ventrals gradually increases toward the north in _Tantilla gracilis_ except in southern Oklahoma and central Arkansas (the area of intergradation between _T. g. gracilis_ and _T. g. hallowelli_) where the change seems to be more abrupt." The data presented in Kirn _et al._ (1949) do not demonstrate an abrupt change. The present sample of _T. gracilis_ from Kansas is clearly within the geographic range of _T. g. hallowelli_ as mapped by Kirn _et al._ (1949:241). However, for the sample from Kansas, the mean number of subcaudals of males is well within the diagnostic range for _T. g. gracilis_ (Table 6), the mean number of subcaudals of females is closer to the mean of _gracilis_ than it is to the mean of _hallowelli_ (Table 5), and the mean of the ratio of tail length to total length of both sexes is within or very close to the diagnostic range for _gracilis_ (Table 6). [Illustration: FIG. 6. Frequency polygons presenting ratios of tail length to total length for males of _T. g. gracilis_ and _T. g. hallowelli_ from Kirn, _et al._ (1949). The dotted vertical lines represent the means given by Kirn, _et al._ (1949) for _gracilis_ (left) and _hallowelli_ (right); the solid vertical lines represent the recalculated means for _gracilis_ and _hallowelli_, respectively, using the data of Kirn, _et al._ The hatched bars represent the range included by Kirn, _et al._ (1949) in their diagnoses of _gracilis_ (left) and _hallowelli_ (right).] TABLE 6. Comparison of the Means of Some Characteristics of the Sample of _Tantilla gracilis_ from Kansas (Our Data) with Some of the Diagnostic Characteristics (Kirn _et al._, 1949:240) of _Tantilla gracilis gracilis_. ============================================================ |Diagnostic range for | Mean of the sample CHARACTERISTIC | _T. g. gracilis_ |("_T. g. hallowelli_") | | from Kansas ---------------+---------------------+---------------------- No. of | | subcaudals | 40-50 | 48.4 (N = 109) males | | | | Tail L./ | | Total L. | .160-.200 | .20 (N = 79) females | | | | Tail L./ | | Total L. | .200-.235 | .23 (N = 109) males | | ---------------+---------------------+---------------------- Smith and Sanders (1952:218) pointed out an error in the range of subcaudals in female _T. g. gracilis_ as stated in table 1 (p. 247) of Kirn _et al._ We add some additional corrections that should be made on the same page. In table two, column two ("Sex"), the words "male" and "female" are reversed for each characteristic. Also, in table two, column four ("Means from data of Force"), the means for caudals should be corrected from 33.61 to 43.61 in females and from 39.99 to 50.32 in males, as based on our recalculations from Force's data; we did not recalculate the means of Force's data for the other characteristics. The discussion above demonstrates that the number of subcaudals and the ratio of tail length to total length are weak characteristics for diagnosing _T. g. gracilis_ and _T. g. hallowelli_. The only remaining diagnostic characteristic given by Kirn _et al._ (1949) is the number of ventrals. Nevertheless, a step-cline in the number of ventrals, if one exists, is yet to be demonstrated. Therefore, we completely agree with Dowling (1957:32), who stated that "... the overlap in each character is so great that any subspecific differences appear to be as yet undefined. It is here suggested that _T. gracilis_ be retained as binomial...." LITERATURE CITED BAIRD, S. F. and GIRARD, C. 1853. Catalogue of North American Reptiles in the museum of the Smithsonian Institution. Part I.--Serpents. Smithsonian Misc. Colls., 2:1-172. BLANCHARD, F. N. 1938. Snakes of the genus _Tantilla_ in the United States. Zool. Ser. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., 20(28):369-376. CONANT, R. 1958. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 366 pp. COPE, E. D. 1900. The crocodilians, lizards, and snakes of North America. U. S. Nat. Mus. Rept. (1898), 153-1270. DOWLING, H. G. 1951. A proposed standard system of counting ventrals in snakes. British J. Herpetology, 1(5):97-99. 1957. A review of the amphibians and reptiles of Arkansas. Occas. Paps. Univ. Arkansas Mus., No. 3:1-51. DUNN, E. R. 1928. A tentative key and arrangement of the American genera of Colubridae. Bull. Antivenin Inst. Amer., 2 (147):18-24. FORCE, E. R. 1935. A local study of the opisthoglyph snake _Tantilla gracilis_ Baird and Girard. Papers Michigan Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, 20:645-659. KIRN, A. J., BURGER, W. L., and SMITH, H. M. 1949. The subspecies of _Tantilla gracilis_. Amer. Midl. Nat., 42(1):238-251. PETERS, J. A. 1960. The snakes of the subfamily Dipsadinae. Misc. Pubis. Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, No. 114:1-224. 1964. Dictionary of herpetology. Hafner Publ. Co., New York, 392 pp. SCHMIDT, K. P. and DAVIS, D. D. 1941. Field book of snakes. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 365 pp. SMITH, H. M. and SANDERS, O. 1952. Distributional data on Texan amphibians and reptiles. Texas J. Sci., 4(2):204-219. TAYLOR, E. H. 1936. Notes and comments on certain American and Mexican snakes of the genus _Tantilla_, with descriptions of new species. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 39:335-348. WRIGHT, A. H. and WRIGHT, A. A. 1957. Handbook of snakes. Comstock Publ. Assoc, Cornell, Vol. II, pp. 565-1105. _Department of Biology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 87106, and Department of Zoology, The University of Arizona, Tucson, 85721._ _Transmitted July 11, 1967._ * * * * * Transcriber's Notes The following corrections were made to the text: 
34949	----	Transcriber's Notes This Plain Text version has been prepared for Smooth Reading using the ASCII and Latin-1 character sets. Italic typeface has been represented using _underscores_; Bold typeface has been represented using =equals symbols=; Small caps typeface has been represented using UPPER CASE. Note that some unexpected spellings have not been changed from the original: Page 155 onwards: "parotoid" appears for "parotid". Page 172 (two references by Mori): "Quelpaert" appears for "Quelpart". The following changes to the text have been made: Page 159: changed "planyci" to "plancyi" (The most trenchant characters of _plancyi_ seem to be ...) Page 169: changed "juvenal" to "juvenile" (... does not conform to the juvenile pattern of either subspecies.) * * * * * UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 15, No. 2, pp. 149-173 January 31, 1962 Some Reptiles and Amphibians from Korea BY ROBERT G. WEBB, J. KNOX JONES, JR., AND GEORGE W. BYERS UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1962 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Henry S. Fitch, Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Volume 15, No. 2, pp. 149-173 Published January 31, 1962 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY JEAN M. NEIBARGER, STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1962 28-8517 Some Reptiles and Amphibians from Korea BY ROBERT G. WEBB, J. KNOX JONES, JR., AND GEORGE W. BYERS In 1954, two of us (Jones and Byers) collected reptiles and amphibians in Korea incidental to field studies relating to hemorrhagic fever. The 382 specimens thus obtained were deposited either in the Museum of Natural History of The University of Kansas (KU), or in the Museum of Zoology of the University of Michigan (UMMZ), and are the basis for the present report. Continuous American military operations of one sort or another in Korea since 1945 have afforded opportunities for interested persons to obtain there collections of amphibians and reptiles, the study of which has resulted in several recent publications (Babb, 1955; Dixon, 1956; Hahn, 1959 and 1960; Shannon, 1956 and 1957; Stewart, 1953 and 1954; Tanner, 1953; Walley, 1958_a_ and 1958_b_). This paper, which contains comments on the natural history and taxonomy of 22 species, all previously reported from Korea, supplements earlier studies, especially Shannon's (1956) annotated list of the herpetofauna of the country. Shannon (_loc. cit._) recorded 36 kinds of reptiles and amphibians from Korea. Subsequently, _Bufo stejnegeri_ (previously omitted) was added by Shannon (1957), _Takydromus takydromoides oldi_ was described by Walley (1958_a_), and _Takydromus kwangakuensis_ was relegated to synonymy under _T. amurensis_ by Walley (1958_b_). Presently, then, 37 kinds are on record from the Korean Peninsula. In the accounts beyond, Jones and Byers are mostly responsible for the remarks on natural history, whereas Webb is mostly responsible for the taxonomic comments. The synonymies include (1) the original description, which is followed by (2) the first use of the name-combination here employed if it differs from the name as originally proposed, and (3) any synonyms having type localities in Korea. All measurements are in millimeters and all dates refer to the year 1954 unless otherwise indicated. A gazetteer of localities mentioned in the text and a list of literature cited follow the accounts of species. We are grateful to the officers, enlisted men and civilians associated in 1954 with the Field Unit of the Commission on Hemorrhagic Fever, Armed Forces Epidemiological Board, who aided our efforts in Korea; we are especially mindful of the contributions of Dr. Albert A. Barber, Dr. Marshall Hertig, Mr. Louis J. Lipovsky and Dr. Warren D. Thomas. We are grateful also to Mr. Yoshinori Imaizumi, National Science Museum of Japan, for his translations of several papers in Japanese, and to Dr. Edward H. Taylor for making certain pertinent references available to us. =Hynobius leechii= Boulenger _Hynobius Leechii_ Boulenger, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, 19:67, January, 1887 (type locality, Gensan [=Wonsan], Korea). _Hynobius leechii quelpaertensis_ Mori, Jour. Chosen Nat. Hist. Soc., 6:47 (Japanese) and 53 (English), March 25, 1928 (type locality, Quelpart Island [=Cheju Do], Korea). _Specimens examined_ (3).--1 mi. SW Inje, 1 (KU); 4 mi. NNE Sogwi-ri, Cheju Do, 2 (KU). _Description_ (KU 38774 from 1 mi. SW Inje).--Total length, 86 (head 13, body 40, tail 33); costal grooves (including axillary and inguinal), 13; two costal grooves between adpressed toes; length of inner branch of series of vomerine teeth less than distance between outer border of naris and peak of opposite series (tooth-rows V-shaped, approximately as long as broad); dorsal surface yellowish brown or buff (yellowish in life), having numerous blackish marks; venter yellowish cream, having an indistinct grayish mottling. _Remarks._--The salamander described above was found in a foxhole with another desiccated individual (not saved) on a military compound on April 24. The only other occurrence of _H. leechii_ on the mainland to come to our attention was the report of several larvae that were seen in a small pool on a hillside near Chip´o-ri in the summer of 1953. Each of the two specimens from Cheju Do (KU 38775-76) differs from KU 38774 in having (1) the length of inner branch of the vomerine series slightly greater than the distance between outer border of naris and peak of opposite series (tooth-rows V-shaped, longer than broad), (2) a dorsal and ventral keel on the tail, (3) one costal groove (rather than two costal grooves) between adpressed toes, and (4) in being darker both dorsally and ventrally. The area of buff on the dorsal surface of each specimen is reduced by a fine, blackish mottling and stippling, and the venter of each is grayish. Respective total lengths of KU 38775 and 38776 are 84 (head 12, body 36, tail 36) and 89 (12, 35, 42), and the number of costal grooves 13 and 14. Although the two specimens are of approximately the same size, the tail of KU 38776 is noticeably the longer; the tail of KU 38775 is thicker and deeper than that of KU 38776. The two specimens from 4 mi. NNE Sogwi-ri were taken on September 9 in damp substrate under volcanic rocks along a little-used road; although many rocks were overturned, only these two individuals were found. A South Korean soldier informed us that salamanders were fairly common on Cheju Do. Mori (1928_a_:16) first mentioned in Japanese text the alleged distinctiveness of the salamander occurring on Cheju Do. Later, Mori (1928_b_:47 in Japanese, and 1928_c_:53 in English) provided valid descriptions of the subspecies, _Hynobius leechii quelpaertensis_. Okada (1934:17) questioned the validity of _H. l. quelpaertensis_ and Sato (1943) regarded the salamanders of Cheju Do as inseparable from the Korean _H. leechii_. The English description of _quelpaertensis_ is briefer than the preceding one in Japanese and lacks comparisons with related forms. KU 38775-76 seemingly differ appreciably from the description of _quelpaertensis_ only in having the series of vomerine teeth narrowly V-shaped and longer than broad. We tentatively follow Sato in regarding _quelpaertensis_ as a synonym of _leechii_. =Bombina orientalis= (Boulenger) _Bombinator orientalis_ Boulenger, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, 5:143, pl. IX, fig. 2, February, 1890 (type locality restricted to Chefoo, China, by Pope, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 61:435, August 29, 1931). _Bombina orientalis_, Stejneger, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 58:51, figs. 30-43, pl. VII (reproduction from Boulenger, _supra_), July 22, 1907. _Specimens examined_ (87).--2 mi. N Chip´o-ri, 8 (KU), 5 (UMMZ); 1 mi. SW Inje, 1 (KU); 15 mi. NE Mosulp´o, Cheju Do, 6 (KU); Sangdaehwa, 2 (KU); Taehoesan-ni, 1 (KU); 1 mi. W Tangjonggok, 32 (KU), 17 (UMMZ); Tangnim-ni, 2 (KU); 3 mi. SW Yanggu, 1 (KU); 2 mi. N Yongdae-ri, 8 (KU), 4 (UMMZ). _Remarks._--Most of our specimens were taken from breeding congresses after heavy rains in rice fields and other shallow temporary waters. Thirteen individuals from Chip´o-ri were collected from foxholes around the edge of a military compound (two pairs in amplexus; no egg masses seen), and represent a small sample of frogs that were everywhere following a heavy rain on the night of May 13-14. On April 23, 32 _Bombina orientalis_ and three _Rana temporaria dybowskii_ were trapped in the water-filled bottom of an unused grease pit near Tangjonggok. Many tadpoles and two kinds of egg masses (small clusters and beadlike strings) were present; the small clusters of _Bombina_ were commonest. On June 13 at the same locality, thousands of these toads were observed (hundreds in axillary amplexus) in foxholes, temporary rain pools, and backwashes along the Puk-ch´on [river]. On June 12 near Yongdae-ri many individuals were seen (several pairs in amplexus), along Route 24 paralleling the Puk-ch´on, in rain pools and in ditches and backwashes from the river; almost all available water contained small (approximately 10 × 10 mm.) egg masses. Numbers of eggs per mass, selected at random, were 5, 2, 2, 5, 2, 8, 8, 2 and 5. Some that were saved subsequently hatched on June 15-17. The call is a quiet low trill or series of staccato whistles rising slightly at the beginning; a short peeplike note also was heard. The specimens from Cheju Do, which are generally smaller than those collected on the mainland in spring, were taken on September 6 in a small stream that had large volcanic rocks in many places and that was flanked by thick brush and small trees. The earliest and latest dates on which _B. orientalis_ was collected were April 21 and September 6, respectively. In the breeding season, males are distinguished from females by the large blackish (probably brownish earlier in season) areas on the anteroventral surface of the antebrachium, the metacarpal tubercle, and the inner surface of the first finger (sometimes also the second and third). Also, males have conspicuous black-tipped tubercles on the back (usually absent in females) that extend onto the limbs (usually smooth in females, at least laterally). Field observations by one of us (Byers) suggested that the dorsal pattern of males had greater contrast than that of females and that the venter was brighter reddish. Eight females from Tangjonggok averaged 47.9 (43-51) in snout-vent length, whereas 24 males from there averaged 50.0 (46-55), indicating little, if any, size difference between the sexes. Okada (1931:29) recorded variation in color of live Korean individuals (green or brown dorsally and pale yellow or red ventrally) and variation in extent of black markings on the belly (_op. cit._:fig. 12). The specimens from Cheju Do (28, 32, 32, 32, 37 and 46 in snout-vent length) have less black ventrally than specimens from the mainland. =Bufo bufo gargarizans= Cantor _Bufo gargarizans_ Cantor, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 1, 9:483, August, 1842 (type locality, island of Chusan, China). _Bufo bufo gargarizans_, Stejneger, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 58:59, July 22, 1907. _Specimens examined_ (10).--Central National Forest, near Pup´yong-ni, 1 (KU); 5 mi. NW Choksong, near Imjin River, 1 (KU); 5 mi. E Seoul, 1 (KU); 6 mi. E Seoul, 4 (KU), 2 (UMMZ); 1 mi. S Yami-ri, 1 (KU). _Description (nine females)._--Dorsal surface brownish, having indistinct pale areas, some of which tend to form longitudinal stripes that extend posteriorly from parotoid glands; blackish mark, usually on lateral part of parotoid, having short spurs directed posteriorly and ventrally; edge of upper jaw and warts on dorsal surface becoming blackish with increasing size; small, conspicuous group of warts near angle of jaw below parotoid; middorsal warts tending, at level of posterior edge of parotoids, to form a V that has its apex between the parotoids; ventral surface pale yellowish, sometimes having well-defined blackish marks; granular underparts of large specimens having small blackish tubercles. _Male (KU 40118 from 5 mi. E Seoul)._--Snout-vent length, 65; no vocal sacs or slits; dorsal and inner surfaces of first and second fingers, and inner surface of third finger black; canthus rostralis indistinct (a well-defined ridge on right side); nostrils closer to tip of snout than to eye, their distance from each other slightly less than interorbital width; interorbital width (6.2) greater than width of eyelid (4.7); tympanum distinct, circular, its diameter (3.0) less than length of eye (6.5), and approximately twice distance (1.6) of tympanum from eye; no cranial crests; parotoid gland elongate, approximately twice as long as broad (12.5 × 5.0), narrowly separated from posterior edge of eyelid; head elongate (width at posterior edge of tympanum, 23.6); length from posterior edge of tympanum to tip of upper jaw, 18.9; first finger slightly longer than second, fourth finger about two-thirds as long as third; most subarticular tubercles divided; outer palmar tubercle larger than inner; heels not touching when folded legs placed at right angles to longitudinal axis of body; tibiotarsal articulation just reaching eye when leg laid forward; tarsometatarsal articulation not reaching beyond snout; foot large (tibiotarsal articulation to tip of fourth toe approximately 46.0); fourth toe approximately half webbed, other toes more than half webbed; edges of webs somewhat crenulate; some subarticular tubercles divided; length of inner metatarsal tubercle (4.5) more than half length of first toe (7.0); inner metatarsal tubercle larger than outer, both darkened; tarsal fold extending from inner metatarsal tubercle for approximately two-thirds length of tarsus; tips of toes (not fingers) darkened; dorsal surface of back and proximal part of hind legs coarsely granular, of rounded, pavement-type tubercles lacking sharp tips; small group of warts near angle of jaw below parotoids; dorsal pattern contrasting and irregular (especially on limbs), of dark brown and pale gray; conspicuous black mark (interrupted) on lateral surface of parotoid having two, well-defined spurs that project posteroventrally; undersurface granular, lacking markings except for two indistinctly-margined dark spots on chest, and black spot on left leg. _Remarks._--This nocturnal, introduced species (Okada, 1931:47) is presumably widespread in Korea and seemingly prefers lowland habitats. Individuals were taken in sparse vegetation on a sand flat near the Han River, at the edge of a rice field in a light rain, along a road at night, and in millet fields adjacent to the Han River, which was flooding at that time (July 9). As is obvious from the foregoing descriptions, the male (KU 40118), which was obtained on March 19, differs considerably from the nine females; neither does it agree with Stejneger's (1907:66) or Okada's (_op. cit._:45-46, fig. 18) description of males of _Bufo bufo asiaticus [=gargarizans]_ from Wonsan and Seoul. Upon cursory examination, KU 40118 is notable for having a contrasting dorsal pattern and elongate, ranidlike proportions. Some of the characteristics resemble those of _Bufo raddei_ Strauch as given by Stejneger (_op. cit._:70-72, figs. 53-57), Okada (1935:9, figs. 2 and 32-34, pls. II-III), and Liu (1950:203-205, fig. 43). Stejneger (_op. cit._:59-68) recognized _B. b. gargarizans_ as occurring in southern China, and _Bufo bufo asiaticus_ as the subspecies occurring in northern China. Subsequently, _asiaticus_ was relegated to synonymy under the earlier-named _gargarizans_--see discussions by Pope and Boring (1940:33) and Liu (_op. cit._:220). =Kaloula borealis= (Barbour) _Cacopoides borealis_ Barbour, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 51(12):231, April, 1908 (type locality, Antung, Manchuria). _Kaloula borealis_, Noble, Amer. Mus. Novit., 165:6, April 16, 1925. _Specimens examined_ (8).--5 mi. ESE Seoul, 1 (KU); 6 mi. E Seoul, 3 (UMMZ); 7 mi. ESE Seoul, 4 (KU). _Remarks._--On April 5, one male and three females were uncovered by a bulldozer from between one and two feet below the surface of the ground in an old Korean burial mound; one individual was completely surrounded by compact soil. All quickly became active when placed in water. Two of the females (43 and 44 in snout-vent length) contained masses of immature eggs. A male obtained on June 4 was found during a rain; the three UMMZ specimens were obtained on July 8 on banks above the Han River. Breeding of this species seems to coincide with the rainy season in late spring and early summer when males were noted calling around flooded ditches and swales in deep grass. The local Korean name of the species, which sounds something like "maeng-kongi," is said to come from the call, which is best described as a monotonous, snoring sound that rarely is heard in two parts as suggested by the name. =Hyla arborea japonica= Günther [_Hyla arborea_] Var. _japonica_ Günther, Catalogue of the Batrachia Salientia in the ... British Museum, p. 109, 1858 (type locality, Japan). _Hyla arborea_ var. _savignyi_ Boulenger, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, 19:67, January, 1887 (type locality, Gensan [= Wonsan], Korea). _Hyla stepheni_ Boulenger, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 579, pl. 51, fig. 1 (for 1887), April, 1888 (type locality, Port Hamilton, a small island between Korea and Japan). _Specimens examined_ (44).--Central National Forest, near Pup´yong-ni, 2 (KU); 3 mi. NW Chip´o-ri, 1 (KU); 1 mi. N Mosulp´o, Cheju Do, 1 (KU); 1 mi. NW Oho-ri, 13 (KU), 3 (UMMZ); Sangbonch´on-ni, 2 (UMMZ); 5 mi. ESE Seoul, 8 (KU); 6 mi. E Seoul, 10 (KU), 3 (UMMZ); 7 mi. NNE Sogwi-ri, Cheju Do, 1 (UMMZ). _Remarks._--Hylids from 5 mi. ESE Seoul were collected from a cement-walled pit at the Seoul City Water Works; a specimen of _Elaphe rufodorsata_ taken in the pit had eaten one hylid. Two individuals were taken in the morning of May 29 on leaf litter in a wooded valley in the Central National Forest where a number were calling in a light rain, but the species was rarely found in woods. Two frogs were found along a rocky stream at Sangbonch´on-ni. Most individuals were taken while calling, on grasses and reeds or on the ground, along the edges of rice fields. Sixteen hylids collected 1 mi. NW Oho-ri were calling in shallow water of a rice field on a hillside, but none was heard in a large lake nearby or in adjacent fields. On May 15, 4 mi. ESE Ch´orwon, approximately one hundred tadpoles, thought to be of this species, congregated near a drain (into a lower field) of an unused rice field; the tadpoles were well-developed, some having hind legs. The earliest and latest dates of collection represented in our material are May 8 and October 29. The call is best described as a raspy "waak," "week," or "wiick" in the middle register. The listing of "Hylae arboreae var japonicae descript pars _Schleg. in Fauna Japon._ p. 112 ..." by Günther (1858:81) in synonymy under the account of _Polypedates schlegelii_, implies that Schlegel was the first author to use the name-combination _Hyla arborea japonica_. Boulenger (1882:86, 381) went so far as to credit Schlegel as the author of the name _japonica_. The reason for this action is not known because Schlegel (in von Siebold, 1838:112) referred to this hylid only under the name "Hyla arborea." =Rana rugosa= Schlegel _Rana rugosa_ Schlegel, Reptilia [Saurii et Batrachii], _in_ von Siebold, Fauna Japonica, p. 110, pl. 3, figs. 3-4, 1838 (type locality designated as Japan, probably near Nagasaki, by Stejneger, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 58:123, July 22, 1907). _Specimens examined_ (26).--Central National Forest, near Pup´yong-ni, 13 (KU), 1 (UMMZ); 2 mi. S Ch´orwon, 4 (KU); 2 mi. E Hoengsong, 3 (KU); 1 mi. NW Oho-ri, 1 (KU); 5 mi. ESE Seoul, 1 (KU); 6 mi. E Seoul, 3 (UMMZ). _Remarks._--_Rana rugosa_ was associated with _Rana nigromaculata_ and _Rana amurensis coreana_ at all localities where the species was taken save at 2 mi. E Hoengsong, where _R. a. coreana_ was not observed. Three specimens of _R. rugosa_ were collected among grasses and reeds in water along the edge of Ch´orwon Reservoir, 2 mi. S Ch´orwon, where they were difficult to find in the thick vegetation even though their low, soft calls were heard; the specimen from 1 mi. NW Oho-ri was found in a rice field. Otherwise, habitats recorded indicate a preference for small, fast-flowing streams, especially in wooded valleys. On one occasion, individuals were found trapped in cement-walled pits about old ruins on a wooded hillside in the Central National Forest. The earliest and latest dates of capture among our specimens are May 15 and November 6. In addition to the localities listed above, the species was observed 4 mi. W Ch´ungju. _R. rugosa_ may have an extensive breeding season as suggested by the variation in size of frogs collected or observed in 1954. Of nine frogs obtained on May 29, five ranged in snout-vent length from 26 to 28, and four from 42 to 54. Three specimens collected on October 9 measured 39, 41, and 55, and two obtained on November 6 measured 25 and 37. =Rana nigromaculata= Hallowell _Rana nigromaculata_ Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, [12]:500 (for 1860), 1861 (type locality, Simoda, Japan). _Specimens examined_ (47).--Central National Forest, near Pup´yong-ni, 6 (KU); 2 mi. S Ch´orwon, 5 (KU); 4 mi. W Ch´ungju, 2 (KU); 7 mi. W Ch´ungju, 1 (KU); 2 mi. E Hoengsong, 1 (KU); 8 mi. SW Kunsan, 1 (KU); 1 mi. NW Oho-ri, 5 (KU); 5 mi. ENE Pusan, 2 (KU); 5 mi. ESE Seoul, 9 (KU); 6 mi. E Seoul, 3 (KU), 10 (UMMZ); 6 mi. NNE Sogwi-ri, Cheju Do, 2 (KU). _Description._--Back brownish or grayish (greenish in life), having few, indistinct or well-defined, dark blotches, or extensive blackish areas (representing fusion of markings); pale, middorsal stripe (pale green, buff or yellowish in life) from snout to anus, sometimes as wide as interorbital width, but indistinct or lacking when pattern on back absent; blackish bar often present behind tympanum; posterior surface of thigh mottled; underparts pale yellow to whitish, sometimes having a few dusky marks on throat; longitudinal ridges between dorsolateral folds indistinct in some small frogs; largest female and male having respective snout-vent lengths of 100 and 70. _Remarks._--_Rana nigromaculata_ is the most abundant ranid in central Korea and, in a general way, the ecological equivalent of _Rana pipiens_ in temperate North America. The species is associated with most aquatic habitats, from rocky streams to rice fields and large impoundments. In the vicinity of Seoul the din of large breeding congresses was heard more or less continuously from mid-April to mid-May. Large numbers of juveniles (approximately one inch long) were noticed first on July 8 and were present thereafter for about three weeks, being commonest in standing water after heavy rains or during prolonged showers. These data and the different sizes of individuals collected at the same time suggest either variable growth or, more probably, an extensive breeding season. Our earliest and latest dates of collection are April 16 and October 7. The Korean name for "frog," most often applied to _R. nigromaculata_, sounds something like "keg-oh-ree." The call is a prolonged, raspy, staccato croak, sometimes with a rising inflection at the end. In addition to the localities listed above, the species was observed 5 mi. W Kwangju and 3 mi. S Osan. Despite a high degree of individual variation, _Rana nigromaculata_ seemingly varies geographically as well; some subspecies probably should be recognized, but the species as a whole has never been thoroughly studied systematically. The division of _R. nigromaculata_ into three subspecies by Schmidt (1927:563-567) was considered untenable by Fang and Chang (1931:95-98), and it has been regarded by most recent authors as a variable, monotypic species. The named subspecies _R. n. chosenica_ (Okada, 1931:89, with type locality at Seoul, and geographically restricted to Korea) was considered a subspecies of _Rana plancyi_ by Shannon (1956:36). The most trenchant characters of _plancyi_ seem to be the wide dorsolateral folds, the uniform greenish dorsum, the presence of dermal pustules on the back between the dorsolateral folds, and the lack of a mottled pattern on the posterior surface of the thigh. Among our specimens of _R. nigromaculata_, the width of the dorsolateral folds is variable, a uniform greenish dorsum is found only in large males, dermal pustules are mixed with ridges in only one male (KU 38733), and all have a spotted or mottled pattern on the posterior surface of the thigh. All of our specimens having an indistinct pattern on the back, or lacking a pattern, are males and resemble the photographs of males published by Moriya (1954: pl. I, fig. 5) and Liu (1936: pl. IV, figs. 1-2); juveniles of both sexes and large females have contrasting patterns. None of our frogs seems, therefore, clearly referable to the species _plancyi_, although some characters are suggestive of _plancyi_. Moriya (_op. cit.:19_), who studied variation of _R. nigromaculata_ in Japan, noted that one of the most distinct populations there (_R. n. brevipoda_) resembled _Rana plancyi_. Ting (1939) discovered that _nigromaculata_ and _plancyi_ were cross-fertile and raised hybrid larvae through metamorphosis. Pope and Boring (1940) suggested hybridization between the two species in eastern China, and the above mentioned facts suggest to us the possibility of hybridization in other regions. =Rana amurensis coreana= Okada _Rana temporaria coreana_ Okada, Annot. Zool. Japon., 11:140 (footnote), July 25, 1927, _nomen nudum_. _Rana temporaria coreana_ Okada, Jour. Chosen Nat. Hist. Soc, 6:19, pl. 1, fig. 7, 1928 (type locality, Keijo [= Seoul], Korea). _Rana amurensis coreana_, Shannon, Herpetologica, 12:38, March 6, 1956. _Specimens examined_ (9).--Central National Forest, near Pup´yong-ni, 1 (KU); 2 mi. S Ch´orwon, 1 (KU); 4 mi. W Ch´ungju, 1 (KU); 1 mi. N Oho-ri, 1 (KU); 5 mi. ESE Seoul, 3 (KU); Yongp´yong, 2 (KU). _Remarks._--One individual of _R. a. coreana_ (KU 38698) and one of _Rana temporaria dybowskii_ (KU 38715) were collected on May 29 along a stream in the Central National Forest in association with _R. rugosa_ and _R. nigromaculata_. Specimens of _coreana_ from the vicinity of Seoul were found in rice fields. The earliest date of collection was April 13 at Yongp´yong. Our largest specimen of _coreana_ measured 47 in snout-vent length. Because _R. a. coreana_ and _Rana temporaria dybowskii_ are sympatric in central Korea and closely resemble one another, the two species were not distinguished in the field and the following observations may pertain to either (or both) species. Wood frogs were observed 2 mi. E Songdong-ni on July 12 in paddies (rice fields) along with individuals of _Hyla arborea_, _Rana rugosa_, and _Rana nigromaculata_. At Chip´o-ri on April 6, individuals (probably _R. t. dybowskii_) were seen in a seepage pool from an abandoned rice field; _R. nigromaculata_ also was seen there. Six or seven egg masses (some having small tadpoles) were observed in the shallow water, but it was not certain to which species the eggs belonged. Completely metamorphosed young (probably _R. a. coreana_) were first seen 1 mi. N Oho-ri on June 9. At Taehoesan-ni on November 12, several sluggish frogs were seen in a small pool that was covered by a thin layer of ice. On September 26 in the Central National Forest, many wood frogs of various sizes were observed. _R. amurensis_ and _R. temporaria_ probably have extended breeding seasons that correspond to those of _R. rugosa_ and _R. nigromaculata_. Judging from our observations, _amurensis_ prefers the proximity of water, whereas _temporaria_ may occur some distance from permanent water. In our specimens, _R. amurensis coreana_ differs from _R. temporaria dybowskii_ in having (1) smaller maximal size, (2) more slender body, (3) shorter legs, (4) incompletely webbed toes, (5) no mottling or barring on lips, (6) no contrasting barred pattern on hind legs, (7) dark brown stripes (usually) between dorsolateral folds, (8) a dark brown, linear mark below canthus, and (9) an immaculate ventral surface. Two additional distinguishing characters, which we found difficult to evaluate, are the nearly straight, dorsolateral folds, and lack of vocal sacs or ostia in males of _R. a. coreana_ (Shannon, 1956:38). Some of the differences between the two species were illustrated by Okada, 1931:107, fig. 48, _R. temporaria temporaria_ [=_R. t. dybowskii_] and 123, fig. 54, _R. temporaria coreana_ [=_R. amurensis coreana_]. =Rana temporaria dybowskii= Günther _Rana Dybowskii_ Günther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, 17:387, May, 1876 (type locality, Abrek Bay, near Vladivostok, Siberia). _Rana temporaria dybowski_, Shannon, Herpetologica, 12:38, March 6, 1956. _Specimens examined_ (20).--Central National Forest, near Pup´yong-ni, 7 (KU); Chip´o-ri, 2 (KU); 1 mi. SW Inje, 6 (KU); 8 mi. SW Kangnung, 1 (KU); Taegwang-ni, 1 (KU); 1 mi. SW Tangjonggok, 3 (KU). _Remarks._--On October 9 in the Central National Forest, five individuals were found in a concrete-walled pit in old ruins on a wooded hillside; no specimens of _Rana amurensis coreana_ were taken there. _R. t. dybowskii_ was most often taken on high, moist slopes, and seemed to be especially common in forests. The specimen from 8 mi. SW Kangnung was obtained in a wooded area along a mountain stream. The earliest date of collection of a specimen of _dybowskii_ was March 7 at Taegwang-ni. See also the remarks under the preceding account of _Rana amurensis coreana_. The largest male among our specimens measured 65 in snout-vent length and the largest female, 79. Five gravid females had snout-vent lengths of 64, 68, 69, 69 and 70. =Trionyx sinensis= Wiegmann _Trionyx (Aspidonectes) sinensis_ Wiegmann, Nova Acta Acad. Leopold.-Carol., 17:189, 1835 (type locality, near Macao, China). _Specimen examined._--Han River, 5 mi. ESE Seoul, 1 (KU). _Remarks._--Our only specimen was purchased from a man who had captured it by hand in the Han River; it was the only turtle seen during our stay in Korea. Koreans eat turtles, and the elaborate (and relatively permanent) fish-traps that they construct across streams and small rivers probably reduce the size of populations of _T. sinensis_ and other species. =Eremias argus= Peters _Eremias argus_ Peters, Monatsber. preuss. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, p. 61, fig. 3 (for 1869), 1870 (type locality, Chefoo, China). _Specimens examined_ (23).--Chip´o-ri, 1 (KU); 5 mi. E Seoul, 3 (KU), 3 (UMMZ); 5 mi. ESE Seoul, 4 (KU); 6 mi. E Seoul, 10 (UMMZ); 7 mi. ESE Seoul, 2 (KU). _Remarks._--Individuals of _E. argus_ were most often seen on dry hillsides having a relatively sparse cover of vegetation. The first lizard of this species was taken on April 2. In 1954 the last part of March and early part of April were generally warm, with temperatures above 70° F. on several occasions; probably some _E. argus_ were active in late March. KU 38773 (snout-vent length, 51) laid three eggs between June 4 and 14; KU 38768 (snout-vent length, 58) obtained on May 8 was gravid, containing four eggs. Testes of lizards in the breeding season measure approximately 4.0 x 2.5 (KU 38772, obtained on June 16). The snout-vent length of our largest female is 61, that of the largest male, 57. The snout-vent length of 11 specimens averaged 77 (67-96) per cent of length of tail. =Tachydromus amurensis= Peters _Tachydromus amurensis_ Peters, Sitzungsber. Gesell. naturf. Freunde Berlin, p. 71, 1881 (type locality, Kossakewitcha, Amurland). _Specimens examined_ (3).--Central National Forest, near Pup´yong-ni, 1 (KU), 1 (UMMZ); Majon-ni, 1 (KU). _Remarks._--One of our specimens was found among grasses along a small stream in the Central National Forest. The other two were obtained by other persons and we lack knowledge of conditions of their capture. A juvenile (KU 39416, snout-vent length, 25) that was obtained on September 9 is tentatively referred to this species. There seem to be three femoral pores on the left leg but the number is indistinct on the right. The specimen is dark and lacks a pattern. Its condition precludes counts of ventral scales (not keeled), but scalation is otherwise the same as a male (KU 40120, snout-vent length approximately 47, length of tail, 124). The third specimen, a male (UMMZ 113442, snout-vent length, 51, length of tail, 115), agrees with KU 40120, except in having 32 instead of 29 dorsal scales at midbody, 4-4 instead of 3-3 femoral pores, and in lacking a pale stripe from eye through ear to shoulder. =Tachydromus wolteri= Fischer _Tachydromus Wolteri_ Fischer, Jahrb. Wiss. Anst. Hamburg, 2:82 (for 1884), 1885 (type locality, Chemulp´o, Korea). _Specimens examined_ (2).--Yongp´yong, 2 (KU). _Remarks._--On April 14, two females (57 and 45 in snout-vent length, the tail of the latter measuring 103) were easily captured by hand on a burned-over rice field. =Lygosoma reevesii= (Gray) _Tiliqua Reevesii_ Gray, Ann. [Mag.] Nat. Hist., ser. 1, 2:292, December, 1838 (type locality, China). [_Lygosoma (Liolepisma) laterale_] var. _reevesi_, Boettger, Katalog der Batrachier-Sammlung ..., p. 104, 1893. _Specimens examined_ (6).--Central National Forest, near Pup´yong-ni, 3 (KU); 4 mi. NNE Sogwi-ri, Cheju Do, 1 (KU); 7 mi. NNE Sogwi-ri, Cheju Do, 1 (UMMZ); 16 mi. NE Mosulp´o, Cheju Do, 1 (UMMZ). _Remarks._--On October 23 an individual was captured while sunning on a stump on a wooded hillside in the Central National Forest; two others at this locality were collected on damp ground-cover on the same hillside. A juvenile from Cheju Do was found among moss-covered rocks in a stream bed; the other specimens from Cheju Do were found among moss-covered rocks on the western slope of Halla San. Each ovary of a female obtained on October 23 contained five enlarged follicles, about 1 mm. in diameter. The left testis of a male obtained on August 10 seemed enlarged, indicating possible sexual activity, and measured approximately 6 x 2 mm. The snout-vent length of our largest male is 41, that of our largest female, 48. The prefrontals are in contact in all of our specimens save one (UMMZ 113446). There is disagreement among herpetologists concerning the generic name of the small lygosome skink in the United States and its ecological equivalent in China and Korea. We tentatively use _Lygosoma_ (Conant, 1951:207-208), although Mittleman (1950) pointed out reasons for using _Scincella_. Shannon (1956:41) discussed the debated issue whether or not the lygosome skinks of the New and Old worlds are conspecific. =Rhabdophis tigrina lateralis= (Berthold) _Tropidonotus lateralis_ Berthold, Nachrichten Gesell. Wiss. Göttingen, p. 180, 1859 (type locality, China). _Specimens examined_ (26).--Central National Forest, near Pup´yong-ni, 1 (KU); 2 mi. N Chip´o-ri, 2 (KU); 3 mi. NW Chip´o-ri, 4 (KU); 4 mi. N Ch´onan, 1 (KU); 3 mi. S Kumhwa, 1 (KU); 1 mi. SW Naegong-ni, 1 (KU); 4 mi. E Seoul, 1 (KU); 5 mi. E Seoul, 2 (UMMZ); 5 mi. ESE Seoul, 4 (KU); 6 mi. E Seoul, 1 (KU), 4 (UMMZ); 7 mi. ESE Seoul, 1 (KU); 6 mi. NNE Sogwi-ri, Cheju Do, 2 (KU); 5 mi. NE Taejon, 1 (KU). _Remarks._--This common, vagrant species was found on brushy hillsides, near buildings on hills above rice fields, in tall grasses near streams, in rice fields, and along drainage and irrigation ditches. The earliest and latest dates of collection were April 5 and November 7. On the first date mentioned an individual was found in hibernation with five _Elaphe rufodorsata_ and one _Agkistrodon halys_ in an earthen Korean burial mound. The specimen was uncovered by a bulldozer at a depth of about one foot below the surface. We were told that 18 snakes of this species were found in the same place (7 mi. ESE Seoul) the previous winter. The stomach of each of four individuals contained one _Rana nigromaculata_. The stomach of another individual contained a _R. nigromaculata_ and remains of a carabid beetle, whereas another contained three small, partially-digested frogs that appeared to be _Hyla arborea_. P. M. Youngman reported to us that he found a snake of this species that was attempting to swallow a toad, _Bufo bufo gargarizans_. One of the small individuals from Cheju Do was being eaten by a _Zamenis spinalis_ when found. One specimen was parasitized by three nematodes, _Kalicephalus natricis_ (see Olsen, 1957:208). Two females of this oviparous species (lengths of body, 680 and 700) collected on May 14 contained nine eggs (18 mm. long), and 13 eggs (15 mm.) respectively; a third (length of body, 610) obtained on June 26 contained 10 eggs that were approximately 18 mm. long. A female (UMMZ 113458, length of body, 710), which was captured on July 10 and kept alive in captivity, laid 11 eggs on August 12 between 9 and 10 in the morning. The weight of nine of these eggs averaged 3.32 (3.0-3.6) grams; the last two eggs deposited were small and weighed only 1.3 and 1.4 grams. The eggs were incubated unsuccessfully. One that was opened on September 14 and another opened on September 26 contained young easily recognized as of this species. In captivity the parent snake underwent ecdysis on about July 20 and again on August 26. Our largest female and largest male have respective total lengths of 1013 (840 + 173) and 740 (575 + 165). Our smallest specimens, captured on September 9, measured 215 and 230 mm. in length of body, and probably represent young of the year. The snake found in hibernation on April 5 measured 275 in length of body. The ventrals of 11 males averaged 161.3 (158-171) and those of 14 females, 165.1 (160-170); subcaudals of eight males averaged 69.6 (66-74) and those of 14 females, 61.5 (52-73). Males seem to have small scales in the anal region that are more strongly keeled than scales elsewhere on the body (the scales catch on finger tips when rubbed in a posteroanterior direction), but males lack small tubercles on the upper and lateral parts of the head as mentioned by Maslin (1950:433). The comments of the same author (_op. cit._:434) concerning integumental poison glands in the nuchal region of this species are of interest in view of several reports that we received of swollen extremities resulting from handling snakes of this species. In using the generic names _Rhabdophis_ and _Amphiesma_ for species formerly placed in the genus _Natrix_, we follow Malnate (1960), who divided _Natrix (auct.)_ into five distinct genera. =Amphiesma vibakari ruthveni= (Van Denburgh) _Natrix vibakari ruthveni_ Van Denburgh, Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 4, 13(2):3, July 26, 1923 (type locality, Pusan, Korea). _Specimens examined_ (5).--Central National Forest, near Pup´yong-ni, 1 (KU); 4 mi. SW Ch´ongyang-ni, 1 (KU); 10 mi. NE Mosulp´o, Cheju Do, 1 (UMMZ); 6-7 mi. NNE Sogwi-ri, Cheju Do, 1 (KU), 1 (UMMZ). _Remarks._--The specimen from the Central National Forest was captured on August 18 near a stream on a damp ground-cover of leaves. The specimens from Cheju Do were taken in early September, one in a grassy area, and the other two on earthen banks of road-cuts on the slopes of Halla San. The stomach of one individual from Cheju Do contained an earthworm. Our largest specimen, a male having 154 ventrals and 68 subcaudals, measured 508 (380 + 128). The subcaudal counts of 68 (KU 38861) and 69 (UMMZ 113461) on two males from Cheju Do are higher than the maximal count known for the subspecies _ruthveni_ in Korea, and resemble those of _Amphiesma vibakari vibakari_ of the Japanese islands. The subcaudals average 61 (55-65) in _ruthveni_ and 71 (63-83) in _vibakari_ according to Van Denburgh (1923:3-4). A juvenile from the Central National Forest (KU 38862), lacking the tip of the tail, has 64 subcaudals. =Dinodon rufozonatum= (Cantor) _Lycodon rufo-zonatus_ Cantor, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 1, 9:483, August, 1842 (type locality, island of Chusan, China). _Dinodon rufozonatus_, Peters, Sitzungsber. Gesell. naturf. Freunde Berlin, p. 89, 1881. _Specimens examined_ (4).--Central National Forest, near Pup´yong-ni, 3 (KU); Yongsan (Seoul), 1 (UMMZ). _Remarks._--The three specimens from the Central National Forest were taken in the period August 12-26. Two were caught in live-traps set for small mammals in deep forest among granite outcrops. The specimen from Yongsan was obtained on October 27 in a partly wooded area. Ventrals and subcaudals of our four specimens (all males) numbered, respectively, 198, 200, 198, 205, and 74, 75, 75, __. Total length of the largest specimen was 960 (790 + 170). We follow Chang (1932:54) and most subsequent authors in regarding _D. rufozonatum_ as a monotypic species. =Zamenis spinalis= (Peters) _Masticophis spinalis_ Peters, Monatsber. preuss. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, p. 91 (for 1866), 1867 (type locality, unknown--"Mexico" erroneously listed). _Zamenis spinalis_, Günther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, 9:22, January, 1872. _Specimens examined_ (2).--5 mi. ESE Seoul, 1 (KU); 6 mi. NNE Sogwi-ri, Cheju Do, 1 (KU). _Remarks._--The specimen from Cheju Do was captured on September 9 in tall grass near a small stream and was eating a small _Rhabdophis tigrina_. The female from near Seoul was obtained from a Korean on June 10, and was gravid (six eggs, each approximately 35 mm. in length). The length of body measured approximately 550 and the length of incomplete tail 168 in one specimen (KU 38777, female from 5 mi. ESE Seoul), 540 and 183 in the other (KU 38778, female from Cheju Do). Respective ventral and subcaudal counts of the two females are 204, 194, and 74+, 86. There is some disagreement in the literature as to the proper generic name of this snake. Differences in dentition between Old World species (referable to _Zamenis_) and the American species (referable to _Coluber_) are discussed by Bogert and Oliver (1945:365). The species _spinalis_ has been referred to _Coluber_ by several authors (see Pope, 1935:226). =Elaphe dione= (Pallas) _Coluber dione_ Pallas, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen Reichs, 2:717, 1773 (type locality, "Salt steppes toward the Caspian Sea" according to Stejneger, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 58:315, July 22, 1907). _Elaphis dione_, Duméril and Bibron, Erpétologie générale ..., 7:248, 1854. _Specimens examined_ (10).--Choksong, 1 (KU); 4 mi. N Ch´onan, 1 (KU); Seoul, 1 (KU); 5 mi. E Seoul, 1 (KU), 2 (UMMZ); 5 mi. ESE Seoul, 1 (KU); 6 mi. E Seoul, 1 (UMMZ); Taegwang-ni, 1 (KU); 2 mi. WSW Tongjonggok, 1 (KU). _Remarks._--This species seemingly occurs in upland habitats. Specimens were taken on rocky hillsides, on sparsely wooded hillsides, and in cultivated fields. November 21 was the latest date of capture of an active individual (UMMZ 113451), the head of which was seen many times prior to capture protruding from a hole beneath the concrete floor of a building. A female (KU 38855), measuring 915 (775 + 140) in total length, and obtained on June 13, contained nine eggs (32 mm. long). One juvenile had eaten a half-grown house mouse, _Mus musculus_; the stomach of a male contained three mice, one a striped field mouse, _Apodemus agrarius_, the other two probably also of that species but too far digested for certain identification. Eggs probably hatch in late summer. A young of the year (length of body, 340) was captured on September 30; another juvenile (length of body, 285) was obtained in May. Our largest male (KU 40123) measured 904 (719 + 185) in total length. Ventrals and subcaudals of six females averaged 205.8 (198-211) and 62.2 (55-69), respectively, whereas corresponding counts of four males averaged 196.8 (190-214), and 71.0 (69-74). Each of nine specimens had dorsal scales in 23-25-19 rows except one (UMMZ 113451), which had 23-25-23 rows. =Elaphe rufodorsata= (Cantor) _Tropidonotus rufodorsatus_ Cantor, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 1, 9:483, August, 1842 (type locality, island of Chusan, China). _Elaphe rufodorsata_, Stejneger, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 58:310, figs. 269-271, July 22, 1907. _Specimens examined_ (27).--7 mi. NW Changhowan-ni, 1 (KU); 3 mi. NW Chip´o-ri, 3 (KU); 7 mi. W Ch´ungju, 2 (KU), 1 (UMMZ); 3 mi. S Kumhwa, 2 (KU); 1 mi. NW Oho-ri, 1 (KU); 4 mi. E Seoul, 1 (KU); 5 mi. E Seoul, 2 (KU); 5 mi. ESE Seoul, 2 (KU); 6 mi. E Seoul, 3 (KU), 2 (UMMZ); 7 mi. ESE Seoul, 5 (KU); 4 mi. N Uijongbu, 1 (KU); 5 mi. NE Uijongbu, 1 (UMMZ). _Remarks._--_E. rufodorsata_ was commonly observed and collected on barren hillsides, on country roads, in rice fields, and along drainage ditches and small streams. One was found sunning outstretched on a road. Two individuals were trapped in cement-walled pits at the Seoul City Water Works. On April 5, five snakes of this species with one _Rhabdophis tigrina_ and one _Agkistrodon halys_, all partly caked with earth, were found sunning in a shallow depression on the side of a Korean burial mound, which was presumably a hibernaculum. Aside from one juvenile, four of the _E. rufodorsata_ were of approximately the same size, having bodies ranging in length from 385 to 455. Copulation was observed on April 25 (male, KU 38811, length of body, 400, and female, KU 38812, length of body, 565), and on May 4 (female, KU 38816, length of body, 620). Eggs doubtless hatch at various times in summer. One of five snakes obtained on April 5 (see above) measured 310 (250 + 60) in total length. Another juvenile (KU 38828), obtained on October 18, was 478 (385 + 93) long, and our smallest specimen of this species (KU 38821), captured on June 26, measured 275 (230 + 45). The stomachs of two snakes each contained a _Rana nigromaculata_; another individual had eaten a _Hyla arborea_, and a fourth specimen had eaten a small fish. One specimen was parasitized by a cestode. The largest female from our series (KU 38816) measured 740 (620 + 120), and the largest male (KU 38813), 595 (475 + 120). Respective ventral and subcaudal counts of 13 males averaged 170.5 (167-174) and 60.0 (56-63), ventrals of 12 females averaged 178.3 (169-182), and subcaudals of 11 averaged 51.0 (46-56). =Elaphe schrencki anomala= (Boulenger) _Coluber anomalus_ Boulenger, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, 17:243, March, 1916 (type locality, Chihfeng, China). _Elaphe schrencki anomala_, Pope, The reptiles of China, p. 266, fig. 57, May 11, 1935. _Specimens examined_ (7).--Central National Forest, near Pup´yong-ni, 2 (KU), 1 (UMMZ); 4½ mi. W Chip´o-ri, 1 (KU); 5 mi. N P´yong-taek, 1 (KU); 5 mi. E Seoul, 1 (KU); 5 mi. ESE Seoul, 1 (KU). _Remarks._--Individuals were observed or taken on dry, scrubby hillsides and in grassy upland areas. One of the three snakes from the Central National Forest was captured on a steep, forested hillside among granite outcroppings; another was obtained there along a stream bank and had eaten three bats, _Murina aurata_ (see Jones, 1960:265), and one mouse, _Apodemus_ sp. (tail only found). P. M. Youngman reported (personal communication) finding a rat (_Rattus_ sp.) in the stomach of one individual. A female (KU 38830, length of body, 1180) that was obtained on June 2 contained 17 eggs, each approximately 32 mm. long. The ventrals of two females numbered 223 and 229, and the subcaudals of the latter 70. Ventrals and subcaudals of five males were, respectively, 211, 213, 214, 215, 216, and 71, 75, 75, 69, 75. The coloration and pattern of our seven specimens are of interest in view of the probable intergradation between _E. s. anomala_ and _E. s. schrencki_ in northern Korea (see comments by Shannon, 1956:46). The smallest specimen (KU 38831), having a total length of 335 (280 + 55), was obtained 4 mi. N P´yong-taek on September 24. It is nearly uniform pale brown (lacks a dorsal pattern) and additionally is characterized as follows: incomplete pattern on the head; no black postocular band (pale brown with black posterior border); ventrolateral extensions of the head pattern that form longitudinal stripes of white on the third row of scales; a pale whitish stripe on the sixth and seventh scale rows that extends posteriorly to the level of the fortieth ventral and that has a narrow black border (sometimes interrupted); small and indistinct blackish markings and pale stripes on sides (no higher than sixth row of scales); underside of the head whitish; and venter grayish, having blackish margins on the ends of ventrals posteriorly. KU 38831 is unusual and perhaps anomalous in having a pattern that does not conform to the juvenile pattern of either subspecies. A female (KU 38830), having a total length of 1390 (1180 + 210), from 5 mi. ESE Seoul conforms to descriptions of _anomala_ in being uniformly pale brown above and in having indistinct dark smudges on the sides; the ventral surface is whitish having indistinct dark smudges, brown spots at the ends of each ventral, and the posterior edge of each ventral brown. A male (KU 40125), measuring 1090 (890 + 200) in total length, from 5 mi. E Seoul, is pale brown above and lacks markings on the anterior part of the body. Indistinct dark markings occur at midbody, whereas the posterior quarter of the body and tail have well-defined black bands on a buff background. The black bands posteriorly are arranged in pairs; each pair of bands is separated by two and a half to three scales, whereas the bands of each pair are separated by only one and a half scales. The ventral surface has an obscure marbled pattern. Our largest specimen, a male (UMMZ 113454) having a total length of 1488 (1230 + 258), from the Central National Forest, resembles KU 40125, except that pale brown blotches (29 on body, one blackish on neck) and dark lateral spots occur anteriorly on the body. Another female (KU 38860, body length, 970) from 4½ mi. W Chip´o-ri, our northernmost locality of record, has a fairly distinct pattern dorsally. The 30 dark brown, black-edged blotches that are separated by a buff background are not arranged in pairs (as in KU 40125); the dorsal blotches sometimes alternate with small lateral blotches. The ventral surface is marbled throughout. Two males from the Central National Forest, having total lengths of 1105 (920 + 185) and 830 (690 + 140), generally resemble one another in having the head and neck dark brown or blackish and the anterior part of body dark brown, but discernibly blotched. The posterior part of the body and tail of each bears well-defined blotches (dark brown or black) with buffy interspaces; the dorsal blotches are sometimes arranged in pairs. The ventral surface of each is marbled throughout. These two males are noteworthy in that the pattern anteriorly is obscure, but the ground color is dark, not pale as in the two specimens from the vicinity of Seoul. =Agkistrodon halys brevicaudus= Stejneger _Agkistrodon blomhoffii brevicaudus_ Stejneger, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 58:463, July 22, 1907 (type locality, Pusan, Korea). _Agkistrodon halys brevicaudus_, Okada, A catalogue of vertebrates of Japan, p. 103, 1938. _Specimens examined_ (12).--Central National Forest, near Pup´yong-ni, 4 (KU); 3 mi. NW Chip´o-ri, 2 (KU); 16 mi. NE Mosulp´o, Cheju Do, 1 (UMMZ); 5 mi. E Seoul, 1 (UMMZ); 6 mi. E Seoul, 2 (KU); 7 mi. ESE Seoul, 1 (KU); 7 mi. NNE Sogwi-ri, Cheju Do, 1 (UMMZ). _Remarks._--Individuals of _Agkistrodon_ were collected on brushy or wooded hillsides, along rock walls or in piles of rocks, and in damp, rocky, wooded ravines near streams. Many were docile when captured. One specimen was infested with nematodes, another with cestodes. One specimen had eaten a striped field mouse, _Apodemus agrarius_, and another had eaten a gray hamster, _Cricetulus triton_. One female, obtained on May 22, 6 mi. E Seoul, contained 14 embryos. Another female, obtained on August 25 in the Central National Forest, contained three well-developed embryos. We have not included descriptive or taxonomic remarks concerning _A. halys_ because Dr. Howard K. Gloyd, University of Arizona, who currently is studying the systematics of the genus _Agkistrodon_, has our specimens on loan. Gazetteer Listed below are all localities mentioned in the accounts of species; the latitude (north) and longitude (east) are given for each. All place-names can be found in "Gazetteer to maps of Korea," 3 vols., AMS 2, U. S. Army Map Service, September, 1950, and, except for the two marked by an asterisk, can be located on AMS map series L552 (Korea, 1:250,000). The McCune-Reischauer system of romanization of Korean names is used. Changhowan-ni. 37°07´, 127°38´ Central National Forest. A small mixed forest 15-18 mi. NE Seoul and immediately west of the village of Pup´yong-ni; most of our collecting there was done approximately at 37°45´, 127°10´ Cheju Do (Quelpart Island). A large island in the East China Sea off the southwestern tip of the Korean mainland (see Mosulp´o and Sogwi-ri) Chip´o-ri. 38°08´, 127°19´ Choksong. 37°58´, 126°57´ Ch´onan. 36°48´, 127°09´ *Ch´ongyang-ni. 38°15´, 127°23´ Ch´orwon. 38°15´, 127°13´ Ch´ungju. 36°58´, 127°57´ Halla San. A central, volcanic mountain on Cheju Do (see above) Hoengsong. 37°29´, 127°59´ Inje. 38°04´, 128°11´ Kangnung. 37°45´, 128°54´ Kumhwa. 38°17´, 127°28´ Kunsan. 35°59´, 126°43´ Kwangju. 35°09´, 126°55´ Majon-ni. 37°52´, 126°46´ Mosulp´o. 33°13´, 126°15´ Naegong-ni. 37°41´, 127°10´ Oho-ri. 38°20´, 128°32´ Osan. 37°09´, 127°04´ Pup´yong-ni. 37°44´, 127°12´ Pusan. 35°08´, 129°04´ P´yong-taek [= P´yongt´aeng-ni]. 36°59´, 127°05´ Sangbonch´on-ni. 37°27´, 127°16´ Sangdaehwa. 37°30´, 128°26´ Seoul. 37°32´, 127°00´ Sogwi-ri. 33°15´, 126°34´ Songdong-ni. 38°01´, 127°16´ Taegwang-ni. 38°11´, 127°06´ *Taehoesan-ni. 38°04´, 127°14´ Taejon. 36°20´, 127°26´ Tangjonggok. 38°11´, 128°19´ Tangnim-ni. 37°50´, 127°37´ Uijongbu. 37°44´, 127°03´ Wonsan. 39°09´, 127°27´ Yami-ri. 38°03´, 127°16´ Yanggu. 38°06´, 128°00´ Yongdae-ri. 38°13´, 128°23´ Yongp´yong. 38°01´, 127°13´ Literature Cited BABB, G. H., JR. 1955. An annotated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of Korea. Bull. Philadelphia Herp. 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Sci., ser. 4, 26:419-466, 10 figs., April 28. MITTLEMAN, M. B. 1950. The generic status of _Scincus lateralis_ Say, 1823. Herpetologica, 6:17-20, June 5. MORI, T. 1928_a_. A presumption of the age in which the separation of Japan and Korea had occurred and the general condition at that age estimated from the distribution of animals in Saishuto and Tsushima. Chosen, pp. 14-25, January, 1928 (in Japanese). 1928_b_. On amphibians and reptiles of Quelpaert Island. Jour. Chosen Nat. Hist. Soc., 6:47-52, March 25 (in Japanese). 1928_c_. On a new Hynobius from Quelpaert Isl. Jour. Chosen Nat. Hist. Soc., 6:53, March 25. MORIYA, K. 1954. Studies on the five races of the Japanese pond frog, _Rana nigromaculata_ Hallowell. I. Differences in the morphological characters. Jour. Sci. Hiroshima Univ. (ser. B, div. 1), 15:1-21, 2 pls., 1 fig., December. OKADA, Y. 1931. The tailless batrachians of the Japanese Empire. Imp. Agric. Exp. Sta., Tokyo, 215 pp., 29 pls., 97 figs., March 30. 1934. A contribution toward a check list of the urodeles of Japan. Copeia, 1934(1):16-19, April 24. 1935. Amphibia of Jehol. Rept. First Sci. Exped. Manchoukuo, sect. V, div. II, pt. II, art. 1, pp. 1-24 (in Japanese) and 25-47 (in English), 7 pls., 9 figs., November 30. OLSEN, L. S. 1957. A new species of _Neoascaris_ (Nematode) from a Korean wood mouse. Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc., 76:205-208, 9 figs., April. POPE, C. H. 1935. The reptiles of China (Natural History of Central Asia, Vol. X). Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, lii + 604 pp., 27 pls., 78 figs., May 11. POPE, C. H., AND BORING, A. M. 1940. A survey of Chinese Amphibia. Peking Nat. Hist. Bull., 15:13-86, 1 map, September. SATO, I. 1943. The tailed batrachians of Japan. Tokyo, 520 pp., illustrated (in Japanese). SCHLEGEL, H. 1838. Reptilia (_in_ von Siebold, Fauna Japonica), pp. 1-144, illustrated. SCHMIDT, K. P. 1927. Notes on Chinese amphibians. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 54:553-575, 2 pls., October 14. SHANNON, F. A. 1956. The reptiles and amphibians of Korea. Herpetologica, 12:22-49, 1 pl., 1 fig., March 6. 1957. Addition to the herpetofauna of Korea. Herpetologica, 13:52, March 30. STEJNEGER, L. 1907. Herpetology of Japan and adjacent territory. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 58:xx + 577, 35 pls., 409 figs., July 22. STEWART, G. D. 1953. Notes on a collection of amphibians from central Korea. Herpetologica, 9:146-148, October 30. 1954. A small collection of reptiles from central Korea. Copeia, 1954(1):65-67, February 19. TANNER, V. M. 1953. Pacific Islands herpetology No. VIII, Korea. Great Basin Nat., 13:67-73. TING, H. 1939. A study of the reciprocal hybrids of two species of frogs, _Rana nigromaculata_ and _Rana plancyi_. Peking Nat. Hist. Bull., 13:181-200, 3 pls., March. VAN DENBURGH, J. 1923. A new subspecies of watersnake (_Natrix vibakari ruthveni_) from eastern Asia. Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 4, 13:3-4, July 26. WALLEY, H. D. 1958_a_. A new lacertid lizard from Korea. Herpetologica, 14:203-205, 1 fig., December 1. 1958_b_. "The status of _Takydromus kwangakuensis_ Doi." Copeia, 1958(4):338, December 22. _Transmitted June 30, 1961_. 28-8517 
33543	----	UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 15, No. 1, pp. 1-148, pls. 1-6, 11 figs. December 20, 1961 [Transcriber's Note: Words surrounded by cedillas, like ~this~ signifies words in bold. Words surrounded by underscores, like _this_, signifies words in italics.] The Amphibians and Reptiles of Michoacán, México BY WILLIAM E. DUELLMAN UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1961 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Henry S. Fitch, Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Volume 15, No. 1, pp. 1-148, pls. 1-6, 11 figs. Published December 20, 1961 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED IN THE STATE PRINTING PLANT TOPEKA, KANSAS 1961 The Amphibians and Reptiles of Michoacán, México BY WILLIAM E. DUELLMAN CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 3 Acknowledgments 5 Historical Account 7 NATURAL LANDSCAPE 9 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HERPETOFAUNA 13 ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIES 13 Amphibia 14 Caudata 14 Salientia 20 Reptilia 56 Testudines 56 Crocodilia 58 Sauria 59 Serpentes 88 SPECIES OF QUESTIONABLE OCCURRENCE 124 GAZETTEER 129 SUMMARY 141 LITERATURE CITED 142 INTRODUCTION For almost 30 years North American herpetologists have been making extensive collections of reptiles and amphibians in México. Some parts of the country, because of their accessibility, soon became relatively well known; other regions lying off the beaten path were bypassed or inadequately sampled. Principally in the last decade herpetologists have been entering regions from which no collections previously were available in an attempt to fill gaps in known distributions and to discover unknown species of animals. In 1950 Dr. Donald D. Brand led an exploration party from the University of Texas to the poorly explored and faunistically unknown region of southwestern Michoacán. James A. Peters accompanied Brand and collected amphibians and reptiles. In 1951 I welcomed the opportunity to accompany Brand on a second expedition to southwestern Michoacán. Such was the beginning of my interest in the herpetofauna of the region. I have been fortunate to return to Michoacán on four successive trips, all of which had as their purpose the accumulation of data on the herpetofauna that would result in a survey of the component species and an analysis of their distribution. My original intention was to amplify Peters' (1954) study based on the collections made by him in 1950 and by me in 1951 in the Sierra de Coalcomán. But it soon became evident that in order to understand the relationships of the herpetofauna of the Sierra de Coalcomán, the species inhabiting the Tepalcatepec Valley and adjacent mountain ranges would have to be studied. In the course of making that study I examined all specimens from Michoacán already in museums. There have been few detailed herpetofaunal studies in México. The first such study of any consequence was that by Bogert and Oliver (1945) on the herpetofauna of Sonora. In that paper the authors analyzed the fauna from a geographic view and showed the transition from tropical species in the southern part of the state to members of the Sonoran Desert assemblage to the north. Martin (1958) made a detailed study of the herpetofauna of the Gómez Farías region in southern Tamaulipas; he emphasized the ecological distribution of amphibians and reptiles in that region with special reference to cloud forests. Duellman (1958c) presented a preliminary geographic analysis of the herpetofauna of Colima with special reference to the continuity of the species inhabiting the lowlands. Zweifel (1960) discussed in detail the herpetofauna of the Tres Marías Islands and commented on the derivation of the fauna. Duellman (1960d) provided a detailed account of the geographic distribution of the amphibians known to occur in the lowlands of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and attempted to account for the present patterns of distribution. The present report is the first of two parts dealing with the herpetofauna of Michoacán. The purpose of this part is to present a full account of the species of amphibians and reptiles known to inhabit the state of Michoacán; the accounts of the species are accompanied by a brief description of the natural landscape and of the various assemblages of species comprising the major faunistic groups within the region. A gazetteer of collecting localities is appended. The second part of the study, now in preparation, deals with the ecological and historical geography of the herpetofauna. Since the present part will be of interest primarily to systematic herpetologists, I have decided to separate it from the more general material of interest to biogeographers. One of the major problems that faces the worker undertaking a faunal study is the presence of species or genera of unsettled systematic status. My work in Michoacán has been no exception; fifteen separate studies were undertaken in an attempt to solve systematic problems in certain groups. Some systematic problems still remain but are of little consequence insofar as the entire faunal picture is concerned, or are so involved as to be impractical to undertake at this time. In accounts of species, such problems are mentioned in the hope that they will interest some worker who will be inclined to investigate them. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS While engaged in the study of the herpetofauna of Michoacán I have built up a debt of gratitude to many individuals, without whose aid my ambition to complete my study never would have been realized. I am especially grateful to those individuals who accompanied me in the field; Lee D. Beatty, Richard E. Etheridge, Carter R. Gilbert, Fred G. Thompson, Jerome Tulecke, and John Wellman offered stimulating companionship and valuable assistance. On many occasions they suffered hardships on behalf of my interests. Studies of my own specimens have been augmented by material from other institutions. For permitting me to examine specimens in their care I am indebted to W. Frank Blair, Charles M. Bogert, Doris M. Cochran, William B. Davis, James R. Dixon, the late Emmett R. Dunn, Josef Eiselt, Alice G. C. Grandison, Norman Hartweg, Robert F. Inger, Arthur Loveridge, the late Karl P. Schmidt, Hobart M. Smith, Robert C. Stebbins, Margaret Storey, Edward H. Taylor, and Richard G. Zweifel. Several people have aided me in the study of specimens and in the analysis of data; I am grateful to Donald D. Brand, who first introduced me to Michoacán; since that time I have benefited much from his knowledge of the area. James A. Peters provided me with essential information concerning his field work in southern Michoacán in 1950. James R. Dixon and Floyd L. Downs have permitted me to use freely the material and data that they accumulated in their recent field work in Michoacán. Norman E. Hartweg allowed me to use the specimens and data that he gathered in his survey of the herpetofauna in the region of Volcán Parícutin. L. C. Stuart, Charles F. Walker, and Richard G. Zweifel have helped in unraveling some of the systematic and distributional problems. I am especially grateful to my wife, Ann, who for six months helped me track down elusive species and explore new areas. Furthermore, she has stimulated me to carry this study to completion. Many people in Michoacán favored the field parties with quarters, transportation, and valuable information, which greatly facilitated the field work. In this respect I am especially indebted to Ingeniero Ruben Erbina of Ingenieros Civiles Asociados, who not only let us use his home as our headquarters, but through a letter of introduction gave us the "key" to southern Michoacán. Ingeniero Pedro Tonda aided us in Arteaga and San Salvador. Ingeniero Anastacio Peréz Alfaro of the Comisión Tepalcatepec in Uruapan provided the latest maps of southern Michoacán and much essential information pertaining to travel conditions in the area. Señor Nefty Mendoza gave us a home in Dos Aguas; this kindness allowed us to work in this interesting region during the height of the rainy season. Mr. and Mrs. Bob Thomas let us make use of their facilities at Hacienda Zirimícuaro. The naval officers at the Estación Marina at Playa Azul made pleasant what might have been a dreadful stay in that small coastal village. To the managers and pilots of Lineas Aereas Picho in Uruapan I owe special thanks for going out of their way on more than one occasion to transport a stranded snake-hunter. Throughout the months of field work beginning in 1955 I constantly have been aided by the authorities and workers of the Comisión Tepalcatepec, a subdivision of the Secretaria de Caminos y Obras Publicas, and of the private corporation, Ingenieros Civiles Asociados. Much of the field work in Michoacán was made possible only through the co-operation of the natives who supplied mules, acted as guides, and aided in the collection of specimens. I have learned a great deal from these people. They will never see this report. Their work as guides, muleteers, and collectors greatly assisted me with the mountains of equipment that had to be piled on the backs of scrawny mules for transportation to places where the natives seldom trod. Their efforts in behalf of Don Guillermo never will be forgotten; I extend an especially hearty _muchas gracias_ to Benjamin, Ignacio, Jesús, Lorenzo, Mariano, and Remigio. Much of the work on this report was done while I was associated with the Museum of Zoology at the University of Michigan. I thank Norman E. Hartweg and T. H. Hubbell for making available to me the facilities of the museum and for their numerous courtesies that aided me so much. My field work in Michoacán was supported by the Museum of Zoology at the University of Michigan (1951), by the Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies of the University of Michigan (1955), by the Penrose Fund of the American Philosophical Society (1956), by the Bache Fund of the National Academy of Sciences (1958), and by the University of Kansas Endowment Association (1960). Permits for collecting specimens in México were provided by the Dirección General de Caza through the courtesy of Ing. Juan Lozano Franco and Luis Macías Arellano. Historical Account Unlike many parts of southern México and northern Central America, Michoacán received no attention from the collecting expeditions of the European museums in the last century. The earliest known herpetological specimens from Michoacán were obtained by Louis John Xantus, who was appointed U. S. Consul to Colima in 1859. In April, 1863, Xantus collected at Volcán Jorullo in Michoacán; in April and May of the same year he collected along the coast of Michoacán between the Río Cachán and the Río Nexpa. His small collection of 19 extant specimens is in the United States National Museum. Alfredo Dugès, a resident of Guanajuato, México, made early contributions to the knowledge of the herpetofauna of Michoacán. In 1885 he described _Sonora michoacanensis_, and in 1891 he described _Eumeces altamirani_; from what is known of the distribution of these species, he probably had collected in the Tepalcatepec Valley. During their biological survey of México, Edward W. Nelson and Edward A. Goldman spent a limited amount of time in Michoacán in 1892 and again in 1903 and 1904. Most of their collecting was done on the plateau in the north-central part of the state; their collections are in the United States National Museum. While collecting fishes in southern México, Seth E. Meek obtained some amphibians and reptiles from Lago de Pátzcuaro in 1904; these are in the collections of the Chicago Natural History Museum. In 1908 Hans Gadow ventured into the then unexplored "tierra caliente" of the Balsas Valley and collected at Volcán Jorullo and other localities in the valley. Later in the same year he collected at Guayabo, San Salvador, and Arteaga in the Sierra de Coalcomán and at Buena Vista and Cofradía in the Tepalcatepec Valley. His collections were deposited in the British Museum (Natural History) and the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien. The first thirty years of the present century saw little more field work in Michoacán. In the 1930's Edward H. Taylor and Hobart M. Smith collected throughout much of México. At various times they worked in Michoacán, principally along the road from México City to Guadalajara. In 1935 Hobart M. Smith spent a week at Hacienda El Sabino south of Uruapan; he revisited the locality again in 1936 and made a large and important collection of amphibians and reptiles from the upper limits of the arid tropical scrub forest in the Tepalcatepec Valley. Specimens collected by Smith and Taylor were incorporated into the Edward H. Taylor-Hobart M. Smith collection, which subsequently was deposited in part in the Museum of Natural History at the University of Illinois and in part in the Chicago Natural History Museum. In 1939 Hobart M. Smith collected at Pátzcuaro and between Uruapan and Apatzingán; these collections, made while he was a Walter Rathbone Bacon Scholar of the Smithsonian Institution, are deposited in the United States National Museum. In 1940 and 1941 Frederick A. Shannon, who was a member of the Hoogstraal Expeditions under the auspices of the Chicago Natural History Museum, collected on Cerro de Tancítaro and at Apatzingán; an account of the specimens collected there was published by Schmidt and Shannon (1947). The eruption of Volcán Parícutin in February, 1943, attracted the attention of many biologists, a group of which from the Museum of Zoology at the University of Michigan collected in the Cordillera Volcánica in 1945 and 1947. The amphibians and reptiles were collected and studied by Norman E. Hartweg. In 1950 James A. Peters accompanied Donald D. Brand on a preliminary exploration of the western part of the Sierra de Coalcomán and adjacent Pacific coast of Michoacán; in the same year Peters collected also on the Mexican Plateau and at Volcán Jorullo. His specimens are in the Museum of Zoology at the University of Michigan. Since 1950 many biologists have collected in Michoacán in the course of work on certain groups of animals or in general surveys. In this way Raymond Alcorn, Robert W. Dickerman, James R. Dixon, Floyd L. Downs, Emmet T. Hooper, and Robert R. Miller have contributed to our knowledge of the herpetofauna. As stated previously, my own field work in Michoacán began in 1951, when I accompanied Donald D. Brand on an exploring expedition to the southern part of the state. In that year a short time was spent on the Mexican Plateau, principally in the area around Lago de Cuitzeo, and at Volcán Jorullo. In July and August we made our headquarters at Coalcomán. From that town the field party travelled southward to Maruata on the Pacific coast and thence back over the mountains to Coalcomán. Later in that summer we travelled by mule from Coalcomán southeastward to the mouth of the Río Nexpa. In 1955, accompanied by Lee D. Beatty, Carter R. Gilbert, and Fred G. Thompson, I collected in the Tepalcatepec Valley and at Coalcomán. We made a mule trip from Coalcomán to Cerro de Barolosa, where we made the first collections from the pine-fir forests in the Sierra de Coalcomán. Later in the same summer Carter R. Gilbert and I spent a week at Playa Azul on the Pacific coast. In March, April, and May, 1956, my wife and I collected for a short time in the Cordillera Volcánica and on the Mexican Plateau. In early April we moved into the Tepalcatepec Valley, where we collected intensively between Churumuco and Tepalcatepec. In May we collected on the Pacific coast between Boca de Apiza and La Placita. In July and August, 1956, accompanied by Richard E. Etheridge, we returned to Michoacán and again collected on the Mexican Plateau and in the Cordillera Volcánica, before moving into the Tepalcatepec Valley. In an attempt to fill in gaps in the known distributions of many species and to sample the fauna in some previously uncollected areas, I returned to Michoacán in June, 1958. Accompanied by Jerome B. Tulecke and John Wellman, I collected on the Mexican Plateau in the northwestern part of the state, on the southern slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica, and in the Tepalcatepec Valley. Most of our time was spent in the Sierra de Coalcomán, where we collected at Aguililla, Artega, and Dos Aguas. In 1960 two days were spent in Michoacán; a small collection was made in the eastern part of the Cordillera Volcánica. With the exception of the specimens collected in 1960, which are at the Museum of Natural History at the University of Kansas, the specimens that I have collected in Michoacán are in the Museum of Zoology at the University of Michigan. NATURAL LANDSCAPE A proper understanding of the geographical distribution of animals in a given region is possible only after a thorough acquaintance with the geography of the region. Likewise, in order to gain a knowledge of the ecological distribution and relationships of the components of the fauna, it is necessary to study the animals in their natural environments. In order to give the reader a picture of the physical features and the major animal habitats within the state of Michoacán, the following brief description is offered. Each of these facets mentioned below will be elaborated in detail in my final report on the herpetofauna of Michoacán. Physiography The state of Michoacán comprises an area of 60,093 square kilometers (Vivó, 1953). Within this area the rugged terrain has a total relief of nearly 4000 meters. There have been several attempts to classify the physiographic provinces of México; the classification used here is a slight modification of the scheme proposed by Tamayo (1949). I have tried to keep the system as simple as possible, but still useful in discussing the distribution of animals living in the region. For general purposes the state of Michoacán can be divided into lowlands and highlands as follows: LOWLANDS Pacific Coastal Plain Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin HIGHLANDS Mexican Plateau Cordillera Volcánica Sierra de Coalcomán Although the lowlands in the state are continuous, they are only narrowly connected and thus form two distinct physiographic and biotic areas. The Pacific Coastal Plain in Michoacán extends for a distance of about 200 kilometers (airline) from the Río Coahuayana to the Río Balsas. The coastal plain is broad between the Río Coahuayana and San Juan de Lima, and between Las Peñas and the Río Balsas, where the hills rise some 12 kilometers inland from the sea. Between San Juan de Lima and Las Peñas the mountains extend to the sea; in this region rocky promontories form precipitous cliffs dropping into the sea. Between the promontories are small sandy or rocky beaches. Lying to the north of the Sierra de Coalcomán and the Sierra del Sur, but south of the Cordillera Volcánica, is a broad structural depression, the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin. The western part of this basin, which separates the Sierra de Coalcomán from the Cordillera Volcánica, is the valley of the Río Tepalcatepec, a major tributary of the Río Balsas. The eastern part of the basin is the valley of the Río Balsas. From the point of junction of the two rivers, the Río Balsas flows southward through a narrow gorge, which separates the Sierra de Coalcomán from the Sierra del Sur, to the Pacific Ocean. In Michoacán the floor of the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin varies from 200 to 700 meters above sea level. The central part of México is a vast table-land, the Mexican Plateau, the southern part of which extends into northern Michoacán. In this region the terrain is rolling and varies from 1500 to 1900 meters above sea level. Many small mountain ranges rise from the plateau and break the continuity of the rolling table-land. Located on the southern part of the Mexican Plateau in Michoacán are several lakes, the largest of which are Lago de Chapala, Lago de Cuitzeo, and Lago de Pátzcuaro. Bordering the southern edge of the Mexican Plateau is a nearly unbroken chain of volcanos, the Cordillera Volcánica. The highest peaks in Michoacán, Cerro San Andrés (3930 meters) and Cerro de Tancítaro (3870 meters), are in this range. Parts of the Cordillera Volcánica in Michoacán are known by separate names; these are, from west to east: Sierra de los Tarascos, Sierra de Ozumatlán, and Serranía de Ucareo. Lying between the Tepalcatepec Valley and the Pacific Ocean, and east of the Río Coahuayana and west of the Río Balsas, is an isolated highland mass, the Sierra de Coalcomán. This mountain range rises to elevations of slightly more than 3000 meters. It has a length of about 200 kilometers and a width of about 80 kilometers. Except for a relatively low connection with the Cordillera Volcánica, the Sierra de Coalcomán is isolated from other mountain ranges in southwestern México. CLIMATE The climates in Michoacán vary from tropical in the lowlands to cool temperate at high elevations in the Sierra de Coalcomán and Cordillera Volcánica. The highest temperatures are known in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin, where at Churumuco the mean annual temperature is 29.3° C. and the range of monthly means is 3.5° C. (Contreras, 1942). Frosts occur sporadically on the Mexican Plateau, and in the winter snow falls on the highest mountains. Precipitation varies geographically and seasonally. Most of the rain falls between June and October. In the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin rainfall in the rest of the year is negligible. The annual average rainfall at Coahuayana on the Pacific Coastal Plain is 871 mm. (Guzmán-Rivas, 1957:52). In the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin rainfall seldom exceeds 800 mm. per year. In the mountains precipitation is heavier and somewhat more evenly distributed throughout the year, but still definitely cyclic. For example, Uruapan (elevation, 1500 meters) receives an average annual rainfall of 1674 mm. (Contreras, 1942). The prevailing winds are from the Pacific Ocean. The southern (windward) slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán probably receive more rain than any other part of the state. The Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin lies in a rain shadow of the Sierra de Coalcomán, and the Mexican Plateau lies in a somewhat less drastic rain shadow of the Cordillera Volcánica; these are the driest regions in the state. VEGETATION AND ANIMAL HABITATS For the purposes of this report I have adopted the classification of types of vegetation that seem to me most significant in terms of ecological distribution of reptiles and amphibians in Michoacán. These types are as follows: TEMPERATE (1000-4000 meters) Fir Forest (2400-4000 meters) Pine-oak Forest (1000-4000 meters) Mesquite-grassland (1500-2100 meters) TROPICAL (0-1000 meters) Arid Tropical Scrub Forest (0-1000 meters) Tropical Semi-deciduous Forest (150-600 meters) The vegetation of the Pacific Coastal Plain and the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin consists of arid tropical scrub forest, composed of deciduous trees, which in many places are stunted and widely spaced. In the dry season there is little cover provided by this forest. In the rainy season there is a sparse growth of grasses and some shade provided by the small leaves of the thorny trees. In Michoacán the rainfall is heaviest on the southern slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán and somewhat less so on the southwestern slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica. At these relatively low elevations (150 to 600 meters) there is tropical semi-deciduous forest, characterized by relatively dense shade throughout the year and by a leaf mulch on the ground. This type of forest forms the gallery forest along the larger streams in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin and on the Pacific Coastal Plain. Rainfall also is heavy on the high mountain ridges, where temperatures are low. On these ridges, fir forest, often mixed with pine and oaks, is found. This habitat is characterized by a cool, moist climate, many rotting logs, and a moist ground cover of leaves and needles. Most of the mountains are covered with pine-oak forest, which in most places is decidedly subhumid, but where this forest occurs on the windward sides of high ridges, it sometimes is noticeably humid. In this forest the important animal habitats include the needle- and leaf-litter, and in some areas, bromeliads. The rolling terrain of the Mexican Plateau supports cacti, small leguminous trees, and grasses. Like the arid tropical scrub forest, this type of vegetation, the Mesquite-grassland association, is deciduous and thus provides little shelter in the dry season. Unlike the areas in which arid tropical scrub forest is developed, the Mesquite-grassland is found in areas having warm days and cool nights. GEOGRAPHY OF THE HERPETOFAUNA Although the main part of my final report on the herpetofauna of Michoacán will deal with the geographical and ecological patterns of distribution of the herpetofauna, a brief summary of the faunal assemblages is presented here. In Michoacán there are two major faunal assemblages, one in the lowlands, and one in the highlands. A large number of the species inhabiting the lowlands are wide-ranging species, such as _Bufo marinus_, _Iguana iguana_, and _Boa constrictor_. Sixty-three species are known to occur on the Pacific Coastal Plain; 41 of these, together with 36 others occur in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin, a physiographic region to which several species of reptiles are endemic; for example, _Enyaliosaurus clarki_, _Urosaurus gadowi_, _Cnemidophorus calidipes_, and _Eumeces altamirani_. Generally speaking, the members of the highland faunal assemblage have more restricted geographic ranges. The major exceptions are those species that are widely distributed on the Mexican Plateau, such as: _Bufo compactilis_, _Sceloporus torquatus_, and _Salvadora bairdi_. In the montane habitats of the Cordillera Volcánica, 45 species of amphibians and reptiles are known; 34 species have been found in the Sierra de Coalcomán. Fourteen species are known to occur in both ranges. Several species are known only from the Cordillera Volcánica and adjacent highlands, and three species are endemic to the Sierra de Coalcomán. ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIES In the following pages the 176 species and subspecies of amphibians and reptiles known to occur in the state of Michoacán are discussed in relation to their variation, life histories, ecology, and distribution in the state. Data have been gathered from 9676 specimens. I have not prolonged the accounts of species with information that has been presented elsewhere. Consequently, the length and completeness of the accounts are variable. I have given only the information that I consider a worthwhile contribution to our knowledge of the particular species. The synonymies given at the beginning of each account include the first use of the trivial name by the original author, the first usage of the combination that I am using, and, if the circumstances make it necessary, additional names or combinations that have been proposed since the publication of the checklists of Mexican amphibians and reptiles by Smith and Taylor (1945, 1948, and 1950b). References cited only in the synonymies are not listed in the Literature Cited. Preceding the discussion of each species is an alphabetical list of the localities in Michoacán from which specimens have been examined. The listing of a locality means that one or more specimens, as indicated, has been examined from that locality. Only for those specimens especially mentioned in the text are catalogue numbers given. Abbreviations for the various museums and scientific collections are, as follows: AMNH American Museum of Natural History ANSP Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia BMNH British Museum (Natural History) CNHM Chicago Natural History Museum EHT-HMS Edward H. Taylor-Hobart M. Smith collection JRD James R. Dixon collection, College Station, Texas KU University of Kansas Museum of Natural History MCZ Museum of Comparative Zoology MVZ Museum of Vertebrate Zoology NMW Naturhistorisches Museum Wien SU Stanford University Museum of Natural History TCWC Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection UIMNH University of Illinois Museum of Natural History UMMZ University of Michigan Museum of Zoology USNM United States National Museum UTNHC University of Texas Natural History Collection Throughout the accounts of the species all measurements are given in millimeters; if the range of variation is given, the mean follows in parentheses. AMPHIBIA Caudata ~Ambystoma amblycephalum~ Taylor _Ambystoma amblycephala_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26: 420, November 27, 1940.--Fifteen kilometers west of Morelia, Michoacán, México. Fifteen km. W of Morelia (19); 11 km. SSE of Opopeo (12); 8 km. S of Pátzcuaro; 24 km. S of Pátzcuaro (2); Quiroga (20); Tacícuaro (167). Taylor and Smith (1945:530) presented data on 137 specimens collected at Tacícuaro on October 1, 1939; these are all larvae and metamorphosing individuals. Aside from these, the largest larva examined (UMMZ 104962 from 15 km. W of Morelia) has a snout-vent length of 70.0 mm. and a tail length of 53.5 mm. The larvae are pale pinkish tan above and somewhat paler below; there is a lateral row of cream colored spots. The tail-fin, which is deepest at mid-length, extends to the back of the head and is flecked with brown. In small larvae the outer edge of the tail-fin is dark brown. The eyes are large. Two small metamorphosed specimens (UMMZ 98967) from 24 kilometers south of Pátzcuaro are tentatively referred to this species. These specimens have body lengths of 49.0 and 45.0 mm. and tail lengths of 36.0 and 31.5 mm., respectively. They have 17-17 and 16-15 vomerine teeth arranged in a broad arch behind the choanae, 10 costal grooves, and 7 intercostal spaces between adpressed toes. The dorsal color is uniform brown; that of the venter is a dusty cream. Larvae were collected from shallow ponds near Quiroga and 15 kilometers west of Morelia; metamorphosed individuals were taken from beneath logs in pine and fir forests at elevations from 2300 to 2800 meters. ~Ambystoma dumerili dumerili~ (Dugès) _Siredon Dumerili_ Dugès, La Naturaleza, 1:241, 1870--Lago de Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, México. _Bathysiredon dumerilii_, Dunn, Notulae Naturae, 36:1, November 9, 1939. _Bathysiredon dumerilii dumerilii_, Maldonado-Koerdell, Mem. y Rev. Acad. Nac. Cien., 56:199, 1948. _Ambystoma_ (_Bathysiredon_) _dumerili_, Tihen, Bull. Florida State Mus., 3:3, June 20, 1958. Lago de Pátzcuaro (22);? Morelia. For many years this unusual salamander was known from only a few specimens mostly collected in the last century; Smith and Taylor (1948:7) stated: "It is presumed that this species is extinct owing to the introduction of exotic game and food fishes." In 1951 and in 1955 I had been told that _axolotls_ were sold in the market at Pátzcuaro; nevertheless, none was found on my visits there. In 1956 Charles M. Bogert obtained several large specimens at the market in Pátzcuaro. These establish the continued existence of the salamander in Lago de Pátzcuaro. On January 27, 1955, R. W. Dickerman procured a specimen (KU 41573) in the market at Morelia. Since fish are brought to Morelia from Lago de Pátzcuaro, the specimen probably was from that lake. Nevertheless, the species may occur in other permanent bodies of water in Michoacán. Maldonado-Koerdell (1948) described _Bathysiredon dumerili queretarensis_ from San Juan del Río, Queretaro. This locality is about 200 airline kilometers northeast of Lago de Pátzcuaro and is in the Río Moctezuma drainage. ~Ambystoma ordinarium~ Taylor _Ambystoma ordinaria_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:422, November 27, 1940.--Four miles west of El Mirador, near Puerto Hondo, Michoacán, México. Axolotl (56); Cerro San Andrés; 22 km. W of Mil Cumbres; 46 km. E of Morelia (34); 8 km. SE of Opopeo (5); Puerto de Garnica (8); Puerto Hondo (41); San Gregorio (16); San José de la Cumbre (20). Of 16 specimens (KU 51520-35) collected on June 18, 1955, near San Gregorio, 15 are adult females with swollen cloacae and minute ovarian eggs. Possibly these specimens had just recently deposited their mature eggs. In preservative the specimens are black above and dull creamy gray below. Measurements for the 15 females are: snout-vent length, 80.0-102.0 (92.5); tail length, 69.0-93.0 (84.2); head width, 15.8-20.5 (17.7); head length, 22.8-26.6 (24.4). A larval specimen with small gills has a snout-vent length of 72 mm. and a tail length of 62 mm. Three specimens have 12 costal grooves; the other have 11. Of 20 specimens from San José de la Cumbre (UMMZ 112857 and 115143), 14 are neotenic adults; the others are larvae. In life the salamanders were blackish to olive-brown above with scattered cream-colored dots on the dorsum and flanks but in preservative are dull grayish black with indistinct pale spots and dark reticulations. The belly is pale gray with indistinct dark spots. Eleven females and three males have the following measurements, respectively: snout-vent length, 76.0-90.0 (80.7), 64.0-84.0 (74.3); tail length, 70.0-81.0 (75.0), 58.0-71.0 (66.7); head width, 19.5-23.5 (20.7), 17.5-20.5 (19.3); head length, 22.0-25.0 (23.0), 20.0-22.5 (21.5). The smallest larva has a snout-vent length of 43.0 mm. and a tail length of 38.0 mm. Two individuals have 12 costal grooves; the others have 11. All of the females contained eggs, the largest of which were 1.5 mm. in diameter. The stomachs of most of the specimens were distended with oligochaets, aquatic insect larvae, and small aquatic beetles. A series of 34 larvae (JRD 5904-37) from 46 kilometers east of Morelia are tentatively referred to this species. These specimens are olive-brown above with cream-colored spots on the flanks; the dorsal tail-fin does not extend onto the body. This species has been found only at elevations in excess of 2400 meters in pine and fir forests. At Rancho Axolotl James A. Peters collected larvae and neotenic individuals in a rocky stream and adults from beneath rocks and logs in the forest near the stream. Neotenic individuals and larvae were found in a clear stream in pine-fir forest at an elevation of 2700 meters near San José de la Cumbre; specimens were collected there in July, 1955, and again in July, 1956. The site was visited in April, 1956, at which time the stream consisted of only a few puddles; no salamanders were found. ~Ambystoma tigrinum velasci~ Dugès _Ambystoma velasci_ Dugès, La Naturaleza, ser. 2, 1:142, 1888.--Laguna Santa Isabel, near Guadalupe Hidalgo, Distrito Federal, México. _Ambystoma tigrinum velasci_, Dunn, Copeia, no. 3:157, November 14, 1940. Pátzcuaro (5); Tacícuaro (9). Definite specific assignment of these specimens, all larvae, cannot be made at this time. They have shovel-shaped heads and laterally compressed bodies with the dorsal tail-fin extending anteriorly to the back of the head. The eyes are small. The body is pale tan with dark mottling on the tail and flanks. The average snout-vent length for nine specimens from Tacícuaro is 61.0 mm. The larvae from Tacícuaro (UMMZ 89255) were collected by Dyfrig Forbes in October, 1939; those from Pátzcuaro, presumably Lago de Pátzcuaro (BMNH 1914.1.28-247-8 and CNHM 948), were collected by Hans Gadow and Seth Meek in 1908. ~Pseudoeurycea belli~ (Gray) _Spelerpes belli_ Gray, Catalogue Batrachia Gradientia British Museum, p. 46, 1850.--México. Type locality restricted to 2 miles east of Río Frío, Puebla, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:341). _Pseudoeurycea bellii_, Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 30:209, June 12, 1944. Axolotl (2); Carapan; Cerro Tancítaro (84); Macho de Agua; 22 km. W of Mil Cumbres; Opopeo; Pátzcuaro (8); Puerto Hondo (2): San José de la Cumbre; San Juan de Parangaricutiro (42); Uruapan (5); Zacapu (4). This salamander seems to reach its greatest abundance in Michoacán in the Sierra de los Tarascos between Pátzcuaro and Tancítaro, where it is found at elevations from 1500 to 2900 meters. It is found less commonly in the eastern part of the Cordillera Volcánica in Michoacán, where it sometimes occurs in association with _Pseudoeurycea robertsi_. On June 22 and 23, 1955, four clutches of eggs of this species were found beneath adobe bricks and rocks on the volcanic ash that has buried the village of San Juan de Parangaricutiro. The eggs were unstalked and separate, but adherent in clumps of three or four (Pl. 2, Fig. 1). The outer membranes were covered with fine particles of ash. The ash beneath the stones where the eggs were found was only slightly moist; one clump of eggs was partially desiccated. Three complete clutches have 20, 23, and 34 eggs; one clutch of 15 eggs was being eaten by beetles (Tenebrionidae: _Eleodes_ sp.). The eggs vary in size from 4.6 to 6.5 mm. and average 5.3 mm. in diameter. They are unpigmented. Surrounding the embryo is a vitelline membrane, an inner, and an outer envelope (Fig. 1). In an average-sized egg having an embryo 4 mm. in length, the diameter of the outer membrane is 5.3 mm., the inner membrane 5.0 mm., and the vitelline membrane 4.6 mm. All of the eggs contained embryos in which the limb buds were developed; in about half of these the eyes were distinctly visible. [Illustration: Fig. 1. Diagram of an egg of _Pseudoeurycea belli_ from San Juan de Parangaricutiro, Michoacán. × 10.] The first heavy rain of the season occurred on the night of June 22, 1955. Thus, at least sometimes, _Pseudoeurycea belli_ lays its eggs before the onset of the rainy season. A female having a snout-vent length of 110 mm., collected on June 22, 1955, contained 36 ovarian eggs having diameters from 3.0 to 3.5 mm. The fact that small juveniles were collected on the same date indicates that this salamander lays eggs over a period of several weeks in late spring and early summer. The smallest juvenile examined has a snout-vent length of 17.0 mm. and a tail length of 7.5 mm. Twelve juveniles from the vicinity of San Juan de Parangaricutiro have an average snout-vent length of 19.4 mm. and an average tail length of 9.7 mm. In juveniles the adpressed limbs either touch or overlap by one intercostal space; in adults there are two or three intercostal spaces between adpressed toes. Therefore the greatest number of intercostal spaces between adpressed limbs is found in the largest specimens. A similar relationship between adpressed limbs (= length of limbs) and snout-vent length was shown for _Plethodon richmondi_ by Duellman (1954a). The number of vomerine teeth is variable; the number of teeth seems to be closely correlated with the size of the salamander (Fig. 2). A similar correlation between the number of maxillary teeth and body length was reported for _Chiropterotriton multidentatus_ by Rabb (1958). In 12 juvenile _Pseudoeurycea belli_ there are 6-13 (8.8) vomerine teeth, and in 11 adults having snout-vent lengths greater than 90 mm. there are 39-49 (44.0) vomerine teeth. The coloration of the juveniles resembles that of the adults (Pl. 1). [Illustration: FIG. 2. Correlation between the number of vomerine teeth and snout-vent length in 79 _Pseudoeurycea belli_ from Michoacán.] The differences between this species and _Pseudoeurycea gigantea_ are minor. Taylor (1939a) distinguished _gigantea_ from _belli_ by the larger size, fewer intercostal spaces between adpressed limbs, more vomerine teeth, and absence of occipital spots in _gigantea_. Taylor and Smith (1945) stated that in life the spots in _gigantea_ are orange instead of red as in _belli_. Five specimens of _Pseudoeurycea belli_ from Michoacán, including one juvenile, lack occipital spots. In the 34 living individuals that I have seen from Michoacán the spots varied from deep red to orange. Therefore, of the characters listed by Taylor (_op. cit._) to diagnose _Pseudoeurycea gigantea_, only the over-all larger size and smaller number of intercostal spaces between adpressed limbs (= relatively longer limbs) are useful in separating _Pseudoeurycea belli_ and _gigantea_. ~Pseudoeurycea robertsi~ (Taylor) _Oedipus robertsi_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 25:287, July 10, 1939.--Nevado de Toluca, México. _Pseudoeurycea robertsi_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 30:209, June 12, 1944. Atzimba (3); Macho de Agua (9); Puerto Lengua de Vaca (14). Previously this species has been recorded only from the type locality. In July, 1956, individuals referable to this species were found at two sites in pine-fir forest immediately to the east of Macho de Agua and in pine-oak-fir forest at Atzimba. On August 20, 1958, a series was collected in pine-fir forest at Puerto Lengua de Vaca. These localities are between 2900 and 3000 meters in the Cordillera Volcánica in eastern Michoacán. In life the coloration of these salamanders was highly variable. The belly and undersurfaces of the tail and hind limbs were pale gray, with or without silvery white flecks; the chin was a cream-color and flecked with silvery white in some specimens. The middorsal area was brown, orange-brown, or dull grayish yellow. The flanks and lateral surfaces of the tail were black with yellowish flecks or streaks on the flanks and yellowish or orange-brown flecks on the tail. The iris was golden brown. Measurements of eight males and two females are, respectively: snout-vent length, 42.5-56.0 (49.5), 54.0-60.0 (57.0); tail length, 42.0-56.0 (48.1), 52.0-55.0 (53.5). The smallest juvenile has a snout-vent length of 28.0 mm. and a tail length of 23.0 mm. Of the 26 available specimens, six have 12 costal grooves, and the others have 11. In comparison with 36 topotypes, the specimens from Michoacán have a less striking dorsal color pattern; none has a well-defined dorsal reddish brown area or bold reddish mottling on the tail. Furthermore, the specimens from Michoacán have paler venters than do topotypic specimens. Salientia ~Rhinophrynus dorsalis~ Duméril and Bibron _Rhinophrynus dorsalis_ Duméril and Bibron, Erpétologie générale, vol. 8:758, 1841.--Veracruz, Veracruz, México. Mouth of the Río Balsas (10). These specimens (BMNH 1914.1.28.181-90) were collected by Gadow in 1908 and reported by him (1930:72): "Whilst this very sluggish termite-eating toad is common enough in the sweltering hot country of the state of Vera Cruz, up to an elevation of 1500 feet, it was unknown on the west side of the Isthmus until I found it in great numbers near the mouth of the Balsas River, in and near fresh-water pools, where it attracted attention by its loud peculiar voice during the pairing season in the month of July." Subsequently, Peters (1954:3) verified the identification of these specimens. Although torrential rains fell during the week in July, 1955, that I spent at Playa Azul near the mouth of the Río Balsas, the distinctive voice of _Rhinophrynus_ was not heard. Elsewhere on the Pacific coast of México adult _Rhinophrynus_ have been reported only from Tehuantepec and a few localities on the coastal lowlands of Chiapas. Taylor (1942b:37) found on the coast of Guerrero a tadpole that was referred to the genus _Rhinophrynus_ by Orton (1943). In the summer of 1960 adults of _Rhinophrynus_ were collected near Acapulco, Guerrero (Fouquette, _in litt._). These recent collections verify the existence of the species along the Pacific lowlands of México at least as far north as Michoacán. ~Scaphiopus hammondi multiplicatus~ Cope _Scaphiopus multiplicatus_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 15:52, June 8, 1863.--Valley of México. _Scaphiopus hammondi multiplicatus_, Kellogg, Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., 160:22, March 31, 1932. Angahuan (5); Cuitzeo (4); Cuseño Station (2); Jiquilpan (9); Morelia (7); Pátzcuaro (3); Quiroga; Tarécuaro; Uruapan (24); Zacapu. This small toad has been found at elevations between 1500 and 2500 meters on the Mexican Plateau and associated mountain ranges; it occurs in mesquite-grassland and in pine forests. Calling males and females laden with eggs have been collected in the rainy season in the months of July and August. The call is a medium-pitched snore. In living individuals the dorsal ground color varies from pale brown to gray with dark brown or olive-brown markings. In many individuals the tips of the small dorsal pustules are red. ~Bufo coccifer~ Cope _Bufo coccifer_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 18:130, 1866--Arriba, Costa Rica. Apatzingán (27); Lombardia; Nueva Italia (5). In life the dorsal color pattern consists of a yellowish tan ground color with dark brown spots; the middorsal stripe is deep yellow or cream color. The venter is a dusty cream color, and the iris is pale gold. Males have dark brown horny nuptial tuberosities on the thumb. The following measurements are of 21 males and four females, respectively: snout-vent length, 43.5-51.7 (48.1), 55.6-62.6 (59.1); tibia length, 16.6-18.8 (17.6), 18.8-20.3 (19.3); head width, 16.7-19.7 (18.4), 20.6-22.2 (21.4); head length, 13.8-16.6 (14.8), 16.5-18.2 (17.3). The specimens from the Tepalcatepec Valley differ slightly from specimens from southeastern México and Central America. Those from Michoacán have low and narrow cranial crests; in about one-half of the specimens the occipital crest exists only as a row of tubercles, and in some the postorbital and suborbital crests are barely discernible. Specimens from the southern part of the range, Costa Rica and Nicaragua, have much higher and thicker cranial crests; in these the occipital crest is well defined and extends posteriorly to a point back of the anterior edge of the parotid gland; the postorbital and suborbital crests are well marked. Of 48 specimens from Esquipulas, Guatemala, all have high crests, but these are not so well developed as in ten specimens from Matagalpa, Nicaragua, and three from various localities in Costa Rica. Six specimens from Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, have cranial crests that are lower than those in specimens from Guatemala. In three of the specimens from Tehuantepec the occipital crests are reduced to a series of tubercles. Of six specimens from Agua del Obispo, Guerrero, four have poorly developed occipital crests. These observations suggest the presence of a cline in the development of the cranial crests; specimens have higher crests in the southern part of the range than in the northern part. In México _Bufo coccifer_ has been collected only in semi-xeric habitats, but to the south, from Guatemala to Costa Rica, it has been found in more upland and humid habitats. Southern specimens are darker than those from the north, a possible correlation with the differences in habitat. These toads probably range throughout the Tepalcatepec Valley, but they are unknown from the coast of Michoacán. Breeding choruses were found after heavy rains on June 24, 1955, and on August 2, 1956. The first was in a muddy ditch; the second was in a flooded grassy field. The call is a high-pitched, but not loud, "whirrr." Males were calling from the edge of the water or from clumps of grass in the water. Clasping pairs were in the water; amplexus is axillary. ~Bufo compactilis compactilis~ Wiegmann _Bufo compactilis_ Wiegmann, Isis von Oken, 26:661, 1833.--México. Type locality restricted to Xochimilco, Distrito Federal, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:330). _Bufo compactilis compactilis_, Smith, Herpetologica, 4:7, September 17, 1947. Cuitzeo (2); Emiliano Zapata (20); Jiquilpan (5); La Palma (5); Morelia; Tupátaro. The southwestern terminus of the range of this species is on the Mexican Plateau in Michoacán. All specimens from the state have spotted venters. In living toads the dorsal ground color was gray or grayish tan with olive green spots. The vocal sac was brownish gray; the iris was a bright golden color. On June 11, 1958, many individuals were calling from shallow water in a flooded field at Emiliano Zapata. The call is a slow trill, in which the individual notes are discernible. ~Bufo marinus~ (Linnaeus) _Rana marina_ Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 10, 1:211, 1758.--America. _Bufo horribilis_ Wiegmann, Isis von Oken, 26:654, 1833.--Misantla and Veracruz, Veracruz, México. Taylor and Smith, Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 95:551, January 30, 1945. _Bufo angustipes_ Taylor and Smith, Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 95:553, January 30, 1945.--La Esperanza, Chiapas, México. Aguililla; Apatzingán (3); Barranca de Bejuco; Capirio; Charapendo; Chichihuas; Coahuayana (2); Coalcomán (7); Cofradía (2); 25 km. S of Cuatro Caminos; El Sabino (10); Huahua, La Playa (13); Ojos de Agua de San Telmo; Ostula; Playa Azul (2); Pómaro (2). This large toad is characteristically found in areas supporting tropical scrub forest to elevations of about 1000 meters. The species is much more abundant than the numbers listed above suggest. In the dry season individuals have been observed in patios, along streams, and by irrigation ditches. In the rainy season the loud, rattling call of the males is heard at night throughout the Tepalcatepec Valley and the coastal lowlands. Taylor and Smith (1945:552) revived Wiegmann's _Bufo horribilis_ for the large toads of México that are here referred to _B. marinus_. Their action was based upon the supposition that the "species _marinus_" is composite. Although probably true, this supposition has yet to be proved. Until the large, and apparently related, species of _Bufo_ inhabiting tropical America have been studied systematically as a unit, the recognition of segments of the population as either species or subspecies is meaningless. Taylor and Smith (op. cit.:553) based the description of a new species, _Bufo angustipes_, on one rather emaciated, formalin-hardened female from La Esperanza, Chiapas. The type (USNM 116513), when compared with numerous specimens of _Bufo marinus_ from throughout the range of the species in México and northern Central America, displays no combination of characters to set it off from the others. Therefore, I suggest that _Bufo horribilis_ Wiegmann and _Bufo angustipes_ Taylor and Smith be placed in the synonymy of _Bufo marinus_ (Linnaeus) until future systematic study of the genus and this species in particular establishes the existence of recognizable taxa. ~Bufo marmoreus~ Wiegmann _Bufo marmoreus_ Wiegmann, Isis von Oken, 26:66, 1833.--Veracruz, Veracruz, México. Barranca de Bejuco; Coahuayana (11); El Diezmo (2); La Placita (9); La Orilla (12); Motín del Oro; Ostula (9); Playa Azul (5); Pómaro (15); Salitre de Estopilas; San Pedro Naranjestila. In Michoacán this species is confined to elevations of less than 1000 meters on the coast and foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán. In this region in the months of June and July, breeding congregations have been found in temporary pools and along streams. Smith and Taylor (1948:39), in their key to the Mexican species of _Bufo_, placed emphasis on the nature of the supraorbital and postorbital crests (whether they form a curve or a sharp angle) in distinguishing _Bufo marmoreus_ from _Bufo perplexus_. In the original description of _perplexus_, Taylor (1943a:347) characterized the species as follows: supraorbital and postorbital crests forming a sharp angle, instead of a curve as in _marmoreus_; supratympanic crest smaller than in _marmoreus_; diagonal lateral stripe lacking in females; concentration of dorsal tubercles as found in _marmoreus_ lacking in males. The discovery of specimens in which the crests form a curve and others in which the crests form an angle in both the Tepalcatepec Valley and in the coastal lowlands prompted an investigation of these characters and others throughout the ranges of the species. An examination of 410 specimens has resulted in the following conclusions. TABLE 1.--VARIATION IN THE SHAPE OF THE SUPRAORBITAL AND POSTORBITAL CRANIAL CRESTS IN BUFO MARMOREUS AND B. PERPLEXUS. +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |LOCALITY | N | Curved |Intermediate| Angular | +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |Tepalcatepec Valley | 50| 10 (20.0%)| 17 (34.0%) |23 (46.0%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |Morelos | 12| 2 (16.6%)| 5 (41.7%) | 5 (41.7%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |Izúcar, Puebla | 4| 2 (50.0%)| 0 (0.0%) | 2 (50.0%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |Southern Sinaloa | 1| 1(100.0%)| 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco| 2| 2(100.0%)| 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |Colima | 45| 25 (55.0%)| 18 (40.0%) | 2 (5.0%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |Coast of Michoacán | 55| 35 (63.6%)| 17 (30.9%) | 3 (5.5%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |Acapulco, Guerrero | 7| 7(100.0%)| 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |Chilpancingo, Guerrero | 10| 1 (10.0%)| 4 (40.0%) | 5 (50.0%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |Pochutla, Oaxaca | 13| 6 (46.2%)| 6 (46.2%) | 1 (7.6%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |Tehuantepec, Oaxaca |177| 81 (45.8%)| 67 (37.8%) |29 (16.4%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |Tonolá, Chiapas | 1| 0 (0.0%)| 0 (0.0%) | 1(100.0%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ |Veracruz | 33| 26 (78.8%)| 6 (18.2%) | 1 (3.0%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ | Total |410|198 (48.3%)|140 (34.2%) |72 (17.5%)| +------------------------+---+-----------+------------+----------+ 1. Although the highest percentage of individuals having the supraorbital and postorbital crests forming a sharp angle is from localities in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin, numerous individuals from throughout the range of _marmoreus_ have the crests forming an angle (Table 1). 2. In all samples of ten or more specimens, some toads have the supraorbital and postorbital crests forming a sharp angle, some have the crests forming a curve, and some have an intermediate condition. 3. The relative size of the supratympanic crest is highly variable in all samples examined. [Illustration: FIG. 3. Adult male of _Bufo perplexus_ from Apatzingán, Michoacán. × 1.5.] [Illustration: FIG. 4. Adult male of _Bufo marmoreus_ from Pómaro, Michoacán. × 1.5.] [Illustration: PLATE 1 Hatchling of _Pseudoeurycea belli_ from San Juan de Parangaricutiro, Michoacán. × 8.] [Illustration: PLATE 2 FIG. 1. Nest and eggs of _Pseudoeurycea belli_ beneath a rock at San Juan de Parangaricutiro. Approx. natural size. FIG. 2. Multiple egg clutches of _Phyllomedusa dacnicolor_ from Coalcomán, Michoacán. 1/3 ×. [Illustration: PLATE 3 FIG. 1. Adult male of _Tomodactylus angustidigitorum_ from Paracho, Michoacán. × 4. FIG. 2. Adult male of _Tomodactylus fuscus_ from Los Cantiles, Michoacán. ×4. [Illustration: PLATE 4 FIG. 1. Adult male of _Tomodactylus nitidus_ nitidus from Tuxpan, Michoacán. ×. FIG. 2. Adult male of _Tomodactylus nitidus orarius_ from Tecolapa, Colima. × 4.] [Illustration: PLATE 5 FIG. 1. Adult male of _Tomodactylus nitidus_ petersi from Apatzingán, Michoacán. × 4. Fig. 2. Adult male of _Tomodactylus rufescens_ from Dos Aguas, Michoacán. × 4.] [Illustration: PLATE 6 FIG. 1. Adult male of _Hypopachus caprimimus_ from Tuxpan, Michoacán. × 2-1/2. FIG. 2. Adult male of _Hypopachus oxyrrhinus ovis_ from Tangamandapio, Michoacán. × 3.] 4. A distinct, pale-colored, diagonal lateral stripe is found in females only from localities outside of the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin; females from the basin have a spotted dorsum. 5. Males from the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin usually have a broad middorsal line that is yellow or pale tan; those from outside the basin have either a narrow middorsal line or none. 6. Males from the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin have low, scattered dorsal tubercles (Fig. 3); males from outside the basin have a concentration of tubercles in a broad band on the back (Fig. 4). Therefore the nature of the cranial crests is of little value in separating two populations, but the color pattern of the females and the nature of the dorsal tubercles of the males do show distinct differences. Furthermore, certain differences in size and proportion are evident; _Bufo marmoreus_ is a slightly larger toad and has a relatively longer tibia and longer head than _perplexus_ (Table 2). TABLE 2.--COMPARISON OF CERTAIN MEASUREMENTS AND PROPORTIONS IN BUFO MARMOREUS AND B. PERPLEXUS. (MEANS ARE GIVEN IN PARENTHESES BELOW THE RANGES.) +-------------------+------------+--+----------+------------+-----------+ | | | | |Tibia length|Head length| | Species | Sex | N|Snout-vent+------------+-----------+ | | | | length | Snout-vent |Snout-vent | | | | | | length | length | +-------------------+------------+--+----------+------------+-----------+ | _B. marmoreus_ | Male |15|61.5-72.5 | 35.9-41.6 | 28.3-33.3 | | | | | (65.2) | (39.0) | (31.6) | +-------------------+------------+--+----------+------------+-----------+ | _B. perplexus_ | Male |20|50.0-59.0 | 33.7-38.1 | 26.4-31.1 | | | | | (54.9) | (36.4) | (29.5) | +-------------------+------------+--+----------+------------+-----------+ | _B. marmoreus_ | Female | 7|68.0-76.0 | 33.0-36.8 | 26.8-32.6 | | | | | (70.7) | (34.7) | (29.6) | +-------------------+------------+--+----------+------------+-----------+ | _B. perplexus_ |Female | 6|64.1-69.8 | 32.4-36.9 | 25.1-29.0 | | | | | (66.8) | (35.5) | (27.5) | +-------------------+------------+--+----------+------------+-----------+ Taylor (1943a:347) described _Bufo perplexus_ from Mexcala on the Río Balsas in Guerrero. Among the many paratypes are specimens from Tonolá, Chiapas, and Tehuantepec, Oaxaca. These apparently were referred to _perplexus_ solely on the nature of the cranial crests. All of the specimens examined during the course of the present study from the lowlands of Veracruz and from the Pacific lowlands from Sinaloa southward to Chiapas are referable to _Bufo marmoreus_; those from the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin are referable to _Bufo perplexus_, as defined above. Ten specimens from Chilpancingo, Guerrero (UMMZ 115352), do not readily fit either species. Perhaps there is gene exchange between the inland and coastal populations through the relatively low pass at Chilpancingo, at the mouth of the Río Balsas, and near the convergent headwaters of the Río Coahuayana and Río Tepalcatepec in southern Jalisco. If this can be demonstrated, then _Bufo perplexus_ would have to be considered as a subspecies of _Bufo marmoreus_, instead of an allopatric species. ~Bufo perplexus~ Taylor _Bufo perplexus_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 29:347, October 15, 1943.--Balsas River near Mexcala, Guerrero, México. Aguililla (2); Apatzingán (42); Buena Vista (5); Capirio (3); La Playa (25); Lombardia (6); Nueva Italia (9); Río Cancita, 14 km. E of Apatzingán; Río Tepalcatepec, 27 km. S of Apatzingán; San Salvador (4); Tzitzio; Volcán Jorullo. ~Bufo occidentalis~ Camerano _Bufo occidentalis_ Camerano, Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, 14:887, December 31, 1878.--México. Type locality restricted to Guanajuato, Guanajuato, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:330). Firschein, Copeia, no. 3:220, September 15, 1950. _Bufo símus_, Smith and Taylor, Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., 194:42, 1948. Barranca Seca (32); Cerro de Barolosa (4); Cerro Tancítaro, 3 km. E of Apo (2); Cerro Tancítaro, 19 km. E. of Apo (10); Charapendo; Coalcomán (7); Dos Aguas (4); Jacona, Jaramillo (2); Las Tecatas; Los Reyes (181); Tancítaro (10); Uruapan (3). This toad is an inhabitant of pine and oak forests between 900 and 2400 meters. Near Charapendo on the slopes of the Sierra de los Tarascos and at Coalcomán it apparently reaches its lowest altitudinal limits. At both of these localities the pine-oak forest is replaced by arid tropical scrub forest on the lower slopes. Twenty-four tadpoles were collected on May 3 in a quiet section of a fast stream near Barranca Seca. The tadpoles have a robust body, broadest about two-thirds the distance from the snout to the posterior edge of the body, half again as broad as deep. Eyes dorsolateral; nostrils dorsal, somewhat directed forward, and about three-fifths the distance from the tip of the snout to the eye; spiracle sinistral and lateral, located at about midbody; anus median; tail long and slender; tail-musculature extends nearly to tip of tail; depth of tail-musculature at mid-length about one-third total depth of tail; dorsal tail-fin not extending onto body (Fig. 5); average body length of ten tadpoles having small hind limb buds, 14.4 mm.; average tail length, 22.0 mm. Mouth ventral, nearly terminal, about one-third as wide as widest part of body; anterior lip has no papillae; lower lip bordered by two rows of papillae and lateral lips by one row of papillae; beaks moderately well developed, the upper forming a broad arch and finely denticulate; tooth rows 2/3, the upper rows extending to the edge of the lips, subequal in length, and slightly longer than lower rows, which also are subequal in length; inner upper tooth row broken medially; inner lower tooth row sometimes broken (Fig. 6). The body is black dorsally and laterally, and bluish gray ventrally; the tail musculature is brown and stippled with darker brown. The fins are transparent and stippled with brown, the stippling being most pronounced on the posterior two-thirds of the upper tail-fin. [Illustration: FIG. 5. Tadpole of _Bufo occidentalis_ (UMMZ 94269) from Barranca Seca, Michoacán. × 3.] [Illustration: FIG. 6. Mouthparts of larval _Bufo occidentalis_ (UMMZ 94269) from Barranca Seca, Michoacán. × 20.] Forty recently metamorphosed individuals average 18.9 mm. in snout-vent length. The relationships of this toad seem to be with _Bufo bocourti_ Brocchi, an inhabitant of pine and oak forests in the uplands of Chiapas and Guatemala. In _Bufo occidentalis_ the tympanum usually is indistinct and sometimes completely covered, and it is absent in _bocourti_. _Bufo occidentalis_ has a broader interorbital area and relatively shorter and more rounded parotid glands than _bocourti_. The tadpoles of the two species are nearly identical (see Stuart, 1943:12). ~Leptodactylus labialis~ (Cope) _Cystignathus labialis_ Cope, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 17:90, 1877.--No type locality designated; type locality restricted to Potrero Viejo, Veracruz, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:350). _Leptodactylus labialis_, Brocchi, Mission Scientifique au Mexique et dans l'Amerique Centrale, pt. 3, sec. 2, livr. 1:20, 1881. Apatzingán (26); Capirio (5); Cofradía (9); El Sabino (4); Lombardia; Río Tepalcatepec, 27 km. S of Apatzingán (2). In the Tepalcatepec Valley this frog reaches the northernmost known limit of its range in western México. Although the species is abundant in the valley, it apparently is absent from the coastal lowlands. In the Tepalcatepec Valley _Leptodactylus melanonotus_ seems to be more abundant than _labialis_. In the rainy season both species have been heard calling from the same ponds and flooded fields. There are only slight differences in size between the sexes; measurements of 20 males and eight females are, respectively: snout-vent length, 32.3-39.5 (35.1), 34.1-39.2 (37.2); tibia length, 14.3-17.0 (15.4), 14.9-16.8 (15.8); head width, 11.0-13.6 (12.0), 12.2-13.2 (12.6); head length, 12.8-15.1 (13.3), 12.8-14.6 (13.7). ~Leptodactylus melanonotus~ (Hallowell) _Cystignathus melanonotus_ Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 12:485, 1861.--Nicaragua. Type locality restricted to Recero, Nicaragua, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:320). _Leptodactylus melanonotus_, Brocchi, Mission Scientifique au Mexique et dans l'Amerique Centrale, pt. 3, sec. 2, livr. 1:20, 1881. Apatzingán (103); Capirio; Charapendo (7); Coahuayana; Cofradía (10); El Sabino (21); La Playa (3); Lombardia (5); Maruata; Nueva Italia (7); Ostula (9); Playa Azul (11); Río Marquez, 10 km. S of Lombardia; Río Marquez, 13 km. SE of Nueva Italia (6); Río Tepalcatepec, 27 km. S of Apatzingán. This species is widespread in the lowlands of the state; it has been collected up to elevations of 1050 meters in the Tepalcatepec Valley. In the dry season individuals were discovered beneath rocks along streams and in damp arroyos; in the rainy season they were found wherever there was water. Males were heard calling from flooded fields, ditches, rocky streams, and small puddles. The call is a series of individual notes: "woink, woink, woink." Adult males are noticeably smaller than females; measurements for 20 males and ten females from Apatzingán are, respectively: snout-vent length, 29.6-34.6 (32.3), 36.3-44.1 (40.8); tibia length, 12.6-15.1 (14.0), 16.5-19.0 (17.8); head width, 10.8-11.9 (11.3), 12.6-14.8 (13.7); head length, 11.2-13.2 (11.9), 13.1-14.8 (14.0). Brownish yellow ventral glands are present in some juveniles and in some adults collected in the dry season as well as in the rainy season. ~Leptodactylus occidentalis~ Taylor _Leptodactylus occidentalis_ Taylor, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 39:349, 1937.--Tepic, Nayarit, México. Five km. W of Tangamandapio. On the night of June 11, 1958, this species was calling from a hyacinth-choked ditch. Although numerous individuals were heard, only one specimen was obtained. The frogs were calling from the tangled mat of hyacinths along with _Hyla eximia_, _Hypopachus oxyrrhinus ovis_, and _Rana pipiens_. Taylor (1936a:352) characterized this species as follows: "The narrow head, small maximum size (38 mm. for females, 33 mm. for males), the character of the postaxillary and postfemoral glands, the narrower groups of vomerine teeth, clearly distinguish this western Mexican form from the more robust, larger _melanonotus_ to the south. The call is likewise fainter and different in quality." Concerning the glands, Taylor (_loc. cit._) remarked: "There is a possibility that the horny excrescence covering the glands may appear only during the breeding season. This character is quite as strongly marked in females as in males." Bogert and Oliver (1945:324) concluded that the population of _Leptodactylus_ in northwestern México could not be distinguished from _melanonotus_ in other parts of the country and thus synonymized _Leptodactylus occidentalis_ with _melanonotus_. Bogert and Oliver (op. cit.: 324) stated that the extent as well as the presence or absence of ventral glands was highly variable in all samples examined by them. Upon seeing numerous living individuals of _Leptodactylus melanonotus_ from many parts of its range in México and individuals of the population of _Leptodactylus_ in northwestern México (Nayarit and Sinaloa), I was immediately impressed not so much by the differences in the development of the ventral glands, but by the color of the glands. The differences in color are apparent in freshly preserved specimens. With the exception of _Leptodactylus_ from northwestern México, specimens of _melanonotus_ from throughout México and northern Central America have yellow or yellowish brown glands. Specimens from northwestern México have black or brownish black glands that are conspicuously darker than those found in _melanonotus_. Examination of 653 preserved specimens of _Leptodactylus melanonotus_ from México and Guatemala has failed to reveal specimens with black ventral glands, like those found in specimens from northwestern México, to which the name _Leptodactylus occidentalis_ has been applied. Furthermore, in _melanonotus_ the glands are less distinct and more extensive than in _occidentalis_; in the latter species glands are absent from the throat and midventral area, where they often are present in _melanonotus_ (Fig. 7). In some individuals of both species collected in the dry season and in some collected in the rainy (breeding) season the glands are absent; the development of these glands, therefore, does not seem to be correlated with breeding. Likewise, the glands are present or absent in either sex, and often as not they are present in juveniles. Presence of the glands, therefore, cannot be correlated either with sexual or ontogenetic development. Since the glands are found in individuals from all parts of the range, it is unlikely that there is a correlation between the development of the glands and the environment. [Illustration: FIG. 7. Diagrammatic view of ventral surfaces of _Leptodactylus melanonotus_ (A) and _Leptodactylus occidentalis_ (B), showing usual position and size of glandular areas. Approx. natural size.] Aside from the differences in the ventral glands, the call is different in the two populations. The call of _Leptodactylus occidentalis_ is a rather harsh "wack, wack, wack" as contrasted with the more nasal "woink, woink, woink" of _melanonotus_. Sound spectrographs are needed to analyze the differences in calls. None of the specimens of _occidentalis_ examined approaches in size the largest individuals of _melanonotus_; possibly the size of the frogs is another valid character for separating the species. On the basis of the above data it is evident that the frogs in northwestern México show certain characters that distinguish them from _Leptodactylus melanonotus_, as it is known throughout the rest of México. It is not known for certain that _melanonotus_ and _occidentalis_ are sympatric. Several series of old, poorly preserved specimens from Nayarit and Sinaloa cannot be placed in either species, for none has visible ventral glands. _Leptodactylus melanonotus_ is known from Acaponeta, Nayarit (AMNH 43913-25), and the following localities in Jalisco: Barro de Navidad (UMMZ 118098), La Concepción (UMMZ 113081), La Resolana (UMMZ 102104), and Tenachitlán (UMMZ 113045-6). Records for _Leptodactylus occidentalis_ are: Álamos, Sonora (AMNH 51356-65); Culiacán (AMNH 49511-9), Chele (UMMZ 110914), and Rosario (UMMZ 113062) in Sinaloa; Ixtlán del Río (UMMZ 102108), San Blas (UMMZ 112814, 112994, 110892, 115543), and Tepic (UMMZ 115544) in Nayarit; Ameca (UMMZ 102106-7) and La Cofradía on the south shore of Lago de Chapala (UMMZ 102105) in Jalisco; and Tangamandapio, Michoacán (UMMZ 119145). From these scattered records it appears that _Leptodactylus occidentalis_ in the southern part of its range stays in the uplands, whereas _melanonotus_ is confined to the lowlands. ~Microbatrachylus hobartsmithi~ (Taylor) _Eleutherodactylus hobartsmithi_ Taylor, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 39:355, 1937.--Uruapan, Michoacán, México. _Microbatrachylus hobartsmithi_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:501, November 27, 1940. Cascada Tzararacua (6); 21 km. W of Ciudad Hidalgo; 29 km. E of Morelia; Puerto Hondo; San José de la Cumbre (13); Uruapan (2); Zitácuaro. Of six specimens from Cascada Tzararacua, five are colored like typical _M. hobartsmithi_, having the anterior and posterior surfaces of the thighs and the upper arms pale pink in life and a grayish brown dorsum in preservative. The other specimen (UMMZ 94231) has in preservative a dark brown dorsolateral line on each side enclosing a pale tan area that extends from the snout to the vent. One specimen from 29 kilometers east of Morelia (UIMNH 40338) and 13 specimens from San José de la Cumbre (UMMZ 102111) do not have the prominent tarsal tubercles characteristic of _M. hobartsmithi_. Also, in these fourteen specimens the palmar tubercles are larger, and the dark anal patch more distinct, than in typical _M. hobartsmithi_. Possibly these specimens, which are from the high mountains in the eastern part of Michoacán, represent another species of _Microbatrachylus_. However, Taylor (1940d:501) reported a series of _M. hobartsmithi_ from the mountains 10 miles west of Villa Victoria in the western part of the state of México. The largest specimen from Michoacán is a gravid female (UIMNH 16104) having a snout-vent length of 23.5 mm. _Microbatrachylus hobartsmithi_ has been found in rocky ravines along streams in the Cordillera Volcánica and the southwestern escarpment of these mountains at elevations from 1450 to 2750 meters. ~Microbatrachylus pygmaeus~ (Taylor) _Eleutherodactylus pygmaeus_ Taylor, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 39:352, 1937.--1 mile north of Rodriguez Clara, Veracruz, México. _Microbatrachylus pygmaeus_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:500, November 27, 1940. _Microbatrachylus albolabris_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:502, November 27, 1940.--2 miles west of Córdoba, Veracruz, México. _Microbatrachylus minimus_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:507, November 27, 1940.--Agua del Obispo, Guerrero, México. _Microbatrachylus imitator_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 28:70, May 15, 1942.--La Esperanza, Chiapas, México. Arteaga (328). This large series (UMMZ 119247-8) was collected on June 22 and 23, 1958, before the onset of the heavy summer rains. The frogs were found in a shaded ravine at the north edge of Arteaga; they were obtained during the day, at which time they were actively moving about in the leaf litter along a small stream. These frogs are all referred to _M. pygmaeus_, because this is the earliest name available for frogs showing the variation in characteristics displayed by this large series. The characters used by Taylor (1936a, 1940d, 1941a, and 1942b) and Smith and Taylor (1948) to distinguish the various species of _Microbatrachylus_ include color pattern, relative length of the hind limb, presence and position of dorsal dermal folds or pustules, relative size of inner and outer metatarsal tubercles, and the number of palmar tubercles. All specimens from Arteaga have two palmar tubercles; the inner and outer metatarsal tubercles are subequal in size. Furthermore, aside from sexual difference, there is little variation in the relative length of the hind limbs (Table 3). However, many color patterns do exist in the series; each of these color patterns is described below. TABLE 3.--SNOUT-VENT LENGTH EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF TIBIA LENGTH IN ANIMALS OF SIX COLOR PATTERNS OF MICROBATRACHYLUS PYGMAEUS. (LETTERS REFER TO THE VARIANTS HAVING THE COLOR PATTERN DISCUSSED IMMEDIATELY BELOW) +------------+-----------+---------+---------+----+--------+ | | | Number | Range | | Twice | | Color | Sex | of | of |Mean|standard| |Pattern | |specimens|variation| | error | | | | | | |of mean | +------------+-----------+---------+---------+----+--------+ | A | Male | 25 |51.4-57.5|55.2| 3.34 | | | Female | 25 |49.3-54.9|51.6| 3.12 | | B | Male | 20 |51.0-57.1|55.4| 2.44 | | | Female | 21 |47.3-54.9|51.2| 3.52 | | C | Male | 6 |54.5-56.2|55.2| .... | | | Female | 6 |50.0-52.9|51.6| .... | | D | Male | 17 |52.9-58.2|55.4| 2.64 | | | Female | 14 |48.5-56.6|52.1| 4.16 | | E | Male | 10 |50.9-56.9|55.1| 3.40 | | | Female | 7 |49.6-54.5|51.6| .... | | F | Female | 2 |51.9-52.6|52.3| .... | +------------+-----------+---------+---------+----+--------+ A.--225 specimens: Dorsum mottled brown and cream, usually with a dark spot between the eyes and one or two dark V-shaped marks with the apex anteriorly on the back; 55 of these have a narrow cream-colored line from the tip of the snout to the vent and thence onto the posterior surfaces of the thighs. All are pustulate above; in most specimens the pustules form no pattern, but in some they tend to form a V in the scapular region. B.--41 specimens: Dorsum pale tan or cream-color with brown mottling on flanks; a brown interorbital bar and a brown chevron in scapular region. Dorsum irregularly pustulate; in some specimens the pustules tend to form a V in the scapular region. C.--12 specimens: Dorsum colored like "A", but having a broad yellow stripe narrowly bordered by black from the tip of the snout to the vent; in some specimens there is a narrow yellow stripe on the posterior surfaces of the thighs. The dorsum is irregularly pustulate. D.--31 specimens: Dorsum variably streaked with cream-color or pale tan and brown; usually a broad cream-colored stripe from eyelid to groin bordered laterally by a somewhat narrower brown stripe; middorsal area cream-color and separated from dorsolateral cream-colored stripe by a brown stripe, or middorsal area brown with a cream-colored or yellow, narrow stripe from tip of snout to vent; a dark stripe from tympanum to flank; dorsal surfaces of heels creamy white to pale orange; anal patch brown. A dermal ridge from posterior edge of eyelid to rump; another ridge extends posteromedially from the eyelid; scattered pustules on the dorsum in some specimens. E.--17 specimens: A narrow dark stripe from snout, through nostril and eye, over tympanum, to vent, enclosing a unicolor dorsum (reddish tan to yellowish tan in life); heels pale tan or yellow above; anal patch black. A faint dermal ridge from posterior edge of eyelid to rump, or part way to rump. F.--2 specimens: Mottled brown and cream-color above; upper lips and upper arms white. A dermal fold from posterior edge of eyelid to rump; scattered pustules on dorsum. Some of these color variants are assignable to names proposed by Taylor: "A" and "B" undoubtedly are _M. pygmaeus_ (Taylor, 1936a); "C" probably is _M. pygmaeus_; "D" is referable to _M. minimus_ (Taylor, 1940d) in most characteristics, although the coloration is more nearly like that of _M. lineatissimus_ (Taylor, 1941a), a larger species characterized by a relatively long hind limb; "E" apparently is _M. imitator_ (Taylor, 1942b); "F" is _M. albolabris_ (Taylor, 1940d). Examination of series of these frogs from other parts of México shows a similar composition of color variants. Of 78 specimens from the Río Sarabia and the village of Sarabia in Oaxaca (UMMZ 115428-37), 57 are "A," six are "D," three are "E," and 12 are "F"; of 22 specimens from Teapa, Tabasco (UMMZ 113829), 11 are "A," five are "D," two are "E," and four are "F"; of 33 specimens from Potrero Viejo, Veracruz (USNM 115447-58, 115461-71, 116840-2, 116864-70), ten are "A," 13 are "E," and ten are "F"; of 31 specimens from La Esperanza, Chiapas (USNM 115477-9, 116827-39, 116849-63), 28 are "A" and four are "F." It is highly doubtful if these color variants are actually distinct species. Goin (1950 and 1954) in his studies of inheritance of color pattern in West Indian species of the genus _Eleutherodactylus_ has shown that similar color pattern variants come from the same clutch of eggs; furthermore, Goin has worked out the genetic ratios of certain of these variants. Heathwole (_in litt._) obtained "normal" specimens and individuals having a broad middorsal stripe ("C" in figure 9) from a clutch of eggs of _Eleutherodactylus gollmeri_. The presence of a broad middorsal yellow stripe is common in _Eleutherodactylus rugulosus_. Perhaps the most interesting aspect of variability in color pattern in Mexican eleutherodactylids is the parallelism between members of the _Eleutherodactylus rhodopis_-group and some members of _Microbatrachylus_. In the former group there are white-lipped individuals (_Eleutherodactylus beatae_ Boulenger), individuals having a unicolor reddish or yellowish dorsum (_E. dorsoconcolor_ Taylor), and individuals having a dorsal pattern of irregular longitudinal brown and cream-colored streaks (_E. venustus_ Günther). In the humid forests of southern Veracruz, northern Oaxaca, and Chiapas members of both groups occur sympatrically. A proper understanding of the evolutionary significance of these variants in the two groups, as well as proper allocation of the presently recognized species, must await experimental evidence based on studies of the inheritance of color pattern. Nevertheless, at present it is apparent that certain characters, especially the nature of the dermal folds and pustules, and the color pattern, are of little taxonomic value in distinguishing "species" of _Microbatrachylus_. The data derived from a study of the large series from Arteaga, together with that from the other series examined, suggests that _Microbatrachylus albolabris_, _imitator_, _minimus_, and _pygmaeus_ are morphotypes of one species. Of these names, _pygmaeus_ is the oldest. Consequently _Microbatrachylus pygmaeus_ has been used here for the series from Arteaga. Although _Microbatrachylus hobartsmithi_, a species distinguished from all of the above by the presence of tubercles on the outer edge of the tarsus, is known from Michoacán northward into Nayarit, _Microbatrachylus pygmaeus_ previously has not been known north of Guerrero, where it occurs in habitats similar to that in which it was collected at Arteaga. ~Eleutherodactylus augusti cactorum~ Taylor _Eleutherodactylus cactorum_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 25:391, July 10, 1939.--20 miles northwest of Tehuacán, Puebla, México. _Eleutherodactylus augusti cactorum_, Zweifel, Amer. Mus. Novitates, 1813:20, December 23, 1956. Cherán; Coalcomán; Uruapan. The few specimens indicate that this species occurs at moderate to high elevations in the state. The specimens from Cherán and Uruapan were obtained in pine forests; the specimen from Coalcomán was found on a rocky hillside covered with dense forest and located about 100 meters below the lower limits of the pine forest in the area. A specimen from Rancho Reparto (elevation 1850 meters) on the west slope of Cerro Barolosa was lost. The specimen from Coalcomán (UMMZ 104728) is a juvenile having a snout-vent length of 25.0 mm. In life it was tan above, mottled with olive-green. The ventral surfaces were gray; the hind limbs were distinctly barred with yellow and brown, and the lips were barred with yellow and black. ~Eleutherodactylus occidentalis~ Taylor _Eleutherodactylus occidentalis_ Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 54:91, July 31, 1941.--Hacienda El Florencio, Zacatecas, México. Arteaga (2); Cascada Tzararacua; Coalcomán (2); 19 km. SW of Coire (3); La Placita (7); Los Reyes; Ostula (4); Pómaro (2). The locality records for this species suggest that it is a member of a group of animals, the distribution of which includes the western part of the Mexican Plateau and the Pacific lowlands. In Michoacán this frog has been collected in pine-oak forest at Cascada Tzararacua and at Los Reyes, in arid scrub forest at Arteaga and Coalcomán, and in tropical semi-deciduous forest on the lower Pacific slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán. On July 5, 1950, James Peters (1954:6) found calling males at La Placita. Most of the specimens are immature; four adult males have snout-vent lengths of 30.9-33.0 (32.2) mm. In all specimens the first finger is noticeably longer than the second; the inner metatarsal tubercle is large, flat, and cream-colored, contrasting with the dark brown sole of the foot. When the hind limbs are adpressed, the heels broadly overlap. Characteristically, a dark line extends from the snout, through the eye, above the tympanum, to a point above the insertion of the forelimb. Usually there is a dark bar behind the tympanum, two dark brown bars from the eye to the mouth and thence onto the lower jaw, and another dark bar on the upper lip between the eye and nostril. One adult from Arteaga, an adult and a juvenile from La Placita, and one juvenile each from Coire, Ostula, and Pómaro, have the lower lip barred with dark brown and white, and have a white stripe extending the length of the upper lip. In life the dorsum varies from dark gray or olive-brown to tan or reddish brown. This species belongs to a group containing two other populations that are currently recognized as species--_calcitrans_, known only from Omiltemi, Guerrero, and _mexicanus_, reported from the mountains of Oaxaca. Another apparently undescribed member of this group has been collected in the mountains of northern Puebla. The locality records indicate that the group inhabits the mountains on the periphery of the Mexican Plateau, except in western México, where _Eleutherodactylus occidentalis_ extends to the Pacific lowlands. ~Eleutherodactylus rugulosus vocalis~ Taylor _Eleutherodactylus vocalis_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:401, November 27, 1940.--Hacienda El Sabino, Michoacán, México. Arteaga (10); El Sabino (8); Salitre de Estopilas (3); Tumbiscatio (2); Tzitzio (2). The distributional data on this frog in Michoacán indicate that it inhabits riparian situations in arroyos and canyons in the lower slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica and the Sierra de Coalcomán, where it has been taken at elevations only below 1100 meters. The dorsal color of living individuals from Arteaga varied from dark gray and olive brown to tan and reddish brown. The iris was grayish brown. In contrast, individuals from Agua del Obispo, Guerrero, had pale golden eyes; specimens from Matías Romero, Oaxaca, had gold eyes heavily flecked with gray; and individuals from Volcán San Martin, Veracruz, had bronze eyes. The use of the trinomial here is arbitrary. Frogs of the _Eleutherodactylus rugulosus_ group in México (_rugulosus_, _avocalis_, and _vocalis_) exhibit only slight differences in size, proportions, and coloration (Duellman, 1958c:6). Furthermore, the named populations are allopatric. _Eleutherodactylus rugulosus vocalis_, as defined by Duellman (_loc. cit._), occurs in the foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental and associated ranges from central Sinaloa southward into Michoacán. ~Tomodactylus angustidigitorum~ Taylor _Tomadactylus angustidigitorum_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:494, November 27, 1940.--Quiroga, Michoacán, México. Angahuan (6); Apo; Carapan (21); 19 km. S of Carapan (13); Cerro Tancítaro (12); Cherán; Corupu (14); Cuseño Station (14); Opopeo (3); Paracho (11); Parícutin (2); Pátzcuaro (3); Quiroga (59); San Juan de Parangaricutiro (16); Tancítaro (25); Uruapan (8); Zacapu (11). This species is indigenous to the pine-oak forests on the southern rim of the Mexican Plateau, and has been collected at elevations from 1500 to 2500 meters. Males have been observed to call from rocks, rock fences, clumps of grass, and low bushes; the call is a single "peep." At San Juan de Parangaricutiro numerous specimens were found in the daytime beneath adobe bricks and lava on the volcanic ash derived from Volcán Parícutin; at Paracho individuals were found by day beneath rocks in a pine forest. In most specimens the dorsum is dark reddish brown, and the prominent inguinal glands are cream-color or pale orange (Pl. 3, Fig. 1). Of eight individuals collected at Paracho, one was reddish brown, two were pinkish tan, three were dark brown, and two were black. ~Tomodactylus fuscus~ Davis and Dixon _Tomodactylus fuscus_ Davis and Dixon, Herpetologica, 11:157, July 15, 1955.--1.5 miles southeast of Huitzilac, Morelos, México. Los Cantiles (2); 28 km. E of Morelia. The range of this species includes the Sierra Ajusco in México and Morelos and thence westward to the Serranía Ucareo in Michoacán. The specimen from 28 kilometers east of Morelia was found in an oak forest on a steep hillside at an elevation of 2100 meters. One from Los Cantiles was calling from a steep cliff at an elevation of 2200 meters in pine-oak forest. This specimen (UMMZ 119156) in life had a pale olive-brown dorsum with irregular dark brown mottling and transverse bars on the limbs. The interorbital bar, the upper arms, and the tips of the dorsal pustules were pale orange; the iris was pale grayish gold (Pl. 3, Fig. 2). ~Tomodactylus nitidus nitidus~ (Peters) _Liuperus nitidus_ Peters, Monats. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, p. 878, 1869.--Izúcar de Matamoras, Puebla, México. _Tomodactylus amulae_ Günther, Biologia Centrali-Americana, Reptilia and Batrachia, p. 219, April, 1900.--Amula, Guerrero, México. _Tomodactylus nitidus nitidus_, Dixon, Texas Jour. Sci., 9:385, December, 1957. Copuyo (15); Tuxpan (8); Tzitzio (11). One specimen from Tzitzio (UMMZ 99155) was referred to _Tomodactylus nitidus petersi_ by Dixon (1957:390). A re-examination of this specimen, and examination of ten others from the same locality (UMMZ 121571) reveals that the relatively small size of the tympanum and absence of dense ventral spotting place these specimens closer to _T. nitidus nitidus_ than to _T. nitidus petersi_. The specimens from Tuxpan (UMMZ 114303-4) had in life a gray to olive tan ground color with dark olive-green markings, bright yellow thighs with olive-green transverse bands, yellowish tan shanks with olive-green bars, yellow groin, white inguinal glands with black markings, grayish white belly with scattered brownish black spots in some specimens, and a deep golden iris (Pl. 4, Fig. 1). These specimens were found calling from bushes in a rocky field at an elevation of 1800 meters. The call is a high-pitched "pee-ee-eep." ~Tomodactylus nitidus orarius~ Dixon _Tomodactylus nitidus orarius_ Dixon, Texas Jour. Sci., 9:392, December, 1957.--4.5 miles southwest of Tecolapa, Colima, México. La Placita (3); Pómaro. These specimens, referred to _Tomodactylus petersi_ by Duellman (1954b:5), were included in _T. nitidus orarius_ by Dixon (1957:392). Color notes based on living individuals from Tecolapa, Colima (UMMZ 114312 and 116922), are: gray above mottled with brown; venter dirty white; anterior and posterior surfaces of thighs bright yellow; iris pale golden (Pl. 4, Fig. 2). The call is a soft "braa" usually followed by three high notes: "braaa-eep-ee-eep." In Michoacán this subspecies has been found only in the coastal region and the lower foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán, an area in which it replaces _Tomodactylus nitidus petersi_. This is the only _Tomodactylus_ known to inhabit coastal lowlands. ~Tomodactylus nitidus petersi~ Duellman _Tomodactylus petersi_ Duellman, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 560:5, October 22, 1954.--Coalcomán, Michoacán, México. _Tomodactylus nitidus petersi_, Dixon, Texas Jour. Sci., 9:390, December, 1957. Aguililla; Apatzingán (8); Cascada Tzararacua: Charapendo (5); Coalcomán (5); 18 km. E of Dos Aguas (6); El Sabino (5); La Playa (2); Jiquilpan; Uruapan (2); Volcán Jorullo; Zamora. In life, specimens from Apatzingán (UMMZ 114308-9) varied in dorsal color from grayish tan to pale brown; the dorsal markings were olive green. The thighs and groin were yellowish orange; the iris was pale golden, and the vocal sac was purplish gray (Pl. 5, Fig. 1). Measurements for 13 adult males from the Tepalcatepec Valley are: snout-vent length, 21.9-26.8 (24.3); tibia length, 8.4-9.9 (9.3); head width, 7.2-9.2 (7.8); head length, 7.6-8.7 (8.2). At Apatzingán and Charapendo in the Tepalcatepec Valley males were found calling from rocks and bushes in open arid tropical scrub forest. The call, a triple note "peep-ee-eep," is repeated once every 90 to 135 seconds. _Tomodactylus nitidus petersi_ probably ranges throughout the Tepalcatepec Valley and surrounding foothills. Dixon (1957:392) referred the specimens from Zamora, Jiquilpan, and Uruapan to this subspecies. Uruapan is near the lower limits of the pine forest on the slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica; Zamora and Jiquilpan are on a low part of the Mexican Plateau southeast of Lago de Chapala. ~Tomodactylus rufescens~ Duellman and Dixon _Tomodactylus rufescens_ Duellman and Dixon, Texas Jour. Sci., 11:78, March, 1959.--Dos Aguas, Michoacán, México. Dos Aguas (14); 18 km. E of Dos Aguas (6). Fourteen specimens from the pine-oak forests around Dos Aguas (UMMZ 118503-10, 121498-9) have reddish brown dorsal color and a narrow cream-colored middorsal line (Pl. 5, Fig. 2). Twelve of these specimens are adult males having snout-vent lengths of 20.7 to 24.6 (22.5) mm. One female has a snout-vent length of 24.8 mm., and one juvenile has a snout-vent length of 14.5 mm. Six specimens are from a region of mixture of pine-oak forest and arid tropical scrub forest at 18 kilometers east of Dos Aguas (UMMZ 121497, 121500). All are males having snout-vent lengths of 18.0 to 22.6 (20.7) mm. The dorsum is tan marked with black; the thighs are yellowish orange. The specimens from 18 kilometers east of Dos Aguas were found on July 22, 1960, by Floyd L. Downs and John Winklemann, who collected calling males of _Tomodactylus rufescens_ and _Tomodactylus nitidus petersi_ at the same locality. Downs (_personal communication_) stated the call was a single note. At Dos Aguas I heard _T. rufescens_ give two calls, one a single "peep," the other a triple note--"pee-ee-eep." In the higher parts of the Sierra de Coalcomán _Tomodactylus rufescens_ seems to fill the same niche as _T. angustidigitorum_ does in the Cordillera Volcánica. At lower elevations in their respective mountain ranges the species occur sympatrically with _T. nitidus petersi_. ~Diaglena reticulata~ Taylor _Diaglena reticulata_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 28:60, May 15, 1942.--Cerro Arenal, Oaxaca, México. Nueva Italia (3); Ostula (7). Until recently frogs of the genus _Diaglena_ were known only from a few specimens from southern Sinaloa (_Diaglena spatulata_) and from the Pacific lowlands of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (_Diaglena reticulata_). Peters (1955a) reported specimens from Ostula, Michoacán, and compared these specimens with one _D. reticulata_ from Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, and four _D. spatulata_ from Sinaloa. This comparison showed that the specimens from Michoacán, although showing some minor differences from _D. reticulata_, are closer to that species than to _D. spatulata_. Subsequent to Peters' work, series of both species of _Diaglena_, including additional specimens from Michoacán and from Colima, have been collected, and a more qualified comparison is now possible. In comparing specimens of _D. spatulata_ from southern Sinaloa (UMMZ 115322) with specimens of _D. reticulata_ from Tehuantepec, Oaxaca (UMMZ 115321), the differences noted by Taylor (1942c:60) were found to be constant. But specimens from Ostula, Michoacán (UMMZ 104418), and five individuals from Colima (TNHC 26379-83) were found to be intermediate in certain characters. The skin of the dorsum in _D. reticulata_ is granular; that in _D. spatulata_ is smooth. The skin in specimens from Ostula and Colima is slightly granular. The dorsal ground color of _D. reticulata_ is yellowish brown with dark reticulations; the dorsal ground color of _D. spatulata_ is olive-green. Specimens from Ostula and Colima most closely resemble those from Tehuantepec in coloration, but the reticulations are more coarse, and the ground color has an olive-green tint. _Diaglena reticulata_ also differs from _D. spatulata_ in having a larger over-all size, slightly broader head, a narrower interorbital distance, and a more pointed snout with a deeper labial shelf (Table 4). The specimens from Ostula and Colima are intermediate between _D. reticulata_ from Oaxaca and _D. spatulata_ from Sinaloa in body proportions. Of three specimens from the Tepalcatepec Valley (JRD 5991-3), only two are suitable for measuring. These specimens are smaller than adults from the coastal areas and have broader heads and snouts, but narrower interorbital distances, than specimens in the other samples (Table 4). The texture of the skin is like that of specimens from Ostula and Colima. The coloration resembles that of _D. reticulata_, but the reticulations are bold and form indistinct bands on the hind limbs. TABLE 4.--COMPARISON OF FOUR CHARACTERS IN FIVE SAMPLES OF DIAGLENA. (ALL DATA ARE FOR MALES; MEANS GIVEN IN PARENTHESES BELOW RANGES.) +-----------------+---------+----------+----------+---------+-----------+ | | | | Head | Inter- |Internarial| | | | | width | orbital | distance | | | Number |Snout-vent| |distance | | | Locality | of | length |----------+---------+-----------+ | |specimens| |Snout-vent| Head | Head | | | | | length | width | width | +-----------------+---------+----------+----------+---------+-----------+ | Oaxaca | 9 |71.1-87.5 |25.4-29.1 |63.0-71.4| 11.9-13.8 | | | | (80.7) | (27.9) | (67.1) | (12.9) | +-----------------+---------+----------+----------+---------+-----------+ | Coast of | 5 |72.0-79.2 |24.3-27.2 |67.0-73.8| 13.7-14.4 | | Michoacán | | (74.8) | (25.6) | (71.4) | (14.1) | +-----------------+---------+----------+----------+---------+-----------+ | Colima | 4 |71.7-79.6 |26.1-28.6 |70.5-75.3| 16.0-17.9 | | | | (74.8) | (27.4) | (72.0) | (16.6) | +-----------------+---------+----------+----------+---------+-----------+ | Tepalcatepec | 2 |63.0-65.4 |28.3-32.2 |57.3-62.4| 17.0-20.2 | | Valley | | (64.2) | (30.3) | (59.9) | (18.6) | +-----------------+---------+----------+----------+---------+-----------+ | Sinaloa | 11 |71.9-81.3 |24.0-27.3 |70.5-78.1| 15.0-17.3 | | | | (77.3) | (25.7) | (73.4) | (16.1) | +-----------------+---------+----------+----------+---------+-----------+ All specimens from Michoacán and Colima more closely approach _Diaglena reticulata_ than _D. spatulata_. The acquisition of additional specimens, especially from the area between Sinaloa and Colima and from Guerrero, is necessary to determine the relationships among the various populations known at present. Both species of _Diaglena_ inhabit tropical scrub forest; none has been found in the more humid and tropical semi-deciduous forests. Humid forest replaces the scrub forest in the lowlands of southern Nayarit and northern Jalisco; possibly this forest acts as a barrier to the distribution of _Diaglena_ and thus serves as a divider between the ranges of _D. spatulata_ to the north and _D. reticulata_ to the south. ~Pternohyla fodiens~ Boulenger _Pternohyla fodiens_ Boulenger, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, 10:326, 1882.--Presidio, Sinaloa, México. Nueva Italia (2). These specimens (JRD 5994-5) were found on the road near Nueva Italia during a heavy rain on the night of August 25, 1960, by James R. Dixon. Both are females having snout-vent lengths of 64.0 and 59.0 mm. They are typical of the species as it is known from Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, and Colima. These specimens constitute the southernmost record for the species, which ranges in semi-arid habitats from southern Arizona southward along the Pacific lowlands of México to Colima and inland on the Mexican Plateau in Jalisco. ~Phyllomedusa dacnicolor~ Cope _Phyllomedusa dacnicolor_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 16:181, September 30, 1864.--Colima, Colima, México. Funkhouser, Occ. Pap. Nat. Hist. Mus. Stanford Univ., 5:37, April 1, 1957. _Agalychnis alcorni_ Taylor, Copeia, no. 2:31, June 2, 1952.--Río Tepalcatepec, 17 miles south of Apatzingán, Michoacán, México. _Agalychnis dacnicolor_, Duellman, Herpetologica, 13:29, March 30, 1957. _Phyllomedusa alcorni_, Funkhouser, Occ. Pap. Nat. Hist. Mus. Stanford Univ., 5:30, April 1, 1957. Aguililla (13); Apatzingán (7); Charapendo; Coahuayana (3); Coalcomán (54); El Sabino; Huetamo Road (2); La Orilla; La Placita; Nueva Italia (4); 32 km. E of Neuva Italia (2); Río Cancita, 14 km. E of Apatzingán; Río Tepalcatepec, 27 km. S of Apatzingán; Salitre de Estopilas (2); Tzitzio (4). This large tree frog has been found only in the lowlands below elevation of about 1000 meters, usually in arid tropical scrub forest. Calling males were heard on rainy nights throughout the rainy season; in nearly every instance both males and females were found in low trees and bushes. On summer nights when there had been no rain, adults were found sitting on bushes in the scrub forest. At Coalcomán on July 1, 1955, a chorus was heard at midday. About forty _Phyllomedusa dacnicolor_ were found in one guayava bush at the edge of a recently dried pond. Individual males were calling; clasping males were silent. The call is a barking groan. Fifteen individual egg masses were hanging from branches and leaves in tear-drop fashion. Each egg mass contained 100 to 350 pale green eggs, located only in the exterior part of the clear gelatinous mass. Two composite egg masses appeared to have been made up by egg deposition on the part of three to five females (Pl. 2, Fig. 2). As shown by Duellman (1957a), the characters used by Taylor (1952) to diagnose _Phyllomedusa alcorni_ are sexually dimorphic. Funkhouser (1957) apparently was unaware of this sexual dimorphism, for she recognized _P. alcorni_ and _P. dacnicolor_ as distinct species. ~Phrynohyas inflata~ (Taylor) _Acrodytes inflata_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 30:64, June 12, 1944.--La Venta, Guerrero, México. _Phrynohyas inflata_, Duellman, Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 96:19, February 1, 1956. _Phrynohyas corasterias_ Shannon and Humphrey, Herpetologica, 13:15, March 30, 1957.--4.8 miles east of San Blas, Nayarit, México. Barranca de Bejuco. One specimen of this large species was collected in 1951; it was found on a low branch in tropical semi-deciduous forest at an elevation of 65 meters. In life there were olive-gray blotches on a pale gray dorsum; the iris was a dark golden color. This species, which is known from only a few specimens, seems to be restricted to the coastal lowlands and low foothills from Guerrero northward to Nayarit. Shannon and Humphrey (1957) described _Phrynohyas corasterias_ from Nayarit. Their description was based on a small female having a snout-vent length of 34.4 mm. The new species was diagnosed as differing from _P. inflata_ in having less webbing on the feet, a poorly developed supratympanic fold, a more pustulate dorsum, and marked differences in dorsal pattern, color, and nature of antebrachial banding. The significance of the webbing was questioned by Shannon and Humphrey. The nature of the supratympanic fold and dorsal pustules changes with age (Duellman, 1956a:31). _Phrynohyas inflata_ is known to attain a snout-vent length of 95 mm. Dermal structures that undergo ontogenetic change are of little importance in comparing a juvenile with a large adult. The only significant difference in color pattern between _P. inflata_ and _P. corasterias_ is the presence of wide transverse bands on the limbs of the latter. In this respect _P. corasterias_ approaches _P. latifasciata_, a species known only from two specimens from southern Sinaloa. The acquisition of additional specimens from Jalisco, Nayarit, and Sinaloa may show that _P. inflata_ and _P. latifasciata_ are conspecific, as suggested by Duellman (1956a:21). Nonetheless, the specimen on which the description of _P. corasterias_ was based is not sufficiently different from the known specimens of _P. inflata_ to warrant specific recognition. ~Hyla arenicolor~ _Hyla arenicolor_ Cope, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, ser. 2, 6:84, July, 1866.--Northern Sonora, México. Type locality restricted to Santa Rita Mountains, Pima County, Arizona, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:354). Agua Cerca; Cascada Tzararacua (3); Chinapa; Cojumatlán; Dos Aguas; El Sabino (25); El Espinal; Lago de Camécuaro; Lombardia (2); Tupátaro; Zinapécuaro. Altitudinally this frog ranges from 500 to 2100 meters; although the environments in which it has been found vary from open arid tropical scrub forest to pine forest, it usually is found near rocky streams in these habitats. There is great disparity in size between specimens from the mountains and those from the Tepalcatepec Valley. Seven males from elevations in excess of 1400 meters have an average snout-vent length of 34.7 mm.; nine from elevations below 1000 meters have an average snout-vent length of 49.1 mm. In life a male collected at night at Lombardia (UMMZ 112846) had dark brown spots on a grayish brown dorsum; the groin, anterior and posterior surfaces of the thighs, and ventral surfaces of the hind limbs and palms were yellowish orange. The belly and tips of digits were white; the vocal sac was purplish brown, and the iris was dark grayish gold. In contrast, a specimen obtained in the daytime at Chinapa (UMMZ 119204) had indistinct gray spots on a pale ashy gray dorsum; the flash colors were yellow. After dark the spots were dark olive-brown on a grayish brown dorsum. Two males were found calling from a rocky stream near Lombardia on July 12, 1955. The call is a nasal "ah-ah-ah-ah." ~Hyla baudini~ Duméril and Bibron _Hyla baudinii_ Duméril and Bibron, Erpétologie générale, vol. 8:564, 1841.--México. Type locality restricted to Córdoba, Veracruz, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:346). Aguililla (5); Apatzingán (30); Arteaga; Buena Vista; Charapendo; Coahuayana; Cofradía (4); El Sabino (12); La Placita; La Playa; Maruata; Nueva Italia (3); 32 km. E of Nueva Italia (2); Ostula (4); Río Tepalcatepec, 25 km. S of Apatzingán (3); Salitre de Estopilas; San José de la Montaña (2); Tumbiscatio; Tzitzio. This tree frog is widespread in the coastal lowlands and in the Tepalcatepec Valley up to elevations of about 1200 meters. It is found in numbers in the early part of the rainy season, at which time males were heard calling from bushes and trees along ditches and temporary ponds. The call is a loud nasal "waank-waank-waank." One individual that was emitting a long and unusually high-pitched call was found to have one hind limb engulfed by a _Leptodeira maculata_. When active at night these frogs usually are pale tan to reddish brown above with dark brown markings. A specimen found sitting on a maguey plant in the daytime was pale ashy gray with a pale green upper lip. ~Hyla bistincta~ Cope _Hyla bistincta_ Cope, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 17:87, 1877.--Veracruz, México. Type locality restricted to Acultzingo, Veracruz, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:346). Cerro San Andrés; Dos Aguas (2); Los Conejos (3); Uruapan (50). In the Parque Nacional at Uruapan this species was found in abundance during the day. The frogs hide in an entanglement of vines and vegetation overhanging several small spring-fed streams. Tadpoles were in the rocky streams, and metamorphosing young were on vegetation at the edges of the streams. In life the dorsum is greenish tan with brown mottling; in some individuals the entire dorsum is dark chocolate brown. The flanks are pale lemon yellow barred with lavender-brown. Notes on the color of a living frog from Dos Aguas (UMMZ 119193) are: Dorsal ground color a medium shade of brown with dark brown flecks; flanks black with silvery white and pale yellow spots; belly pale yellowish white; throat mottled with grayish brown; iris pale copper color. [Illustration: FIG. 8. Tadpole of _Hyla bistincta_ (UMMZ 115231) from Uruapan, Michoacán. × 2.] Description of Tadpole: Body somewhat depressed; maximum width of body slightly more than one-half of body length. Nostrils placed dorsolaterally and directed anteriorly, situated about midway between tip of snout and eye. Eyes of moderate size, dorsolateral in position and directed upwards. Tail about twice as long as body, thrice as long as deep, and tapering gradually to a rounded tip. Tail-musculature not extending to tip of tail fin. Spiracle sinistral, lateral, and situated at midbody. Vent dextral; the cloacal tube extending along ventral part of tail for a distance equal to about one-eighth of body length (Fig. 8). Average body length of six tadpoles with small hind limb buds, 19.5 mm.; tail length, 38.3 mm. Mouth ventral, its width equal to about two-thirds of greatest width of body. Lips bordered by two rows of small papillae; row of larger papillae between upper lip and outer upper tooth-row, similar row between lower lip and outer lower tooth-row; laterally these rows degenerating into numerous small papillae. Horny beaks well developed; upper beak moderately arched and deeply indented; lower beak slightly indented. Serrations of beaks blunt and peglike, moderately developed on both beaks, but slightly stronger on lower one. Tooth-rows 2/3; upper rows nearly equal in length and slightly longer than lower rows, which are subequal in length; inner upper tooth row interrupted medially by rounded notch; inner lower tooth-row turned downward laterally; teeth in all rows about equal in size, but decreasing in length laterally (Fig. 9). [Illustration: FIG. 9. Mouthparts of larval _Hyla bistincta_ (UMMZ 115231) from Uruapan, Michoacán. × 15.] Color in formalin: pale grayish brown dorsally and laterally; pale gray ventrally; tail-musculature brown; tail-fin translucent with scattered melanophores most numerous on upper fin. In most details these tadpoles resemble those of _Hyla robertsorum_ described by Rabb and Mosimann (1955). Four metamorphosing young have snout-vent lengths of 23.0-23.5 (23.2); a completely metamorphosed individual has a snout-vent length of 24.8 mm. In Michoacán this stream-breeding hylid occurs at elevations of 1,600 to 2,400 meters in the Sierra de Coalcomán and in the mountains rising from the Mexican Plateau. ~Hyla eximia~ Baird _Hyla eximia_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:61, October 20, 1854.--Valley of México. Type locality restricted to Coyoacán, Distrito Federal, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:329). _Hyla microeximia_ Maslin, Herpetologica, 13:81, July 10, 1957.--3 miles northwest of Jocotepec, Jalisco, México. Ciudad Hidalgo (36); Cuitzeo; 29 km. NW of Jacona; Jiquilpan (2); Lago de Camécuaro (2); Lago de Pátzcuaro (129); Los Reyes; Morelia; Sahuayo (3); San Gregorio (63); Tangamandapio (4); Temazcal (26); Tupátaro; Tuxpan (15); Undameo (2); Uruapan (20); Zacapu; Zamora (27); Zinapécuaro (10). More than 80 per cent of the specimens from Michoacán have brown spots between the lateral and dorsolateral dark stripes, and more than 50 per cent have spots between the dorsolateral stripes, at least posteriorly. In comparison with specimens from the Valley of México, those from Michoacán have more distinct dorsolateral stripes that extend farther anteriorly, sometimes to the eyelid, and in this respect are more nearly like those from Jalisco and Nayarit (Taylor, 1939b:425). Some specimens from the western part of Michoacán possess certain characters used by Maslin (1957:81) to distinguish _Hyla microeximia_ from _H. eximia_; nevertheless, the variation is such that two species cannot be distinguished in Michoacán. Four series of freshly preserved specimens have been studied in detail; in the discussion below they are arranged from west to east; the measurement is for snout-vent length of ten males from each sample: _Zamora._--Twenty-two specimens (UMMZ 102083), 24.0-27.6 (26.1) mm. Dorsolateral dark stripe, or row of dashes, present in all specimens; dark spots in lateral and dorsal green fields; lateral dark stripe confluent with dorsolateral stripe posteriorly in 18 specimens; white line not extending to groin. _Temazcal._--Thirty-five specimens (UMMZ 119162), 26.5-31.1 (28.2) mm. Dorsolateral dark stripe of row of spots present only posteriorly in most; both dorsolateral stripes and dorsal spots lacking in four specimens; heavy spotting dorsally in three others; lateral and dorsolateral dark stripes confluent posteriorly in three; lateral white stripe extending to groin in 16 specimens. _Ciudad Hidalgo._--Thirty-six specimens (UMMZ 119163), 26.4-30.9 (28.2) mm. Dorsolateral dark stripe or row of spots present only posteriorly in most; no brown spots in the green fields of many specimens; large brown inguinal spot in most specimens; heavy spotting dorsally in four; lateral and dorsolateral dark stripes confluent posteriorly in five; lateral white line extending to groin in most specimens. _Tuxpan._--Fifteen specimens (UMMZ 115227), 28.7-33.0 (30.5) mm. Dorsolateral dark stripe or row of dashes in all specimens; dark spots in lateral green fields, at least posteriorly in most; dark spots posteriorly in the dorsal green field in five; lateral dark stripe separated from dorsolateral stripe in all specimens; lateral white line extends to the groin in all specimens. As can be seen from the above descriptions, the distinguishing characters of _Hyla microeximia_--confluence of lateral and dorsolateral dark stripes posteriorly, extent of lateral white stripe, and distribution of dark spots dorsally--are found in individuals from all of the populations sampled. In the samples from western Michoacán there is a higher incidence of _microeximia_-like frogs than in those from other parts of the state. _Hyla eximia_ is a wide-ranging species varying greatly geographically and individually. A thorough review of the species and related members of the _Hyla eximia_-group is necessary before certain populations can justifiably be segregated as subspecies or species. In Michoacán _Hyla eximia_ has been collected in mesquite-grassland, pine-oak forest, and cultivated areas on the Mexican Plateau from 1500 to 2300 meters; apparently it is absent from the Sierra de Coalcomán. This is the most abundant frog on the southern part of the Mexican Plateau; in the rainy season breeding choruses are found in temporary pools and in the marshes adjacent to the permanent lakes. ~Hyla lafrentzi~ Mertens and Wolterstorff _Hyla lafrentzi_ Mertens and Wolterstorff, Zool. Anz., 84:235, August 25, 1929.--Desierto de los Leones, Distrito Federal, México. Cerro San Andrés (26); Opopeo (9). In March, 1949, James A. Peters collected this species at elevations of 2400 to 2800 meters on the west slope of Cerro San Andrés. The frogs were found beneath logs and rocks in a damp canyon in coniferous forest. Among the juveniles in this series is a completely transformed individual (UMMZ 102093) having a snout-vent length of 14.5 mm. Five adults have snout-vent lengths of 36.2-39.5 (38.0) mm. _Hyla lafrentzi_ has noticeably longer hind limbs than _H. eximia_; in the former, when the hind limb is brought forward along the body, the tibiotarsal articulation extends to the snout. There are dark transverse bands on the hind limbs; the dorsolateral stripe is broken into an anterior and a posterior segment, and the latter is narrowly bordered by white in most specimens. _Hyla lafrentzi_ occurs at higher elevations than any other frog in Michoacán; the locality records from throughout the range indicate that it is restricted to pine and pine-fir forests. In these habitats it replaces _Hyla eximia_, which inhabits the lower pine-oak forests and mesquite-grassland on the Mexican Plateau. Ponds are absent at places where _Hyla lafrentzi_ has been collected; possibly the eggs are laid in streams. ~Hyla smaragdina~ Taylor _Hyla smaragdina_ Taylor, Copeia, No. 1:18, March 30, 1940.--6 kilometers east of Cojumatlán, Michoacán, México. _Hylella azteca_ Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 56:49, June 16, 1943.--Tepoztlán, Morelos, México. Cojumatlán (30); Copuyo (7); 18 km. E of Dos Aguas (22); Ostula (8); Pómaro (3); Sahuayo; Salitre de Estopilas (7). Taylor (1940a:18) diagnosed this species as having few or no vomerine teeth, no vocal sac, a rather broad and flat head, two large tubercles below the anus, a granular venter, and a green dorsum in life. The specimens on which the description was based are either immature or non-breeding individuals; all were collected from bromeliads growing on cacti near Cojumatlán. Another small, flat-headed hylid from Tepoztlán, Morelos, was described and diagnosed by Taylor (1943b:49) as differing from _Hyla smaragdina_ in having a vocal sac and a broader head. This specimen was named _Hylella azteca_. Specimens from the coastal region of Michoacán and Colima were referred to _Hylella azteca_ by Peters (1954:7) and Duellman (1958c:8). Comparison of topotypic _Hyla smaragdina_ and the holotype of _Hylella azteca_ (UIMNH 25044) with the several series of specimens from Michoacán has resulted in the conclusion that all pertain to only one species. Although the type series of _Hyla smaragdina_ consists of immature specimens, the males in that series do possess vocal sacs. Since these were not breeding individuals, the sacs are not well developed. The characters of the anal tubercles and the relative width of the head are of no value in separating the two species. The apparently aestivating individuals comprising the type series of _Hyla smaragdina_, and the type of _Hylella azteca_, which also was found in a bromeliad, were green in life. Of the calling males found on the coast of Michoacán, most were yellowish tan when found; two were pale green, but soon changed to pale tan. Calling males from Copuyo and Dos Aguas were pale yellowish tan. Therefore the color of the dorsum is of little significance in distinguishing the two named populations. Males of _Hyla smaragdina_ have been found calling in the months of June and July from rocky streams; the call is a nasal "haah-haah-haah," repeated quickly and constantly for as long as 30 seconds. As pointed out by Duellman (1958c:9), this breeding behavior is unlike that suggested by Taylor (1943b:51). In Michoacán _Hyla smaragdina_ has been found in tropical semi-deciduous forest, oak forest, and mesquite-grassland at elevations from 150 to 1500 meters. ~Hyla smithi~ Boulenger _Hyla smithi_ Boulenger, Zool. Rec. Reptilia and Batrachia, 38:33, 1902.--Cuernavaca, Morelos, México. Aguililla (14); Apatzingán (104); Arteaga; Charapendo (5); Coalcomán (11); El Sabino (44); La Playa (6); Lombardia (2); Nueva Italia (8); Playa Azul; Salitre de Estopilas (2). This small hylid is abundant in the Tepalcatepec Valley to elevations of about 1000 meters; it was found infrequently on the coastal lowlands. Males call from bushes in and around flooded fields and ditches, from grasses and small herbs in the water and from vegetation overhanging small streams. The call consists of a series of short, high notes, somewhat reminiscent of a katydid's song. In the dry season occasional males were heard calling from irrigated fields near Apatzingán. In the daytime individuals were found in the axils of leaves of the elephant-ear plants (_Xanthosoma_). In living individuals the dorsal color usually is uniform pale yellow; often the lateral white stripe is barely visible. The vocal sac is bright yellow, and the iris is pale gold. In some individuals there are scattered dark brown spots or flecks on the back and upper surfaces of limbs. Twenty males from Apatzingán have the following measurements: snout-vent length, 22.8-26.0 (25.0) mm., tibia length, 10.7-13.6 (12.6) mm.; head width, 7.2-8.0 (7.6) mm., head length, 7.1-8.1 (7.7) mm. ~Hypopachus caprimimus~ Taylor _Hypopachus caprimimus_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:526, November 27, 1940.--Agua del Obispo, Guerrero, México. Buena Vista; Copuyo (6); Charapendo (3); Cofradía; Jaramillo; Jungapeo; San Salvador; Tuxpan. Specimens of _Hypopachus_ from the Balsas drainage in Michoacán have characters consistent with topotypic _H. caprimimus_. Eleven specimens from the southern edge of the Mexican Plateau all have the flanks darker than the dorsum, a distinct and continuous dark stripe from the occiput to the groin, a large dark spot in the inguinal region, and a pair of dark transverse stripes on the thigh and shank (Pl. 6, Fig. 1). With the exception of three specimens from Charapendo, all have a predominantly brown venter with round, cream-colored spots. Peters (1954:8) referred specimens from Buena Vista and San Salvador to _Hypopachus oxyrrhinus_. He stated that the specimen (BMNH 1914.1.28.150) from San Salvador had flanks much darker than the dorsum and a well-defined continuous stripe from the occiput to the groin; this specimen has the characters of _H. caprimimus_. The specimen (BMNH 1914.1.28.151) from Buena Vista resembles _H. oxyrrhinus_ in some characters, but it is not like _H. oxyrrhinus ovis_ on the Mexican Plateau in Michoacán. The specimen has paired transverse stripes on the hind limbs as does _H. caprimimus_, and is here referred to that species. In Michoacán this species has been collected in arid tropical scrub forest at elevations of 200 to 1800 meters in the northern foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán, the Tepalcatepec and Tuxpan valleys, and on the lower slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica. Calling males have been found along streams. One specimen from Charapendo was regurgitated by a _Leptodeira maculata_. ~Hypopachus oxyrrhinus ovis~ Taylor _Hypopachus ovis_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:520, November 27, 1940.--Tepic, Nayarit, México. _Hypopachus oxyrrhinus ovis_, Shannon and Humphrey, Herpetologica, 14:89, July 23, 1958. Emiliano Zapata; 30 km. NW of Jacona (2); 10 km. NE of Pátzcuaro (2); Tangamandapio (16); 24 km. W of Zamora (16). Thirty-seven specimens from the Mexican Plateau in northwestern Michoacán agree well with the diagnosis of _Hypopachus oxyrrhinus ovis_ by Shannon and Humphrey (1958). With the exception of one specimen from Tangamandapio, all have dark bellies extensively mottled or spotted with cream-color. Most of the specimens have some form of an irregular, usually broken, dark line from the occiput to the groin. In eight specimens there is no line or linear arrangement of spots; instead the dorsum is spotted or flecked with dark brown. The ground color of the dorsum and flanks varies from dull reddish brown to grayish brown; cream-colored spots are evident on the flanks and posterior surfaces of the thighs in all specimens (Pl. 6, Fig. 2). In comparison with 14 specimens from Quesería, Colima (UMMZ 80001-2), individuals from the Mexican Plateau have a darker venter with bolder markings, and a more mottled dorsum. In Michoacán this species has been taken between 1500 and 2200 meters on the Mexican Plateau, where it inhabits mesquite-grassland and cultivated areas. ~Rana dunni~ Zweifel _Rana dunni_ Zweifel, Copeia, no. 2:78, July 15, 1957.--Lago de Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, México. Lago de Pátzcuaro (23); Río de Morelia, near Undameo (8). Aside from the type series of this species, there are in the Museum of Zoology at the University of Michigan six specimens taken from "tanks" at the limnological station at Pátzcuaro by Paul S. Martin in 1948, and eight specimens found in shaded ditches along the Río de Morelia by Robert R. Miller on April 4, 1957. The Río de Morelia flows into Lago de Cuitzeo; this drainage is separated from Lago de Pátzcuaro by a chain of hills about 2400 meters in elevation. Dr. Richard G. Zweifel has examined these specimens and has informed me that, although they differ slightly from typical _Rana dunni_, they are much closer to that species than to _Rana montezumae_. ~Rana megapoda~ Taylor _Rana megapoda_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 28:310, November 12, 1942.--Chapala, Jalisco, México. La Palma (8). These specimens (USNM 113998-114005) are from the marshes along the southeastern shore of Lago de Chapala. Five females have snout-vent lengths of 124.0-138.1 (131.5), and one male has a snout-vent length of 110.2 mm. Two juveniles have snout-vent lengths of 49.7 and 56.3 mm. The coloration of the juveniles is more bold than that of the adults. The body proportions of these specimens agree with those presented by Zweifel (1957:80). ~Rana montezumae~ Baird _Rana montezumae_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:61, October 20, 1854.--Mexico City, Distrito Federal, México. La Palma; 8 km. NW of Maravatio (10); Sahuayo; Tupátaro (7). This species probably is more abundant and widespread than is indicated by the few specimens listed above. It has been found only in the vicinity of permanent water on the Mexican Plateau and the mountains rising from the plateau at elevations of 1500 to 2000 meters. Its apparent absence from Lago de Pátzcuaro cannot be explained, unless _Rana dunni_ replaces it there. ~Rana pipiens~ Schreber _Rana pipiens_ Schreber, Der Naturforscher, Halle, 18:185, 1782.--Raccoon, Gloucester County, New Jersey. Aguililla (2); Apatzingán (13); Arteaga; Axolotl (16); Camachines (2); Capirio; Cascada Tzararacua (3); Cerro San Andrés (6); Charapendo (4); Ciudad Hidalgo; Coalcomán (17); Cuitzeo (3); El Sabino (10); Jacona (3); 29 km. NW of Jacona (8); Jiquilpan; La Orilla (3); La Palma (5); La Playa (4); Lago de Chapala (3); Lago de Pátzcuaro (6); Lombardia; Los Conejos (67); Los Reyes (7); Macho de Agua; Maravatio; Morelia (5); Opopeo (3); Pátzcuaro (9); 26 km. S of Pátzcuaro (52); Puerto Hondo (3); Río Duero, 14 km. E of Zamora (13); Río Tepalcatepec, 27 km. S of Apatzingán (2); San Gregorio (38); San José de la Cumbre (5); Tangamandapio; Zacapu; 18 km. W of Zamora (35). Except on the Pacific lowlands, this species is abundant throughout the state. It has been collected from sea level to 2800 meters, the greatest altitudinal range of any amphibian in Michoacán. It has been found frequently in the Tepalcatepec Valley; it is not a distinctly highland species in southern Michoacán, as stated by Peters (1954:9). One specimen from Aguililla (UMMZ 119257) is an albino. In this specimen there is a faint pattern on the hind limbs; otherwise the entire body is creamy white; the eyes are pink. ~Rana pustulosa~ Boulenger _Rana pustulosa_ Boulenger, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, 11:343, 1883.--Ventanas, Durango, México. Arteaga (4); 21 km. S of Arteaga; Cascada Tzararacua (3); Coalcomán (3); 12 km. ENE of Dos Aguas (3); El Sabino (53); Los Reyes (3); Tzitzio (4); Uruapan. Although _Rana pustulosa_ seems to be absent from the Mexican Plateau in Michoacán, it has been collected at elevations of 850 to 2150 meters on the slopes of the Cordillera Volcánico and in the Sierra de Coalcomán. Usually the frogs are found along rocky streams, but at Coalcomán they were found in a hyacinth-choked old river channel, and at El Sabino, in irrigation ditches. In most specimens the dorsum is dark olive-brown; in some it is pale olive-tan with dense dark brown mottling on the back and dark transverse bands on the hind limbs. Thirteen tadpoles (UMMZ 94271) taken from a seepage pool by a stream near Uruapan closely resemble the description of tadpoles of this species given by Taylor (1942b). REPTILIA Testudines ~Chelonia mydas~ (Linnaeus) _Testudo mydas_ Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 10:197, 1758.--Type locality restricted to Ascension Island by Mertens and Müller (1928:23). _Chelonia mydas_, Brongniart, Bull. Sci. Soc. Philom., 2:89, 1800. Beach between Río Motín and Río Colotlán (2); Maruata; Playa Azul (4). Green sea turtles are abundant along the coast of Michoacán. Laying females and fresh nests were found on August 6-12, 1950, July 14-16, 1951, and July 8-10, 1955. The general account of sea turtles on the coast of Michoacán that was given by Peters (1957) is supplemented here by my field notes on the actions of one female observed on the night of July 14, 1951, near Maruata by Donald D. Brand and I. Because of a full moon, visibility was excellent. In the course of the day several _Chelonia_ were seen in the surf; shortly after dark the first turtle was observed on the beach. Several were observed to come out on the beach and crawl nearly to the strand line, only to return to the sea. At 10:20 p. m. one turtle was seen about 15 meters from the water. We watched this turtle from some distance and observed that by 10:26 p. m. she had moved about ten meters to a bank of sand about two meters high. Ten minutes later she had climbed the bank and disappeared over the top into the brush. We moved closer and remained hidden below the bank. Although we could not see the turtle, we could hear her movements. Between 10:37 and 10:57 p. m. the turtle dug, often flipping the dry sand for a distance of about two meters. When this energetic digging ceased, we moved up the bank to see that she was facing inland and sitting in a depression about one and one-half meters in diameter and 30 centimeters in depth. She had cleaned out this depression in the past 20 minutes. Between 11:00 and 11:36 p. m. she dug the nest hole by first scooping sand with one hind flipper and then with the other; when sand was thrown by one flipper, there was a similar, but weaker, motion by the other flipper. At 11:36 p. m. she stopped digging. By crawling up behind the turtle we were able to examine the nest cavity, which measured 21 centimeters across the top and 38 centimeters deep. The diameter of the bottom of the hole was estimated to be about 50 centimeters. At 11:40 p. m. she released the first egg; a minute later she dropped the second. At 11:42 p. m. the third and fourth eggs were released; these were coherent, as were the fifth and sixth eggs released at 11:43 p. m. After this, as many as three eggs were dropped at a time. After laying about 60 eggs, she paused for a minute and then continued laying. By 11:55 p. m. she had laid 98 eggs; after this, the process of deposition slowed considerably. She dropped a fragment of an egg followed by normal eggs. At midnight she deposited a miniature egg about 20 mm. in diameter. This terminated the deposition. Immediately she began to cover the nest. Within ten minutes after the last egg was deposited the nest had been covered. The turtle first had been seen at 10:20 p. m.; judging from its speed and its distance from the water, the turtle probably had been on land for about ten minutes. About 25 minutes were used in crawling from the water to the nesting site. One hour and 33 minutes were spent at the nesting site; of this time twenty minutes were taken for egg deposition. The turtle was not followed back to the water, but if the return trip took approximately the same amount of time as required to travel from the ocean to the nesting site, the total elapsed time from departure to return to the water was about two and one-half hours. We collected the eggs as they were deposited. There were 106 eggs, each having a diameter of about 40 mm., plus one small egg and a fragment of another. The turtle had a carapace about one meter in length. From our limited observations of sea turtles and their tracks on the beaches, and from the accounts of these animals by the residents of the coastal region, great numbers of sea turtles use these relatively uninhabited beaches for nesting grounds. However, the turtles do not go unmolested. The natives capture turtles and collect their eggs. Opened and emptied nests also showed signs of predatory activity on the part of other mammals. In the vicinity of Playa Azul several turtles were killed by dogs. ~Kinosternon hirtipes hirtipes~ Wagler _Cinosternon hirtipes_ Wagler, Naturl. Syst. Amph., p. 37, 1830.--México. Type locality restricted to Mazatlán, Sinaloa, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:25). _Kinosternon hirtipes hirtipes_, Schmidt, Check list N Amer. Amph. Rept., ed. 6, p. 89, 1953. Eight km. W of Ciudad Hidalgo; Jiquilpan; La Palma; Lago de Camécuaro (4); Lago de Cuitzeo (3); Lago de Pátzcuaro (8); 14 km. E of Zamora (4). One specimen from eight kilometers west of Ciudad Hidalgo (UIMNH 24707) is from the Río Tuxpan, a tributary of the Río Balsas; this is the only record for the species from the Balsas drainage. All others are from the lakes or rivers flowing into the lakes on the southern part of the Mexican Plateau. This species exists in Lago de Pátzcuaro to the apparent exclusion of the abundant and widespread _Kinosternon integrum_. ~Kinosternon integrum~ LeConte _Kinosternon integrum_ LeConte, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:183, 1854.--México. Type locality restricted to Acapulco, Guerrero, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:25). Agua Cerca (3); Aguililla; Arteaga (8); Apatzingán (7); Barranca de Herradero; Buenavista (20); Capirio (2); Charapendo (3); Chupio; Coahuayana (2); Coalcomán (169); Copuyo (4); El Sabino (8); Jacona; Jiquilpan (12); La Orilla (2); La Playa (2); Lago de Cuitzeo (27); Las Higuertas; Lombardia (3); Los Reyes (5); Morelia; Ojos de Agua de San Telmo; San Pedro Naranjestila; Tacícuaro. Excepting Lago de Pátzcuaro, _Kinosternon integrum_ occupies all permanent and temporary ponds, lakes, and streams below 2200 meters throughout the state. At Coalcomán the species was in roadside ditches, small puddles, flooded fields, a hyacinth-choked ox-bow of the Río Coalcomán, as well as in the Río Coalcomán and its tributaries. Specimens from Arteaga and Barranca de Herradero were found in clear rocky streams; the one from Las Higuertas was found in a small muddy pond in pine-oak forest. On August 26, 1960, James R. Dixon found a copulating pair in a pool at Capirio. The large series from Coalcomán contains juveniles and adults; these turtles formed the basis for the study of relative growth of plastral scutes in this species by Mosimann (1956). ~Geoemyda rubida perixantha~ Mosimann and Rabb _Geoemyda rubida perixantha_ Mosimann and Rabb, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 548:1, November 9, 1953.--Eight kilometers south of Tecomán, Colima, México. Apatzingán (2); Coahuayana; La Placita; Punta San Juan de Lima. These specimens have been discussed in detail by Mosimann and Rabb (1953). All are from the arid tropical scrub forest; those from the coastal regions were collected at elevations of less than 40 meters, and those from the Tepalcatepec Valley were collected at an elevation of 335 meters. Crocodilia ~Crocodylus acutus acutus~ Cuvier _Crocodylus acutus_ Cuvier, Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, 10:55, 1807.--Santo Domingo. _Crocodylus acutus acutus_, Müller and Hellmich, Ibero-Amerik. Stud., 13:128, 1940. Boca de Apiza (2); Playa Azul (2). The crocodile or "caiman" is abundant in the brackish lagoons along the cost of Michoacán; three large adults and several juveniles were observed at Estero Pichi at Playa Azul; others were seen at Mexiquillo and Maruata. Residents of the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin frequently have reported "caimanes" in the Río Balsas and Río Tepalcatepec, but the existence of the crocodile in these rivers has not been verified by specimens. Sauria ~Phyllodactylus duellmani~ Dixon _Phyllodactylus duellmani_ Dixon, Southwest Nat., 5:37, April 15, 1960.--Rancho El Espinal, Michoacán, México. Fourteen km. SSW of Apatzingán; Capirio; Cafradía (3); El Espinal (3). This species is known only from the Tepalcatepec Valley, where it has been found in open arid situations from 180 to 500 meters. Specimens were found in the daytime in stumps, dead cacti, and the hollow branches of the legume, _Apoplanesia paniculata_. In life adults were pale gray or grayish tan above and creamy white below. A juvenile having a snout-vent length of 18 mm. had a pale orange tail with gray cross-bands. In the adults the tail was colored like the body. The specimen from 14 kilometers south-southwest of Apatzingán (KU 29764) and those from Cofradía (BMNH 1914.1.28.28-30) were not listed by Dixon (1960). ~Phyllodactylus homolepidurus~ Smith _Phyllodactylus homolepidurus_ Smith, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 22:121, November 15, 1935.--Five miles southwest of Hermosillo, Sonora, México. El Ticuiz (2); La Placita; Ostula (2); Pómaro; San Pedro Naranjestila. These specimens have been referred to _Phyllodactylus homolepidurus_ by James R. Dixon (_in litt._), who is currently studying the American members of the genus. Geckos of this species have been found in tropical semi-deciduous forest in the coastal lowlands to elevations of 500 meters. Most specimens were found beneath the bark of standing dead trees or stumps. Two individuals from El Ticuiz (UMMZ 115102) in life were dark gray above with brownish tubercles; the belly was a dusty cream-color. Apparently this species does not enter the Tepalcatepec Valley, where _Phyllodactylus lanei_ is abundant. ~Phyllodactylus lanei~ Smith _Phyllodactylus lanei_ Smith, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 22:125, November 15, 1935.--Tierra Colorado, Guerrero, México. Apatzingán (13); 21 km. S of Arteaga: El Sabino (53); La Playa; Ostula (2); Río Marquez, 10 km. S of Lombardia (8); 16 km. N of Tafetán. This widespread species has been taken at elevations of less than 1100 meters in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin, where it occurs in riparian situations in the foothills. Specimens have been collected in tropical semi-deciduous forest at Ostula and in oak forest south of Arteaga; both of these localities are on the Pacific slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán, a region inhabited by _Phyllodactylus homolepidurus_. Both species have been collected at Ostula. A juvenile from 21 kilometers south of Arteaga (UMMZ 118933) had alternating black and white bands on the tail. In life most of the lizards are dull ashy gray or grayish tan above and white below. According to Dixon (_in litt._), one specimen from Apatzingán (UMMZ 115102) resembles _Phyllodactylus magnus_ in scutellation, but it lacks the distinctive yellow venter of that species. Apparently _Phyllodactylus lanei_ is restricted to rather mesic environments in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Valley and surrounding foothills; in the more open arid environments on the floor of the valley it seems to be replaced by _Phyllodactylus duellmani_. ~Phyllodactylus paucituberculatus~ Dixon _Phyllodactylus paucituberculatus_ Dixon, Southwest. Nat., 5:40, April 15, 1960.--Río Cupatitzio (= Río Marquez), 6.5 miles south of Lombardia, Michoacán, México. Río Marquez, 10 km. S of Lombardia (6). Two of these specimens (UMMZ 112692-3) were discussed in detail by Dixon (1960:40) in his description of the species. On August 25, 1960, Dixon collected four additional specimens at the type locality, a conglomerate cliff along the Río Marquez. These will be reported by him in his forthcoming study of the genus. ~Anolis dunni~ Smith _Anolis dunni_ Smith, Copeia, no. 1:9, May 10, 1936.--Agua del Obispo, Guerrero, México. Arteaga (3); 19 km. S of Arteaga. Three females from Arteaga (UMMZ 119075) have snout-vent lengths of 41, 41, and 44 mm. In life the pale grayish brown dorsum was marked with dark brown; the belly was white, and the throat was pale pink. All have a dark interorbital bar and dark vertical bars on the upper labials. In two specimens there are only scattered dark flecks on the dorsum; in the third there is a dark postorbital stripe, a dark lateral stripe, and four narrow transverse bands on the body. A male from 19 kilometers south of Arteaga (UMMZ 119076) having a snout-vent length of 49 mm. had in life a tan dorsum, a broad white stripe from the ear to the groin, scattered small white spots on the dorsum, and indistinct pale cream-colored spots on the posterior surfaces of the thighs. This male has the dark labial bars, but lacks the dark interorbital bar, found in the females. The large rose-pink throat fan extends to about the middle of the belly. In all of the specimens the middorsal scales are keeled and much smaller than the smooth pavementlike or slightly imbricate ventrals. All have two gulars in contact with the mental, five scales between the nasals, five scales (not including the first labials) in contact with the rostral, and four rows of loreals. In these characters these specimens agree well with _Anolis dunni_ from Guerrero, as diagnosed by Davis (1954b). Previously _Anolis dunni_ has been reported only from the vicinity of Agua del Obispo, Guerrero, a locality situated at an elevation of about 900 meters in pine-oak forest in the Sierra del Sur. All known close relatives of _Anolis dunni_ occur only in Guerrero: _A. taylori_ Smith and Spieler from Acapulco, _A. gadowi_ Boulenger from Tierra Colorado, _A. liogaster_ Boulenger, and _A. omiltemanus_ Davis from Omiltemi. The present specimens from elevations of about 900 meters in riparian stream vegetation and oak forest represent the northern known limits of this group of _Anolis_. ~Anolis nebulosus~ (Wiegmann) _Dactyloa nebulosa_ Wiegmann, Herpetologia Mexicana, p. 47, 1834.--México. Type locality restricted to Mazatlán, Sinaloa, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:66). _Anolis nebulosas_, Bocourt, Mission Scientifique au Mexique et dan l'Amerique Centrale. Reptiles, livr. 2:77, 1873. Acahuato (3); Agua Cerca; Apatzingán (4); Araparicuaro (3); 29 km. S of Ario de Rosales (3); 20 km. S of Arteaga (2); Barranca de Bejuco; Cascada Tzararacua (5); Cerro Tancítaro (13); Cherán; Chupio (5); Coalcomán (10); Cofradía; Dos Aguas (10); 18 km. E of Dos Aguas (3); El Diezmo; El Sabino (43); El Ticuiz; Jiquilpan (2); La Orilla; La Placita; La Playa (3); Los Conejos (2); Los Pozos; Nogueleras (2); Ostula; 8 km. W of Pátzcuaro (2); 8 km. NE of Pátzcuaro; Playa Azul (3); Río Cachán; Río Marquez, 10 km. S of Lombardia; Río Tepalcatepec, 27 km. S of Apatzingán; San Juan de Lima (6); San Pedro Naranjestila; Temazcal; Tuxpan (2); Tzitzio; Uruapan (74); 11 km. N of Uruapan (2); Volcán Jorullo; 16 km. E of Zacapu (2); 18 km. W of Zamora; Ziracuaretiro. Even with the abundance of material the assignment of a specific name to these anoles is only tentative, for definite determination between _Anolis nebulosus_ Wiegmann and _A. nebuloides_ Bocourt is uncertain. Bocourt (1873:75) distinguished _A. nebuloides_ from _A. nebulosus_ by the following characters: (1) head scales keeled, not smooth; (2) snout narrower; (3) ear opening larger; (4) supraorbital semicircles separated by a row of small scales and not in contact; (5) dorsal scales larger and subequal in size to the belly scales. Boulenger (1885:77) used the same characters; Smith and Taylor (1950b:58) in their key to the Mexican species of _Anolis_ stated that the dorsal scales are slightly smaller than the ventrals in _A. nebulosus_ and markedly smaller in _A. nebuloides_. Smith (_in litt._) stated that the characters of the relative sizes of the dorsal and ventral scales were incorrect in that key. The application of the above criteria to specimens from Michoacán has not resulted in the recognition of two species. The majority of the specimens have the supraorbital semicircles separated by at least one small scale; the head scales, with the exception of those on the snout in a few individuals, are smooth; the dorsal scales are only slightly smaller than the ventrals. In other characters of scutellation the specimens are highly variable. The males in life have an orange throat fan. Anoles of this kind have been found in Michoacán, Colima, Jalisco, Nayarit, and southern Sinaloa. Near Oaxaca, Oaxaca, specimens were collected that superficially resemble those from Michoacán and farther north. These have low keels on the snout scales, dorsals somewhat larger than the ventrals, and a pink throat fan. In ten males from Oaxaca the size of the dorsal scales relative to that of the ventrals is 1.00:0.83; the same ratio for 25 males from Michoacán is 1.00:1.08. In both samples there are specimens in which the dorsal and ventral scales are about equal in size. Investigations by Richard E. Etheridge on the osteology of _Anolis_, including those species here being considered, have revealed relatively constant differences in the parasternalia and in the caudal vertebrae. The application of Etheridge's findings to anoline systematics must await the completion of his study. The carination of the scales on the snout _versus_ smooth scales there seems to be the only significant character given by Bocourt that distinguishes _A. Nebuloides_ from _A. nebulosus_. The difference in the color of the throat fan, which is apparent only in living individuals, is more striking. Obviously more than one species is represented, as is borne out by the differences in the color of the throat fan and in the osteology, but there is uncertainty about the correct name for each species. On the strength of Bocourt's diagnosis of keeled snout scales in _A. nebuloides_, I am applying that name to the population in Oaxaca and _A. nebulosus_ to the specimens from Michoacán. As arranged here, the two species can be distinguished, as follows: _A. nebulosus._--Dorsal scales only slightly smaller than the ventral scales; snout scales usually smooth; throat-fan bright orange in adult males. _A. nebuloides._--Dorsal scales somewhat larger than the ventral scales; snout scales having a low keel; throat-fan pink in adult males. With respect to geographic distribution, _A. nebulosus_ has been collected from southern Sinaloa southward to Michoacán. The lizards here referred to _A. nebuloides_ have been taken only in pine-oak forest on the mountain slopes near Oaxaca City. Zweifel and Norris (1955:233) reported anoles with pink throat-fans from southern Sonora; possibly those specimens are _A. nebuloides_; I have not examined them. I have seen several preserved specimens from the vicinity of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca. Although they probably belong to this group, those specimens differ from both _A. nebulosus_ and _A. nebuloides_ in their larger size, relatively larger head, and much larger throat fan. Aside from the minor variation in scutellation, specimens of _Anolis nebulosus_ from Michoacán vary greatly in coloration. Usually the females have some form of a broad middorsal pale-colored band. In life this is dull yellow, tan, or orange. Two females from Dos Aguas are strikingly different; one (UMMZ 119521) has a broad middorsal orange stripe that is scalloped laterally and bordered by gray. The other (UMMZ 119081) has a narrow middorsal cream-colored line. Males usually are unicolor brown or olive-tan; sometimes the middorsal region is darker. Some individuals have dark cross-bands or chevrons on the dorsum. One male from Dos Aguas (UMMZ 119080) has a cream-colored lateral stripe. In Michoacán _Anolis nebulosus_ occurs from sea level to elevations slightly in excess of 2100 meters, usually in areas of dense cover, whether this be herbaceous, viney, or woody, ordinarily on the ground as well as in bushes and trees. One was in a bromeliad growing about ten meters above the ground. In the arid Tepalcatepec Valley anoles of this species are most frequently found in the tangled growth along streams. Above Uruapan they were found in pine-oak forest, and on the Mexican Plateau between Zamora and Zacapu they were found in a bunch grass-scrub oak association. ~Anolis schmidti~ Smith _Anolis schmidti_ Smith, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 24:21, January 30, 1939.--Manzanillo, Colima, México. La Placita; San Juan de Lima. Peters (1954:11) reported on the specimen from La Placita; another was secured at San Juan de Lima in 1956. The latter (UMMZ 115078) is a male having a snout-vent length of 43.0 mm. and a tail length of 70.5 mm. The dorsal ground color is pale tan; there are five pairs of irregular dark brown dorsolateral blotches. In life the throat fan was pale orange. These specimens agree with those from Colima described by Duellman (1958c:10). The distribution of _Anolis schmidti_ seems to be restricted to the coastal lowlands from Michoacán to Nayarit. ~Basiliscus vittatus~ Wiegmann _Basiliscus vittatus_ Wiegmann, Isis von Oken, 21:373, 1828.--México. Type locality restricted to Veracruz, Veracruz, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:72). Apatzingán (9); Capirio; Coahuayana (5); El Cerrito; El Sabino (2); El Ticuiz; La Placita (3); Maruata (2); Motín del Oro; Ostula; Playa Azul (3). This species has been found only on the coast and in the low Tepalcatepec Valley. In the latter area it is restricted to riparian situations along the larger streams. The lizard is abundant in the mangrove swamps bordering the brackish lagoons on the coast. In July, 1955, scores of individuals were seen around Estero Pichi at Playa Azul. Adults, especially the large males, are exceedingly wary and difficult to collect. At all localities where they were found, the lizards were most often seen in dense bushes, where they are well camouflaged. Individuals of all sizes were observed to run across the surface of the ponds. ~Iguana iguana rhinolopha~ Wiegmann _Iguana rhinolopha_ Wiegmann, Herpetologia Mexicana, p. 44, 1834.--México. Type locality restricted to Córdoba, Veracruz, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:72). _Iguana iguana rhinolopha_, Van Denburgh, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1897:461, January 18, 1898. Apatzingán (8); Capirio (3); El Cerrito; El Ticuiz (2); La Placita; La Playa (2); Maruata; Playa Azul; Río Cachán. Like the preceding species, this lizard is always found near water. It does not ascend the foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán, but in the Balsas Basin it reaches elevations of 800 meters at La Playa. Large adults are often seen in the large trees making up the gallery forests along rivers. From high perches the lizards drop into the water with a terrific splash. Bright green juveniles were abundant in bushes along the Río Tepalcatepec in July, 1955. ~Ctenosaura pectinata~ (Wiegmann) _Cyclura pectinata_ Wiegmann, Herpetologia Mexicana, p. 42, 1834.--México (by inference). Type locality restricted to Colima, Colima, México, by Bailey (1928:25). _Ctenosaura pectinata_, Gray, Catalogue of the lizards... British Museum, p. 191, 1845. Apatzingán (27); between Ario de Rosales and La Playa; Barranca de Bejuco; Capirio (2); Coalcomán (4); El Espinal; El Sabino (2); El Ticuiz; Jazmin (2); La Huacana; La Placita (8); La Playa (3); Limoncito; Lombardia; Motín del Oro; Playa Azul; Río Cancita, 12 km. E of Apatzingán (2); Río Marquez, 10 km. S of Lombardia (2);? Uruapan; Volcán Jorullo. _Ctenosaura pectinata_ is a common lowland species that ascends the slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán and the Cordillera Volcánica to elevations of about 1050 meters (approximating the lower limits of the oak forest). The record from Uruapan (USNM 10234, collected by Dugès) is doubtful. These large lizards are most easily observed on rock fences along roads. Near Apatzingán innumerable individuals can be seen in mid-morning. Later in the day, as the sun rises higher in the sky, the lizards retreat to the shade of the crevices in the fences. The abundance of these lizards in the Tepalcatepec Valley, together with evidence gathered from the natives of the valley, indicates that these lizards are seldom used for human consumption there. On the other hand, several people in Coalcomán consider the "iguana negra" (local name for _Ctenosaura_) to be a delicacy and serve it at every opportunity. In early July, 1951, brilliant green young of the year were collected at La Playa and at Coalcomán. ~Enyaliosaurus clarki~ (Bailey) _Ctenosaura clarki_ Bailey, Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 73:44, September 26, 1928.--Ovopeo (= Oropeo), Michoacán, México. _Enyaliosaurus clarki_, Duellman and Duellman, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 598:1, February 16, 1959. Twelve km. SSW of Apatzingán; Capirio (7); Cofradía (3); El Espinal (2); 32 km. E of Huetamo; Jazmin (5); Oropeo (10); Rancho Nuevo; Río Cancita, 12 km. E of Apatzingán (8); Tepalcatepec (3); Zicuiran (6). This species is known only from the low areas of the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin between elevations of 200 and 510 meters. It is commonly found in the open arid tropical scrub forest dominated by _Prosopsis_ sp., _Apoplanesia paniculata_, and _Cercidium plurifoliolatum_. Continued collecting in the Tepalcatepec Valley has borne out the suggestions of Duellman and Duellman (1959) concerning the distribution and abundance of this lizard. Also, continued collecting in Colima and on the Pacific coast has failed to reveal the presence of _Enyaliosaurus_ there. ~Phrynosoma asio~ Cope _Phrynosoma asio_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 16:178, September 30, 1864.--Colima, Colima, México. Apatzingán (4); San Salvador. In Michoacán this species has been obtained only in the Tepalcatepec Valley and on the northern slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán between 300 and 700 meters. Apparently the lizard is absent from the coastal lowlands of Michoacán and Guerrero. The distribution of this species, therefore, is discontinuous. One population inhabits the lowlands of Colima and the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin inland to northern Guerrero and Morelos; a southern population inhabits the Plains of Tehuantepec in Oaxaca. A juvenile from Apatzingán (USNM 47739) has a snout-vent length of 40.0 mm. and a tail length of 19.5 mm. ~Sceloporus aeneus aeneus~ Wiegmann _Sceloporus aeneus_ Wiegmann, Isis von Oken, 21:370, 1828.--México. Type locality restricted to Tres Cumbres, Morelos, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:137). _Sceloporus aeneus aeneus_, Smith, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 361:6, December 15, 1937. Angahuan; Araparicuaro (2); Capácuaro (2); Carapan (11); Cherán (11); 18 km. WNW of Ciudad Hidalgo (10); Cuseño Station; Jeráhuaro; Los Conejos (36); Macho de Agua (7); Opopeo; Paracho (2); Pátzcuaro (4); Pino Gordo; 18 km. W of Quiroga (2); Tancítaro (49); Uruapan (14); 16 km. NW of Zacapu (5); between Zacapu and Zamora (2); 13 km. E of Zinapécuaro; 14 km. SE of Zitácuaro (14). This small terrestrial species inhabits the pine and fir forests of the Cordillera Volcánica between elevations of 1850 and 3100 meters; apparently it is absent from the Sierra de Coalcomán. It seems to prefer rather open coniferous forests in which there is a more or less continuous cover of grasses on the ground. On warm sunny days the lizards can be observed scurrying about in the grass; in the early hours of the day, or on cold days, they are found beneath stones, logs, or dead clumps of bunch grass. ~Sceloporus asper~ Boulenger _Sceloporus asper_ Boulenger, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1897:497, October, 1897.--La Cumbre de los Arrastrados, Jalisco, México. Apatzingán (3); 10 km. E of Dos Aguas; Uruapan (41). This strictly arboreal lizard is abundant in the mixed broad-leafed forest near Uruapan. The lizards are exceedingly wary and can be approached only with difficulty. In life males have pale blue bellies; the throat is pale pink. The pale gray dorsum marked with irregular darker gray blotches blends well with the color of the tree trunks on which the lizard lives. The one specimen from Dos Aguas was found on a pine tree; it provides the only record for the species from the Sierra de Coalcomán. ~Sceloporus bulleri~ Boulenger _Sceloporus bulleri_ Boulenger, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1894:729, April, 1895.--Las Cumbre de los Arrastrados, Jalisco, México. Acuaro de las Lleguas (13); Barolosa (9); Dos Aguas (61); 10 km. NE of Dos Aguas (5). Heretofore this species has been known only from a few specimens from scattered localities in the Sierra Madre Occidental in southwestern Jalisco and Sinaloa. The collection of a large series of these lizards in virgin pine forest at elevations of more than 2000 meters in the Sierra de Coalcomán now makes possible an analysis of variation in the species. Superficially _S. bulleri_ resembles _S. torquatus_, but _S. bulleri_ is smaller, has more dorsal scales, fewer scales in the dark collar, and fewer femoral pores. In 88 specimens of _S. bulleri_ there are 36-41 (38.7) dorsal scales and 2 or 3 (2.6) middorsal scales in the collar, as compared with 28-31 (29.3) dorsal scales and 3 or 4 (3.4) middorsal scales in the collar of 26 specimens of _S. torquatus_ from Uruapan. In 20 adult males of _S. bulleri_ there are 13-15 (14.3) femoral pores, and 13-16 (14.4) in 11 females; 13 males of _S. torquatus_ have 14-21 (17.3) femoral pores, and 13 females have 15-21 (16.7). Seventeen adult males of _S. bulleri_ have snout-vent lengths of 72-91 (82.0); ten females, 71-87 (75.7). In comparison, 13 adult males of _S. torquatus_ have an average snout-vent length of 88.9 mm., and 13 females, 88.5 mm. In _S. bulleri_ there is little variation in the head scales. The frontal is in contact with the interparietal in 63, and not in 24, specimens; the median frontonasal is in contact with the frontal in 13, and not in 74, specimens. In 39 specimens there are two canthals, and in 48 there is one; in 29 specimens there are three preauriculars, and in 58 there are four. In life adult males have a pale blue tail, bright blue belly patches, a purplish blue throat, and pale blue lines on the sides of the head and neck. This species was obtained at four localities in the high mountains of the Sierra de Coalcomán. In this mountain range _Sceloporus bulleri_ apparently replaces _S. torquatus_, a species that is widespread in the Cordillera Volcánica and on the Mexican Plateau. At Dos Aguas and at Acuaro de las Lleguas the lizards were abundant in the tall pine forest, where they were found on standing pine trees, on pine logs, and on rock outcroppings. ~Sceloporus dugesi intermedius~ Dugès _Sceloporus intermedius_ Dugès, La Naturaleza, 4:29, 1877.--La Noria, near Zamora, Michoacán, México. _Sceloporus dugesii intermedius_, Smith, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 24:663, February 16, 1938. Cojumatlán (6); Jiquilpan (11); Lago de Camécuaro; Lago de Chapala; Morelia (23); Pátzcuaro (84); Quiroga (35); Sahuayo (4); Tacícuaro (2); Tangamandapio (17); Tangancícuaro (9); Zacapu (4); Zamora (11); Zinapécuaro (9). This lizard is strictly an inhabitant of the Mexican Plateau, where it is found in rocky places, sometimes in pine-oak forest, but more frequently in mesquite-grassland. It is a terrestrial species, and is most often seen on rock fences at elevations of 1500 to 2200 meters. This species differs from _S. bulleri_ and _S. torquatus_ in having two rows of supraoculars, instead of one; also it has more dorsal scales. Twenty-six specimens of _Sceloporus dugesi intermedius_ from Tangamandapio and Tangancícuaro have 44-48 (45.7) dorsal scales, as compared with an average of 38.7 in _S. bulleri_ and 29.3 in _S. torquatus_. In life _Sceloporus dugesi intermedius_ has a dull greenish gray dorsum; in males the belly patches are bright blue bordered medially by black, and the throat is bluish gray. The largest specimen examined is a male having a snout-vent length of 80 mm. ~Sceloporus gadowae~ Boulenger _Sceloporus gadoviae_ Boulenger, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1905, 2:246, October 7, 1905.--Mezquititlán, Guerrero, México. Chupio; El Sabino (77); La Playa (6); Río Marquez, 10 km. S of Lombardia (11). Although this species has a rather extensive range in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin in the state of Michoacán, Guerrero, Morelos, and Puebla, it is only locally abundant in that area. Usually these lizards are found on rocky cliffs in which there are many crevices for cover. _Sceloporus gadowae_ is abundant on a conglomerate cliff along the Río Marquez south of Lombardia. Although the closely related _S. pyrocephalus_ is abundant in the stream valley and in the hills above the cliff, _S. gadowae_ has been found only on the cliff; few individuals of _S. pyrocephalus_ have been observed on the cliff. A similar situation was discovered on a much more extensive conglomerate cliff along the Río Balsas near Mexcala, Guerrero. Near Tehuitzingo, Puebla, where _S. pyrocephalus_ was not found, _S. gadowae_ was found on conglomerate cliffs. Probably there is strong competition between the two species; possibly this has resulted in the restriction of _S. gadowae_ to isolated cliff-habitats within the extensive range of the more widespread _S. pyrocephalus_. In Michoacán _Sceloporus gadowae_ has been found along the lower slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica at elevations from 250 to 1050 meters. All of the localities from which this lizard is known lie in the arid tropical scrub forest. ~Sceloporus grammicus microlepidotus~ Wiegmann _Sceloporus microlepidotus_ Wiegmann, Herpetologia Mexicana, p. 51, 1834.--México. Type locality restricted to México, Distrito Federal, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:120). _Sceloporus grammicus microlepidotus_, Smith and Laufe, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 48:332, December, 1945. Angahuari; Apo (10); Atzimba (3); Carapan (5); Cerro San Andrés (17); Cerro Tancítaro (18); Corupu; Cuseño Station (2); Jacona; Jeráhuaro (10); Macho de Agua; Mil Cumbres; 46 km. E of Morelia; 60 km. E of Morelia (2); Opopeo (14); Pátzcuaro (30); Puerto Hondo (19); San Gregorio (41); San José de la Cumbre (8); Sierra Patamba; Tancítaro (233); Tupátaro; Undameo; Uruapan (180); between Zacapu and Zamora; 24 km. SE of Zitácuaro; between Zurumbeneo and Cerro Garnica. This small species of _Sceloporus_ is an ubiquitous inhabitant of the coniferous forests from 1550 to 3100 meters in the Cordillera Volcánica. Usually it is seen on tree trunks, but occasionally on the ground. Near the lower limit of the altitudinal distribution of the species, as at Uruapan, individuals sometimes are found on broad-leafed trees. Apparently _Sceloporus heterolepis_ replaces _S. grammicus microlepidotus_ in the Sierra de Coalcomán. ~Sceloporus heterolepis~ Boulenger _Sceloporus heterolepis_ Boulenger, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1894:731, April, 1895.--La Cumbre de los Arrastrados, Jalisco, México. Araparicuaro; Cerro Barolosa (6); Dos Aguas (13); Los Conejos; 11 km. N of Uruapan (3). Although Michoacán has not previously been included in the range of this lizard, it was first collected in the state by Gadow in 1908 (BMNH 1914.1.28.69 from Araparicuaro). The description of _S. heterolepis_ given by Smith (1939:197) can be supplemented by data on the 23 specimens now in the collections of the Museum of Zoology at the University of Michigan. All have two canthals; there are 55 to 71 (63.6) scales in the middorsal row; 1 to 3 rows middorsally are somewhat enlarged and bordered on either side by a row of larger scales bearing high keels. There are 14 to 20 (16.2) femoral pores. Eight adult males have snout-vent lengths from 49 to 61 (58.0) mm. and tail lengths from 57 to 74 (66.0) mm.; four adult females have snout-vent lengths from 52 to 57 (55.2) mm. and tail lengths from 60 to 66 (63.5) mm. The smallest of eight juveniles has a snout-vent length of 28 mm. and a tail length of 32 mm. The dorsum in adults is pale grayish brown; there are three irregular chevron-shaped dark marks and a triangular dark brown mark above the insertion of the hind limbs; on the tail are dark brown rings. There are scattered faint blue flecks on the flanks and narrow transverse dark lines on the lower limbs. Males have pale bluish green belly patches and an orange-salmon-colored throat; the belly in females is pale orange-tan. The juveniles have a more contrasting color pattern; the dark chevrons on the dorsum are bordered posteriorly by pale gray. In Michoacán this species has been obtained in pine and pine-fir forests from 1800 to 2700 meters. On Cerro Barolosa and at Dos Aguas, both in the Sierra de Coalcomán, the lizards were found beneath the bark of dead, standing pines. In the Sierra de Coalcomán _Sceloporus heterolepis_ seems to fill the niche of the small arboreal _Sceloporus_ in the coniferous forest in southwestern México, a position held by _S. grammicus microlepidotus_ in the Cordillera Volcánica; the latter species does not occur in the Sierra de Coalcomán. Five specimens of _Sceloporus heterolepis_ are known from the Cordillera Volcánica, whereas 603 of _S. grammicus microlepidotus_ have been collected there. The ecological relationships that exist between the two species in the Cordillera Volcánica are not known. Insofar as is known, _Sceloporus heterolepis_ reaches the southern limits of its range in the Sierra de Coalcomán and in the western part of the Cordillera Volcánica. Other records for the species are from the Sierra Madre Occidental in Jalisco. Langebartel (1959) described _Sceloporus shannonorum_ from the mountains near the Durango-Sinaloa border; the single specimen of _S. shannonorum_ differs significantly from _S. heterolepis_ only in having fewer dorsal scales (48). The acquisition of additional material, especially from Nayarit and northern Jalisco, probably will provide a basis for showing that these two populations are conspecific. ~Sceloporus horridus oligoporus~ Cope _Sceloporus oligoporus_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 16:177, September 30, 1864.--Colima, Colima, México. _Sceloporus horridus oligoporus_, Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 24:520, February 16, 1938. Aguililla; Apatzingán (50); Arteaga (2); Capirio (2); Cascada Tzararacua; Charapendo (4); Coahuayana (3); Coalcomán (32); 19 km. S of Corralito; 27 km. E of Dos Aguas; El Sabino (55); El Ticuiz; Huetamo (2); Jazmin; Jungapeo (2); La Orilla (2); La Placita; Limoncito (3); Playa Azul (5); Tzitzio (8); Uruapan (4); Volcán Jorullo (2); Ziracuaretiro; Zirimícuaro (13). All of the specimens from Michoacán seem to be typical _S. horridus oligoporus_; none has more than six femoral pores. Characteristically this species is found in open arid scrub forest; it reaches its greatest abundance in rocky areas in which there are scattered leguminous trees and bushes. It has been found in these low trees and bushes almost as frequently as it has been found on the ground; none has been seen in large trees or far above the ground. Altitudinally, this species ranges from sea level to about 1600 meters. ~Sceloporus melanorhinus calligaster~ Smith _Sceloporus melanorhinus calligaster_ Smith, Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 92:360, November 5, 1942.--Acapulco, Guerrero, México. Aguililla; Apatzingán (18); Barranca de Herradero; Capirio (19); Coahuayana (4); Coalcomán (2); Cofradía (4); El Cerrito; El Sabino (33); El Ticuiz (3); La Placita (6); Lombardia (4); Playa Azul; Río Marquez, 10 km. S of Lombardia (2); Río Marquez, 13 km. SE of Nueva Italia (4); Salitre de Estopila; San Juan de Lima (2); Santa Ana; Tzitzio; Ziracuaretiro. Smith (1942a:360) diagnosed _Sceloporus melanorhinus calligaster_ as having fewer femoral pores than the other subspecies of _S. melanorhinus_ and as having the lateral belly patches in the males confluent in the midline. Examination of forty specimens from the Tepalcatepec Valley and the coastal regions of Michoacán does not substantiate this diagnosis. The number of femoral pores varies from 15 to 22 (18.9); 14 individuals (35%) had 20 or more femoral pores. Smith (_loc. cit._) stated that _S. melanorhinus_ in Oaxaca had 18 to 27 (21.6) femoral pores and that 77 per cent of the specimens had more than 20 femoral pores. Of the 24 males examined from Michoacán, 18 have the lateral belly patches separated in the midline. Usually they are separated by no more than one scale, but in some individuals they are separated by two or more scales. Although the above data minimize certain differences between the northern and southern populations of this species, certain of the color pattern characters seem to be diagnostic of the subspecies inhabiting the Pacific lowlands from Guerrero to Nayarit. Large adults of _S. m. calligaster_ have only a faint dorsal pattern, which in the subspecies _melanorhinus_ and _stuarti_ consists of a series of large, dark, interconnected triangles on the back. This pattern is present in young and small adults of _S. m. calligaster_; furthermore, in this subspecies the ventral coloration of the males differs from that found in the more southern populations. Adult males of _S. m. calligaster_ have a black throat, that changes to brilliant blue posteriorly, and a large white spot medially on the chin. This spot is present in some specimens from Oaxaca and Chiapas, but, if present, it is much smaller and less distinct than in specimens from Michoacán. In _S. m. calligaster_ the chest and midventral area are orange to salmon-color. A male from Lombardia in life was colored as follows: Dorsum grayish tan bearing faint bluish gray flecks; chest deep salmon-orange, this color continuing down midventral area to the somewhat paler groin; belly patches pale blue fading to pale green laterally; throat black anteriorly enclosing a white spot; throat blue posteriorly and bluish green posterolaterally. Individual lizards were observed to change in dorsal color from a pale ashy gray to a rather dull brown. Normally, inactive individuals and those observed on overcast days were dull brown. _Sceloporus melanorhinus calligaster_ is found in trees in riparian situations in the lowlands to elevations of about 1500 meters. It does not inhabit the arid tropical scrub forest in the Tepalcatepec Valley or on the coast, but in those areas is found in the gallery forests along streams and rivers. The lizards are wary and live high in the trees; they are especially difficult to locate in the rainy season, when the trees are in full leaf. ~Sceloporus pyrocephalus~ Cope _Sceloporus pyrocephalus_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 16:177, September 30, 1864.--Colima, Colima, México. Acahuato (2); Apatzingán (142); Arteaga (4); 26 km. S of Arteaga (4); Capirio (6); Chinapa; Chupio; 19 km. S of Corralito (5); El Sabino (220); Jazmin (3); La Placita (8); La Playa (14); La Salada (6); Lombardia (5); Nueva Italia (14); Ojos de Agua de San Telmo (2); Oropeo (3); Ostula; Punta de San Telmo (3); Río Cancita, 14 km. E of Apatzingán (13); Río Marquez, 10 km. S of Lombardia (10); Río Marquez, 13 km. SE of Nueva Italia (3); San Juan de Lima (2); Santa Ana (2); Tafetan (2); Tepalcatepec (2); Tzitzio (6); Volcán Jorullo (3). This small species is extremely common in the Tepalcatepec Valley and noticeably less so on the coast. It is usually found on the ground in rocky areas, but males frequently have been seen on the trunks of low trees in the scrub forest. Altitudinally, it ranges from sea level to slightly more than 1000 meters. The sexes are readily distinguished in the field (Oliver, 1937; Smith, 1939; Duellman, 1954b). In the dry season only males were observed in the Tepalcatepec Valley, but in the rainy season both sexes were found in approximately the same numbers. ~Sceloporus scalaris scalaris~ Wiegmann _Sceloporus scalaris_ Wiegmann, Isis von Oken, 21:370, 1828.--México. Type locality restricted to México, Distrito Federal, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:137). _Sceloporus scalaris scalaris_, Smith, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 361:2, December 15, 1937. Carapan (2); Cherán; Ciudad Hidalgo; Huingo (3); Jacona (3); Jiquilpan (2); Lago de Camécuaro (2); Lago de Chapala; Lago de Cuitzeo (5); Morelia (4); Pátzcuaro (4); Queréndaro; Quiroga; Tacícuaro (5); Tarécuaro; Zacapu (4); Zamora (4); Zinapécuaro (11). This small terrestrial species does not seem to be abundant anywhere in the state. It sometimes is found in open pine, oak, or pine-oak forest, but usually it is observed in areas supporting bunch grass. In such places the lizards sun and forage on the open ground and quickly take refuge in the large clumps of grass. Altitudinally, the species ranges from 1550 to 2300 meters. Although _Sceloporus scalaris scalaris_ has been found in association with _S. dugesi intermedius_, _S. spinosus_, and _S. torquatus_, it does not seem to form any close ecological association with any of these species. In the pine forests of the Cordillera Volcánica _S. s. scalaris_ is replaced by _Sceloporus aeneus aeneus_, another small terrestrial species that occurs in great abundance throughout the coniferous forests of the Cordillera Volcánica. ~Sceloporus siniferus siniferus~ Cope _Sceloporus siniferus_ Cope, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 11:159, 1869.--Pacific side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Type locality restricted to Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:134). _Sceloporus siniferus siniferus_, Smith and Taylor, Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., 199:134, October 26, 1950. Twenty-six km. S of Arteaga; Barranca de Bejuco (2); Coahuayana; El Ticuiz (2); La Mira; La Orilla (2); La Placita (9); Maruata; Ojos de Agua de San Telmo; Ostula (4); Playa Azul (6); Pómaro (2); Puerto de las Higuerita; Santa Ana (3). This small terrestrial species inhabits the dense arid tropical scrub forest on the coast and lower foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán to elevations of about 150 meters. It also occurs in the lower Balsas Valley, but it has not been found in the scrub forest of the broad Tepalcatepec Valley. Perhaps the large number of _Sceloporus siniferus_ on the coastal lowlands is responsible for the small number there of _S. pyrocephalus_, another terrestrial species of about the same size. The latter is abundant in the Tepalcatepec Valley, where _S. siniferus siniferus_ has not been found. _Sceloporus siniferus siniferus_ is a fast runner and difficult to collect; consequently, the small number of specimens available is not indicative of its abundance. ~Sceloporus spinosus spinosus~ Wiegmann _Sceloporus spinosus_ Wiegmann, Isis von Oken, 21:370, 1828.--México. Type locality restricted to Puebla, Puebla, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:116). _Sceloporus spinosus spinosus_, Martín del Campo, Anal. Inst. Biol. México, 8:262, 1937. Cojumatlán (2); Huetamo Road; Lago de Cuitzeo (4); Maravatio (8); Tupátaro (2). Although this species is widespread on the southern part of the Mexican Plateau, it is uncommon in Michoacán. It has been collected only in rather open situations in the mesquite-grassland on the plateau between 1500 and 2300 meters, where it has been found in association with _Sceloporus dugesi intermedius_ and _S. scalaris scalaris_. Most specimens of _Sceloporus spinosus spinosus_ have been observed on rock fences. In this habitat the species is the larger member of a pair of species, the smaller of which is _Sceloporus dugesi intermedius_. ~Sceloporus torquatus torquatus~ Wiegmann _Sceloporus torquatus_ Wiegmann, Isis von Oken, 21:369, 1828.--México. Type locality restricted to México, Distrito Federal, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:126). _Sceloporus torquatus torquatus_, Cope, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 22:402, 1885. Angahuan (31); Araparicuaro; Capácuaro (3); Carapan (11); Cerro Tancítaro; Cherán; Ciudad Hidalgo; Cojumatlán; Copándaro (2); Corupu (4); Cuseño Station (9); El Álamo; Jacona (6); Jiquilpan (2); Jungapeo (3); Lago de Camécuaro; Lago de Chapala; Lago de Cuitzeo (3); La Palma (2); Los Conejos (3); Los Reyes (3); Maravatio (9); Morelia (17); Paracho (3); Pátzcuaro (27); Pino Gordo; Queréndaro (2); Quiroga; Sahuayo (3); San José de la Cumbre; San Juan de Panangaricutiro; Tacícuaro (10); Tancítaro (200); Tangamandapio; Tangancícuaro (3); Temazcal (2); Tupátaro (5); Uruapan (136); Zacapu; Zinapécuaro (10); Zirimícuaro (12); Zitácuaro. This large species inhabits the Mexican Plateau and the Cordillera Volcánica, but not the Sierra de Coalcomán, where apparently it is replaced by _Sceloporus bulleri_. _Sceloporus torquatus torquatus_ usually is found in pine or pine-fir forests at elevations between 1450 and 3000 meters. In many places it is almost entirely arboreal, but in areas where there are many fallen trees or rock fences and rock piles, many individuals have been found on the ground near the rocks or logs. In the coniferous forests this species is associated with _S. grammicus microtepidotus_ and _S. aeneus aeneus_. The distinction made by Smith (1938:572) between the subspecies _S. torquatus torquatus_ and _melanogaster_ is slight. Individuals with pale bluish spots are found throughout the range of the species in Michoacán; spotting is especially evident in the young. Individuals having an incomplete nuchal collar have been found at Maravatio and at Zinapécuaro in the northern part of the state; in this character these specimens resemble _S. torquatus melanogaster_, which is found to the north from Guanajuato to Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí. ~Sceloporus utiformis~ Cope _Sceloporus utiformis_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 16:177, September 30, 1864.--Colima, Colima, México. Nineteen km. S of Arteaga (2); Cascada Tzararacua (17); Coahuayana (3); Coalcomán (6); El Sabino (2); El Ticuiz (2); Ostula (3); Pómaro; Río Cachán; San Juan de Lima; Uruapan (26). In Michoacán the range of this species is discontinuous. It has been found between 1050 and 1550 meters on the slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica, and on the coast and seaward slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán up to an elevation of 900 meters. It is absent from the Tepalcatepec Valley. At Uruapan and at Cascada Tzararacua this lizard was found on the ground in oak forest or in open pine-oak forest; on the coast and foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán it was found on the ground in the gallery forests along streams, and not in the scrub forest. ~Urosaurus bicarinatus tuberculatus~ (Schmidt) _Uta tuberculata_ Schmidt, Amer. Mus. Novitates, 22:4, December 1, 1921.--Colima, Colima, México. _Urosaurus bicarinatus tuberculatus_, Mittleman, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 91:169, September, 1942. Twenty-six km. S of Arteaga; Cascada Tzararacua (2); Chupio; Coahuayana; Coalcomán (8); El Sabino (2); Jungapeo; La Orilla (2); La Placita (4); Playa Azul (4); Pómaro (2); San Salvador (16);? Tupátaro; Uruapan (12); Tzitzio; Zamora. The known distribution and geographic variation of _Urosaurus bicarinatus_ in southwestern México presents a confused picture. In general rugosity, specimens from the coastal region of Michoacán (Coahuayana, La Orilla, La Placita, Playa Azul, and Pómaro) resemble _U. bicarinatus tuberculatus_ to the north along the Pacific coast. Furthermore, specimens from the coast have less stippling in the gular region than do those from the Sierra de Coalcomán and the slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica. Specimens from the mountains have greatly carinate enlarged dorsals, large lateral tubercles, and heavily stippled throats; in these characters they resemble specimens from Morelos, Guerrero, and Oaxaca. As mentioned by Peters (1954:14), some specimens from La Orilla and San Salvador are like _U. bicarinatus bicarinatus_ in certain characters, and one specimen has the blue ventral patches restricted to the sternal area, a characteristic of _U. bicarinatus anonymorphus_ of Oaxaca and eastern Guerrero. Examination of all available specimens from Michoacán indicates that the nature of the dorsal scales is of little value in separating the subspecies. The specimens from Michoacán are here provisionally referred to _U. bicarinatus tuberculatus_, because cursory examination of specimens from several localities between Nayarit and Oaxaca shows that there are only minor differences between the named populations. Individuals from the northern part of the range are more rugose and have larger blue ventral patches and less gular stippling than those from the south. In Michoacán _Urosaurus bicarinatus tuberculatus_ is found in wooded areas, not in open scrub forest, in the coastal area to elevations of about 900 meters, and along the slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica and the southern edge of the Mexican Plateau at elevations from 1000 to 1700 meters. The record for Tupátaro probably is erroneous, for no other specimens of this species are known from the central plateau. Essentially, the distribution of this species parallels that of _Sceloporus utiformis_, a strictly terrestrial species. _Urosaurus bicarinatus tuberculatus_ lives on tree trunks. Below 1000 meters in the Tepalcatepec Valley _Urosaurus bicarinatus tuberculatus_ is replaced by _Urosaurus gadowi_. ~Urosaurus gadowi~ (Schmidt) _Uta gadovi_ Schmidt, Amer. Mus. Novitates, 22:3, December 1, 1921.--Cofradía, Jalisco, México (in error) = Cofradía, Michoacán, México (Duellman, 1958b:49). _Urosaurus gadowi_, Mittleman, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 91:154, September, 1942. Acahuato (2); Apatzingán (56); 12-16 km. S of Apatzingán (12); Buenavista (7); Capirio (23); Cofradía (21); El Sabino (13); Guayabo; Jazmin; La Playa; La Salada (3); Nueva Italia (7); Rancho Nuevo; Río Cancita, 14 km. E of Apatzingán (5); Río Marquez, 10 km. S of Lombardia (2); Río Marquez, 13 km. SE of Nueva Italia (3); San Salvador (2); Santa Ana; Tepalcatepec; Volcán Jorullo (3); Zicuiran (2); Ziracuaretiro. Although individuals of this species have been collected at elevations slightly exceeding 1200 meters on Volcán Jorullo and at 1100 meters at Ziracuaretiro on the southern slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica, for the most part these lizards are found at elevations of less than 800 meters, where they inhabit the open arid scrub forest of the Tepalcatepec Valley, a region to which this species is endemic (Duellman, 1958b:49). These small lizards usually are found on the trunks and main branches of the small trees in the scrub forest; in this habitat they are associated with _Sceloporus horridus oligoporus_, a much larger species. Males have a pale orange spot on the throat and a pale blue belly; females have immaculate venters. A specimen from Guayabo on the northern slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán was referred to _Urosaurus irregularis_ (Fischer) by Peters (1954:15). I have studied this specimen (BMNH 1914.1.28.110), a female having a snout-vent length of 46 mm., and agree with Peters that it closely resembles Fischer's description and figure (1882: pl. 17, fig. 1). This specimen and those seen of _Urosaurus gadowi_ all have pavementlike enlarged dorsal scales that are complete across the vertical line. In _U. gadowi_ the enlarged dorsals usually are in four to six irregular rows; in the specimen from Guayabo the dorsals are in two rows. Although none of the other specimens of _U. gadowi_ examined has only two rows of enlarged dorsals, I prefer to consider the specimen from Guayabo as an aberrant individual of that species, rather than _U. irregularis_. Guayabo is in the known range of _U. gadowi_. _Urosaurus irregularis_ is known only from the type specimen in the Bremen Museum; the type locality, according to Fischer (1882:232), is "Aus dem Hochlande von Mexico." If an examination of the type specimen of _U. irregularis_ shows it to be identical with _U. gadowi_, then _U. irregularis_ would be the name for the lizards here referred to _U. gadowi_. ~Mabuya brachypoda~ Taylor _Mabuya brachypoda_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 38 (1):308, December 20, 1956.--Four kilometers east-southeast of Los Angeles de Tilarán, Guanacaste, Costa Rica. El Sabino (42); La Placita; Playa Azul; Tzitzio (3). Previously this species has been reported from La Placita as _Mabuya mabouya alliacea_ by Peters (1954:15). Webb (1958:1311) provided evidence that Mexican specimens were conspecific with _Mabuya brachypoda_, as described from Costa Rica by Taylor (1956:308). The large series in the Taylor collection studied by Webb and listed by him as being from Uruapan actually is part of a series collected by Hobart M. Smith at El Sabino at an elevation of 1050 meters, 30 kilometers south of Uruapan. This species probably ranges throughout the coastal region of the state; individuals from La Placita and Playa Azul were taken in dense scrub forest near sea level. ~Scincella assata taylori~ (Oliver) _Leiolopisma assatum taylori_ Oliver, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 360:12, November 20, 1937.--Santiago, Colima, México. _Scincella assata taylori_, Mittleman, Herpetologica, 6:20, June 5, 1950. Twenty-one km. S of Arteaga; Ostula. The specimen from Ostula was obtained in semi-deciduous broad-leaf forest at an elevation of 120 meters; that from 21 kilometers south of Arteaga was taken in oak forest at an elevation of 830 meters. Both localities are on the coastal slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán. Probably the species inhabits the heavy forests on the lower slopes of these mountains. The specimen from south of Arteaga (UMMZ 119117) in life had a tan dorsum and a bright orange-pink tail. ~Eumeces altamirani~ Dugès _Eumeces altamirani_ Dugès, La Naturaleza, ser. 2, 1:485, 1891.--Apatzingán, Michoacán, México. Twelve km. E of Apatzingán; El Sabino (4). One specimen of this rare species was found beneath a rock in the open scrub forest 12 kilometers east of Apatzingán on July 3, 1955. Another skink, presumably of this species, was seen at Capirio. The specimen from east of Apatzingán is a male having a snout-vent length of 97 mm. and an incomplete tail. In most respects it compares favorably with accounts of the species given by Taylor (1936b:55 and 1936c:102). The frontal is divided by a transverse suture; the enlarged dorsal scales are arranged in 11 pairs anteriorly, followed by 48 unpaired enlarged scales. The head and middorsal area are brown; there is a pale tan stripe on the edges of the vertebral and paravertebral rows, bordered by a dark brown stripe on the paravertebral row, which, in turn, is bordered by a pale tan stripe on the lateral edge of the paravertebral scale row and the median edge of the adjacent scale row. The stripes extend from the neck to the base of the tail. The flanks are mottled with brown and cream-color; the labials are cream-color barred by brown; the venter is a pale cream-color. Dugès (1891:485) described _Eumeces altamirani_ from "las regiones cálidas del Estado de Michoacán" and subsequently (1896:480) gave Apatzingán as a locality for the species. Presumably he had only one specimen. In 1935 Hobart M. Smith collected the species at El Sabino on the lower slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica bordering the Tepalcatepec Valley. All of the known specimens are from this valley and the adjacent slopes, an area to which the species apparently is endemic. ~Eumeces colimensis~ Taylor _Eumeces colimensis_ Taylor, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 20:77, May 15, 1935.--Colima, Colima, México. Coalcomán; Salitre de Estopila. The species was reported by Peters (1954:16); no additional material has been discovered. The species is known only from foothills and low mountains at elevations between 130 and 950 meters in Michoacán and Colima. ~Eumeces copei~ Taylor _Eumeces copei_ Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 46:133, June 5, 1933.--10 miles southeast of Asunción, México, México. Cerro Tancítaro (3); Zacapu. This member of the _Eumeces brevirostris_-group has been found only in pine or pine-fir forests at elevations from 1800 to 2700 meters. It probably ranges throughout the high mountains of the state north of the Tepalcatepec Valley; its apparent absence in other parts of the Cordillera Volcánica, other than on Cerro Tancítaro, is surprising. The species has been taken near Asunción in the state of México and at Lagunas de Zempoala in Morelos. In this species the lateral pale yellow stripe, which is bordered below by dark brown, extends to the groin and onto the base of the tail. The dorsolateral stripe is separated from the copper-colored middorsum by a narrow brown stripe. ~Eumeces dugesi~ Thominot _Eumeces Dugesii_ Thominot, Bull. Soc. Philom. Paris, ser. 7, 7:138, 1883.--Guanajuato. Type locality restricted to Guanajuato, Guanajuato, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:169). Carapan (6); Cherán (5); Opopeo (2); 17 km. S of Pátzcuaro (3); San José de la Cumbre (2); Tancítaro (2); Tangancícuaro; Uruapan; Zacapu. Individuals of this species frequently have been found beneath rocks and logs in pine-oak, pine, or fir forests from elevations of 1550 to 1850 meters. To judge from specimens available, _E. dugesi_ probably is the most abundant and widespread species of skink in the state. In this species the lateral yellow stripe is indistinct and is persistent only in the axilla; the dorsolateral stripes terminate anterior to the hind limbs and are not separated from the tan dorsum. ~Eumeces indubitus~ Taylor _Eumeces indubitus_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 21:257, November 27, 1934.--Near Cuernavaca, Morelos, México. Puerto Hondo. The one specimen of this species from Michoacán was collected by Edward H. Taylor in pine forest at Puerto Hondo, near Zitácuaro, at an elevation of about 2750 meters (Taylor, 1935:466). The species is known from the high mountains of eastern Michoacán, western México, and northern Morelos. ~Eumeces parvulus~ Taylor _Eumeces parvulus_ Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 46:175, October 26, 1933.--Tepic, Nayarit, México. El Ticuiz; La Placita; Pómaro (2); San Pedro Naranjestila (3). Aside from the specimens reported by Peters (1954:17), one other specimen was obtained at El Ticuiz. It has 22 scale rows, 3 supraoculars in contact with the frontal, 2 postlabials, and a unicolored olive-tan dorsum. In life the anterior dorsolateral stripes were pale pinkish tan, the labials cream color, the throat white, and the tail pale blue. All specimens were found in semi-deciduous broad-leaf forest at elevations of less than 500 meters on the seaward slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán. ~Ameiva undulata sinistra~ Smith and Laufe _Ameiva undulata sinistra_ Smith and Laufe, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 31 (1):59, May 1, 1946.--Manzanillo, Colima, México. Apatzingán (9); 19 km. S of Arteaga (3); Barranca de Bejuco (2); Coahuayana (6); Coalcomán (3); El Ticuiz (10); La Placita (2); Limoncito (3); Ostula (2); Playa Azul; Salitre de Estopila; San Juan de Lima (2); San Pedro Naranjestila (4). Six males and six females from the Tepalcatepec Valley have more femoral pores than do 16 males and nine females from the coastal lowlands; the ranges and average number of femoral pores in the former are 40-50 (44.8) for males and 38-40 (38.6) for females; males from the coast have 34-44 (39.2), and females have 32-40 (36.2) femoral pores. In all specimens the number of lamellae beneath the fourth toe varies from 26 to 33 (29.7). In life juveniles have a pale olive-tan dorsum and a dorsolateral dark band, superimposed on which is a row of darker brown spots. The dorsolateral band is bordered below by a narrow cream-colored stripe. The tail is tan above and grayish white below; the belly is pale bluish white. Adult males are brilliantly colored in life. A male having a snout-vent length of 108 mm. had a rusty brown dorsum and bright blue bars on the flanks separated by dark brown interspaces. The side of the head was pale green, and the chin and throat were golden yellow. In some specimens the throat is orange. Juveniles and subadults have dark flecks on the brown or tan middorsal area, but these are absent in the largest males. This species inhabits the heavily wooded areas in the lowlands to elevations of about 950 meters. In the Tepalcatepec Valley it has been found only in gallery forests along streams. In both the Tepalcatepec Valley and the coastal lowlands there is a noticeable absence of large adults in the dry season. ~Cnemidophorus calidipes~ Duellman _Cnemidophorus calidipes_ Duellman, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 574:1, December 23, 1955.--Capirio, Michoacán, México. Apatzingán (56); 12-20 km. S of Apatzingán (5); 19 km. E of Apatzingán (5); 25 km. S of Arteaga; Capirio (57); El Espinal (13); Jazmin (9); 11 km. S of Lombardia; Nueva Italia. This small, distinctive species of the _sexlineatus_-group of _Cnemidophorus_ was discovered in the Tepalcatepec Valley in 1955 (Duellman, 1955); subsequent field studies showed it to be widespread in the valley (Duellman, 1960c). One specimen (KU 29747) is from the relatively arid, low Pacific slope of the Sierra de Coalcomán, 25 kilometers south of Arteaga. All other specimens have been taken at elevations of 200 to 650 meters in the Tepalcatepec Valley, where the species characteristically inhabits the open scrub forests of the valley floor, especially the _Cercidium-Prosopis-Apoplanesia_ associations, where there is a sparse growth of grasses. In this habitat it is most frequently seen in association with _Cnemidophorus costatus zweifeli_ and _C. deppei infernalis_. Aside from the characters given in Table 5, _Cnemidophorus calidipes_ differs from other species of _Cnemidophorus_ in Michoacán by possessing a complete (or nearly so) supraorbital semicircle-series of granules; in other species the granules seldom extend anteriorly beyond the posterior border of the frontal. ~Cnemidophorus communis communis~ Cope _Cnemidophorus communis_ Cope, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 17:95, 1877.--No type locality given; type locality restricted to Colima, Colima, México, by Zweifel (1959a:74). _Cnemidophorus communis communis_, Zweifel, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 117:74, April 27, 1959. Aguililla (2); Apatzingán (6); 13 km. S of Arteaga (2); 19 km. S of Arteaga (3); Capirio (3); Coahuayana (3); Coalcomán (44); El Ticuiz; between El Ticuiz and Ojos de Agua de San Telmo; La Placita (6); Pómaro (2); Río Cachán; Salitre de Estopila; San Juan de Lima. The specimens from Coalcomán and the coastal localities were referred to _Cnemidophorus sacki copei_ by Peters (1954:18) and Duellman (1954b:12). Zweifel (1959a) referred these specimens to _Cnemidophorus communis communis_ and pointed out the probable sympatry of _C. communis_ and _C. costatus_ (= _sacki_ of Zweifel) in the Tepalcatepec Valley. There is considerable geographic variation in the number of dorsal granules around the midbody. Sixteen specimens from the coastal regions of Michoacán have 129-146 (136.3) granules; nine from the Tepalcatepec Valley have 124-137 (128.3), and 44 from Coalcomán at an elevation of 950 meters in the Sierra de Coalcomán, intermediate geographically between the coast and the Tepalcatepec Valley, have 105-144 (119.7). The number of granules in specimens from the coast of Michoacán compares favorably with the range of 118-154 (137.8) for 34 specimens from Colima, Colima (Zweifel, 1959a:107). Aside from the characters given in Table 5, _C. communis communis_ can be distinguished from other members of the _Cnemidophorus sexlineatus_-group (_calidipes_, _costatus_, and _scarlaris_) by its relatively small post-antebrachial scales. TABLE 5.--COMPARISON OF THE TEN SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF CNEMIDOPHORUS IN MICHOACÁN (SCALE COUNTS ARE FOR SPECIMENS FROM MICHOACÁN ONLY) ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+-----------+---------- |Dorsal |Femoral| Adult color | Throat | Maximum Species |granules| pores | pattern | color |snout-vent | | | | | length ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+-----------+---------- _calidipes_ | 66-86 |31-47 |Light brown dorsum| Pink | 79 mm. | (75) |(39) |with vertical blue| | | | |bars and spots | | ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+-----------+---------- _communis |105-146 | 38-52 |Green dorsum with | Pink | 135 mm. communis_ |(124) | (44) |six rows of yellow| | | | |spots | | ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+-----------+---------- _costatus | 97-102 |37-43 |Cross-bars | Pink | 126 mm. occidentalis_ | (99) |(39) |anteriorly and | | | | |pale spots | | | | |posteriorly | | ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+-----------+---------- _costatus |91-117 |32-49 |Lateral and |Pink with | 132 mm. zweifeli_ |(106) |(41) |dorsolateral rows |blue spot | | | |of spots; | | | | |paravertebrals | | | | |fused with pale | | | | |green middorsum | | ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+-----------+---------- _deppei deppei_ |116-117 |37-38 |Green | Black | 93 mm. |(116) |(37) |paravertebral and | | | | |dorsolateral | | | | |stripes; lateral | | | | |stripe broken into| | | | |row of bluish | | | | |spots | | ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+-----------+---------- _deppei |91-120 |31-43 |Green | Black | 84 mm. infernalis_ |(101) |(36) |paravertebral and | | | | |dorsolateral | | | | |stripes; broad | | | | |cream lateral | | | | |stripe; reddish | | | | |flanks | | ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+-----------+---------- _lineatissimus |108-140 |32-47 |Paravertebral |Pink and | 98 mm. exoristus_ |(122) |(39) |stripes fused with|black | | | |yellow middorsal| | | | |stripe; vertical | | | | |bars on flanks | | ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+-----------+---------- _lineatissimus |117-126 |32-37 |Eight distinct |Bluish-pink| 96 mm. lineatissimus_ |(121) |(35) |stripes plus |and black | | | |partially fused | | | | |vertebrals | | ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+-----------+---------- _lineatissimus |126-164 |32-48 |Broad middorsal |Pink and | 106 mm. lividus_ |(148) |(38) |stripe; |black | | | |paravertebrals | | | | |distinct; blue | | | | |lateral spots | | ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+-----------+---------- _scalaris_ | 80-92 |32-41 |Six distinct cream|Orange-pink| 95 mm. | (86) |(35) |stripes; tan spots| | | | |in dark fields | | ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+-----------+---------- Although this is the largest species of _Cnemidophorus_ in Michoacán (adult males attain a snout-vent length of 135 mm.), it is neither widespread nor abundant. On the coastal lowlands it occurs primarily with _Cnemidophorus lineatissimus lividus_. In the coastal lowlands there is little open scrub forest, a type of habitat that seems to be preferred by _C. communis communis_. In the Tepalcatepec Valley, _C. communis communis_ occurs in the open scrub forest with the more abundant large species _C. costatus_ (subspecies _zweifeli_). Only in the scrub forest in the Coalcomán Valley, where no other species of _Cnemidophorus_ occurs, is _C. communis communis_ abundant. ~Cnemidophorus costatus occidentalis~ Gadow _Cnemidophorus communis occidentalis_ Gadow, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1906, 1:339, August 23, 1906.--Type locality restricted to Ixtlán, Nayarit, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:182). _Cnemidophorus costatus occidentalis_, Zweifel, Copeia, No. 1:98; March 17, 1961. Jiquilpan (4). Only four specimens from the extreme northwestern part of the state are referable to this subspecies. These have 97 to 102 dorsal granules at midbody and lack the blue gular band or spot characteristic of the subspecies in the Tepalcatepec Valley. Probably _C. costatus occidentalis_ ranges throughout the Chapala depression, but to the east it is replaced by _Cnemidophorus scalaris scalaris_. ~Cnemidophorus costatus zweifeli~ Duellman _Cnemidophorus sacki zweifeli_ Duellman, Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 10:589, May 2, 1960.--Capirio, Michoacán, México. Apatzingán (107); Buenavista (3); Capirio (31); Charapendo (12); Chinapa (2); 19 km. S of Corralito (3); Jazmin (2); between La Playa and Volcán Jorullo (2); Limoncito (3); 14 km. S of Lombardia (11); Nueva Italia (15); Río Marquez, 10 km. S of Lombardia (2); Río Marquez, 13 km. SE of Nueva Italia; Tafetan (18); 14 km. E of Tepalcatepec (2); Tzitzio (11); 19 km. S of Tzitzio; Volcán Jorullo (5); Ziracuaretiro; Zirimícuaro. These lizards were referred to _Cnemidophorus sacki copei_ by Duellman (1954b:12 and 1955:6); Duellman (1960a) described the subspecies _zweifeli_ and assigned it to _Cnemidophorus sacki_. Zweifel (1961:98) used the specific name C. _costatus_ for the whiptails on the southwestern part of the Mexican Plateau (_C. c. occidentalis_). Since _occidentalis_ and _zweifeli_ are conspecific, the combination _C. costatus zweifeli_ is used here for the population inhabiting the Tepalcatepec Valley. This lizard is abundant in the Tepalcatepec Valley, where it lives in open and dense scrub forest, usually at elevations of less than 1000 meters. Throughout the valley it is found in association with _Cnemidophorus deppei infernalis_, and in the lower parts of the valley it also is associated with _Cnemidophorus calidipes_. Observations made in the dry season indicate that large adults are not active at that time. On the coastal lowlands and in the valleys in the Sierra de Coalcomán _Cnemidophorus costatus zweifeli_ is replaced by _C. communis communis_. To the east in the Balsas Basin _C. costatus zweifeli_ intergrades with _C. costatus costatus_. ~Cnemidophorus deppei deppei~ Wiegmann _Cnemidophorus deppei_ Wiegmann, Herpetologia Mexicana, p. 29, 1834.--México. Type locality restricted to Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:179). _Cnemidophorus deppei deppei_, Cope, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 17:31, 1892. Salitre de Estopila; San Pedro Naranjestila. This small species, which is extremely abundant on the coastal lowlands of Guerrero, seems to be rare on the coast of Michoacán, where it has been taken at elevations of 130 and 500 meters in open situations in otherwise forested areas. Duellman and Wellman (1960:25) discussed these specimens in relation to their subspecific assignment. They were referred to _Cnemidophorus deppei lineatissimus_ by Peters (1954:18). ~Cnemidophorus deppei infernalis~ Duellman and Wellman _Cnemidophorus deppei infernalis_ Duellman and Wellman, Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 111:32, February 10, 1960.--Mexcala, Guerrero, México. Acahuato; Apatzingán (227); Capirio (3); El Sabino; Jazmin; La Playa (6); Lombardia (6); Nueva Italia (4); Río Marquez, 10 km. S of Lombardia (6); Río Marquez, 13 km. SE of Nueva Italia (10); south of Tancítaro; Volcán Jorullo (3). This is one of the most abundant and widespread lizards in the Tepalcatepec Valley. Throughout its range it is ecologically associated with _Cnemidophorus costatus zweifeli_, which ranges to elevations somewhat higher than the 1050 meters known for _C. deppei infernalis_. This small lizard reaches its greatest abundance in grassy areas on the floor of the Tepalcatepec Valley, where in the _Cercidium-Prosopis-Apoplanesia_ associations it occurs with _Cnemidophorus calidipes_. Duellman and Wellman (1960) discussed the variation and relationships of _Cnemidophorus deppei_, of which the subspecies _infernalis_ is restricted to the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin. ~Cnemidophorus lineatissimus exoristus~ Duellman and Wellman _Cnemidophorus lineatissimus exoristus_ Duellman and Wellman, Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 111:44, February 10, 1960.--Rancho Santa Ana, four kilometers northeast of San Salvador, Michoacán, México. Thirteen to 25 km. S of Arteaga (18); Capirio (19); Limoncito (13); Santa Ana (22). As in _Cnemidophorus calidipes_, the distribution of this subspecies seems to be restricted to the Tepalcatepec Valley, except in the vicinity of Arteaga, where it occurs on the southern slope of the Sierra de Coalcomán. As pointed out by Duellman and Wellman (1960:46), the specimens from south of Arteaga are like those from the Tepalcatepec Valley in scutellation and coloration, and not like _Cnemidophorus lineatissimus lividus_ from the geographically closer coastal lowlands. In the Tepalcatepec Valley _Cnemidophorus lineatissimus exoristus_ inhabits gallery forests along the larger streams; in this habitat it is associated with _Ameiva undulata sinistra_. From the other species of _Cnemidophorus_ in Michoacán, _C. lineatissimus exoristus_ can be distinguished by the possession of seven longitudinal stripes in adults and by the characters of scutellation given in Table 5. ~Cnemidophorus lineatissimus lineatissimus~ Cope _Cnemidophorus lineatissimus_ Cope, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 17:94, 1877.--Colima and Guadalajara. Type locality restricted to Colima, Colima, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:179). _Cnemidophorus lineatissimus lineatissimus_, Duellman and Wellman, Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 111:41, February 10, 1960. Boca de Apiza (4). These specimens have 117 to 126 dorsal granules at midbody, a noticeably lower count than that for _Cnemidophorus lineatissimus lividus_ on the coast of Michoacán, which has 126 to 164 (148). Apparently these specimens represent immature _C. lineatissimus lineatissimus_; the differences between these and _C. lineatissimus lividus_ from nearby localities indicate that possibly the populations are distinct species and not subspecies, as suggested by Duellman and Wellman (1960:41). ~Cnemidophorus lineatissimus lividus~ Duellman and Wellman _Cnemidophorus lineatissimus lividus_ Duellman and Wellman, Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 111:50, February 10, 1960.--Maruata, Michoacán, México. Barranca de Bejuco (4); Boca de Apiza (2); Coahuayana (6); El Ticuiz (7); La Placita (11); Maruata (7); Motín del Oro; Ostula (5); Playa Azul (4); Playa Cuilala (2); Pómaro (2); Salitre de Estopila (2); San Pedro Naranjestila. This is the most abundant and widespread species of _Cnemidophorus_ on the coastal lowlands of Michoacán, where it ranges from sea level to elevations of about 500 meters. In this area it inhabits dense arid scrub forest and semi-deciduous broad-leafed forest. Both of these habitats are continuous, or nearly so, along the lowlands and foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán. This in itself may explain the abundance of _Cnemidophorus lineatissimus_ and the relative scarcity of _C. deppei_ and _C. communis_ in the coastal area, for _C. deppei_ and _C. communis_ usually inhabit more open arid scrub forest, as occurs in the Tepalcatepec Valley. Living in the dense scrub forest with _C. lineatissimus_ is _Ameiva undulata sinistra_. ~Cnemidophorus scalaris~ Cope _Cnemidophorus gularis scalaris_ Cope, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 17:47, 1892.--Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México. _Cnemidophorus scalaris_, Zweifel, Bull. American Mus. Nat. Hist., 117:72, 1959. Araro (2); Jacona; Lago de Cuitzeo (42); Morelia; 21 km. N of Morelia (4). Zweifel (1959a:72) assigned the small species of _Cnemidophorus_ having a relatively low number of dorsal granules and inhabiting the southern part of the Mexican Plateau to _C. scalaris_, which he diagnosed as rarely exceeding 100 mm. in snout-vent length and always having an average of less than 100 dorsal granules at midbody and usually less than 90. Forty-two specimens from the south shore of Lago de Cuitzeo (UMMZ 119558) have 80-91 (85.8) dorsal granules. Four specimens from 21 kilometers north of Norelia (UIMNH 6952 and UMMZ 104743) have 89, 78, 92, and 84 granules; one from Morelia (UMMZ 104742) has 78; two from Araro (UMMZ 119522) have 80 and 87; one from Jacona (UIMNH 24703) has 88. Since no large adult males are present in the series from Michoacán, an adequate comparison of coloration between these and populations on the northern part of the Mexican Plateau cannot be made. _Cnemidophorus scalaris_ is a name applied to the lizards inhabiting the Mexican Plateau from Chihuahua south to Puebla by Zweifel (1959a:72). It is doubtful if all of the populations assigned to this subspecies belong there; possibly more than one species is involved, but the paucity of material prevents further analysis at this time. ~Heloderma horridum horridum~ (Wiegmann) _Trachyderma horridum_ Wiegmann, Isis von Oken, 22:421, 1829.--México. Type locality restricted to Huajintlán, Guerrero, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:193). _Heloderma horridum horridum_, Bogert and Martín del Campo, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 109:20, April 16, 1956. Apatzingán; Coalcomán; La Placita; Oropeo; Parácuaro. This species is known from elevations of less than 1000 meters in the Tepalcatepec Valley, the Sierra de Coalcomán, and the coastal lowlands. Specimens from Coalcomán, La Placita, and Parácuaro came from areas of dense woods; those from Apatzingán and Oropeo might have come from patches of dense woods in the otherwise open scrub forest of the Tepalcatepec Valley. ~Gerrhonotus imbricatus imbricatus~ Wiegmann _Gerrhonotus imbricatus_ Wiegmann, Isis von Oken, 21:379, 1828.--México. Type locality restricted to México, Distrito Federal, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:201). _Gerrhonotus imbricatus imbricatus_, Dunn, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 88:475, October 20, 1936. Acuaro de las Lleguas (9); Cerro Barolosa (4); Cerro Tancítaro (36); Dos Aguas (22); Paracho; Sierra Patamba; Tinguidín; Zacapu. Specimens from the Sierra de Coalcomán are noticeably different from those inhabiting the mountains rising from the Mexican Plateau. Of 45 specimens from Cerro Tancítaro and adjacent areas on the Mexican Plateau and in the Cordillera Volcánica, 15 have twelve longitudinal rows of dorsal scales and 30 have fourteen rows. Of seven specimens from the state of México, 5 have twelve rows and 2 have fourteen; of nine specimens from central Veracruz, 8 have twelve rows and one has fourteen; of six specimens from Hidalgo, 5 have twelve rows and one has sixteen; of two specimens from Guanajuata, one has fourteen and the other has sixteen rows. All of the 35 specimens from the Sierra de Coalcomán have sixteen rows. Furthermore, these specimens have the superciliary row extended anteriorly, so that the anterior superciliary is in broad contact with the loreal. Specimens from Cerro Tancítaro have a shorter superciliary row, so that the anterior superciliary is not in broad contact with the loreal. These characters were used by Tihen (1949:220) to distinguish _Gerrhonotus imbricatus ciliaris_ from _G. imbricatus imbricatus_. According to Tihen, the subspecies _G. imbricatus ciliaris_ ranges from Guanajuato and Hidalgo northward to Chihuahua and Coahuila, whereas the nominal subspecies occurs from Michoacán and Hidalgo southward to Oaxaca. Specimens from the Sierra de Autlán in Jalisco are like those from Cerro Tancítaro; consequently, there seems to be no connection between the populations of _G. imbricatus ciliaris_ in the mountains of the northern part of the Mexican Plateau with the _ciliaris_-like individuals found in the Sierra de Coalcomán. The acquisition and study of additional material from throughout the range of the species is necessary to clarify the picture of geographic variation. Until then, I prefer to consider all of the specimens from Michoacán as _Gerrhonotus imbricatus imbricatus_. The largest specimen is a male having a snout-vent length of 136 mm. Two juveniles collected in July 24, 1960, have snout-vent lengths of 36 and 42 mm. A specimen having a snout-vent length of 127 mm. and a tail length of 145 mm. was regurgitated by a _Crotalus pusillus_, which had a body length of 550 mm. _Gerrhonotus imbricatus imbricatus_ is an inhabitant of coniferous forests. In the Cordillera Volcánica it occurs from 1500 to 3500 meters at the top of Cerro Tancítaro. In the Sierra de Coalcomán it occurs from 2100 to 2700 meters. On July 4, 1955, a pair was found in copulation beneath a pine log at 2700 meters on Cerro Barolosa. The male was lying on top of the female and was holding her head firmly in his jaws; the male's tail was curled under the female's tail, so that the cloacae were in contact. Serpentes ~Typhlops braminus~ (Daudin) _Eryx braminus_ Daudin, Hist.... des reptiles, 7:279, 1803.--Vazagapatam, India. _Typhlops braminus_, Cuvier, Règne animal, ed. 2, 2:73, 1829. Apatzingán; Arteaga. Both specimens known from Michoacán were collected by Gadow in 1908. Peters (1954:20) remarked that the specimen from Arteaga probably does not indicate a rapid spreading of the species, which most likely was introduced into México at the time that vessels were stopping at Acapulco from the Philippines (Taylor, 1940b:444), but instead may indicate that pack trains from Acapulco passed through the Sierra de Coalcomán. The occurrence of this snake along a long-used _camino_ substantiates this belief. ~Leptotyphlops bressoni~ Taylor _Leptotyphlops bressoni_ Taylor, Copeia, No. 1:5, March 9, 1939.--Hacienda El Sabino, Michoacán, México. El Sabino. This species still is known definitely only from the type specimen collected on the lower slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica at the northern edge of the Tepalcatepec Valley. A specimen (now lost) reported from Aguililla by Cope (1887:63) possibly represents this species (see Smith and Taylor, 1945:21, and Peters, 1954:20). ~Leptotyphlops gadowi~ Duellman _Leptotyphlops gadowi_ Duellman, Copeia, No. 2:93, May 29, 1956.--Apatzingán, Michoacán, México. Apatzingán. No additional specimens of this species have been collected since the species was described by Duellman (1956b:93). Data given with the specimen by Gadow indicate that it came from his camp above Apatzingán at an elevation of about 800 meters. Although the exact position of this camp is unknown, the lower slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica above Apatzingán usually support arid scrub forest at elevations below 1000 meters. Therefore, this species probably is an inhabitant of the arid scrub forest. ~Leptotyphlops phenops bakewelli~ Oliver _Leptotyphlops bakewelli_ Oliver, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 360:16, November 20, 1937.--Paso del Río, Colima, México. _Leptotyphlops phenops bakewelli_, Smith, Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 93:445, October 29, 1943. La Placita (4); La Salada; Ostula. The five specimens from the coastal lowlands are from elevations of less than 150 meters; these were collected by Peters (1954:20); the specimen from La Salada is from an elevation of 580 meters in the Tepalcatepec Valley. Peters (_loc. cit._) remarked that the rostral and the tip of the tail that were described as white by Oliver (1937:17) actually are sulphur-yellow in life. ~Loxocemus bicolor~ Cope _Loxocemus bicolor_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 13:77, June 30, 1861.--La Unión, El Salvador. _Loxocemus sumichrasti_ Bocourt, Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 6, 4:1, 1876.--Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, México. Apatzingán (6); La Orilla; Lombardia. As noted by Peters (1954:21), this species was not recorded from Michoacán by Smith and Taylor (1945:27), but Gadow (1930:30) collected a specimen at La Orilla in 1908. This specimen (BMNH 1914.1.28.124) is a male having 235 ventrals and 47 caudals, a dark brown dorsum, and cream-colored labials and venter. The anterior chin-shields are considerably longer than the scales bordering the chin-shields. In these characters this specimen agrees with the diagnosis of _Loxocemus bicolor_ given by Taylor (1940c:447), who revived _Loxocemus sumichrasti_ Bocourt. Of the six specimens from Apatzingán in the Tepalcatepec Valley, three males have 243 to 253 (246.6) ventrals and 44 to 45 (44.3) caudals; three females have 238 to 247 (244.0) ventrals and 42 to 44 (43.0) caudals. Certain characters of scutellation utilized by Taylor for separating _L. bicolor_ and _L. sumichrasti_ are inconsistent in this series. The chin-shields are longer than the adjacent scales, like those illustrated in _L. bicolor_ by Taylor (_op. cit._, fig. 1). The relative lengths of the prefrontal and internasal sutures are subequal, or the prefrontal suture is slightly longer. Thus, in these characters of scutellation these snakes are like _L. bicolor_, but in coloration they are like _L. sumichrasti_; the dorsal color in life was an iridescent dark bluish gray, and the belly was pale gray or bluish gray. The supposed differences in scutellation between _L. bicolor_ and _L. sumichrasti_ have been questioned by Woodbury and Woodbury (1944:360); these authors treated _L. sumichrasti_ as a subspecies of _L. bicolor_. As pointed out by Zweifel (1959b:5), such an arrangement is not tenable, for, although individuals with each kind of color pattern have not been collected together at any one locality, the over-all geographic picture is one of sympatric distribution. Only snakes having the coloration of _L. sumichrasti_ have been collected in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin. I agree with Zweifel (_loc. cit._) that on the basis of morphological similarities and sympatric distribution, _L. bicolor_ and _L. sumichrasti_ seem to be dimorphic phases of the same species, showing no more striking differences in coloration than _Lampropeltis getulus californiae_, a now classical example of pattern dimorphism in snakes. In Michoacán, as in other parts of its range, _Loxocemus bicolor_ inhabits arid scrub forest environments at low elevations. ~Boa constrictor imperator~ Daudin _Boa imperator_ Daudin, Hist. nat.... des reptiles, 5:150, 1803.--México. Type locality restricted to Córdoba, Veracruz, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:347). _Boa constrictor imperator_, Forcart, Herpetologica, 7:199, December 31, 1951. Apatzingán (4); Coalcomán; El Sabino (2); La Placita; La Playa (2); Lombardia; Nueva Italia (2); Río Cachán; Río Marquez, 13 km. SE of Nueva Italia; Río Nexpa; Volcán Jorullo. These specimens have come from a variety of habitats from elevations of less than 1,000 meters. The species seems to be equally abundant in the broad-leafed semi-deciduous forests of the coastal foothills and in the arid Tepalcatepec Valley. In the latter area most of the specimens were collected at night. ~Coniophanes fissidens dispersus~ Smith _Coniophanes fissidens dispersus_ Smith, Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 91:106, November 13, 1941.--El Limoncito, Guerrero, México. Arteaga. Further collecting in southern Michoacán has failed to add additional material of this species, which is known in the state from the one specimen collected by Gadow in 1908. The species possibly ranges throughout the coastal foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán. Peters (1954:21) described the specimen from Arteaga. ~Coniophanes lateritius lateritius~ Cope _Coniophanes lateritius_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 13:524, March 31, 1862.--Guadalajara, Jalisco, México. _Coniophanes lateritius lateritius_, Smith and Grant, Herpetologica, 14:20, April 25, 1958. Nineteen km. S of Arteaga. The one specimen available from Michoacán of this apparently rare species was discussed by Wellman (1959:127), who pointed out that although the specimen was geographically intermediate between the subspecies _C. l. lateritius_ (Jalisco and Nayarit) and _C. l. melanocephalus_ (Morelos and Puebla), the specimen (UMMZ 118954) was like _C. l. lateritius_ in scutellation and in color pattern differed from other known specimens of the species in having had in life a pale orange, instead of a brick-red, dorsum. Additional specimens from the Sierra de Coalcomán will be required in order to determine whether this specimen is a representative of an orange-colored population or merely is aberrant in coloration. The present specimen is from an elevation of 900 meters in oak forest on the southern slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán; other locality records for the species indicate that it inhabits broad-leafed forest in foothills from Nayarit to Puebla. ~Conophis vittatus vittatus~ Peters _Conophis vittatus_ Peters, Monats. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, p. 519, 1860.--No type locality given. Type locality restricted to Laguna Coyuca, Guerrero, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:331). _Conophis vittatus vittatus_, Smith, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 31:119, March 17, 1941. Arteaga; Coalcomán (4); La Playa; 19 km. S of Tzitzio. All specimens of this terrestrial snake have been collected in areas of scrub forest between 800 and 1100 meters above sea level. Since the species is known from the coastal regions of Guerrero and Colima, its absence from the cost of Michoacán is unexplainable; probably the lack of specimens from these areas is due solely to inadequate collecting. ~Conopsis biserialis~ Taylor and Smith _Conopsis biserialis_ Taylor and Smith, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 28 (2):333, November 12, 1942.--Ten miles west of Villa Victoria, México, México. Capácuaro (5); Cerro San Andrés; Cherán; Ciudad Hidalgo; Macho de Agua (4): Pátzcuaro (8); Tancítaro (24); Uruapan (9); 24 km. SE of Zitácuaro (14). This species is abundant in the coniferous forests at elevations from 1550 to 2800 meters throughout the Cordillera Volcánica; apparently it does not occur in the Sierra de Coalcomán. On August 1, 1956, a copulating pair was found beneath a rock at Capácuaro. One of the best characters to distinguish this species from _Toluca lineata_, which occurs with _Conopsis_ throughout its range in Michoacán, is the presence of large, black ventral blotches in _Conopsis biserialis_, as contrasted with the two rows of small black spots in _Toluca lineata_. ~Conopsis nasus~ Günther _Conopsis nasus_ Günther, Catalogue... snakes... British Museum, p. 6, 1858.--California (in error). Type locality restricted to Guanajuato, Guanajuato, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:330). Carapan (2); Erongaricuaro; Maravatio (3); Morelia (2); Nahuatzen; Pátzcuaro (7); Tacícuaro (8); Tancítaro. This species has been collected in oak, pine-oak, and fir forests at elevations of 1900 to 2450 meters on the mountains rising from the Mexican Plateau. It does not seem to be so abundant as _Conopsis biserialis_. Sufficient ecological data to determine differences in habitat between the two species have not been compiled. ~Diadophis dugesi~ Villada _Diadophis punctatus dougesii_ Villada, La Naturaleza, 3:226, 1875.--Potreros de Balbuena, Distrito Federal, México. _Diadophis dugesii_, Blanchard, Bull. Chicago Acad. Sci., 7:51, December 30, 1942. Morelia (2); Pátzcuaro; Quiroga. Apparently this snake is uncommon in Michoacán. It has been found only at elevations of 1900 to 2200 meters in pine and pine-oak forests on the mountains rising from the Mexican Plateau. ~Dryadophis melanolomus stuarti~ Smith _Dryadophis melanolomus stuarti_ Smith, Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 93:418, October 29, 1943.--Acapulco, Guerrero, México. Coahuayana; El Ticuiz; La Placita (3); Punto San Juan de Lima; Punto San Telmo. The few specimens indicate that in Michoacán, as elsewhere on the Pacific coast of México, this species is restricted to forested regions on the coastal plain. It does not occur in the Tepalcatepec Valley. The coloration, in life, of a juvenile (UMMZ 114604) is as follows: The dorsum is uniform pale grayish tan on posterior one-third of body and on tail; anteriorly there are pale grayish tan middorsal blotches separated by grayish white interspaces, which are about one-half the length of the blotches. Posteriorly the blotches are less distinct, fading into the uniform grayish tan ground color of the posterior part of the body. The blotches extend laterally onto the fourth and fifth scale rows. Large squarish lateral intercalary blotches of darker brown interconnect with the dorsal blotches. The top of the head is pale olive-brown; a dark brown postorbital stripe extends from the eye to the posterior edge of the last upper labial. The labials, chin, and ventrals 1-30 are creamy white, changing to a dusty cream-color posteriorly; the chin and ventrals 1-30 are heavily spotted with dark brown. The iris is a cream-color above and chocolate brown below; the tongue is blue. ~Drymarchon corais rubidus~ Smith _Drymarchon corais rubidus_ Smith, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 31:474, November 11, 1941.--Rosario, Sinaloa, México. Apatzingán (5); Arroyo El Salto; Arteaga; Capirio; El Sabino (7); La Palma; La Placita; Ostula; San Juan de Lima. Not all of the specimens from Michoacán are typical in color pattern of this subspecies, as defined by Smith (1941a:475). All specimens from the Tepalcatepec Valley are uniformly black above; they have reddish or cream-colored chins and the anterior two-thirds of the belly salmon-pink or reddish buff. Individuals from the Sierra de Coalcomán (Arteaga and Arroyo El Salto) are like those from the Tepalcatepec Valley. Three specimens from the coastal lowlands differ noticeably in color pattern: UMMZ 104504, adult male (Ostula).--Pale brown above flecked with black anteriorly; at midbody, flecks form narrow transverse bands that become progressively wider posteriorly, until on tail no brown pigment evident, all ventrals reddish buff, except last eight, which are black. UMMZ 104602, adult female (La Placita).--Black above, reddish cross-bands and flecks on all of body; dorsal and ventral surfaces of tail black; chin cream-color and entire belly reddish buff. UMMZ 114626, adult male (San Juan de Lima).--Black above; dull rust-colored cross-bands on anterior half of body; chin white; belly rust-colored on anterior two-thirds of body and black posteriorly. One specimen from La Palma on the Mexican Plateau (KU 29275) has the top of the head an olive-color, the entire dorsum black, the chin and ventrals 1-42 a cream-color, remainder of venter black, and all of the labials heavily barred with black. A juvenile from Capirio in the Tepalcatepec Valley (UMMZ 114627) is black above and has pale olive-colored flecks on the anterior one-third of the body; the top of the head is dark olive-brown, and the sides of the head are somewhat paler. Anteriorly the belly is a cream-color; posteriorly it is black. The specimens from the Tepalcatepec Valley are typical of _Drymarchon corais rubidus_. Those from the coastal lowlands differ in having large areas of brown or red pigment on the dorsum, a condition not mentioned by Smith in his description of the subspecies. The specimen from La Palma, like many others from various localities on the Mexican Plateau, resembles in certain characters _D. corais orizabensis_ (Smith, _op. cit._: 477). Our knowledge of the geographical variation in coloration in this species is incomplete; many populations have been assigned to subspecific rank without justification. In Michoacán this species is found from sea level to 1350 meters in the Sierra de Coalcomán and to 1300 meters at La Palma on Lago de Chapala. It has been collected in scrub forest, semi-deciduous broad-leafed forest, and oak forest. ~Drymobius margaritiferus fistulosus~ Smith _Drymobius margaritiferus fistulosus_ Smith, Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 92:383, November 5, 1942.--Miramar, Nayarit, México. Apatzingán (3); Coahuayana; Coalcomán (3); El Sabino (3); El Ticuiz; 12 km. S of Tzitzio. This snake is abundant in the lowlands of the state; the few specimens listed above are indicative not of the rarity, but rather of the speed and agility, of this diurnal snake. It most frequently is found near water, where there is a dense growth of vegetation. One individual was observed in a large pool inhabited by several small _Rana pipiens_, and another was seen along the bank of a hyacinth-choked river channel. A third individual was captured while it was in pursuit of a _Cnemidophorus_. This species has been collected on the coastal lowlands and seaward foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán and in the Tepalcatepec Valley to elevations of 1150 meters. ~Elaphe triaspis intermedia~ (Boettger) _Pityophis intermedius_ Boettger, Ber. Offen. Vereins. Naturk., 22:148, 1883.--México. Type locality restricted to Hacienda El Sabino, Michoacán, México, by Dowling (1960:74). _Elaphe triaspis intermedia_, Mertens and Dowling, Senckenbergiana, 33:201, November 15, 1952. Twenty-four km. E of Apatzingán; Chupio; El Sabino (4); 11 km. E of Emiliano Zapata. Dowling (1960) has shown that specimens from the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin have fewer ventrals and caudals than those from the Sierra del Sur or the coast. All specimens from Michoacán were collected in open forest, either scrub or oak forest. They were found in drier situations than those described for the species in southern Tamaulipas by Martin (1958:69). In Michoacán _Elaphe triaspis intermedia_ is known from the Tepalcatepec Valley, the lower slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica, and the western edge of the Mexican Plateau at an elevation of 1350 meters. It probably occurs in the lower parts of the Sierra de Coalcomán and along the Pacific coast, for it is known from the coastal lowlands of Guerrero and Colima. In August, 1951, I saw a snake that probably was this species in Barranca de Bejuco. ~Enulius unicolor~ (Fischer) _Geophis unicolor_ Fischer, Abh. Nat. Ver. Bremen, 7:227, 1882.--México. Type locality restricted to Chilpancingo, Guerrero, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:331). _Enulius unicolor_, Taylor and Smith, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 25:247, July 10, 1939. Between Ario de Rosales and La Playa; Coalcomán; Jungapeo (4); between Zitácuaro and Tuxpan. This small snake has been collected from beneath rocks in brushy areas and broad-leafed forest between 900 and 1800 meters; it has not been found in coniferous forest. The limited ecological data suggest that the species inhabits the transition zone between the tropical scrub forest and the temperate hardwood forest. All of the specimens have 17 rows of scales; four males have 169-178 (174.2) ventrals and 102-111 (106.8) caudals; two females have 192 and 195 ventrals and 96 and 87 caudals. Three individuals have one postocular on one side and two on the other; in the other specimens there are two postoculars on each side. The largest male has a body length of 232 mm. and a tail length of 130 mm.; the largest female has a body length of 274 mm. and a tail length of 119 mm. ~Geagras redimitus~ Cope _Geagras redimitus_ Cope, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, ser. 2, 8:141, 1876. San Juan de Lima (2). Previously this species was known definitely only from the Plains of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca. _Sphenocalamus lineolatus_ was described by Fischer (1883:5) from Mazatlán; this name has been placed in the synonymy of _Geagras redimitus_ Cope. Although Fischer gave the type locality only as "Mazatlán" and did not designate the state, it is probable that the type originated from Mazatlán, Sinaloa. The present specimens are from a locality almost midway between Tehuantepec and Mazatlán and support the possibility that _Geagras_ ranges along the Pacific coast of México from Oaxaca to Sinaloa. The two specimens from Michoacán (UMMZ 114446-7), both males, have 118 and 122 ventrals, 31 and 33 caudals, body lengths of 108 and 81 mm., and tail lengths of 20 and 15 mm. Both have 1-1 preoculars, 1-1 postoculars, 1-2 temporals, 6-6 upper labials, and 5-5 lower labials. In life, the dorsum was pale tan; the top of the head and the middorsal and lateral stripes were dark brown; the belly was white. The occipital spots were pale pinkish tan. Both specimens were found beneath rocks in tropical semi-deciduous forest at an elevation of 15 meters on the coastal plain. ~Geophis dugesi~ Bocourt _Geophis dugesii_ Bocourt, Miss. Scientifique au Mexique et dans l'Amerique Centrale, Rept., livr. 9:573, 1883.--Tangancícuaro, Michoacán, México. Carapan; Tangancícuaro; Zacapu. Aside from the three specimens listed above, there are two (SU 4407-8) bearing the data "Michoacán." Bocourt (1883:574) stated that the type specimen from Tangancícuaro had six or seven pale cross-bands on the anterior part of the body. An illustration, presumably of the same specimen, by Dugès (1884:Pl. 9) shows five distinct and one indistinct cross-bands. Of the four specimens that I have examined, none has more than three pale cross-bands, and one has only one indistinct cross-band. Two females have 154 and 158 ventrals and 38 and 37 caudals; two males have 150 and 151 ventrals and 43 and 42 caudals. This species is known only from elevations between 1750 and 2050 meters on the southwestern edge of the Mexican Plateau in the state of Michoacán. ~Geophis incomptus~ Duellman _Geophis incomptus_ Duellman, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 605:3, May 29, 1959.--Dos Aguas, Michoacán, México. Dos Aguas (15). This species, which seems to be related to _Geophis maculiferus_, is known only from the pine-oak forest in the vicinity of Dos Aguas (elevation 2100 meters) in the Sierra de Coalcomán. Aside from the five specimens comprising the type series, there are ten other specimens in the Museum of Zoology at the University of Michigan collected by Floyd L. Downs in July, 1960. Data from these specimens and those comprising the type series show that in this sample seven males have 146-153 (149.3) ventrals and 35-37 (36.0) caudals; eight females have 150-154 (152.4) ventrals and 29-34 (32.5) caudals. The largest specimen is a female with a body length of 344 mm. and a tail length of 53 mm. ~Geophis maculiferus~ Taylor _Geophis maculiferus_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 27:119, December 30, 1941.--Near Cicio [_sic_] = Tzitzio, Michoacán, México. Tzitzio. The type and only known specimen of _Geophis maculiferus_ (UIMNH 25078) is a female having 140 ventrals and 30 caudals, dorsal scales in 15 rows, one postocular, and an anterior temporal. Only one other species in México has dorsal scales in 15 rows and has an anterior temporal; that species is _G. incomptus_, which differs from _G. maculiferus_ in having six or seven lower labials, instead of five, and in having the edges of the ventrals dark, instead of a uniformly cream-colored belly. The locality from which the specimen was obtained lies at an elevation of 1630 meters on the southern slope of the Cordillera Volcánica. At that elevation there is an interdigitation of arid tropical scrub forest and pine-oak forest; probably _Geophis maculiferus_ inhabits the pine-oak forest. ~Geophis nigrocinctus~ Duellman _Geophis nigrocinctus_ Duellman, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 605:1, May 29, 1959.--Dos Aguas, Michoacán, México. Dos Aguas (3). The three specimens comprising the type series of the species were found beneath logs and in a stump in pine-oak forest at an elevation of 2100 meters. A discussion of the variation in these specimens and of probable relationships of the species was given by Duellman (1959). Floyd Downs spent several days at Dos Aguas in July, 1960; although he found ten specimens of _Geophis incomptus_, no further specimens of _G. nigrocinctus_ were obtained. ~Geophis petersi~ Boulenger _Geophis petersii_ Boulenger, Catalogue Snakes... British Museum, 2:321, September 23, 1894.--Mexico City. Type locality restricted to Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:335). Cherán; Coalcomán; Morelia; Pátzcuaro (6). This seems to be the most widespread species of _Geophis_ in Michoacán. It has been found at elevations between 950 and 2350 meters, chiefly in pine or pine-oak forest. Boulenger (1894:321) described _Geophis petersi_ from a specimen stated to be from Mexico City, a locality which probably is in error. The only localities from which the species is definitely known are those listed in this account. Three males and five females from the Mexican Plateau and the Cordillera Volcánica have respectively 140-144 (141.7) and 143-151 (146.0) ventrals and 39-41 (40.0) and 29-35 (33.2) caudals. All have dorsal scales in 15 rows, 1 postocular, no anterior temporal, and a relatively small triangular supraocular. The specimen from Coalcomán (UMMZ 104698) was referred to _Geophis nasalis_ by Peters (1954:22). This specimen is abnormal in several characters; in five places there is a fusion and separation of the vertebral and paravertebral scale rows, producing a change from 17 to 15 rows of dorsal scales. Fusion of the three rows takes place at the level of the 8th, 41st, 47th, 54th, and 65th ventrals. Furthermore, there is a small secondary postocular on each side of the head. In other characters the specimen is like _G. petersi_; the resemblances to that species are greater than to _G. nasalis_, which has been recorded from Guatemala and southern Chiapas. ~Geophis tarascae~ Hartweg _Geophis tarascae_ Hartweg, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 601:1, May 4, 1959.--Uruapan, Michoacán, México. Uruapan (3). A female of this species was collected in the Parque Nacional at the north edge of Uruapan in 1899, and a male was taken there in 1947; these specimens were used by Hartweg in his description of the species. Floyd L. Downs obtained another specimen in the Parque Nacional on July 19, 1960. It has 164 ventrals and 46 caudals; in life, the ground color of the neck was brown with a purplish tint; the dorsal markings were black; the chin was a cream-color, and the belly was white. This specimen is distinguished from those of all other species of _Geophis_ in Michoacán in that it has dark irregular cross-bars on the dorsum and a row of dark spots on the venter. ~Hypsiglena torquata ochrorhyncha~ Cope _Hypsiglena ochrorhyncha_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 12:246, November 15, 1860.--Cape San Lucas, Baja California, México. _Hypsiglena torquata ochrorhyncha_, Bogert and Oliver, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 83:378, March 30, 1945. Tupátaro. The systematic status of the geographic variants of _Hypsiglena_ in México and southwestern United States has been commented on by several authors. Tanner (1944) considered _H. torquata_ and _H. ochrorhyncha_ to be distinct species; Bogert and Oliver (1945:379) and Duellman (1957b:238) presented evidence indicating that _H. torquata_ and _H. ochrorhyncha_ intergrade in Sinaloa and southern Sonora. In _Hypsiglena_ the scutellation, including the numbers of labials, dorsals, ventrals, and caudals, seem to vary in a clinal manner. Nevertheless, these snakes can be divided into two distinct populations on the basis of the nuchal color pattern, consisting of an _ochrorhyncha_-type (a broad dark nape-band, the lateral edges of which extend anteriorly and fuse with a postorbital stripe, and a narrow nape stripe extending from the posteromedian edges of the parietals to the dark nape band) and a _torquata_-type (a somewhat narrower dark nape-band bordered anteriorly by a pale nuchal area, and no dark nape stripe). Snakes having the _ochrorhyncha_-type of nuchal pattern are found on the Mexican Plateau from Michoacán northward into the desert regions of Sonora and the southwestern United States. Snakes having the _torquata_-type of pattern are found on the coastal lowlands and adjacent slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental from southern Sinaloa to Colima and thence inland in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin to Morelos and Guerrero. An exception is _Hypsiglena torquata dunklei_ from Forlón and San Fernando, Tamaulipas; it has the _torquata_-type of nuchal pattern. The distributional picture is somewhat complicated because some individuals having the _torquata_-type of nuchal pattern also have a faint nape stripe. If these are taken as exceptions, the general picture of distribution in México is _H. t. torquata_ on the Pacific lowlands from Sinaloa southward to the Balsas Basin and _H. t. ochrorhyncha_ on the Mexican Plateau. Smith (1943:433) resurrected _Hypsiglena jani_ Dugès for the snakes of the _ochrorhyncha_-type on the southern part of the Mexican Plateau. He stated that the southern specimens differed from northern ones in having a nuchal spot 9 or 10 scales in length, as compared with a spot 2 to 6 scales in length in northern specimens. A cursory examination of specimens from the areas between Arizona and Michoacán showed that there is a gradual increase in the size of the spot from north to south. If no other characters can be found to distinguish the populations, they should be considered as a single subspecies. _Hypsiglena affinis_ differs from _H. torquata_ in possessing 19 instead of 21 rows of dorsal scales. Additional material is needed from the western slopes of Jalisco and the Barrancas in Zacatecas and Durango, before definite allocation of _affinis_ can be made. Bogert and Oliver (1945:379) discussed the status of certain named populations in Baja California and concluded that only one species occurs there, and that the species probably is conspecific with _H. torquata_. A careful review of the genus _Hypsiglena_ might show that there is only one species. The one specimen from Michoacán (USNM 46513) is from an elevation of about 2300 meters near the southern edge of the Mexican Plateau. ~Hypsiglena torquata torquata~ (Günther) _Leptodeira torquata_ Günther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, 5:170.--Laguna Island, Nicaragua (in error). _Hypsiglena torquata torquata_, Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 25:371, July 10, 1939. Apatzingán; Capirio; Cofradía. Specimens from the three mentioned localities have the dark nuchal spot bordered anteriorly by a pale blotch. In life the specimen from Capirio (UMMZ 114424) had rich reddish brown dorsal spots; the dorsal ground color was grayish white above and somewhat more gray laterally. The pale nuchal area was a cream-color, and the iris was grayish red. All of the specimens were found in the arid scrub forest in the Tepalcatepec Valley at elevations between 200 and 350 meters. ~Imantodes gemmistratus gracillimus~ (Günther) _Dipsas gracillima_ Günther, Biol. Centrali-Americana, Rept., p. 177, July, 1895.--southern México. Type locality restricted to Acapulco, Guerrero, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:331). _Imantodes gemmistratus gracillimus_, Zweifel, Amer. Mus. Novitates, 1961:12, September 16, 1959. La Orilla. The specimen from La Orilla was reported by Peters (1954:23) as _Imantodes gemmistratus oliveri_; Zweifel (1959c) showed that _I. g. oliveri_ did not range west of Tehuantepec and that the snakes inhabiting the coastal lowlands of Guerrero, Michoacán, and Colima were assignable to the subspecies _gracillimus_. It may be assumed that this subspecies ranges throughout the coastal lowlands and foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán. ~Imantodes gemmistratus latistratus~ (Cope) _Dipsas gemmistrata latistrata_ Cope, Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., 32:68, 1887.--Southern Jalisco. Type locality restricted to Guadalajara, Jalisco, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:334). _Imantodes gemmistratus latistratus_, Zweifel, Amer. Mus. Novitates, 1961:3, September 16, 1959. El Sabino. The one specimen from Michoacán was collected near the upper limits of the scrub forest on the slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica. Zweifel (1959c:10) stated that in certain aspects of coloration this specimen was like _I. gemmistratus gracillimus_, but in scutellation and other features of coloration it was like _I. g. latistratus_. There are too few specimens of this species to define the ranges of the various subspecies with any degree of accuracy, but from the limited number of specimens available, it seems that _I. gemmistratus gracillimus_ occurs on the Pacific lowlands from Guerrero northward to Colima. Northward on the Pacific lowlands from Colima to Sinaloa and in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin is found _I. gemmistratus latistratus_. ~Lampropeltis doliata~ (Linnaeus) _Coluber doliatus_ Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 12, 1:379, 1766.--Charleston, South Carolina. _Lampropeltis doliata_, Klauber, Copeia, No. 1:11, April 15, 1948. Coalcomán (3); El Sabino; 24 km. W of Morelia; Río Nexpa; Uruapan. The few specimens of this species from Michoacán show a wide range of variation; furthermore, the present systematic status of the subspecies of _Lampropeltis doliata_ portrays an incongruous pattern of distribution. Specimens from the Sierra de Coalcomán have relatively narrow red bands that are not interrupted dorsally by extensions of the black rings; the scales in the red bands have black tips. The specimen from El Sabino (EHT-HMS 5253) and the one from the Río Nexpa on the coast (USNM 31491) have broader red bands; the scales in the red bands do not have black tips. A specimen from 24 kilometers west of Morelia (UIMNH 17782) and one from Uruapan (UMMZ 121508) have the red bands interrupted dorsally by extensions from the black rings. Specimens from the Sierra de Coalcomán were referred to _L. doliata blanchardi_ by Peters (1954:24), who noted that in some characters these snakes were like _L. d. nelsoni_ and in others like _L. d. polyzona_. The individual from El Sabino was referred to _L. d. nelsoni_ by Taylor (1940c:465); the one from 24 kilometers west of Morelia was referred to _L. d. arcifera_ by Smith (1942c:198). If these assignments are correct, three subspecies of _Lampropeltis doliata_ occur in Michoacán: _blanchardi_ in the Sierra de Coalcomán, _nelsoni_ on the coast and in the Tepalcatepec Valley, and _arcifera_ on the Mexican Plateau and in the Cordillera Volcánica. Such a distribution is plausible, but the few specimens and our general lack of knowledge of the variation and relationships of the different populations do not permit a definite assignment at this time. ~Lampropeltis ruthveni~ Blanchard _Lampropeltis ruthveni_ Blanchard, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 81:8, April 28, 1920.--Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, México. Morelia; Pátzcuaro; Tacícuaro. At the present time this species is known definitely from only three localities on the Mexican Plateau in Michoacán. An incomplete skin from El Sabino (EHT-HMS 5438) was referred to this species by Taylor (1940c:465); the specimen cannot be found, so verification of the identification cannot be made at this time. ~Leptodeira latifasciata~ (Günther) _Hypsiglena latifasciata_ Günther, Biologia Centrali-Americana, Reptilia, p. 138, October, 1894.--Southern México. Type locality restricted to Huajintlán, Morelos, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:331). _Leptodeira latifasciata_, Dunn, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 22:696, December, 1936. Apatzingán; El Sabino; La Playa; 32 km. E of Nueva Italia. This nocturnal snake apparently ranges throughout the arid Balsas-Tepalcatepec Valley to elevations of about 1050 meters. It has been collected only in the arid scrub forest. Aside from the specimens listed by Duellman (1958a:93), there is one (UMMZ 120223) having eight body blotches, a body length of 510 mm. and a tail length of 103 mm. ~Leptodeira maculata~ (Hallowell) _Megalops maculatus_ Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 13:488, March 31, 1862.--"Tahiti." Type locality restricted to Manzanillo, Colima, México, by Duellman (1958a:54). _Leptodeira maculata_, Duellman, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 114:53, February 24, 1958. Aguililla (2); Apatzingán (24); Arteaga (2); Capirio (3); Charapendo (2); Coahuayana (3); Cofradía; Cuatro Caminos; La Placita (3); Lombardia (69); Nueva Italia (29); Pómaro; Río Marquez, 10 km. S of Lombardia (2); Salitre de Estopila; Tafetan (2); Volcán Jorullo. This snake is abundant in the arid Tepalcatepec Valley; most of the specimens have been collected in arid scrub forest at elevations of less than 500 meters. With the onset of the rains in late June and early July, large numbers of these snakes can be found around temporary pools, where they feed on small frogs and toads. In the dry season few individuals were found, and all of those were beneath cover. Specimens from the coast have more body-blotches than do those from the Tepalcatepec Valley (Duellman, 1958a:56); otherwise the snakes show little variation. ~Leptodeira splendida bressoni~ Taylor _Leptodeira bressoni_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 25:321, July 10, 1939.--Hacienda El Sabino, Michoacán, México. _Leptodeira splendida bressoni_, Duellman, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 114:84, February 24, 1958. Coalcomán (3); El Sabino (3); Uruapan (5). The range of _Leptodeira splendida bressoni_ apparently does not overlap that of _Leptodeira maculata_; the latter is restricted to the lower reaches of the arid scrub forest, whereas _L. s. bressoni_ inhabits the upper limits of the arid scrub forest and the lower part of the pine-oak forest. Specimens have been collected between 950 and 1630 meters on the slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica and at 950 meters in the Sierra de Coalcomán. At Uruapan individuals were found beneath rocks along a stream and in a stone fence. _Leptodeira duellmani_, which was described from Coalcomán by Peters (1954:25), is an aberrant individual of _L. s. bressoni_ (Duellman, 1958a:56). ~Leptophis diplotropis~ (Günther) _Ahaetulla diplotropis_ Günther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, 9:25, 1872.--Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, México. _Leptophis diplotropis_, Bocourt, Mission scientifique au Mexique et dans l'Amerique Centrale, Reptiles, livr. 15:835, 1897. Between Aguililla and Dos Aguas; Arteaga; Coalcomán; El Diezmo; El Sabino (5); La Playa; Ocorla. Most specimens of this species have been collected in tropical semi-deciduous forest at elevations of less than 1000 meters. In the Sierra de Coalcomán one was taken in pine-oak forest at an elevation of 1700 meters near Ocorla; another was found in broad-leafed forest between Aguililla and Dos Aguas at an elevation of 1600 meters. Most individuals have been seen in trees or bushes. The absence of broad-leafed forest in the Tepalcatepec Valley probably accounts for the absence of this snake in that area. ~Manolepis putnami~ (Jan) _Dromicus putnami_ Jan, Elenco sistematico degli Ofidi, p. 67, 1863.--San Blas, Nayarit, México. _Manolepsis putnami_, Smith and Taylor, Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., 187:92, October 5, 1945. La Placita (3); Maquili; Ostula. In Michoacán the species has been found only in tropical semi-deciduous forest on the lower slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán. From the observations made by Peters (1954:28), this snake is diurnal and feeds on teiid lizards. ~Masticophis striolatus striolatus~ Mertens _Coluber striolatus_ Mertens, Zoologica (Stuttgart), 32:190, 1934.--Substitute name for _Coluber lineatus_ Bocourt, a secondary homonym of _Coluber lineatus_ Linnaeus = _Lygophis lineatus_. Type locality restricted to Presidio de Mazatlán, Sinaloa, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:343). _Masticophis striolatus striolatus_, Zweifel and Norris, Amer. Midl. Nat., 54:242, July, 1955. Apatzingán (4); Arteaga; Coalcomán (3); El Sabino; Jiquilpan; La Palma; La Playa (3); Lombardia; Nueva Italia; Río Cachán; Santa Ana; Uruapan (2); Volcán Jorullo; Ziracuaretiro. This large diurnal species inhabits open scrub forest and cultivated terrain from sea level to about 1650 meters. On the Mexican Plateau it is known from the area around Lago de Chapala, to which it possibly gained access through the valleys in the headwaters of the Tepalcatepec drainage. Specimens from southern Michoacán have been reported previously by Peters (1954:28) and Duellman (1954b:16) as _Masticophis flagellum lineatus_. ~Masticophis taeniatus australis~ Smith _Masticophis taeniatus australis_ Smith, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 31:390, September 11, 1941.--Guanajuato, Guanajuato, México. Tacícuaro (2); Zamora. This species reaches the southern limit of its distribution in the state of Michoacán. The limited ecological data available suggest that the species inhabits the open mesquite grassland of the Mexican Plateau. ~Oxybelis aeneus auratus~ (Bell) _Dryinus auratus_ Bell, Zool. Jour., 2:324, 1825.--México. Type locality restricted to Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:340). _Oxybelis aeneus auratus_, Bogert and Oliver, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 83:381, March 30, 1945. Coahuayana; El Sabino (4); between Las Tecatas and Las Higuertas; between Los Pozos and La Ciénega; Playa Azul; Pómaro (2); between Pómaro and Maruata (2); Punto San Telmo; Río Tizupan. On the basis of the number of specimens seen and collected on the seaward slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán, this is a common snake there. Most specimens were collected in tropical semi-deciduous forest; others were collected in oak forest to an elevation of 1700 meters. Apparently _Oxybelis_ does not inhabit the lower parts of the Tepalcatepec Valley; the only specimens from the inland area are four from El Sabino, which is situated at about 900 meters on the slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica. One individual was seen in gallery forest near Limoncito at an elevation of 730 meters on the northern slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán. ~Pituophis deppei deppei~ (Duméril) _Elaphis deppei_ Duméril, Mem. Acad. Inst. France, 23:453, 1835.--México. Type locality restricted to San Juan Teotihuacán, México, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:334). _Pituophis deppei deppei_, Stull, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 250:1, October 12, 1932. Carapan (2); Morelia; Tacámbaro; Tacícuaro; Zacapu. Duellman (1960b) showed that the widespread species _Pituophis deppei_ was composite and that the "lined subspecies" actually represented another species, _Pituophis lineaticollis_. _Pituophis deppei_ occurs only on the Mexican Plateau; in Michoacán it inhabits mesquite grassland and oak-bunch grass associations between 1900 and 2200 meters. ~Pituophis lineaticollis lineaticollis~ (Cope) _Arizona lineaticollis_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 13:300, December 28, 1861.--Southern Mexican Plateau. Type locality restricted to 24 kilometers northwest of Oaxaca, Oaxaca, México, by Duellman (1960b:607). _Pituophis lineaticollis lineaticollis_, Duellman, Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 10:607, May 2, 1960. Acuaro de las Lleguas; Dos Aguas (3); Morelia; Tancítaro (5). This species reaches the northern limits of its range in the Sierra de Coalcomán and on the Mexican Plateau in Michoacán. On the plateau it has been collected in mesquite grassland at elevations between 1500 and 2000 meters. In the Sierra de Coalcomán individuals were found in open pine-oak forest at 2100 meters elevation and in a meadow surrounded by pine-oak forest at 2300 meters. ~Pseudoficimia frontalis~ (Cope) _Toluca frontalis_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 16:167, September 30, 1864.--Colima, Colima, México. _Pseudoficimia frontalis_, Günther, Biologia Centrali-Americana, Reptilia, p. 96, May, 1893. Apatzingán; Coalcomán (6); El Sabino (2). Most specimens were found beneath rocks in grassy areas near the upper limits of the arid scrub forest, both in the Sierra de Coalcomán and on the southern slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica; all are from elevations of less than 1100 meters. One specimen was found on a road at night near Apatzingán. This species has been found in similar habitats near Huajintlán, Guerrero, and in arid scrub forest at lower elevations in Colima. It is unknown from the coast of Michoacán. ~Pseudoficimia pulcherrima~ Taylor and Smith _Pseudoficimia pulcherrima_ Taylor and Smith, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 28:246, May 15, 1942.--Huajintlán, Guerrero, México. Apatzingán. This specimen (CNHM 39208) was reported by Schmidt and Shannon (1947:81); they stated that it was a paratype of _P. pulcherrima_. However, Taylor and Smith (1942a:246) did not mention the specimen; aside from the type (EHT-HMS 5497), the only other specimen they designated as belonging to the type series was UMMZ 85711 from Chilpancingo, Guerrero. The taxonomic validity of _Pseudoficimia pulcherrima_ remains doubtful, for only minor characters distinguish it from _P. frontalis_. Furthermore, all known specimens of _P. pulcherrima_ are from within the geographic range of _P. frontalis_. ~Rhadinaea hesperia hesperia~ Bailey _Rhadinaea hesperia_ Bailey, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 412:8, May 6, 1940.--Omilteme and Sierra de Burro, Guerrero. Type locality restricted to Omilteme, Guerrero, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:332). _Rhadinaea hesperia hesperia_, Smith, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:185, December 31, 1942. Arteaga (3); Coalcomán; El Sabino (2); Uruapan; Volcán Jorullo (2). One specimen from Volcán Jorullo (UMMZ 104494), three from Arteaga (UMMZ 119281), and one from Uruapan (UMMZ 92342) are typical of the subspecies _R. h. hesperia_ in possessing a lateral cream-colored line on the sixth and parts of the fifth and seventh dorsal scale rows and in lacking a dark line on the second scale row. The specimens from El Sabino (EHT-HMS 5441 and UIMNH 18933) and one from Coalcomán (UMMZ 104502) have the cream-colored line on the sixth and adjacent parts of the fifth and seventh scale rows and have a dark line on the second scale row. Another individual from Volcán Jorullo (UMMZ 104682) has cream-colored lines like the others, but it possesses two lateral dark lines, one on the second scale row, and one on the third. Smith (1942d:186) diagnosed _Rhadinaea hesperia hesperioides_ as differing from the nominal subspecies in having the cream-colored line on the fourth and fifth scale rows and in possessing a dark line on the second scale row. The specimens seen all have the lateral cream-colored line centered on the sixth scale row, as is characteristic of _R. h. hesperia_. Although many of the specimens also possess a dark line on the second scale row, these specimens are here assigned to _R. h. hesperia_. Additional specimens are necessary to define accurately the subspecies and their ranges. Peters (1954:29) assigned the specimens from Coalcomán to _R. h. hesperioides_. In life the specimens from Arteaga had bright cream-colored temporal stripes and dorsolateral stripes on the anterior part of the body. The chin and anterior one-sixth of the belly was white; posteriorly the venter was bright orange-red. In Michoacán this snake has been found in tropical semi-deciduous forest, arid scrub forest, and pine-oak forest at elevations from 850 to 1500 meters. ~Rhadinaea laureata~ (Günther) _Dromicus laureatus_ Günther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, 1:419, 1868.--Mexico City. _Rhadinaea laureata_, Boulenger, Catalogue Snakes... British Museum, 2, p. 179, September 23, 1894. Capácuaro; Carapan (8); Cherán (3); Paracho (2); Pátzcuaro; Tancítaro (10). This snake is abundant in the Cordillera Volcánica, but it is unknown in the mountains to the northeast of Morelia or in the Sierra de Coalcomán. Most specimens were found beneath volcanic rocks imbedded in the ashy soil in pine forest between 1800 and 2300 meters. ~Rhadinaea taeniata~ (Peters) _Dromicus taeniatus_ Peters, Monats. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, p. 275, 1863.--México. _Rhadinaea taeniata_, Bailey, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 412:14, May 6, 1940. Tancítaro (2). This species, which is known only from a small region in the mountains of Jalisco and central Michoacán, is represented by two specimens (CNHM 37130 and 39030) collected at Tancítaro (see Schmidt and Shannon, 1947:80). ~Salvadora bairdi~ Jan _Salvadora Bairdii_ Jan. Icon. gener. ophid., livr. 2, pl. 3, fig. 2, 1860.--México. Type locality restricted to Acámbaro, Guanajuato, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:330). Barranca Seca; Carapan; Cerro San Andrés; Cojumatlán (2); Jiquilpan; Morelia; Pátzcuaro (4); Quiroga; Sahuayo (2); Tacícuaro (12); Tancítaro (56); Uruapan (2); Zacapu (2); between Zitácuaro and Tuxpan (3). This species is abundant on the Mexican plateau, where it inhabits the more grassy areas in the mesquite grassland and cutover land in the pine forests from 1550 to 2500 meters. Davis and Dixon (1957:21) described a specimen from Zacapu as having two dark paravertebral stripes diverging on the temporals and extending through the eye onto the loreal, a characteristic of _Salvadora lineata_. On the basis of this specimen, Davis and Dixon suggested that _Salvadora bairdi_ and _S. lineata_ were subspecifically related. The examination of the large number of specimens from Michoacán has revealed this kind of coloration in only one other specimen, an individual from Tacícuaro, in which the stripes diverge, but do not extend through the eye onto the loreal. Data on scutellation for the large series from Tancítaro were given by Schmidt and Shannon (1947:78), and for the series from Tacícuaro by Smith (1943:466). ~Salvadora mexicana~ (Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril) _Zamenis mexicanus_ Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril, Erpétologie genérale, 7 (pt. 1), p. 695, 1854.--Cape Corrientes, Jalisco, México. _Salvadora mexicana_ Günther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, 12:349, 1863. Apatzingán (12); Capirio (2); El Sabino (5); Huetamo; La Placita; La Playa (4); Lombardia; Nueva Italia; Ojos de Agua de San Telmo; Oropeo; Río Cancita, 14 km. E of Apatzingán; Santa Ana. This is one of the most abundant snakes in the arid lowlands of the Tepalcatepec Valley; observations indicate that it probably is equally abundant on the coastal lowlands. Near Apatzingán as many as five of these snakes have been seen in one-half hour. The snakes seem to be equally abundant and active in the dry season and in the rainy season. Most individuals were seen on the ground, but two were found in low trees. On several occasions _Salvadora mexicana_ was observed in pursuit of lizards on the ground. Captured individuals regurgitated _Cnemidophorus costatus zweifeli_, _Cnemidophorus deppei infernalis_, _Sceloporus horridus oligoporus_, _Sceloporus pyrocephalus_, and _Urosaurus gadowi_. _Salvadora mexicana_ inhabits only the arid scrub forest at elevations from sea level to about 1000 meters. ~Sibon nebulatus~ (Linnaeus) _Coluber nebulatus_ Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 10, 1, p. 222, 1758.--Africa (in error). Type locality restricted to Jicaltepec, Veracruz, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:349). _Sibon nebulatus_, Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:473, November 27, 1940. Aquila. The one specimen from Michoacán was collected by Peters (1954:30) in tropical semi-deciduous forest on the coastal foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán. As presently known, the range of this species in western México extends from Chiapas to Nayarit. Throughout this region the species avoids scrub forest; this may explain its absence in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Valley. ~Sonora michoacanensis michoacanensis~ (Dugès) _Contia michoacanensis_ Dugès, _in_ Cope, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 22:178, 1885.--Michoacán. Type locality restricted to Apatzingán, Michoacán, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:335). _Sonora michoacanensis michoacanensis_, Stickel, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 56:116, October 19, 1943. Apatzingán (3); Coalcomán (3); 12 km. S of Tzitzio. These specimens, together with all known specimens from the Sierra del Sur in Guerrero (KU 23790-1, MVZ 45123) and the upper Balsas Basin in Puebla (UIMNH 41688), are referable to _S. m. michoacanensis_. The dorsal pattern consists of a highly variable number of cross-bands of red, white, and black. In the specimens from Michoacán there are as many as 17 red cross-bands on the body. One specimen from Apatzingán (CNHM 37141) has just behind the head a white band, bordered on either side by a narrow black band; posteriorly the body is uniform red. Two specimens from Coalcomán (UMMZ 109905-6) have respectively 11 and 13 red cross-bands and 20 and 17 white cross-bands, and the posterior part of the body is devoid of red color. Other specimens from these localities have red, black, and white cross-bands throughout the length of the body. _Sonora michoacanensis michoacanensis_ is distinguished from _S. michoacanensis mutabilis_ by the presence of cross-bands on the tail in the latter (Stickel, 1943:116). One specimen from Coalcomán (UMMZ 109904) has one narrow band on the tail; all others from Michoacán have uniformly red tails. Apparently _Sonora michoacanensis michoacanensis_ ranges in semi-arid and arid habitats from the upper Balsas Basin in Puebla westward to the lower slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán, whereas _S. m. mutabilis_ lives in foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental from southern Jalisco to Nayarit. Zweifel (1959b:6) presented evidence to show that specimens of _S. m. mutabilis_ supposedly from "Distrito Federal" probably bear erroneous locality data. ~Tantilla bocourti~ (Günther) _Homalocranium bocourti_ Günther, Biologia Centrali-Americana, Reptilia, p. 149, 1895.--Guanajuato, Guanajuato, México. _Tantilla bocourti_, Cope, Amer. Nat., 30:1021, December, 1896. Carapan; Pátzcuaro (2); between Zitácuaro and Río Tuxpan (11). This small snake is an inhabitant of the coniferous forests and the pine-oak forests on the Cordillera Volcánica. Data on the series from between Zitácuaro and the Río Tuxpan were given by Taylor (1940c:481). ~Tantilla calamarina~ Cope _Tantilla calamarina_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 18:320, February 13, 1867.--Guadalajara, Jalisco, México. Apatzingán; La Placita. Although this snake has been collected at high elevations along the rim of the Mexican Plateau in Nayarit, Jalisco, México, and Puebla, the specimens from Michoacán are from arid scrub forest at elevations of less than 400 meters. The species has been found in similar habitats in Colima (Oliver, 1937:24) and in Sinaloa and the Tres Marías Islands (Zweifel, 1960:110). ~Toluca lineata lineata~ Kennicott _Toluca lineata_ Kennicott, _in_ Baird, Report on the United States and Mexican boundary survey, 2, Reptiles, p. 23, 1859.--Valley of México. _Toluca lineata lineata_, Taylor and Smith, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 28:343, May 15, 1942. Capácuaro; Carapan (12); Cherán (23); Cojumatlán; Los Reyes; Morelia (2); Nahuatzen; Paracho (10); Pátzcuaro (17); Uruapan (2). This small snake is an inhabitant of the coniferous forests between elevations of about 1550 and 2800 meters. Not infrequently, individuals have been found in pine-oak forest within these elevations. The generic status of _Toluca_ is unsettled. Taylor and Smith (1942b) separated _Toluca_ from _Conopsis_ by the presence of enlarged and grooved posterior maxillary teeth in _Toluca_ and their absence in _Conopsis_. Bogert and Oliver (1945:378) suggested synonymizing _Toluca_ with _Conopsis_. Smith and Laufe (1945:12) defined the generic position of _Toluca_. Actually, in deciding the generic position of these snakes, five genera (_Ficimia_, _Gyalopion_, _Pseudoficimia_, _Conopsis_, and _Toluca_) must be considered. Of these _Ficimia_ and _Gyalopion_ are closely related; they have been placed in one genus by some workers. _Pseudoficimia_ is intermediate between _Ficimia-Gyalopion_ and _Toluca-Conopsis_. A workable definition of the supraspecific classification of these snakes must await a thorough review of the species. ~Trimorphodon biscutatus biscutatus~ (Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril) _Dipsas biscutata_ Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril, Erpétologie genérale, 7 (pt. 2):1153, 1854.--México. Type locality restricted to Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:340). _Trimorphodon biscutatus biscutatus_, Smith, Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 91:159, November 10, 1941. Apatzingán (11); Cofradía; Cuatro Caminos; El Sabino (2); La Placita; La Playa (2); Lombardia (2); Nueva Italia (2); Río Tepalcatepec, 27 km. S of Apatzingán; Tafetán. In the arid lowlands of the Tepalcatepec Valley and presumably also in the scrub forest of the coastal lowlands, this is an abundant snake, which is active only at night. Usually snakes of this species are found on the ground, but one large individual was observed at night in a low tree. That individual defied capture by widely opening its mouth and striking repeatedly at the collector. The excreta of one specimen contained feathers of an unidentified species of bird. ~Trimorphodon latifascia~ Peters _Trimorphodon biscutata latifascia_ Peters, Monats. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, p. 877, 1869.--Puebla, México. Type locality restricted to Izúcar de Matamoros, Puebla, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:341). _Trimorphodon latifascia_. Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 25:364, July 10, 1939. Apatzingán (5); Casada Tzararacua; Coalcomán (2); Lombardia; 14 km. S of Lombardia; Nueva Italia; San Salvador. In Michoacán this species has been collected in semi-arid habitats at elevations from 300 to 1430 meters in the Tepalcatepec Valley and lower slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica. In this area it occurs sympatrically with _Trimorphodon biscutatus biscutatus_. In life, adults have a pale tan dorsal ground color and rich chocolate brown cross-bands; the eye is pale grayish tan. A juvenile from Coalcomán has black cross-bands on a pale grayish tan ground color. As stated by Schmidt and Shannon (1947:83) and Peters (1954:32), the type specimen of _Trimorphodon fasciolata_ Smith from Cascada Tzararacua is indistinguishable from specimens of _Trimorphodon latifascia_. Seven males have 209 to 223 (216.5) ventrals; one female has 227 ventrals. The number of dark cross-bands on the body varies from 12 to 16 (13.5). The relationships of this species are with _Trimorphodon tau_ on the Mexican Plateau. In fact, additional specimens from the headwaters of the Tepalcatepec Valley and the lower slopes of the Mexican Plateau in eastern Michoacán and adjacent Jalisco may show that the two are conspecific. _Trimorphodon latifascia_ differs from _tau_ in having fewer dark cross-bands on the body and in lacking an interocular bar. ~Trimorphodon tau~ Cope _Trimorphodon tau_ Cope, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 11:151, 1869.--Quiotepec, Oaxaca, México. Emiliano Zapata (2); between Morelia and Ciudad Hidalgo; Tacícuaro; Tangamandapio. Two of the specimens from Michoacán (UMMZ 118948 from Tangamandapio and UIMNH 19138 from Tacícuaro) have cream-colored, Y-shaped marks on the head. These markings supposedly are characteristic of _Trimorphodon upsilon_. One specimen from Emiliano Zapata (UMMZ 118950) and one from between Morelia and Ciudad Hidalgo (EHT-HMS 21402) have a cream-colored line on the parietal suture; in another specimen from Emiliano Zapata (UMMZ 118949) the anterior end of this line is expanded, giving the appearance of an incipient "Y". Thus, the nature of the markings on the head in specimens from Michoacán is intermediate between the typical condition in _Trimorphodon tau_ and the usual condition in _T. upsilon_. Smith and Taylor (1945:148) gave the range of _Trimorphodon tau_ as: "Central Guerrero, in the Sierra Madre del Sur; central Oaxaca; and the edge of the plateau in central Michoacán." They gave the range of _Trimorphodon upsilon_ as: "Southern Chihuahua south to central Michoacán, east to central Hidalgo." Specimens referable to _T. tau_ have been found at La Joya de Salas, near Ciudad Victoria, and near Llera, Tamaulipas (see Smith and Darling, 1952:85, and Martin, 1958:74). Some of these specimens also show combinations of characteristics of _T. tau_ and _T. upsilon_. Smith and Darling (_loc. cit._) suggested that _T. tau_ and _T. upsilon_ be considered as subspecies. However, if _T. tau_ and _T. upsilon_ are subspecies, intergrades would be expected between the ranges of the two populations and not on the northeastern and southwestern periphery of their combined ranges. Instead, the limited evidence now available suggests that _T. tau_ and _T. upsilon_ are names based on a highly variable character of color pattern of the head, and that only one species is involved. In Michoacán this species inhabits the mesquite grassland on the Mexican Plateau. ~Tropidodipsas occidentala~ Oliver _Tropidodipsas occidentala_ Oliver, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 360:20, November 20, 1937.--Comala, Colima, México. Coalcomán. This specimen was reported by Peters (1954:34), who found it beneath a rock at the mouth of a heavily wooded ravine near Coalcomán at an elevation of 950 meters. The only other known specimen is from Comala, Colima, a village, like Coalcomán, that is located near the upper limits of the arid scrub forest. ~Natrix valida isabelleae~ Conant _Natrix valida isabelleae_ Conant, Nat. Hist. Misc., 126:7, September 15, 1953.--Pie de la Cuesta, Laguna Coyuca, Guerrero, México. Coahuayana; Playa Azul (2); Punto San Juan de Lima. Three females and one male have, respectively, 133, 135, 135, and 131 ventrals, and 68, 68, 73, and 75 caudals. The grayish stippling on the posterior ventral surfaces mentioned by Conant (1953:9) is not visible on these specimens. In the small individuals from Punto San Juan de Lima and from Coahuayana there are four longitudinal rows of dark spots on the dorsum; in two large females from Playa Azul the spots are barely discernible. All of the specimens from Michoacán were found in the coastal lowlands; those from Playa Azul were collected from a small brackish, mangrove-lined lagoon. ~Storeria storerioides~ (Cope) _Tropidoclonium storerioides_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 17:190, December 26, 1865.--Mexican Plateau. Type locality restricted to Tres Cumbres, Morelos, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:336). _Storeria storerioides_, Garman, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., 8(3):29, June, 1883. Dos Aguas (11); Puerto de Garnica; Tancítaro (11); Tzitzio; Uruapan; 16 km. NW of Zacapu. Three males and six females from the Sierra de Coalcomán have, respectively, 122-128 (125.3) and 126-136 (130.0) ventrals, and 46-47 (46.7) and 38-42 (39.1) caudals. Four males and eleven females from the Cordillera Volcánica have, respectively, 124-132 (128.5) and 127-139 (136.4) ventrals, and 43-48 (44.7) and 38-44 (40.2) caudals. These data show that, although there is little difference in the number of caudals, specimens from the Sierra de Coalcomán have fewer ventrals than do specimens from the Cordillera Volcánica. Of eleven specimens from the Sierra de Coalcomán, two have black bellies. Five others from the Sierra de Coalcomán and one from Puerto de Garnica in the Cordillera Volcánica have the bellies heavily stippled with black, giving a gray appearance. Melanistic tendencies in this species have been discussed by Anderson (1960:64), who examined the specimen from Tzitzio. In life, one specimen from Dos Aguas (UMMZ 119451) had a cream-colored belly; the edges of the ventrals were dark brick-red. In Michoacán this snake inhabits pine-oak, pine, and fir forests at elevations between 1550 and 2800 meters in the Cordillera Volcánica and the Sierra de Coalcomán. Most specimens were found beneath rocks; the one from Tzitzio was removed from the stomach of a Mexican Motmot (Anderson, 1960:66). ~Thamnophis dorsalis cyclides~ Cope _Thamnophis cyrtopsis cyclides_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 13:299, December 28, 1861.--Cape San Lucas, Baja California (in error). Type locality restricted to Guanajuato, Guanajuato, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:330). Smith, Copeia, no. 2:140, June 8, 1951. Milstead, Texas Jour. Sci., 5:368, September, 1953. _Thamnophis eques eques_ (_nec._ Reuss), Smith, Zoologica, 27:106, October 23, 1942. Bogert and Oliver, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 83:356, March 30, 1945. _Thamnophis vicinus_ Smith, Zoologica, 27:104, October 23, 1942.--Temazcal, Michoacán, México. _Thamnophis dorsalis cyclides_, Fitch and Milstead, Copeia, no. 1:112, March 17, 1961. Barolosa; Coalcomán; Dos Aguas (3); Los Reyes; Morelia (16); Opopeo; Pino Gordo; Tacícuaro (16); Tancítaro (14); Tangamandapio (2); Temazcal (2); Tzintzuntzan; Uruapan. The snakes comprising the former _Thamnophis eques_-group have undergone extensive taxonomic and nomenclatural shuffling by Smith (1942 and 1951), Bogert and Oliver (1945), Milstead (1953), and Fitch and Milstead (1961). Smith recognized in Michoacán three members of the _T. eques_ (= _dorsalis_) complex: _eques eques_, _eques postremus_, and _vicinus_. Later, Smith (1951) showed that the specific name _eques_ had been misapplied, so that _T. eques eques_ became _T. cyrtopsis cyclides_, and _T. eques postremus_ became _T. cyrtopsis postremus_; under this arrangement _T. vicinus_ stood unchanged. In the meantime, Bogert and Oliver (1945:359) presented a reinterpretation of Smith's data and suggested that _T. vicinus_, which differs from _T. dorsalis cyclides_ only in lacking a middorsal stripe, "... is not a species, but only a pattern phase, possibly a simple mutant of _T. e. eques_" (= _T. dorsalis cyclides_, by present arrangement). Milstead (1953) agreed with Bogert and Oliver on the status of _T. vicinus_; furthermore, on the basis of only a few specimens, Milstead concluded that _T. cyrtopsis postremus_ was not subspecifically distinct from _T. cyrtopsis cyclides_. Recently, Fitch and Milstead (1961) showed that _Thamnophis dorsalis_ Baird and Girard (1853) was the correct name for the snakes that had been recognized as _Thamnophis cyrtopsis_ Kennicott (1860). Consequently, the snakes referred to _T. eques eques_ by Smith (1942) and to _T. cyrtopsis cyclides_ by Smith (1951) and Milstead (1953) are now _T. dorsalis cyclides_. Aside from one specimen from Temazcal and nine from Morelia (paratypes of _T. vicinus_), only two other specimens completely lacking the middorsal stripe have been seen; one is a male (UMMZ 102510) having 161 ventrals and an incomplete tail from Pino Gordo, and the other is a male (CNHM 39060) from Tancítaro having 158 ventrals and an incomplete tail. A female from Tancítaro (CNHM 39061) having 153 ventrals and 77 caudals has no lateral stripes and only a narrow middorsal stripe on the anterior part of the body. Throughout the region where _T. vicinus_-like snakes have been found, typical _T. dorsalis cyclides_ occurs in much greater numbers. I concur with Bogert and Oliver in placing _T. vicinus_ as a synonym of _T. dorsalis cyclides_. [Illustration: FIG. 10. Dorsal color pattern of _Thamnophis dorsalis cyclides_ (A) and _Thamnophis dorsalis postremus_ (B).] Milstead (1953) had available few specimens of _Thamnophis dorsalis_ from the Tepalcatepec Valley. The large series now in existence shows that the population in the Tepalcatepec Valley differs distinctly from that inhabiting the Mexican Plateau, Cordillera Volcánica, and Sierra de Coalcomán. Therefore the name _T. dorsalis postremus_ Smith (1942) is resurrected for the population in the Tepalcatepec Valley. _T. dorsalis cyclides_ and _T. dorsalis postremus_ differ in color pattern (Fig. 10) and in scutellation (Table 6). Specimens from the Mexican Plateau and mountain ranges have a distinct light stripe on the second and third scale rows, a dark brown dorsum having squarish black spots, and a row of dark spots on the first row of dorsal scales. Specimens from the Tepalcatepec Valley have a grayish brown dorsum having smaller and less distinct dark spots and no light stripe on the second and third scale rows; the first, second, and third rows of scales are colored like the venter. In some specimens there are small dark flecks on the first row of dorsal scales. TABLE 6.--VARIATION IN SCUTELLATION IN THAMNOPHIS DORSALIS. +---------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+ | Character |Mexican|Sierra de|Tepalcatepec| | |Plateau|Coalcomán| Valley | +------------------+--------------+-------+---------+------------+ | Ventrals | Female N | 31 | 2 | 32 | | | Mean | 164.0 | 156.5 | 144.6 | | | Range|153-171| 154-159 | 138-151 | | +--------------+-------+---------+------------+ | | Male N | 19 | 2 | 32 | | | Mean | 153.5 | 154.7 | 138.3 | | | Range|149-159| 149-159 | 131-141 | +------------------+--------------+-------+---------+------------+ | Caudals | Female N | 28 | 2 | 29 | | | Mean | 83.8 | 81.0 | 73.4 | | | Range|80-100 | 79-83 | 70-79 | | +--------------+-------+---------+------------+ | | Male N | 14 | 2 | 28 | | | Mean | 78.0 | 72.0 | 68.5 | | | Range| 71-87 | 72 | 63-73 | +------------------+--------------+-------+---------+------------+ One specimen from Uruapan (1550 meters) and one from Coalcomán (950 meters) are intermediate in color pattern between _T. dorsalis cyclides_ and _T. dorsalis postremus_. Both have indistinct lateral stripes and only small dark spots below the stripes. In scutellation these specimens are like _T. dorsalis cyclides_. In Michoacán _Thamnophis dorsalis cyclides_ has been collected in a variety of habitats on the Mexican Plateau: pine-oak forest, fir forest, marshes, and cleared land from 1550 to 2800 meters. In the Sierra de Coalcomán one was taken in broad-leafed forest at 950 meters, three in pine-oak forest at 2100 meters, and one in pine forest at 2300 meters. ~Thamnophis dorsalis postremus~ Smith _Thamnophis eques postremus_ Smith, Zoologica, 27:109, October 23, 1942.--El Sabino, Michoacán, México. _Thamnophis cyrtopsis postremus_ Smith, Copeia, no. 2:140, June 8, 1951. _Thamnophis cyrtopsis cyclides_ (part), Milstead, Texas Jour. Sci., 5:368, September, 1953. _Thamnophis dorsalis postremus_, Fitch and Milstead, Copeia, no. 1:112, March 17, 1961. Apatzingán (31); Capirio (2); Charapendo; Cuatro Caminos (22); El Sabino; Lombardia (9); Nueva Italia (8); Uruapan (3). The reasons for recognizing the population of _Thamnophis dorsalis_ in the Tepalcatepec Valley as distinct from that on the surrounding highlands are presented in the discussion of _Thamnophis dorsalis cyclides_. In certain features of coloration and in the low numbers of ventrals and caudals, _T. dorsalis postremus_ shows more resemblance to _T. dorsalis sumichrasti_ than to _T. dorsalis cyclides_. According to Milstead (1953:367), _T. dorsalis cyclides_ ranges southward from the Río Balsas in southwestern México. If specimens could be obtained from the upper Balsas Basin they might show that _T. dorsalis postremus_ inhabits that extensive basin. In the Tepalcatepec Valley _T. dorsalis postremus_ is most frequently found at night in the rainy season, at which time the snakes are abundant near temporary pools where frogs are breeding. The absence of specimens from the coastal lowlands of Guerrero, Michoacán, and Colima indicate that, although the species inhabits the lowlands of the Tepalcatepec Valley, its range does not include the coastal lowlands. A female (UMMZ 119402 from Cuatro Caminos) having 139 ventrals and a body length of 576 mm., on June 20, 1958, gave birth to 25 young, of which 18 (9 males and 9 females) were preserved. In body length the males varied from 132 to 141 (137.3) mm.; the females, 125 to 137 (133.1) mm. In tail length the males varied from 38 to 44 (42.4) mm.; females, 35 to 42 (39.7) mm. The males have 138 to 147 (142.2) ventrals and 70 to 75 (72.9) caudals; females have 131 to 140 (135.8) ventrals and 63 to 71 (67.0) caudals. ~Thamnophis eques eques~ (Reuss) _Coluber eques_ Reuss, Zool. Misc., p. 152, 1834.--México. Type locality restricted to Guadalajara, Jalisco, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:334). _Thamnophis macrostemma macrostemma_, Smith and Taylor, Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., 187:163, October 5, 1945. _Thamnophis subcarinata subcarinata_, Smith, Herpetologica, 5:63, May 31, 1949. _Thamnophis eques eques_, Smith, Copeia, no. 2:139, June 8, 1951. Jiquilpan; Lago de Cuitzeo; Lago de Pátzcuaro (17); Pátzcuaro (5); Tangancícuaro; Tupátaro (2); Undameo; Zacapu. Although this snake has been collected in open pine-oak forest and in oak-bunch grass associations, it seems to reach its greatest abundance in marshes on the Mexican Plateau at elevations of 1550 to 2300 meters. ~Thamnophis melanogaster canescens~ Smith _Thamnophis melanogaster canescens_ Smith, Zoologica, 27:117, October 23, 1942.--Chapala, Jalisco, México. Lago de Cuitzeo (5); Lago de Pátzcuaro; Pátzcuaro; Tacícuaro; Tangamandapio (2). This species of garter snake seems to be most abundant in the marshes adjacent to the lakes on the Mexican Plateau in Michoacán and Jalisco. At these elevations (1550 to 2200 meters) it often is found in association with _Thamnophis eques eques_ and sometimes with _Thamnophis dorsalis cyclides_. On June 11, 1958, individuals of this species were found in a hyacinth-choked marsh at Tangamandapio at night. One specimen from Tangamandapio (UMMZ 119414) had, in life, a dark chocolate brown dorsum, reddish brown sides, and cream-colored belly, chin, and labials. There were no longitudinal dorsal stripes. ~Thamnophis scalaris scaliger~ (Jan) _Tropidonotus scaliger_ Jan, Elenco sistematico degli Ofidi, p. 70, 1863.--No type locality designated. Type locality restricted to Mexico City, Distrito Federal, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:329). _Thamnophis scalaris scaliger_, Smith, Zoologica, 27:103, October 23, 1942. Cerro Tancítaro (2); Nahuatzen; Opopeo; 26 km. S of Pátzcuaro. The few specimens of this species from Michoacán have been collected at elevations from 1800 to 3400 meters in pine or fir forest in the Cordillera Volcánica. ~Micrurus distans michoacanensis~ (Dugès) _Elaps diastema michoacanensis_ Dugès, La Naturaleza, ser. 2, 1:487, 1891.--Michoacán. Type locality restricted to Apatzingán, Michoacán, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:335). _Micrurus distans michoacanensis_, Zweifel, Amer. Mus. Novitates, 1953:11, June 26, 1959. Apatzingán (6). All specimens were collected in the arid scrub forest of the Tepalcatepec Valley. The number of black rings on the body varies from six to eleven. In this respect they agree with the diagnosis of this subspecies presented by Zweifel (1959b:9). ~Micrurus laticollaris~ (Peters) _Elaps marcgravii laticollaris_ Peters, Monats. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, p. 877, 1869.--Izúcar de Matamoros, Puebla, México. _Micrurus laticollaris_, Schmidt, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 20:39, December 11, 1933. El Sabino (2); Lombardia. This species ranges throughout the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin westward into Colima; specimens from Michoacán were collected in arid scrub forest at elevations from 500 to 1050 meters. The limited observations on _Micrurus distans michoacanensis_ and _M. laticollaris_ indicate that, at least in the Tepalcatepec Valley, _M. laticollaris_ seems to inhabit slightly more mesic areas than does _M. distans michoacanensis_. ~Pelamis platurus~ (Linnaeus) _Anguis platura_ Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 12, 1:391, 1766.--Pine Island, Pacific Ocean. _Pelamis platurus_, Gray, Ann. Philos., p. 15, 1825. Boca de Apiza. In November, 1955, Alfonzo Gonzales, a geographer from the University of Texas, observed sea snakes on the beaches of Michoacán. In May, 1956, Donald D. Brand of the University of Texas gave me one specimen of _Pelamis platurus_ that he obtained on March 2, 1956, at Boca de Apiza. Furthermore, he supplied me with the following observations based on his field work along the coast of Michoacán from the Río Coahuayana to Maruata from March 1, to April 15, 1956. At that time many sea snakes were observed; in some places living and dead individuals were seen on the beaches; innumerable snakes were seen in the surf. When live individuals were taken from the beach and thrown into the ocean, they usually swam to shore. Many partially eaten individuals were seen protruding from crab holes. Inquiries among the natives resulted in the following information: Sea snakes are frequently seen between November and April, but most commonly in March and April, at which time the water is cold. The natives referred to the sea snakes as "culebra del mar." Most natives said that the snakes were not poisonous; others did not know of any venomous properties. In May, 1956, I worked the coastal region from the Río Coahuayana to La Placita and saw no sea snakes. In the summer of 1950 James A. Peters, and in the summer of 1951 I worked nearly the entire coastal region of Michoacán; during that time no _Pelamis_ were seen. Insofar as I know, this is the first report of such seasonal activity in _Pelamis platurus_ in the Americas. ~Agkistrodon bilineatus bilineatus~ Günther _Ancisdrodon bilineatus_ Günther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, 12:364, 1863.--Pacific coast of Guatemala. _Agkistrodon bilineatus bilineatus_, Burger and Robertson, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 34 (1):213, October 1, 1951. Apatzingán; El Sabino; La Playa; Los Reyes. All specimens from Michoacán are from inland localities between 300 and 1500 meters. The one from Los Reyes (USNM 46416) was collected by Nelson and Goldman on February 13, 1903. The elevation of Los Reyes (1500 meters) seems unusually high for this species, but otherwise there is no reason to doubt the authenticity of the record. Goldman (1951:192) in his description of Los Reyes stated: "Los Reyes is near the boundary between the Lower Austral and Arid Upper Tropical Zones but is preponderantly tropical in zonal character. The regular crops are mainly sugar cane, rice, and corn." Thus the biotic features of the area are not noticeably different from those at El Sabino and La Playa at lower elevations. The development of extensive agriculture through irrigation in the Tepalcatepec Valley and planting of rice and sugar-cane in that area may produce a more widespread habitat for this snake. The absence of specimens from the coastal lowlands is due solely to inadequate collecting; the natives there know the snake and report that it is not uncommon in certain areas. ~Crotalus basiliscus basiliscus~ (Cope) _Caudisonia basilisca_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, September 30, 1864.--Colima. Type locality restricted to Colima, Colima, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:328). _Crotalus basiliscus basiliscus_, Gloyd, Nat. Hist. Misc., 17:1, April 23, 1948. Apatzingán (4); Camachines; Coalcomán; El Ticuiz. Specimens from southern Michoacán have fewer ventrals and caudals than do those from the northern part of the range; three males and three females have, respectively, 178, 182, 182, 185, 186, and 188 ventrals, and 27, 28, 29, 22, 29, and 29 caudals. Klauber (1952:81) gave the following data for _Crotalus basiliscus_ (based on specimens from the entire range, except Oaxaca): ventrals in males, 179-201 (191.4), in females, 185-206 (197.6); caudals in males, 26-36 (30.7), in females, 21-29 (24.4). Klauber (1952:84) remarked that the one specimen that he had seen from Apatzingán had fewer ventrals and caudals than most other specimens. The low numbers of ventrals and caudals in specimens from Michoacán, as compared with more northern populations, may be indicative of a trend in the reduction of the numbers of these scutes from north to south. The southernmost examples of _Crotalus basiliscus_ (_Crotalus basiliscus oaxacus_ from Oaxaca) have 172-175 ventrals and 21 caudals (Gloyd, 1948). In Michoacán _Crotalus basiliscus basiliscus_ has been found in arid habitats on the coast, in the Tepalcatepec Valley, and in the lower parts of the Sierra de Coalcomán. All specimens are from localities below 1070 meters in elevation. ~Crotalus durissus culminatus~ Klauber _Crotalus durissus culminatus_ Klauber, Bull. Zool. Soc. San Diego, 26:65, August 8, 1952.--El Sabino, Michoacán, México. El Sabino (18). These specimens are part of the type series and were collected by Hobart M. Smith near the upper limits of the arid scrub forest at an elevation of about 1050 meters on the lower slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica at the northern edge of the Tepalcatepec Valley. They were discussed in detail by Klauber (1952:66-70). ~Crotalus intermedius intermedius~ Troschel _Crotalus intermedius_ Troschel, _in_ von Müller, Reisen in Vereiningten Staaten, Canada und Mexico, vol. 3, p. 613, 1865.--Type locality unknown. _Crotalus intermedius intermedius_, Klauber, Bull. Zool. Soc. San Diego, 26:9, August 8, 1952. Cerro Tancítaro. The one specimen is from the pine forests on the Cordillera Volcánica. At the present time this species is known from scattered localities in west-central Veracruz, Oaxaca, Michoacán, and as _Crotalus intermedius omiltemanus_ in Central Guerrero. Apparently it is restricted to montane environments. ~Crotalus molossus nigrescens~ Gloyd _Crotalus molossus nigrescens_ Gloyd, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 325:2, January 28, 1936.--Four miles west of La Colorada, Zacatecas, México. Carapan; Los Conejos; Pátzcuaro; Tacícuaro (5). In Michoacán this species has been found in pine forests between 1550 and 2300 meters in the Cordillera Volcánica. I expected to find it in the Sierra de Coalcomán, but inquiries among the natives living in the pine forests of that mountain range revealed that the people there have no knowledge of a large species of rattlesnake. ~Crotalus polystictus~ (Cope) _Caudisonia polysticta_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 17:191, December 26, 1865.--Tableland of México. Type locality restricted to Tupátaro, Guanajuata, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:330). _Crotalus polystictus_ Cope, _in_ Yarrow, Wheeler's Rept. Geog. Geol. Expl. Surv. W. 100th. Mer., vol. 5, p. 533, 1875. Tacícuaro (4); Tupátaro (2). Formerly this species was abundant in the marshes around Lago de Chapala. The draining of these marshes probably resulted in reducing the numbers of these rattlesnakes. The species is known only from the Mexican Plateau at elevations of 1450 to 2400 meters. ~Crotalus pusillus~ Klauber _Crotalus pusillus_ Klauber, Bull. Zool. Soc. San Diego, 26:34, August 8, 1952.--Tancítaro, Michoacán, México. Acuaro de las Lleguas (2); Carapan; Cerro Tancítaro (16); Dos Aguas (12). Aside from the type series of _Crotalus pusillus_ from Cerro Tancítaro and one specimen from Carapan referred to the species by Klauber (1952:38), there are fourteen specimens from the Sierra de Coalcomán. These specimens (UMMZ 112566-7, 118591-9, 118601, 121512-3) are like _Crotalus pusillus_ from Cerro Tancítaro in having the prefrontals paired, a black proximal rattle, and the underside of the tail black. The prefrontals are bordered posteriorly by one scale in two specimens, by two scales in three specimens, and by three scales in the other nine. The snakes from the Sierra de Coalcomán have 40 to 46 (42) dorsal body blotches. Ten males have 150-158 (154.4) ventrals and 29-33 (31.0) caudals; two females have 157 and 160 ventrals, and 25 and 27 caudals. The largest specimen is a male having a body length of 545 mm. and a tail length of 63 mm. The only noticeable difference between the specimens from the Sierra de Coalcomán and the topotypic series is that the latter have fewer dorsal blotches; the range of variation is 33 to 46 (39.8). Most specimens of this species have a grayish brown dorsum and dark brown dorsal blotches. Two specimens from Dos Aguas (UMMZ 118596 and 118599) are pale brown above and have indistinct blotches. One specimen from Dos Aguas regurgitated a large _Gerrhonotus imbricatus imbricatus_; of two others from the same locality, one regurgitated a _Sceloporus bulleri_ and an _Eptesicus fuscus_. The latter specimen was collected at the entrance of a small cave, where it probably had captured the bat. In the Cordillera Volcánica _Crotalus pusillus_ has been obtained in pine-oak forest at elevations between 1550 and 1800 meters. In the Sierra de Coalcomán two specimens were taken in pine forest at an elevation of 2300 meters; ten other were found beneath rocks and logs in pine-oak forest at an elevation of 2100 meters. ~Crotalus triseriatus aquilus~ Klauber _Crotalus triseriatus aquilus_ Klauber, Bull. Zool. Soc. San Diego, 26:24, August 8, 1952.--Alvarez, San Luis Potosí, México. Morelia (10); Tacícuaro (2). I am following Klauber (1952) in assigning some of the specimens of this species from Michoacán to the subspecies _aquilus_ and others to _C. t. triseriatus_. The distinguishing characters of these subspecies are given by Klauber (1952:28). On the basis of the few localities from which the species is known in Michoacán it seems as though _C. t. aquilus_ inhabits the open grassy areas on the Mexican Plateau and the associated open pine-oak or oak-bunch grass habitats to the north and east of the Cordillera Volcánica. _Crotalus triseriatus aquilus_ has been collected at elevations from 1600 to 2000 meters in Michoacán. ~Crotalus triseriatus triseriatus~ (Wagler) _Uropsophus triseriatus_ Wagler, Natürliches System der Amphibien, p. 176, 1830.--México. (Probably Mexico City.) _Crotalus triseriatus triseriatus_, Klauber, Bull. Zool. Soc. San Diego, 26:19, August 8, 1952. Cerro Tancítaro (36); Opopeo; Pátzcuaro. This small rattlesnake inhabits rocky areas in pine and pine-oak forests above 1600 meters in the Cordillera Volcánica; it has been collected at 3270 meters on Cerro Tancítaro. The series reported by Schmidt and Shannon (1947:84) is a mixture of specimens of _Crotalus triseriatus_ and _Crotalus pusillus_. The two species are found together on Cerro Tancítaro, but only _Crotalus pusillus_ inhabits the coniferous forests of the Sierra de Coalcomán. Klauber (1952:30) stated that despite the proximity of _Crotalus triseriatus triseriatus_ and _Crotalus triseriatus aquilus_ in Michoacán, there is no evidence of intergradation. He went on to suggest that additional material might show that the two named populations actually are distinct species. The specimens that have been studied since Klauber's investigations also show no evidence of intergradation, but there still is no known sympatry of the populations. The small montane rattlesnakes belonging to the species _C. pricei_, _C. pusillus_, and _C. triseriatus_ present a problem in systematics and distribution worthy of intensive investigation. A knowledge of the distribution and relationships of the various populations of these snakes, together with other species also living in isolated populations on the higher mountains in México, probably will be of great significance in understanding dispersal and differentiation of animals during the Pleistocene. SPECIES OF QUESTIONABLE OCCURRENCE Some species for which there are no authentic records from Michoacán can be expected there on zoogeographic probability. Other species have been recorded from Michoacán, but these records are doubtful for any one of several reasons. Fifteen species of such questionable occurrence are discussed below: ~Syrrhophus modestus modestus~ Taylor _Syrrhophus modestus_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 28:304, May 15, 1942.--Hacienda Paso del Río, Colima, México. _Syrrhophus modestus modestus_, Duellman, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 594:5, June 6, 1958. This small terrestrial frog is not uncommon on the coastal lowlands and foothills in Nayarit and in Colima, where it has been collected within a few kilometers of the Michoacán border. At Tecolapa, Colima, on August 9, 1956, _Syrrhophus modestus modestus_ was found with _Tomodactylus nitidus orarius_, _Bufo marinus_, _Bufo marmoreus_, _Hyla baudini_, _Hyla smithi_, and _Phyllomedusa dacnicolor_, all of which occur on the coastal lowlands of Michoacán. Because of its solitary and secretive habits, _Syrrhophus modestus modestus_ is not common in collections. Additional field work on the coast of Michoacán should reveal the presence of the species there. ~Hyla microcephala sartori~ Smith _Hyla microcephala sartori_ Smith, Herpetologica, 7:186, December 31, 1951.--1 mi. N of Organos, S of El Triente, Guerrero, México. On August 28, 1960, J. R. Dixon obtained a series of this species from a temporary pond 6 kilometers northeast of La Resolana, Jalisco. Previously, _Hyla microcephala sartori_ had been known only from the lowlands of Guerrero and Oaxaca. The existence of the species in Jalisco provides evidence that this frog also occurs in Michoacán and Colima. ~Gastrophryne usta usta~ (Cope) _Engystoma ustum_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 18:131, 1866.--Guadalajara, Jalisco, México. _Gastrophryne usta usta_, Carvalho, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 555:13, July 16, 1954. Smith and Taylor (1948:93-4) listed specimens of this species from Organos and El Treinta, Guerrero, and from Paso del Río, Quesería, Santiago, and Tecomán, Colima. The species occurs from Sinaloa and central Veracruz southward at low elevations to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and thence along the Pacific lowlands into Central America. Almost certainly it occurs on the coastal lowlands in Michoacán. Since the amphibian fauna of the Tepalcatepec Valley has been better sampled than that of the coast, I suspect that if _Gastrophryne_ occurred in the Tepalcatepec Valley, I would have found it there. ~Lepidochelys olivacea~ (Eschscholtz) _Chelonia olivacea_ Eschscholtz, Zool. Atlas, pt. 1, p. 2, 1829.--Manila Bay, Philippine Islands. _Lepidochelys olivacea_, Girard, United States Exploring Expedition..., vol. 20, Herpetology, p. 435, 1858. According to Smith and Taylor (1950b: 15), this sea turtle is known from the entire Pacific coast of México; these authors reported the species from Chiapas, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Colima, and Sonora. Although the only sea turtle that I observed in Michoacán is _Chelonia mydas_, others probably do use the sheltered beaches for nesting. The scanty records of sea turtles along the Pacific coast of México indicate that _Chelonia mydas_ and _Lepidochelys olivacea_ are the most abundant species in that region. There are scattered records of _Dermochelys coriacea_, _Caretta caretta_, and _Eretmochelys imbricata_ along the Pacific coast. The occurrence of any of these along the coast of Michoacán is probable. ~Geoemyda pulcherrima pulcherrima~ (Gray) _Emys pulcherrima_ Gray, Catalogue of the Shield Reptiles in British Museum, vol. 1, p. 25.--México. Type locality restricted to Presidio de Mazatlán, Sinaloa, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:30). _Geoemyda pulcherrima pulcherrima_, Wettstein, Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 143:18, 1934. Smith and Taylor (1950b:30) recorded this species from Sonora, Sinaloa, Nayarit, Colima, and Guerrero; these records indicate that the species probably is distributed along the Pacific coast of México southward from southern Sonora. It unquestionably occurs on the coast of Michoacán. Natives of the coastal lowlands tell of another "tortuga de la tierra" besides _Geoemyda rubida_. In the collections of the Museum of Natural History of the University of Illinois is a specimen of _Geoemyda pulcherrima_ from Mexcala in the Balsas Basin in northern Guerrero. On the basis of this specimen it is highly probable that the species also inhabits the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin in Michoacán. ~Pseudemys scripta ornata~ (Gray) _Emys ornata_ Gray, Synopsis reptilium, p. 30, 1831.--Mazatlán, Sinaloa, México. _Pseudemys scripta ornata_, Carr, Herpetologica, 1:135, December 30, 1938. The systematics and distribution of _Pseudemys scripta_ in México and Central America are poorly understood. Smith and Taylor (1950b:32) recorded this turtle from the Pacific lowlands of Sinaloa, Jalisco, Oaxaca, and Chiapas. This species is represented by vicarious populations throughout the Atlantic lowlands of México, northwestern México, over much of the United States, and also in Baja California. Along the Pacific coast of México the species seems to be extremely rare, or, at least, only locally abundant. Since the species has such a wide distribution, and since it occurs on the Pacific lowlands both to the north and to the south of Michoacán, it is reasonable to expect its presence on the coast of Michoacán. Inquiries among the natives living in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin produced only negative evidence about the occurrence of _Pseudemys_ in the Río Tepalcatepec and Río Balsas. I suspect that the best place to search for these turtles on the coast of Michoacán is in the numerous fresh-water lagoons on the coastal plain. ~Caiman crocodilus fuscus~ (Cope) _Perosuchus fuscus_ Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 20:203, November 9, 1868.--Río Magdalena, Columbia. _Caiman crocodilus fuscus_, Mertens, Senckenbergiana, 26:275, December 22, 1943. Gadow (1930:50) reported that _Caiman sclerops_ (= _Caiman crocodilus fuscus_) inhabited the "tierra caliente" in Michoacán. Smith and Taylor (1950b:212) accepted Gadow's record for the State, although otherwise the species is unknown north of Oaxaca. Peters (1954:10) refuted Gadow's record on the basis that Gadow's collections contained no specimens of _Caiman_. The local name "caiman" refers to both _Crocodylus_ and to _Caiman_, for, in general, the natives do not distinguish between the two. "Caimanes" are reported from along the coast of Michoacán, where the name presumably refers to _Crocodylus acutus acutus_, and in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin (Gadow, 1930:50; Webber, 1946:267). I have seen no specimens of either _Crocodylus_ or _Caiman_ from the Balsas Basin. If crocodilians do occur in the basin, they probably are _Crocodylus acutus acutus_. There is no basis, whatsoever, for including Michoacán in the range of _Caiman crocodilus fuscus_. ~Bipes canaliculatus~ Bonnaterre _Bipes canaliculatus_ Bonnaterre, Encyclopédie méthodique, Erpétologie, p. 68, 1789.--México. Type locality restricted to Mexcala, Guerrero, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:39). Dugès (1896:480) reported this species from Morelia, Michoacán. Smith and Taylor (1950b:39), who recorded the species from three localities in the Balsas Basin in Guerrero, rejected Dugès' record. I, too, am unwilling to accept Dugès' record. Nevertheless, the species probably occurs throughout much of the Balsas Basin. This idea is strengthened by comments made by Storm (1939:342): "The last hard drop, that afternoon, was down the great Cerro de los Cajones [southwest of Tacámbaro], and here in the upper forest we came upon... a lizard with front legs and none behind ... the animal with hands and no feet that señor Smith [Hobart M. Smith] was seeking!... They're named _Bipes caniculatus_ (_sic._)." ~Coleonyx elegans nemoralis~ Klauber _Coleonyx elegans nemoralis_ Klauber, Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 10:195, March 9, 1949.--Paso del Río, Colima, México. Klauber (1945:199) and Smith and Taylor (1950b:43) reported this lizard from the coastal lowlands of Colima and Guerrero. Davis and Smith (1953:101) reported it from 8 kilometers northeast of Temilpa, Morelos, in the upper Balsas Basin. Specimens of this lizard have been collected infrequently; the few locality records and limited ecological data indicate that it inhabits dense scrub forest and tropical semi-deciduous forest. _Coleonyx elegans nemoralis_ is to be expected on the coastal lowlands, the seaward foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán, and on the lower slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica along the northern edge of the Tepalcatepec Valley. ~Phrynosoma orbiculare orbiculare~ (Linnaeus) _Lacerta obricularis_ Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 12, 1:1062, 1789.--México (by inference). Type locality restricted to México, Districto Federal, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:97). _Phrynosoma orbiculare orbiculare_, Smith, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 37:290, 1934. Gadow (1905:213) inferred that _Phrynosoma orbiculare_ occurred at elevations of more than 3000 feet in Michoacán. There are no specimens of this species known from Gadow's collections made in Michoacán. Smith and Taylor (1950b:98) apparently accepted Gadow's statement and recorded the species from Michoacán: "above 3000 feet (Jorullo?)." Reeve (1952:940) somehow misconstrued this statement to read "Jorullo, above Zumpango (Smith and Taylor, 1950b)." Reeve did not indicate on his map (1952:939) that the species occurred in Michoacán. In the most recent review of the species (Horowitz, 1955), no localities are given in Michoacán. Since _Phrynosoma orbiculare_ is known from central Jalisco, Guanajuato, Queretaro, and México, its presence at least in northeastern Michoacán is to be expected, although at the present time there are no specimens known from the state. ~Eumeces brevirostris~ (Günther) _Mabouia brevirostris_ Günther, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 316, August, 1860.--Oaxaca. Type locality restricted to Oaxaca, Oaxaca, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950b:168). _Eumeces brevirostris_, Bocourt, Mission scientifique au Mexique et dans l'Amerique Céntrale. Reptiles, livr. 6, p. 439, 1879. Smith and Taylor (1950b:168) Listed this species: "_Michoacán_: No specific record." I am unaware of any specimen of this skink from the state. As presently recognized, this species contains two subspecies. One of these occurs in the mountains of Oaxaca northward into central Veracruz; the other, _Eumeces brevirostris bilineatus_, occurs in Durango southward to Jalisco, where it inhabits the Sierra Madre Occidental. Possibly the species occurs in the Sierra de los Tarascos in Michoacán. ~Eumeces callicephalus~ Bocourt _Eumeces callacephalus_ Bocourt, Mission scientifique au Mexique et dans l'Amerique Céntrale. Reptiles, livr. 6, p. 431, 1879.--Guanajuato, Guanajuato, México. Dugés (1896) in a paper in which he listed several species of _Eumeces_ in México, reported _Eumeces callicephalus_ from Michoacán, but he gave no specific locality within the state. Michoacán was included in the range of the species by Taylor (1936:298) and by Smith and Taylor (1950b:164). The species definitely is known from southeastern Arizona southward to Guanajuato. It may occur in Michoacán, but, since there are three rather widespread species of _Eumeces_ inhabiting the Mexican Plateau and associated mountain ranges in the northern and northeastern part of Michoacán, interspecific competition might be a reason for the absence of _Eumeces callicephalus_ there. ~Leptodeira septentrionalis polysticta~ Günther _Leptodeira polysticta_ Günther, Biologia Centrali-Americana, Reptilia, p. 172, May, 1895.--Belice, British Honduras. _Leptodeira septentrionalis polysticta_, Duellman, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 114:72, February 24, 1958. Although this species occurs from sea level to elevations of about 2000 meters from Nayarit southward into Central America, no specimens are known from Michoacán. Smith and Taylor (1945:87) listed the species as occurring in Michoacán, but they had no record on which to base this report. Probably, the species occurs on the coastal lowlands and seaward slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán. ~Tropidodipsas fasciata guerreroensis~ Taylor _Tropidodipsas guerreroensis_ Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:470; November 27, 1940.--Buena Vista, Guerrero, México. _Tropidodipsas fasciata guerreroensis_, Alvarez del Toro and Smith, Herpetologica, 12:16, March 6, 1956. Dugès (1896:480) reported a snake, questionably of this species, from Uruapan, Michoacán. Taylor (1940c) suggested that on geographic grounds Dugès' record might refer to _T. f. guerreroensis_, which is known definitely only from the type locality. _Tropidodipsas occidentala_ is known from Comala, Colima, and Coalcomán, Michoacán. On zoogeopraphic grounds that species might be found at Uruapan. Since the specimen apparently no longer is extant, the identification cannot be ascertained. ~Micrurus fitzingeri fitzingeri~ (Jan) _Elaps fitzingeri_ Jan, Rev. Mag. Zool., p. 521, 1858.--México. Type locality restricted to Guanajuato, Guanajuato, México, by Smith and Taylor (1950a:330). _Micrurus fitzingeri fitzingeri_, Brown and Smith, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:63, June 25, 1942. Smith and Taylor (1945:174) recorded the species from Zamora, Michoacán. Hobart M. Smith (_in litt._) stated that this record was based on a report of _Elaps fulvius_ from Zamora by Dugès (1896:482). Smith guessed that the report was based on a specimen of _Micrurus fitzingeri_. The specimen has not been seen. Although the species is known from Guanajuato and México, until a specimen is available from Michoacán, the species should not be considered part of the herpetofauna of Michoacán. GAZETTEER The localities in Michoacán here listed are those from which specimens were examined as well as other localities mentioned in the text. The localities are arranged alphabetically according to the most definitive word or words in the total name. For example, Lago de Chapala is listed as "Chapala (Lago de)" and Cerro de Tancítaro is listed as "Tancítaro (Cerro de)." Insofar as has been possible, the following information is given for each locality: geographical co-ordinates to the nearest minute of north latitude and west longitude, elevation in meters above mean sea level, a description of its geographical location, type of dominant vegetation, and in some cases comments concerning collecting sites in the vicinity. Distances are in kilometers; all are map (air line) distances, unless otherwise indicated. Many localities visited on mule trips are given as being a certain number of "mule hours" in a general direction from another town or village. In order to reach most of these localities today, one would have to go by mule, and this is the way the muleteers determine their distances. Some of the elevations are taken from maps, but most of them were obtained from one or more readings of altimeters that we carried in the field. The terms used for describing the vegetation are those defined in the section of the natural landscape. [Illustration: FIG. 11. Map of Michoacán showing important localities mentioned in text. Localities not on this map can be located by directions given in the gazetteer.] My primary cartographic sources have been: the provisional edition of maps published by the American Geographic Society (Colima, Guadalajara, México, and San Luis Potosí sheets published between 1933 and 1940), scale 1:1,000,000; the preliminary sheets (Colima, Guadalajara, Guanajuato, and México) published in 1949 with a scale of 1:500,000 of the Carta Geográfica de la República Méxicana (Dirección de Geografía y Meterología, Secretaria de Agricultura y Ganadería); and the Carta de Cuenca Tepalcatepec (Scale 1:250,000) prepared in 1958 by the Comisión del Tepalcatepec, Secretaria de Recursos Hidráulicos. I have visited most of the 181 localities and have gathered data pertaining to vegetation, altitude, and location. I think, nevertheless, that the accuracy of some of the locations and elevations as given in the gazetteer is questionable. This situation can be rectified only by detailed geographic studies. Most of the important towns, villages, rivers, and high mountains are shown on the accompanying map (Fig. 11). Places not shown on this map can be located from directions given in the gazetteer. Acahuata.--Lat. 19° 10', long. 102° 21', elev. 1040 m. A village north of Apatzingán and on the southern slope of Cerro de Tancítaro; transition between arid tropical scrub forest and pine-oak forest; tropical semi-deciduous forest in barrancas. Agua Cerca.--Lat. 19° 06', long. 101° 45', elev. 1550 m. A ranch south-southwest of Ario de Rosales on the road to La Huacana; pine-oak forest. Aguililla.--Lat. 18° 45', long. 102° 47', elev. 860 m.; a town in a low valley in the Sierra de Coalcomán; arid tropical scrub forest. Álamo (El).--Lat. 19° 42', long. 100° 55', elev. 2300 m. A ranch 5 kilometers by road east of El Temazcal; pine-oak forest. Angahuan.--Lat. 19° 33', long. 102° 14', elev. 2440 m. A Tarascan village about 27 kilometers northwest of Uruapan; pine forest. Much of the land is still covered by a deep layer of ashes from the nearby Volcán Parícutin. Apatzingán.--Lat. 19° 06', long. 102° 22', elev. 335 m. The largest town in the Tepalcatepec Valley; arid tropical scrub forest. Apiza (Boca de).--Lat. 18° 42', long. 103° 44', sea level. The name of the mouth of the Río Coahuayana; sandy beach and coco palms. Apo.--Lat. 19° 25', long. 102° 25', elev. 2160 m. A village on the western slope of Cerro de Tancítaro; pine-oak forest. Aquila.--Lat. 18° 32', long. 103° 30', elev. 150 m. A small village on the Río Aquila in the seaward foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán; tropical semi-deciduous forest. Araparicuaro.--Lat. 19° 22', long. 102° 12', elev. 1525 m. A village 19 kilometers west-southwest of Uruapan on the trail to Tancítaro; pine-oak forest. Araro.--Lat. 19° 54', long. 100° 50', elev. 1830 m. A small village at the eastern end of the Lago de Cuitzeo lakebed; mesquite-grassland. Ario de Rosales.--Lat. 19° 12', long. 101° 42', elev. 1980 m. A town in the Cordillera Volcánica on the road from Pátzcuaro to La Huacana; mixed hardwoods and pine forest. Arteaga (formerly Carrizal).--Lat. 18° 28', long. 102° 25', elev. 850 m. A town in the eastern part of the Sierra de Coalcomán; transition between arid tropical scrub forest and oak forest. Atzimba.--Lat. 19° 39', long. 100° 47', elev. 2900 m. A national park in the Cordillera Volcánica, located between Ciudad Hidalgo and Morelia, 32 kilometers by road west-southwest of Ciudad Hidalgo; mixed pine and fir forest. Axolotl (Rancho).--Lat. 19° 47', long. 100° 38', elev. 2900 m. A settlement on the western slopes of Cerro San Andrés; pine, oak, and fir forest. Balsas (Río).--A large river having its headwaters in Tlaxcala, Puebla, and northwestern Oaxaca, flowing westward through an arid valley to the Pacific Ocean, and in its lower part forming the boundary between Michoacán and Guerrero. Barolosa (Cerro de).--Lat. 18° 52', long. 102° 57', elev. 2900-3050 m. Presumably the highest mountain in the Sierra de Coalcomán and located about 13 hours by mule east-northeast of Coalcomán; open pine-oak-fir forest and alder thickets. Barolosa (Rancho).--Lat. 18° 50', long. 103° 00', elev. 2320 m. A small ranch on the west-northwestern slope of Cerro de Barolosa, about 11 hours by mule east-northeast of Coalcomán; open pine-oak forest. Barranca Seca.--Lat. 19° 32', long. 102° 15', elev. 2100 m. A small village about 7 kilometers northwest of San Juan de Parangaricutiro; pine forest. Bejuco (Barranca de).--Lat. 18° 07', long. 102° 48', elev. 90 m. A barranca in the lower slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán just west of the lower reaches of the Río Nexpa; tropical semi-deciduous forest. Buenavista (Tomatlán).--Lat. 19° 17', long. 102° 36', elev. 425 m. A village on the Río Masiaco in the Tepalcatepec Valley, 33 kilometers by road west-northwest of Apatzingán; open arid tropical scrub forest. Buena Vista.--Lat. 18° 40', long. 102° 09', elev. 600 m. A ranch on the northeastern slopes of the Sierra de Coalcomán; arid tropical scrub forest. Cachán (Río).--Lat. 18° 14', long. 103° 14'. A river formed by the affluence of the Río Coalcomán and the Río San José and flowing into the Pacific Ocean at a point indicated by the co-ordinates given above. Sometimes the name is applied to the lower part of the river as used here; other times the name is used for the entire length of the Río Coalcomán. Camichines.--Lat. 18° 47', long. 103° 05', elev. 1070 m. A ranch about 5 kilometers east-northeast of Coalcomán; transition between arid tropical scrub forest and oak forest. Camécuaro (Lago de).--Lat. 19° 55', long. 102° 13', elev. 1615 m. A small lake (depth to about 10 m.) drained by the Río Duero and located one kilometer north-northwest of Tangancícuaro; mesquite-grassland and some cypress and oak around the lake. Cancita (Río).--A tributary of the Río Tepalcatepec flowing southward from the southeastern slope of Cerro de Tancítaro. Cantiles (Los).--Lat. 19° 43', long. 100° 55', elev. 2160 m. A ranch 33 kilometers by road east of Morelia; pine forest. Capácuaro.--Lat. 19° 33', long. 102° 02', elev. 2070 m. A Tarascan village 18 kilometers by road north of Uruapan; pine forest. Capirio.--Lat. 18° 52', long. 102° 08', elev. 180 m. A village on the Río Tepalcatepec, 22 kilometers by road south of Nueva Italia; open arid tropical scrub forest and some gallery forest along the river. Carapan.--Lat. 19° 52', long. 102° 02', elev. 2070 m. A village on the northern edge of the Sierra de los Tarascos, 32 kilometers by road west of Zacapu; pine-oak forest at village and to the south; mesquite-grassland immediately to the north. Cerrito (El).--Lat. 18° 45', long. 103° 40', elev. 15 m. A ranch about 3 kilometers northeast of Coahuayana; tropical semi-deciduous forest. Chapala (Lago de).--A large lake on the Mexican Plateau at an elevation of 1525 m., partly in the state of Jalisco. It is drained by the Río Grande de Santiago, which flows northward and then westward into the Pacific Ocean. Immediately to the east of the lake are remnants of once extensive marshes. Charapendo.--Lat. 19° 15', long. 102° 04', elev. 975 m. A village 24 kilometers by road south of Uruapan near the upper limit of the arid tropical scrub forest in the Tepalcatepec Valley. Cherán.--Lat. 19° 42', long. 101° 57', elev. 2350 m. A Tarascan village 27 kilometers by road south-southeast of Carapan; pine forest. Chichihuas.--Lat. 18° 47', long. 103° 12', elev. 1200 m. A ranch about 6 kilometers west-southwest of Coalcomán; scrub oak forest. Chinapa.--Lat. 19° 22', long. 100° 51', elev. 930 m. A small village on the Río Chinapa, 43 kilometers south of El Temzcal on the road to Huetamo; arid tropical scrub forest. Chupio.--Lat. 19° 10', long. 101° 27', elev. 1080 m. A village 12 kilometers by road south of Tacámbaro; transition between arid tropical scrub forest and oak forest. Churumuco.--Lat. 18° 37', long. 101° 38', elev. 210 m. A small town in the Balsas Valley; arid tropical scrub forest. Ciénega (La).--Lat. 18° 28', long. 103° 18', elev. 900 m. A ranch about 3 hours by mule north of Coire; tropical semi-deciduous forest. Coahuayana.--Lat. 18° 44', long. 103° 31', elev. 15 m. A village on the coastal plain near the mouth of the Río Coahuayana; arid tropical scrub forest and tropical semi-deciduous forest. Coalcomán.--Lat. 18° 47', long. 103° 08', elev. 945 m. The largest town in the Sierra de Coalcomán and situated in a valley about 12 by 6 kilometers; arid tropical scrub forest on valley floor; oaks and some tropical semi-deciduous forest on surrounding slopes. Coalcomán (Río).--A river having its headwaters northeast of the town of Coalcomán and flowing southward to join with the Río San José to form the Río Cachán. Coalcomán (Sierra de).--A highland mass outlined by the Río Coahuayana and its tributaries on the west, the Río Tepalcatepec on the north, and the Río Balsas on the east, and the Pacific Ocean on the south. The axis of the sierra extends for about 200 kilometers in a west-northwest to east-southeast direction; the mountains are nearly 80 kilometers in breadth; the highest parts of the range are about 3000 meters above sea level. Cofradía.--Lat. 18° 56', long. 102° 17', elev. 215 m. A ranch about 17 kilometers southeast of Apatzingán; arid tropical scrub forest. Coire.--Lat. 18° 26', long. 103° 22', elev. 300 m. A village on the seaward foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán on the Río Coire; tropical semi-deciduous forest. Cojumatlán.--Lat. 20° 07', long. 102° 51', elev. 1530 m. A village on the southeastern shore of Lago de Chapala; mesquite-grassland. Colola (Río).--A small river emptying into the Pacific Ocean between Maruata and Punto San Telmo. Conejos (Los).--Lat. 19° 22' long. 102° 07', elev. 1850 m. A village 6 kilometers west-southwest of Uruapan, and sometimes known as Nuevo San Juan; pine-oak forest. Copándaro.--Lat. 19° 54', long. 101° 12', elev. 1800 m. A village on the south edge of the Lago de Cuitzeo lakebed; mesquite-grassland. Copuyo (Capuyo or Copullo).--Lat. 18° 28', long. 100° 56', elev. 1200 m. A small village about 5 kilometers by road west of Paso Ancho; transition between arid tropical scrub forest and oak forest. Cordillera Volcánica.--A mountain range along the southern edge of the Mexican Plateau, roughly along the nineteenth parallel, and made up of many volcanos; the range extends from Volcán de Colima on the west to Cofre de Perote and Orizaba in Veracruz; several of the volcanos reach elevations of more than 4000 meters. Corralito (El).--Lat. 18° 52', long. 102° 38', elev. 270 m. A small village in the Tepalcatepec Valley, about 30 kilometers southwest of Apatzingán; arid tropical scrub forest. Corupu (Corupo).--Lat. 19° 28', long. 102° 19', elev. 2450 m. A village 29 kilometers northwest of Uruapan; pine forest. Cuatro Caminos.--Lat. 19° 00', long. 102° 05' elev. 335 m. A village 4 kilometers south of Nueva Italia; arid tropical scrub forest. Cuilala (Playa).--Lat. 18° 10', long. 103° 06', sea level. A sandy beach on the Pacific Ocean just east of La Higuerita. Cuitzeo.--Lat. 19° 58', long. 101° 09', 1800 m. A village on the north shore of the Lago de Cuitzeo lakebed; mesquite-grassland. Cuitzeo (Lago de).--A large lakebed on the Mexican Plateau at an elevation of 1800 m. In dry years there is little water in the lake, and most of the lakebed is dry; in very wet years the entire lakebed is flooded. The Río de Morelia flows into the lake, which has no outlet; surrounding vegetation is mesquite-grassland. Cuseño Station.--Lat. 19° 30', long. 102° 16', elev. 2200 m. A field station of the American Geological Society established in 1945 and demolished in 1953; located at the northern edge of the lava flow at Volcán Parícutin; remnants of pine forest. Diezmo (El).--Lat. 18° 26', long. 103° 19', elev. 850 m. A ranch about 8 kilometers north of Coire; tropical semi-deciduous forest. Dos Aguas.--Lat. 18° 45', long. 102° 55', elev. 2100 m. A lumber camp on the eastern slope of Cerro de Barolosa, located about 22 kilometers west-northwest of Aguililla; pine-oak forest and some fir forest in sheltered ravines. Duero (Río).--A small river having its headwaters near Tangancícuaro and flowing northwestward into the Río Lerma; source of irrigation water for surrounding agricultural area. Emiliano Zapata.--Lat. 18° 59', long. 102° 39' elev. 1600 m. A town 10 kilometers east of Jiquilpan; mesquite-grassland and irrigated fields. Erongaricuaro.--Lat. 19° 35', long. 101° 43', elev. 2150 m. A Tarascan village on the western shore of Lago de Pátzcuaro; pine forest. Espinal (El).--Lat. 18° 27', long. 102° 07', elev. 500 m. A ranch in the northern foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán, 9 kilometers by road north-northeast of San Salvador; arid tropical scrub forest. Estopilas (Salitre de).--Lat. 18° 30', long. 103° 23', elev. 130 m. A small village about 10 kilometers east of Ostula; tropical semi-deciduous forest and arid tropical scrub forest. Garnica (Cerro).--Lat. 19° 43', long. 100° 48', elev. 3000 m. A mountain about 8 kilometers north of Pino Gordo; pine-oak-fir forest. Garnica (Puerto de).--Lat. 19° 42', long. 100° 51', elev. 2840 m. A mountain pass 46 kilometers by road west of Ciudad Hidalgo; pine and fir forest. Gregorio (San).--Lat. 19° 25', long. 101° 24', elev. 2200 m. A ranch about 16 kilometers southeast of Pátzcuaro; pine forest. Guayabo.--Lat. 18° 45', long. 102° 15', elev. 760 m. A village in the Sierra de Coalcomán about 32 kilometers north-northeast of Arteaga; upper limits of arid tropical scrub forest. Herradero (Barranca de).--Lat. 18° 17', long. 103° 08', elev. 200-250 m. A barranca south of San Pedro Naranjestila in the Sierra de Coalcomán; tropical semi-deciduous forest. Hidalgo (Ciudad).--Lat. 19° 32', long. 100° 34', elev. 2100 m. A town in the valley of the Río Tuxpan; mesquite-grassland and pine-oak forest. Higuerita (La).--Lat. 18° 12', long. 103° 06', sea level. A place name on the Pacific coast; sandy beach and arid tropical scrub forest. Higuertas (Las).--Lat. 18° 39', long. 103° 17', elev. 1600 m. A ranch about 7 hours by mule southwest of Coalcomán; pine-oak forest. Hondo (Puerto).--Lat. 19° 25', long. 100° 13', elev. 2750 m. A pass in the mountains, 14 kilometers by road east of Zitácuaro (just west of Macho de Agua); pine, oak, and fir forest. Huancana (La).--Lat. 18° 58', long. 101° 50', elev. 550 m. A village in the Balsas Basin; arid tropical scrub forest. Huahua (La).--Lat. 18° 12', long. 103° 00', sea level. A small village on the Pacific coast; arid tropical scrub forest and gallery forest along the Arroyo de Huahua. Huetamo.--Lat. 18° 38', long. 100° 53', elev. 300 m. A town in the Balsas Valley; arid tropical scrub forest. Huingo.--Lat. 19° 55', long. 100° 50', elev. 1800 m. A village on the eastern edge of the Lago de Cuitzeo lakebed; mesquite-grassland. Jacona.--Lat. 19° 57', long. 102° 18', elev. 1600 m. A small town, 4.3 kilometers by road southwest of Zamora; mesquite-grassland. Jaramillo.--Lat. 19° 20', long. 102° 02', elev. 1500 m. A ranch 9 kilometers by road south of Uruapan; pine-oak forest. Jazmin.--Lat. 18° 52', long. 101° 58', elev. 275 m. A village in the Tepalcatepec Valley, 32 kilometers by road southeast of Cuatro Caminos; open arid tropical scrub forest. Jeráhuaro.--Lat. 19° 52', long. 100° 35', elev. 2600 m. A town in the northern part of the state and located east of Lago de Cuitzeo; pine-oak forest. Jiquilpan.--Lat. 19° 59', long. 102° 43', elev. 1570 m. A town just southeast of Lago de Chapala; mesquite-grassland. Jorullo (Volcán).--Lat 19° 00', long. 101° 45', elev. 1300 m. (crest). A cinder and lava cone rising from the foothills of the Cordillera Volcánica; arid tropical scrub forest on lower slopes and pine-oak forest on top. Jungapeo.--Lat. 19° 26', long. 100° 29', elev. 1430 m. A village in the valley of the Río Tuxpan, about 13 kilometers south of Tuxpan on the southern slopes of the Mexican Plateau; tropical semi-deciduous forest and pine-oak forest. Lengua de Vaca (Puerto de).--Lat. 19° 26', long. 100° 13', elev. 2900 m. A pass in the mountains at the Michoacán-Mexico border through which passes the Mexico City-Morelia highway; pine and fir forest. Lerma (Río).--A river originating in the state of México and flowing westward, and forming the northern boundary of the state of Michoacán, to Lago de Chapala. Lima (San Juan de).--Lat. 18° 29', long. 102° 42', sea level. A ranch on the Pacific coast; arid tropical scrub forest and tropical semi-deciduous forest. Lima (Punta San Juan de).--Lat. 18° 38', long. 102° 43', sea level. A rocky promontory jutting into the Pacific Ocean just southwest of San Juan de Lima; arid tropical scrub forest. Limoncito.--Lat. 18° 45', long. 102° 43', elev. 730 m. A ranch 10 kilometers north of Aguililla; arid tropical scrub forest; tropical semi-deciduous gallery forest along the nearby Río Tepecuate. Lombardia.--Lat. 19° 08', long. 102° 02', elev. 640 m. A town in the Tepalcatepec Valley, 38 kilometers by road south of Uruapan; arid tropical scrub forest. Lleguas (Acuaro de las).--Lat. 18° 48', long. 102° 52', elev. 2320 m. A place name for a stream and meadow (Llano de la Llegua) surrounded by pine-oak forest, located about 10 hours by mule east of Coalcomán. Macho de Agua.--Lat. 19° 25', long. 100° 15', elev. 2850 m. A ranch just west of Puerto de Lengua de Vaca and 16 kilometers by road east of Zitácuaro; mixed oak, pine, and fir forest. Maquili.--Lat. 18° 36', long. 103° 32', elev. 120 m. A village on the Río Aquila about 3 kilometers south-southwest of Aguila; tropical semi-deciduous forest. Maravatio.--Lat. 19° 53', long. 100° 27', elev. 2010 m. A town in the Río Lerma Valley; irrigated fields on flats and pine-oak forest on slopes. Marquez (Río).--A tributary to the Río Tepalcatepec, flowing through a deep gorge (Barranca del Marquez) between Lombardia and Nueva Italia. The stream originates from springs near Uruapan, where the stream is known as the Río Cupatitzio. Maruata.--Lat. 18° 17', long. 103° 20', sea level. Place name for a Nineteenth Century port of little importance near the mouth of the Río Coire; sandy beach, fresh-water lagoon, and arid tropical scrub forest. Mexcala (Laguna).--Lat. 18° 29', long. 103° 41', sea level. A brackish lagoon surrounded by mangroves, located just southwest of El Ticuiz. Mil Cumbres.--Lat. 19° 39', long. 100° 47', elev. 2800 m. A name for a look-out on the México-Morelia highway in Atzimba National Park, about 32 kilometers by road west-southwest of Ciudad Hidalgo; pine and fir forest. Mira (La).--Lat. 18° 05', long. 102° 20', elev. 20 m. A small village about 5 kilometers north-northeast of Playa Azul; arid tropical scrub forest. Morelia.--Lat. 19° 43', long. 101° 10', elev. 1900 m. Capital of and largest city in Michoacán; mesquite-grassland on flats and pine-oak forest on surrounding hills. Morelia (Río de).--A small, intermittent stream originating in the mountains south of Morelia and emptying into Lago de Cuitzeo. Motín del Oro.--Lat. 18° 14', long. 103° 48', sea level. A ranch on the Pacific coast; arid tropical scrub forest. Motín (Río).--Lat. 18° 13', long. 103° 48' (mouth). A small river flowing from the Sierra de Coalcomán into the Pacific Ocean. Nahuatzen (Nauhuatzin).--Lat. 19° 42', long. 101° 50', elev. 2450 m. A Tarascan village in the mountains west of Lago de Pátzcuaro; pine forest. Nexpa (Río).--Lat. 18° 05', long. 102° 47' (mouth). A large river draining the central part of the Sierra de Coalcomán, originating near Aguililla, and flowing into the Pacific Ocean. Nogueleras.--Lat. 18° 34', long. 103° 17', elev. 1600 m. A ranch about 10 hours by mule south-southwest of Coalcomán; oak forest. Nueva Italia.--Lat. 19° 02', long. 102° 07', elev. 380 m. A town in the Tepalcatepec Valley, 59 kilometers by road south of Uruapan; arid tropical scrub forest. Nuevo (Rancho).--Lat. 18° 26', long. 102° 07', elev. 520 m. A ranch 7 kilometers by road north-northeast of San Salvador in the northern foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán; arid tropical scrub forest. Ocorla.--Lat. 18° 38', long. 103° 07', elev. 885 m. A ranch about 6 hours by mule south-southeast of Coalcomán; scrubby oak forest. Opopeo.--Lat. 19° 24', long. 101° 37', elev. 2800 m. A village 16 kilometers south of Pátzcuaro; pine and fir forest. Orilla (La).--Lat. 18° 00', long. 102° 12', elev. 10 m. The site of a former hacienda of the same name near the mouth of the Río Balsas; arid tropical scrub forest. Oropeo.--Lat. 18° 52', long. 101° 48', elev. 300 m. A village in the Tepalcatepec Valley about 13 kilometers south of La Huacana; arid tropical scrub forest. Ostula.--Lat. 18° 30', long. 103° 28', elev. 120 m. A village in the seaward foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán, located on the Río Ostula about 16 kilometers east-southeast of La Placita; arid tropical scrub forest and scattered tropical semi-deciduous forest. Ozumatlán (Sierra de).--A range in the Cordillera Volcánica extending east-northeast from a point south of Morelia to Queréndaro and reaching elevations in excess of 2600 m. Palma (La).--Lat. 20° 09', long. 102° 46', elev. 1525 m. A village on the southeastern shore of Lago de Chapala; lake-shore marshes and mesquite-grassland. Paracho.--Lat. 19° 39', long. 102° 02', elev. 2375 m. A Tarascan village in the Cordillera Volcánica, located 35 kilometers by road north of Uruapan; pine forest. Parangaricutiro (San Juan de).--Lat. 19° 30', long. 102° 15', elev. 2200 m. A former Tarascan village that was destroyed by the eruption of Volcán Parícutin; lava and volcanic ash amidst open pine forest. Parícutin (Volcán).--Lat. 19° 30', long. 102° 16', elev. 2200 m. at base and 2700 m. at summit. A volcano born in February, 1943; it ceased to be active in December, 1951, and is located at the north-northeastern base of Cerro de Tancítaro; volcanic ash and lava amidst open pine forest. Paso Ancho.--Lat. 19° 28', long. 100° 52', elev. 1100 m. A small village 30 kilometers south of El Temazcal on the road to Huetamo; arid tropical scrub forest. Patamba (Sierra).--Lat. 19° 45', long. 102° 21', elev. 3700 m. at summit. A mountain, the summit of which is about 22 kilometers southwest of Tangancícuaro; pine forest from 2000 to 2600 m.; fir forest above 2600 m. Pátzcuaro.--Lat. 19° 30', long. 101° 36', elev. 2200 m. A town near the southeastern shore of Lago de Pátzcuaro; pine forest. Pátzcuaro (Lago de).--A large lake on the southwestern part of the Mexican Plateau at an elevation of 2165 m. It has no outlet. The lake is surrounded by mountains supporting pine and pine-oak forest. Along the southern and eastern shores of the lake are small marshes. Peñas (Las).--Lat. 18° 03', long. 102° 38', sea level. A small village on the Pacific coast; arid tropical scrub forest. Pichi (Estero).--Lat. 18° 01', long. 102° 24', sea level. A brackish lagoon surrounded by mangroves and coconut groves, located just east of Playa Azul. Pino Gordo.--Lat. 19° 42', long. 100° 45', elev. 2600 m. A ranch 37 kilometers by road west of Ciudad Hidalgo; pine-oak forest. Placita (La).--Lat. 18° 32', long. 103° 37', elev. 20 m. A village on the coastal lowlands, located on the Río Aquila; arid tropical scrub forest; tropical semi-deciduous forest along the river. Playa (La).--Lat. 18° 57', long. 102° 33', elev. 800 m. A small village on the western edge of the lava flow of Volcán Jorullo; arid tropical scrub forest and some tropical semi-deciduous forest in ravines. Playa Azul.--Lat. 18° 01', long. 102° 25', sea level. A village on the Pacific coast near the mouth of the Río Carrizal; arid tropical scrub forest; coconut plantations; mangrove-lined lagoons. Pómaro.--Lat. 18° 18', long. 103° 17', elev. 300 m. An Indian village in the southern foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán, located about 3 hours by mule north-northeast of Maruata; tropical semi-deciduous forest. Pozos (Los).--Lat. 18° 30', long. 103° 17', elev. 300 m. A ranch located about 5 hours by mule north of Coire; tropical semi-deciduous forest. Queréndaro.--Lat. 19° 48', long. 100° 53', elev. 1900 m. A town on the Mexican Plateau south of Lago de Cuitzeo; mesquite-grassland. Quiroga.--Lat. 19° 42', long. 101° 30', elev. 2200 m. A Tarascan town on the north edge of Lago de Pátzcuaro; mesquite-grassland and pine-oak forest. Reyes (Los).--Lat. 19° 35', long. 102° 28', elev. 1500 m. A town in western Michoacán, 50 kilometers south-southwest of Zamora; mesquite-grassland, oak and pine forest. Sabino (El).--Lat. 19° 14', long. 102° 03', elev. 1050 m. A hacienda about 24 kilometers south of Uruapan; arid tropical scrub forest, many streams, rice fields. Sahuayo.--Lat. 20° 05', long. 102° 43', elev. 1550 m. A town just south of the eastern end of Lago de Chapala; mesquite-grassland. Salada (La).--Lat. 19° 07', long. 102° 00', elev. 580 m. A ranch southwest of Lombardia; arid tropical scrub forest. Salto (Arroyo El).--Lat. 18° 45', long. 103° 04', elev. 1370 m. A valley of the Río Flores about 3 hours by mule east-southeast of Coalcomán; pine-oak forest. San Andrés (Cerro).--Lat. 19° 48', long. 100° 35', elev. 3950 m. at summit. A mountain, the summit of which is about 16 kilometers north-northwest of Ciudad Hidalgo; oak forest to 2500 m. and pine and fir forest above 2500 m. San José (de la Cumbre).--Lat. 19° 41', long. 100° 50', elev. 2750 m. A ranch 51 kilometers by road east of Morelia; pine and fir forest. San José (de la Montaña).--Lat. 18° 25', long. 103° 06', elev. 750 m. A village sometimes called La Guitarra, located 14 hours by mule south-southeast of Coalcomán; tropical semi-deciduous forest. San Pedro Naranjestila.--Lat. 18° 17', long. 103° 06', elev. 500 m. An Indian village in the southern foothills of the Sierra de Coalcomán; tropical semi-deciduous forest. San Salvador.--Lat. 18° 25', long. 102° 08', elev. 700 m. A small village in the Sierra de Coalcomán, 37 kilometers by road northeast of Arteaga; arid tropical scrub forest. San Telmo (Ojos de Agua de).--Lat. 18° 37', long. 103° 42', sea level. A small settlement at the base of Punto San Juan de Lima; tropical semi-deciduous forest and groves of oil palms. San Telmo (Punta).--Lat. 18° 18', long. 103° 29', sea level. A rocky promontory jutting into the Pacific Ocean, on which there is a lighthouse (El Faro); arid tropical scrub forest. Santa Ana.--Lat. 18° 27', long. 102° 06', elev. 600 m. A ranch about 4 kilometers by road northeast of San Salvador; arid tropical scrub forest. Tacámbaro.--Lat. 19° 05', long. 101° 22', elev. 1820 m. A town in the Cordillera Volcánica; pine forest. Tacícuaro.--Lat. 19° 38', long. 101° 18', elev. 2000 m. A village 21 kilometers east-southeast of Quiroga; mesquite-grassland and scrubby oak forest. Tafetan.--Lat. 19° 43', long. 100° 52', elev. 1000 m. A village 40 kilometers by road south of El Temazcal; arid tropical scrub forest. Tancítaro.--Lat. 19° 20', long. 102° 22', elev. 1850 m. A small town on the southern slope of Cerro de Tancítaro; pine-oak forest. Tancítaro (Cerro de).--Lat. 19° 25', long. 102° 18', elev. 3870 m. at summit. An old volcano in the Cordillera Volcánica; the southern slope drops into the Tepalcatepec Valley; the summit is about 30 kilometers west of Uruapan; pine and oak forest on lower slopes replaced by pine or fir forest above. Tangamandapio.--Lat. 19° 56', long. 102° 25', elev. 1700 m. A small town on the Mexican Plateau between Jiquilpan and Zamora; mesquite-grassland and irrigated fields. Tangancícuaro.--Lat. 19° 52', long. 102° 13', elev. 1770 m. A town 12 kilometers by road southeast of Zamora; mesquite-grassland and irrigated fields. Tarascos (Sierra de los).--A name applied to that part of the Cordillera Volcánica extending eastward from Cerro de Tancítaro and Sierra Patamba to Pátzcuaro. Tarécuaro.--Lat. 19° 53', long. 102° 29', elev. 1700 m. A village on the Mexican Plateau, 26 kilometers southwest of Zamora; mesquite-grassland and pine-oak forest. Tecatas (Las).--Lat. 18° 36', long. 103° 17', elev. 1950 m. A ranch located about 10 hours by mule south-southwest of Coalcomán; oak forest. Temazcal (El).--Lat. 19° 40', long. 100° 56', elev. 2200 m. A road junction, 29 kilometers east of Morelia; here the road to Huetamo leads south from the Mexico City-Morelia highway; pine forest. Tepalcatepec.--Lat. 19° 10', long. 102° 50', elev. 570 m. A village in the upper Tepalcatepec Valley; arid tropical scrub forest. Tepalcatepec (Río).--A large river having its headwaters in southeastern Jalisco and flowing through a broad valley, which separates the Cordillera Volcánica from the Sierra de Coalcomán, to the Río Balsas. Ticuiz (El).--Lat. 18° 40', long. 103° 40', elev. 10 m. A village on the coastal plain about 11 kilometers south of Coahuayana; arid tropical scrub forest and tropical semi-deciduous forest. Tinguidín.--Lat. 19° 45', long. 102° 28', elev. 1800 m. A small town, 17 kilometers north of Los Reyes; pine-oak forest. Tizupan (Río).--Lat. 18° 09', long. 102° 55' (mouth). A small river flowing southward from the Sierra de Coalcomán to the Pacific Ocean. Tlalpujahua.--Lat. 19° 48', long. 100° 10', elev. 2600 m. A mining town in the northeastern part of the state; pine and fir forest. Tumbiscatio.--Lat. 18° 32', long. 102° 20', elev. 900 m. A town in the Sierra de Coalcomán; arid tropical scrub forest. Tupátaro.--Lat. 19° 53', long. 100° 15', elev. 2050 m. A village in the northeastern corner of the state, 13 kilometers northwest of Tlalpujahua; oak forest. Tuxpan.--Lat. 19° 35', long. 100° 27', elev. 1850 m. A town in a basin nearly surrounded by mountains and near the headwaters of the Río Tuxpan, 19 kilometers by road east-southeast of Ciudad Hidalgo; arid mesquite-grassland and irrigated fields. Tuxpan (Río).--A river draining the mountains in the eastern part of the state and flowing southward into the Río Balsas. Tzararacua (Cascada).--Lat. 19° 18', long. 102° 02', 1430 m. A waterfalls of the Río Cupatitzio, 10.5 kilometers by road south of Uruapan; oak forest with scattered pines. Tzintzuntzan.--Lat. 19° 38', long. 101° 35', elev. 2170 m. A village at the site of the seat of the ancient Tarascan empire on the eastern shore of Lago de Pátzcuaro; grasslands and marshes. Tzitzio.--Lat. 19° 35', long. 100° 55', elev. 1630 m. A village 16 kilometers by road south of El Temazcal; pine-oak and arid tropical scrub forest. Ucareo (Serranía de).--A part of the Cordillera Volcánica, including Cerro San Andrés. Undameo.--Lat. 19° 34', long. 101° 17', elev. 2000 m. A village 20 kilometers west-southwest of Morelia; mesquite-grassland. Uruapan.--Lat. 19° 25', long. 102° 02', elev. 1630 m. A large town on the southern slopes of the Cordillera Volcánica; pine-oak forest. Zacapu.--Lat. 19° 48', long. 101° 47', elev. 2000 m. A town on the Mexican Plateau; mesquite-grassland. Zamora.--Lat. 19° 59', long. 102° 17', elev. 1570 m. A large town on the Mexican Plateau; mesquite-grassland. Zicuiran.--Lat. 18° 53', long. 101° 55', elev. 190 m. A small village 23 kilometers east-southeast of Cuatro Caminos; arid tropical scrub forest. Zinapécuaro.--Lat. 19° 52', long. 100° 49', elev. 1900 m. A town near the southeastern end of Lago de Cuitzeo; mesquite-grassland and pine-oak forest. Ziracuaretiro.--Lat. 19° 25', long. 101° 52', elev. 1230 m. A village 19 kilometers by road east of Uruapan; transition between pine-oak forest and arid tropical scrub forest. Zirimícuaro.--Lat. 19° 24', long. 101° 56', elev. 1300 m. A hacienda 13 kilometers by road east of Uruapan; pine-oak forest and fields of sugar cane. Zitácuaro.--Lat. 19° 25', long. 100° 21', elev. 2100 m. A town in the highlands of eastern Michoacán; pine-oak forest. Zurumbeneo.--Lat. 19° 43', long. 101° 02', elev. 2100 m. A ranch 19 kilometers by road east of Morelia; scrubby oak forest. SUMMARY The preceding analysis of the amphibians and reptiles of the state of Michoacán shows that the herpetofauna is composed of 176 species and subspecies definitely recorded from the state, plus ten others that probably occur there. Ten species are reported for the first time from Michoacán: _Pseudoeurycea robertsi_, _Leptodactylus occidentalis_, _Microbatrachylus pygmaeus_, _Pternohyla fodiens_, _Hypopachus caprimimus_, _Phyllodactylus homolepidurus_, _Anolis dunni_, _Sceloporus bulleri_, _Sceloporus heterolepis,_ and _Geagras redimitus_. Five species that have been reported previously from Michoacán are based on specimens having unreliable locality data or on misidentifications; therefore, the following species are not considered to be a part of the herpetofauna of Michoacán: _Caiman crocodilus fuscus_, _Urosaurus irregularis_, _Geophis nasalis_, _Tropidodipsas fasciata guerreroensis_, and _Micrurus fitzingeri fitzingeri_. Systematic studies based at least in part on specimens from Michoacán have resulted in a redefinition of nine species and subspecies: _Bufo marmoreus_, _Bufo perplexus_, _Anolis nebulosus_, _Anolis nebuloides_, _Sceloporus bulleri_, _Sceloporus heterolepis_, _Sceloporus melanorhinus calligaster_, _Hypsiglena torquata torquata_, and _Hypsiglena torquata ochrorhyncha_. Nine species that previously have been recognized as valid have been placed in synonymy. These are: _Bufo horribilis_ Wiegmann, 1833, and _Bufo angustipes_ Smith and Taylor, 1945, as synonyms of _Bufo marinus_ (Linnaeus), 1758. _Microbatrachylus albolabris_ Taylor, 1940, _Microbatrachylus minimus_ Taylor, 1940, and _Microbatrachylus imitator_ Taylor, 1942, as synonyms of _Microbatrachylus pygmaeus_ (Taylor), 1937. _Phrynohyas corasterias_ Shannon and Humphrey, 1957, as a synonym of _Phrynohyas inflata_ (Taylor), 1944. _Hyla microeximia_ Maslin, 1957, as a synonym of _Hyla eximia_ Baird, 1854. _Hylella azteca_ Taylor, 1943, as a synonym of _Hyla smaragdina_ Taylor, 1940. _Loxocemus sumichrasti_ Bocourt, 1876, as a synonym of _Loxocemus bicolor_ Cope, 1861. _Eleutherodactylus vocalis_ Taylor, 1940, is considered to be a subspecies of _Eleutherodactylus rugulosus_. The populations of _Thamnophis dorsalis_ in the Tepalcatepec Valley are shown to be distinct from those inhabiting the highlands of the state; _Thamnophis dorsalis postremus_ Smith, 1942, is revived for the population in the Tepalcatepec Valley. Descriptions are given of the tadpoles of _Bufo occidentalis_ and _Hyla bistincta_. LITERATURE CITED ANDERSON, J. D. 1960. _Storeria storerioides_ in western Mexico. Herpetologica, 16:63-6, March 31. BOGERT, C. M., and OLIVER, J. A. 1945. A preliminary analysis of the herpetofauna of Sonora. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 83:297-426, March 30. BOULENGER, G. A. 1885. Catalogue of the lizards in the British Museum, vol. II. London, xiii + 497 pp., November 15. 1894. Catalogue of the snakes in the British Museum, vol. II, London, xi + 382 pp., September 23. CONANT, R. 1953. Three new water snakes of the genus _Natrix_ from Mexico. Nat. Hist. Misc., 126:1-9, September 15. CONTRERAS ARIAS, A. 1942. Mapa de las provincias climatologicas de la República Méxicana. Dir. Meteoro, Hidro. Inst. Geog. México, xxvii + 54 pp. COPE, E. D. 1861. Contributions to the ophidiology of Lower California, Mexico, and Central America. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 13:292-306, December 28. 1887. Catalogue of batrachians and reptiles of Central America and Mexico. Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., 32:1-98. DAVIS, W. B. 1954. Three new anoles from Mexico. Herpetologica, 10:1-6, April 20. DAVIS, W. B., and DIXON, J. R. 1957. Notes on Mexican snakes (Ophidia). Southwest. Nat., 2:19-27, January. DAVIS, W. B., and SMITH, H. M. 1953. Lizards and turtles of the Mexican state of Morelos. Herpetologica. 9:100-108, July 22. DIXON, J. R. 1957. Geographic variation and distribution of the genus _Tomodactylus_ in Mexico. Texas Jour. Sci., 9:379-409, December. 1960. Two new geckos, genus _Phyllodactylus_ (Reptilia: Sauria), from Michoacán, Mexico. Southwest. Nat., 5:37-42, April 15. DOWLING, H. G. 1960. A taxonomic study of the ratsnakes, genus _Elaphe_ Fitzinger. VII. The _triaspis_ section, Zoologica, 45:53-80, August 15. DUELLMAN, W. E. 1954a. The salamander _Plethodon richmondi_ in southwestern Ohio. Copeia, 1950 (1):40-45, February 19. 1954b. The amphibians and reptiles of Jorullo Volcano, Michoacan, Mexico. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 560:1-24, October 22. 1955. A new whiptail lizard, genus _Cnemidorphorus_, from Mexico. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 574:1-7, December 23. 1956a. The frogs of the hylid genus _Phrynohyas_ Fitzinger, 1843. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 96:1-47, February 21. 1956b. A new snake of the genus _Leptotyphlops_ from Michoacán, México. Copeia, 1956 (2):93-94, May 29. 1957a. Sexual dimorphism in the hylid frog _Agalychnis dacnicolor_ Cope, and the status of _Agalychnis alcorni_ Taylor. Herpetologica, 13:29-30, March 30. 1957b. Notes on snakes from the Mexican state of Sinaloa. Herpetologica, 13:237-240, October 31. 1958a. A monographic study of the colubrid snake genus _Leptodeira_. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 114:1-152, February 24. 1958b. Comments on the type locality and geographic distribution of _Urosaurus gadowi_. Copeia, 1958 (1):48-49, February 21. 1958c. A preliminary analysis of the herpetofauna of Colima, Mexico. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 589:1-22, March 21. 1959. Two new snakes, genus _Geophis_, from Michoacan, Mexico. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 605:1-9, May 29. 1960a. A new subspecies of lizard, Cnemidophorus sacki, from Michoacán, México. Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 10:587-598, May 2. 1960b. A taxonomic study of the Middle American snake Pituophis deppei, Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 10:599-610, May 2. 1960c. Variation, distribution, and ecology of the Mexican teiid lizard _Cnemidophorus calidipes_. Copeia, 1960(2):97-101, June 29. 1960d. A distributional study of the amphibians of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, México. Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 13:19-72, August 16. DUELLMAN, W. E., and DIXON, J. R. 1959. A new frog of the genus _Tomodactylus_ from Michoacán, Mexico. Texas Jour. Sci., 11:78-82, March. DUELLMAN, W. E., and DUELLMAN, A. S. 1959. Notes on the variation, distribution, and ecology of the iguanid lizard _Enyaliosaurus clarki_. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 598:1-10, February 16. DUELLMAN, W. E., and WELLMAN, J. 1960. A systematic study of the lizards of the _deppei_ group (Genus _Cnemidophorus_) in Mexico and Guatemala. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 111:1-80, February 10. DUGÈS, A. 1884. Dos reptiles de Mexico. La Naturaleza, 6:359-362. 1891. _Eumeces altamirani_ A. Dug. La Naturaleza, ser. 2, 1:485-486. 1896. Reptiles y batracios de los E. U. Mexicanos. La Naturaleza, ser. 2, 2:479-485. DUMÉRIL, A. M., and BOCOURT, F. 1870-1909. Mission scientifique au Mexique et dans l'Amerique Centrale, Recherches zoologiques. Études sur les reptiles. Paris, xiv + 1012 pp. FISCHER, J. G. 1882. Herpetologische Bemerkengen vorzugsweise über Stücke der Sammlung des Naturhistorischen Museum in Bremen. Abhand. Naturwiss. Ver. Bremen, 7:225-238. 1883. Beschreibungen neuer Reptilien. Akad. Gymnas. Hamburg, 1883:1-16. FITCH, H. S., and MILSTEAD, W. W. 1961. An older name for _Thamnophis cyrtopsis_ (Kennicott). Copeia, no. 1:112, March 17, 1961. FUNKHOUSER, A. 1957. A review of the Neotropical tree-frogs of the genus _Phyllomedusa_. Occ. Pap. Nat. Hist. Mus. Stanford Univ., 5:1-90, April 1. GADOW, H. 1905. Distribution of Mexican amphibians and reptiles. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1905:191-244, October 7. 1930. Jorullo. Cambridge Univ. Press, xviii + 100 pp. GLOYD, H. K. 1948. Description of a neglected subspecies of rattlesnake from Mexico. Nat. Hist. Misc., 17:1-4, April 23. GOIN, C. J. 1950. Color pattern inheritance in some frogs of the genus _Eleutherodactylus_. Bull. Chicago Acad. Sci., 9:1-15, March 3. 1954. Remarks on evolution of color pattern in the _gossei_ group of the frog genus _Eleutherodactylus_. Ann. Carnegie Mus., 33:185-195, June 4. GOLDMAN, E. A. 1951. Biological investigations in Mexico. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 115, xii + 476 pp., July 31. GUZMÁN-RIVAS, P. 1957. Rainfall analysis for some stations in southwest Mexico. _In_ Brand, Coastal study of southwest Mexico, Part I. Univ. Texas, Austin, xii + 140 pp., June 15. HOROWITZ, S. B. 1955. An arrangement of the subspecies of the horned toad, _Phrynosoma orbiculare_ (Iguanidae). Amer. Midl. Nat., 54:209-218, July. KLAUBER, L. M. 1945. The geckos of the genus Coleonyx with descriptions of new subspecies. Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 10:133-216, March 9. 1952. Taxonomic studies of the rattlesnakes of Mainland Mexico. Bull. Zool. Soc. San Diego, 26:1-143, August 8. LANGEBARTEL, D. A. 1959. A new lizard (_Sceloporus_) from the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico. Herpetologica, 15:25-27, February 25. MALDONADO-KOERDELL, M. 1948. Los colecciones de anfibios del Museo Alfredo Dugès en la Universidad de Guanajuato, I--Urodelos. Mem. Revist. Acad. Nac. Cien., 56:185-226. MARTIN, P. S. 1958. A biogeography of reptiles and amphibians in the Gómez Farías Region, Tamaulipas, Mexico. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 101:1-102, April 15. MASLIN, T. P. 1957. _Hyla microeximia_ sp. n., Hylidae, Amphibia, from Jalisco, Mexico. Herpetologica, 13:81-86, July 10. MILSTEAD, W. W. 1953. Geographic variation in the garter snake, _Thamnophis cyrtopsis_. Texas Jour. Sci., 5:348-379, September. MOSIMANN, J. E. 1956. Variation and relative growth in the plastral scutes of the turtle _Kinosternon integrum_ LeConte. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 97:1-43, November 7. MOSIMANN, J. E., and RABB, G. B. 1953. A new subspecies of the turtle _Geoemyda rubida_ (Cope) from western Mexico. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 548:1-7, November 9. OLIVER, J. A. 1937. Notes on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from the state of Colima, Mexico. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 360:1-28, November 20. ORTON, G. 1943. The tadpole of _Rhinophrynus dorsalis_. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 472:1-8, May 18. PETERS, J. A. 1954. The amphibians and reptiles of the coast and coastal sierra of Michoacán, Mexico. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 554:1-37, June 23. 1955. Notes on the frog genus _Diaglena_ Cope. Nat. Hist. Misc., 143:1-8, March 28. 1957. The eggs (turtle) and I. Biologist, 39:21-4. RABB, G. B. 1958. On certain Mexican salamanders of the plethodontid genus _Chiropterotriton_. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 587:1-37, June 6. RABB, G. B., and MOSIMANN, J. E. 1955. The tadpole of _Hyla robertsorum_ with comments on the affinities of the species. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 563:1-9, March 29. REEVE, W. L. 1952. Taxonomy and distribution of the horned lizards genus _Phrynosoma_. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 34 (pt. 2):817-960, February 15. SCHMIDT, K. P., and SHANNON, F. A. 1947. Notes on amphibians and reptiles of Michoacán, Mexico. Fieldiana, zool., 31:63-85, February 20. SHANNON, F. A., and HUMPHREY, F. L. 1957. A new species of _Phrynohyas_ from Nayarit. Herpetologica, 13:15-18, March 30. 1958. A discussion of the polytypic species, _Hypopachus oxyrrhinus_, with a description of a new subspecies. Herpetologica, 14:85-95, July 23. SMITH, H. M. 1938. The lizards of the _torquatus_ group of the genus _Sceloporus_ Wiegmann, 1828. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 24:539-693, February 16. 1939. The Mexican and Central American lizards of the genus _Sceloporus_. Zool. ser., Field Mus. Nat. Hist., 26:1-397, July 27. 1941a. A review of the subspecies of the indigo snake (_Drymarchon corais_). Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 31:466-481, November 11. 1941b. Notes on the snake genus _Trimorphodon_. Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 91:149-168, November 10. 1942a. Mexican Herpetological Miscellany. Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 92:349-395, November 5. 1942b. The synonymy of the garter snakes (_Thamnophis_), with notes on Mexican and Central American species. Zoologica, 27:97-123, October 23. 1942c. Remarks on the Mexican king snakes of the triangulum group. Proc. Rochester Acad. Sci., 8:196-207, September 10. 1942d. Descriptions of new species and subspecies of Mexican snakes of the genus _Rhadinaea_. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:185-192, December 31. 1943. Summary of the collections of snakes and crocodilians made in Mexico under the Walter Rathbone Bacon Traveling Scholarship. Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 93:393-504, October 29. 1951. The identity of the ophidian name _Coluber eques_ Reuss. Copeia, 1951 (2):138-140, June 8. SMITH, H. M., and LAUFE, L. E. 1945. Notes on a herpetological collection from Oaxaca. Herpetologica, 3:1-13, November 21. SMITH, H. M., and TAYLOR, E. H. 1945. An annotated checklist and key to the snakes of Mexico. Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., 187:iv + 239 pp., October 5. 1948. An annotated checklist and key to the Amphibia of Mexico. Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., 194: iv + 118 pp., June 17. 1950a. Type localities of Mexican reptiles and amphibians. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 33, pt. 2:313-380, March 20. 1950b. An annotated checklist and key to the reptiles of Mexico exclusive of the snakes. Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., 199:v + 253, October 26. SMITH, P. W., and DARLING, D. M. 1952. Results of a herpetological collection from eastern central Mexico. Herpetologica, 8:81-86, November 1. STICKEL, W. H. 1943. The Mexican snakes of the genera _Sonora_ and _Chionactis_, with notes on the status of other colubrid genera. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 56:109-128, October 19. STORM, M. 1939. Hoofways into hot country. Bland Bros., Mexico City, 521 pp. STUART, L. C. 1943. Comments on the herpetofauna of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes of Guatemala. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 471:1-28, May 17. TAMAYO, J. L. 1949. Geografía General de Mexico. I--Geografía Fisica. Mexico City, viii + 628 pp. TANNER, W. W. 1944. A taxonomic study of the genus _Hypsiglena_. Great Basin Nat., 5:25-92, December 29. TAYLOR, E. H. 1936a. New species of amphibia from Mexico. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 39:349-363. 1936b. The rediscovery of the lizard _Eumeces altamirani_ (Dugès) with notes on two other Mexican species of the genus. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 49:55-58, May 1. 1936c. A taxonomic study of the cosmopolitan scincoid lizards of the genus _Eumeces_. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 23:1-643, August 15. 1939a. Concerning Mexican salamanders. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 25:259-313, July 10. 1939b. Frogs of the _Hyla eximia_ group in Mexico, with descriptions of two new species. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 25:421-445, July 10. 1940a. A new bromeliad frog from northwestern Michoacan. Copeia, 1940 (1):18-20, March 30. 1940b. Mexican snakes of the genus _Typhlops_. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:441-444, November 27. 1940c. Some Mexican serpents. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:445-487, November 27. 1940d. Herpetological Miscellany. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 26:489-571, November 27. 1941a. Some Mexican frogs. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 54:87-94, July 31. 1941b. Herpetological Miscellany, No. II. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 27:105-138, December 30. 1942a. New tailless Amphibia from Mexico. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 28:67-89, May 15. 1942b. Tadpoles of Mexican Anura. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 28:37-55, May 15. 1942c. The frog genus _Diaglena_ with a description of a new species. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 28:57-65, May 15. 1943a. Herpetological novelties from Mexico. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 29:343-361, October 15. 1943b. A new _Hylella_ from Mexico. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 56:49-52, June 16. 1952. A new hylid frog of the genus _Agalychnis_ from southwestern Mexico. Copeia, 1952 (1):31-32, June 2. 1956. A review of the lizards of Costa Rica. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 38 (pt. 1):3-322, December 20. TAYLOR, E. H., and SMITH, H. M. 1942a. Concerning the snake genus _Pseudoficimia_ Bocourt. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 28:241-249, November 12. 1942b. The snake genera _Conopsis_ and _Toluca_. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 28:325-363, November 12. 1945. Summary of the collections of amphibians made in Mexico under the Walter Rathbone Bacon Traveling Scholarship. Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 95:521-613, June 30. TIHEN, J. A. 1949. A review of the lizard genus _Barisia_. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 33:217-256, April 20. VIVÓ, J. 1953. Geografía de México. Mexico City, ed. 3, 338 pp. WEBB, R. G. 1958. The status of the Mexican lizards of the genus _Mabuya_. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 38:1303-1313, March 2. WELLMAN, J. 1959. Notes on the variation in and distribution of the Mexican colubrid snake _Coniophanes lateritius_. Herpetologica, 15:127-128, September 10. WOODBURY, A. M., and WOODBURY, D. M. 1944. Notes on Mexican snakes from Oaxaca. Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 34:360-373, November 15. ZWEIFEL, R. G. 1957. A new frog of the genus _Rana_ from Michoacán, Mexico. Copeia, 1957 (2):78-83, July 15. 1959a. Variation in and distribution of lizards of western Mexico related to _Cnemidophorus sacki_. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 117:57-116, April 27. 1959b. Additions to the herpetofauna of Nayarit, Mexico. Amer. Mus. Novitates, 1953:1-13, June 26. 1959c. Snakes of the genus _Imantodes_ in western Mexico. Amer. Mus. Novitates, 1961:1-18, September 16. 1960. Results of the Puritan-American Museum of Natural History Expedition to western Mexico. 9. Herpetology of the Tres Marías Islands. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 119:77-128, February 29. 1961. Relationship of two whiptail lizards (genus _Cnemidophorus_) in western Mexico. Copeia, no. 1:98-103, March 17. _Transmitted April 21, 1961._ UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Institutional libraries interested in publications exchange may obtain this series by addressing the Exchange Librarian, University of Kansas Library, Lawrence, Kansas. Copies for individuals, persons working in a particular field of study, may be obtained by addressing instead the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. There is no provision for sale of this series by the University Library, which meets institutional requests, or by the Museum of Natural History, which meets the requests of individuals. However, when individuals request copies from the Museum, 25 cents should be included, for each separate number that is 100 pages or more in length, for the purpose of defraying the costs of wrapping and mailing. * An asterisk designates those numbers of which the Museum's supply (not the Library's supply) is exhausted. Numbers published to date, in this series, are as follows: Vol. 1. Nos. 1-26 and index. Pp. 1-638. 1946-1950. *Vol. 2. (Complete) Mammals of Washington. By Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text. April 9, 1948. Vol. 3. *1. The avifauna of Micronesia, its origin, evolution, and distribution. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 1-359, 18 figures in text. June 12, 1951. 2. A quantitative study of the nocturnal migration of birds. By George H. Lowery, Jr. Pp. 361-472, 47 figures in text. June 29, 1951. 3. Phylogeny of the waxwings and allied birds. By M. Dale Arvey. Pp. 478-530, 49 figures in text, 13 tables. October 10, 1951. 4. Birds from the state of Veracruz, Mexico. By George H. Lowery, Jr., and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 531-649, 7 figures in text, 2 tables. October 10, 1951. Index. Pp. 651-681. *Vol. 4. (Complete) American weasels. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 1-466, 41 plates, 31 figures in text. December 27, 1951. Vol. 5. Nos. 1-37 and index. Pp. 1-676, 1951-1953. *Vol. 6. (Complete) Mammals of Utah, _taxonomy and distribution_. By Stephen D. Durrant. Pp. 1-549, 91 figures in text, 30 tables. August 10, 1952. Vol. 7. *1. Mammals of Kansas. By E. Lendell Cockrum. Pp. 1-303, 73 figures in text, 37 tables. August 25, 1952. 2. Ecology of the opossum on a natural area in northeastern Kansas. By Henry S. Fitch and Lewis L. Sandidge. Pp. 305-338, 5 figures in text. August 24, 1953. 3. The silky pocket mice (Perognathus flavus) of Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 339-347, 1 figure in text. February 15, 1954. 4. North American jumping mice (Genus Zapus). By Philip H. Krutzsch. Pp. 349-472, 47 figures in text, 4 tables. April 21, 1954. 5. Mammals from Southeastern Alaska. By Rollin H. Baker and James S. Findley. Pp. 473-477. April 21, 1954. 6. Distribution of Some Nebraskan Mammals. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 479-487. April 21, 1954. 7. Subspeciation in the montane meadow mouse. Microtus montanus, in Wyoming and Colorado. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 489-506, 2 figures in text. July 23, 1954. 8. A new subspecies of bat (Myotis velifer) from southeastern California and Arizona. By Terry A. Vaughan. Pp. 507-512. July 23, 1954. 9. Mammals of the San Gabriel mountains of California. By Terry A. Vaughan. Pp. 513-582, 1 figure in text, 12 tables. November 15, 1954. 10. A new bat (Genus Pipistrellus) from northeastern Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 583-586. November 15, 1954. 11. A new subspecies of pocket mouse from Kansas. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 587-590. November 15. 1954. 12. Geographic variation in the pocket gopher, Cratogeomys castanops, in Coahuila, Mexico. By Robert J. Russell and Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 591-608. March 15. 1955. 13. A new cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) from northeastern Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 609-612. April 8, 1955. 14. Taxonomy and distribution of some American shrews. By James S. Findley. Pp. 613-618. June 10, 1955. 15. The pigmy woodrat, Neotoma goldmani, its distribution and systematic position. By Dennis G. Rainey and Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 619-624. 2 figures in text. June 10, 1955. Index. Pp. 625-651. Vol. 8. Nos. 1-10 and index. Pp. 1-675, 1954-1956. Vol. 9. 1. Speciation of the wandering shrew. By James S. Findley. Pp. 1-68, 18 figures in text. December 10, 1955. 2. Additional records and extensions of ranges of mammals from Utah. By Stephen D. Durrant, M. Raymond Lee, and Richard M. Hansen. Pp. 69-80. December 10, 1955. 3. A new long-eared myotis (Myotis evotis) from northeastern Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker and Howard J. Stains. Pp. 81-84. December 10, 1955. 4. Subspeciation in the meadow mouse, Microtus pennsylvanicus, in Wyoming. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 85-104, 2 figures in text. May 10, 1956. 5. The condylarth genus Ellipsodon. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 105-116, 6 figures in text. May 19, 1956. 6. Additional remains of the multituberculate genus Eucosmodon. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 117-123, 10 figures in text. May 19, 1956. 7. Mammals of Coahuila, Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 125-335, 75 figures in text. June 15, 1956. 8. Comments on the taxonomic status of Apodemus peninsulae, with description of a new subspecies from North China. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 337-346, 1 figure in text, 1 table. August 15, 1956. 9. Extensions of known ranges of Mexican bats. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 347-351. August 15, 1956. 10. A new bat (Genus Leptonycteris) from Coahuila. By Howard J. Stains. Pp. 353-356. January 21, 1957. 11. A new species of pocket gopher (Genus Pappogeomys) from Jalisco, Mexico. By Robert J. Russell. Pp. 357-361. January 21, 1957. 12. Geographic variation in the pocket gopher, Thomomys bottae, in Colorado. By Phillip M. Youngman. Pp. 363-387, 7 figures in text. February 21, 1958. 13. New bog lemming (genus Synaptomys) from Nebraska. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 385-388. May 12, 1958. 14. Pleistocene bats from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo León, México. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 389-396. December 19, 1958. 15. New Subspecies of the rodent Baiomys from Central America. By Robert L. Packard. Pp. 397-404. December 19, 1958. 16. Mammals of the Grand Mesa, Colorado. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 405-414, 1 figure in text. May 20, 1959. 17. Distribution, variation, and relationships of the montane vole, Microtus montanus. By Emil K. Urban. Pp. 415-511. 12 figures in text, 2 tables. August 1, 1959. 18. Conspecificity of two pocket mice, Perognathus goldmani and P. artus. By E. Raymond Hall and Marilyn Bailey Ogilvie. Pp. 513-518, 1 map. January 14, 1960. 19. Records of harvest mice, Reithrodontomys, from Central America, with description of a new subspecies from Nicaragua. By Sydney Anderson and J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 519-529. January 14, 1960. 20. Small carnivores from San Josecito Cave (Pleistocene), Nuevo León, México. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 531-538, 1 figure in text. January 14, 1960. 21. Pleistocene pocket gophers from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo León, México. By Robert J. Russell. Pp. 539-548, 1 figure in text. January 14, 1960. 22. Review of the insectivores of Korea. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., and David H. Johnson. Pp. 549-578. February 23, 1960. 23. Speciation and evolution of the pygmy mice, genus Baiomys. By Robert L. Packard. Pp. 579-670, 4 plates, 12 figures in text. June 16, 1960. Index Pp. 671-690. Vol. 10. 1. Studies of birds killed in nocturnal migration. By Harrison B. Tordoff and Robert M. Mengel. Pp. 1-44, 6 figures in text, 2 tables. September 12, 1956. 2. Comparative breeding behavior of Ammospiza caudacuta and A. maritima. By Glen E. Woolfenden. Pp. 45-75, 6 plates, 1 figure. December 20, 1956. 3. The forest habitat of the University of Kansas Natural History Reservation. By Henry S. Fitch and Ronald R. McGregor. Pp. 77-127, 2 plates, 7 figures in text, 4 tables. December 31, 1956. 4. Aspects of reproduction and development in the prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster). By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 129-161, 8 figures in text, 4 tables. December 19, 1957. 5. Birds found on the Arctic slope of northern Alaska. By James W. Bee. Pp. 163-211, pls. 9-10, 1 figure in text. March 12, 1958. 6. The wood rats of Colorado: distribution and ecology. By Robert B. Finley, Jr. Pp. 213-552, 34 plates, 8 figures in text, 35 tables. November 7, 1958. 7. Home ranges and movements of the eastern cottontail in Kansas. By Donald W. Janes. Pp. 553-572, 4 plates, 3 figures in text. May 4, 1959. 8. Natural history of the salamander. Aneides hardyi. By Richard F. Johnston and Schad Gerhard. Pp. 573-585. October 8, 1959. 9. A new subspecies of lizard, Cnemidophorus sacki, from Michoacán, México. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 587-598, 2 figures in text. May 2, 1960. 10. A taxonomic study of the Middle American Snake, Pituophis deppei. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 599-612, 1 plate, 1 figure in text. May 2, 1960. Index Pp. 611-626. Vol. 11. Nos. 1-10 and index. Pp. 1-703, 1958-1960. Vol. 12. 1. Functional morphology of three bats: Eumops, Myotis, Macrotus. By Terry A. Vaughan. Pp. 1-153, 4 plates, 24 figures in text, July 8, 1959. 2. The ancestry of modern Amphibia: a review of the evidence. By Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Pp. 155-180, 10 figures in text. July 10, 1959. 3. The baculum in microtine rodents. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 181-218, 49 figures in text. February 19, 1960. 4. A new order of fishlike Amphibia from the Pennsylvanian of Kansas. By Theodore H. Eaton, Jr., and Peggy Lou Stewart. Pp. 217-240, 12 figures in text. May 2, 1960. More numbers will appear in volume 12. Vol. 13. 1. Five natural hybrid combinations in minnows (Cyprinidae). By Frank B. Cross and W. L. Minckley. Pp. 1-18. June 1, 1960. 2. A distributional study of the amphibians of the isthmus of Tehuantepec, México. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 19-72, pls. 1-8, 3 figs. August 16, 1960. 3. A new subspecies of the slider turtle (Pseudemys scripta) from Coahuila, México. By John M. Legler. Pp. 73-84, pis. 9-12, 3 figures in text. August 16, 1960. 4. Autecology of the Copperhead. By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 85-288, pls. 13-20, 26 figures in text. November 30, 1960. 5. Occurrence of the Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains. By Henry S. Fitch and T. Paul Maslin. Pp. 289-308, 4 figures in text. February 10, 1961. 6. Fishes of the Wakarusa River in Kansas. By James E. Deacon and Artie L. Metcalf. Pp. 309-322, 1 figure in text. February 10, 1961. 7. Geographic variation in the North American Cyprinid Fish, Hybopsis gracilis. By Leonard J. Olund and Frank B. Cross. Pp. 323-348, pis. 21-24, 2 figures in text. February 10, 1961. 8. Descriptions of two species of frogs, Genus Ptychohyla--studies of American hylid frogs, V. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 349-357, pl. 25, 2 figures in text. April 27, 1961. 9. Fish populations, following a drought, in the Neosho and Marais des Cygnes rivers of Kansas. By James Everett Deacon. Pp. 359-427, pis. 26-30, 3 figs. in text. August 11, 1961. More numbers will appear in volume 13. Vol. 14. 1. Neotropical bats from western México. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 1-8. October 24, 1960. 2. Geographic variation in the harvest mouse Reithrodontomys megalotis on the central Great Plains and in adjacent regions. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. and B. Mursaloglu. Pp. 9-27, 1 figure in text. July 24, 1961. 3. Mammals of Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 29-67, pls. 1-2, 3 figures in text. July 24, 1961. More numbers will appear in volume 14. Vol. 15. 1. The amphibians and reptiles of Michoacán, México. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 1-148, pls. 1-6, 11 figs. December 20, 1961. 
38398	----	================================= UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Volume 15, No. 5, pp. 205-249, pls. 7-10, 6 figs. -------------- October 4, 1963 -------------- Amphibians and Reptiles of the Rainforests of Southern El Petén, Guatemala BY WILLIAM E. DUELLMAN UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE 1963 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Henry S. Fitch, Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Vol. 15, No. 5, pp. 205-249, pls. 7-10, 6 figs. Published October 4, 1963 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY JEAN M. NEIBARGER, STATE PRINTER TOPEKA, KANSAS 1963 [Illustration: Printer's Logo] 29-5935 Amphibians and Reptiles of the Rainforests of Southern El Petén, Guatemala BY WILLIAM E. DUELLMAN CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 207 Acknowledgments 208 DESCRIPTION OF AREA 208 Physiography 209 Climate 209 Vegetation 209 GAZETTEER 210 THE HERPETOFAUNA OF THE RAINFOREST 211 Composition of the Fauna 212 Ecology of the Herpetofauna 212 Relationships of the Fauna 217 ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES 218 HYPOTHETICAL LIST OF SPECIES 246 SUMMARY 247 LITERATURE CITED 247 INTRODUCTION Early in 1960 an unusual opportunity arose to carry on biological field work in the midst of virgin rainforest in southern El Petén, Guatemala. At that time the Ohio Oil Company of Guatemala had an air strip and camp at Chinajá, from which place the company was constructing a road northward through the forest. In mid-February, 1960, J. Knox Jones, Jr. and I flew into El Petén to collect and study mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. While enjoying the comforts of the fine field camp at Chinajá, we worked in the surrounding forest and availed ourselves of the opportunity to be on hand when the road crews were cutting the tall trees in the forest, thereby bringing to the ground many interesting specimens of the arboreal fauna. We stayed at Chinajá until late March, with the exception of a week spent at Toocog, another camp of the Ohio Oil Company located 15 kilometers southeast of La Libertad and on the edge of the savanna. Thus, at Toocog we were able to work both in the forest and on the savanna. In the summer of 1960, John Wellman accompanied me to El Petén for two weeks in June and July. Most of our time was spent at Chinajá, but a few days were spent at Toocog and other localities in south-central El Petén. Many areas in Guatemala have been studied intensively by L. C. Stuart, who has published on the herpetofauna of the forested area of northeastern El Petén (1958), the savannas of central El Petén (1935), and the humid mountainous region to the south of El Petén in Alta Verapaz (1948 and 1950). The area studied by me and my companions is covered with rainforest and lies to the north of the highlands of Alta Verapaz and to the south of the savannas of central El Petén. A few specimens of amphibians and reptiles were obtained in this area in 1935 by C. L. Hubbs and Henry van der Schalie; this collection, reported on by Stuart (1937), contained only one species, _Cochranella fleischmanni_, not present in our collection of 77 species and 617 specimens. Acknowledgments I am grateful to L. C. Stuart of the University of Michigan, who made the initial arrangements for our work in El Petén, aided me in the identification of certain specimens, and helped in the preparation of this report. J. Knox Jones, Jr. and John Wellman were able field companions, who added greatly to the number of specimens in the collection. In Guatemala, Clark M. Shimeall and Harold Hoopman of the Ohio Oil Company of Guatemala made available to us the facilities of the company's camps at Chinajá and Toocog. Alberto Alcain and Luis Escaler welcomed us at Chinajá and gave us every possible assistance. Juan Monteras and Antonio Aldaña made our stay at Toocog enjoyable and profitable. During our visits to southern El Petén, Julio Bolón C. worked for us as a collector, and between March and June he collected and saved many valuable specimens; his knowledge of the forest and its inhabitants was a great asset to our work. Jorge A. Ibarra, Director of the Museo Nacional de Historia Natural in Guatemala assisted us in obtaining necessary permits and extended other kindnesses. To all of these people I am indebted for the essential parts that they played in the completion of this study. Field work in the winter of 1960 was made possible by funds from the American Heart Association for the purposes of collecting mammalian hearts. My field work in the summer of 1960 was supported by a grant from the Graduate Research Fund of the University of Kansas. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA A vast lowland region stretches northward for approximately 700 kilometers from the highlands of Guatemala to the Gulf of Mexico. The northern two-thirds of this low plain is bordered on three sides by seas and forms the Yucatán Peninsula. The lowlands at the base of the Yucatán Peninsula make up the Departamento El Petén of Guatemala. The area with which this report is concerned consists of the south-central part of El Petén. Physiography Immediately south of Chinajá is a range of hills, the Serrania de Chinajá, having an almost due east-west axis and a crest of about 600 meters above sea level. South of the Serrania de Chinajá are succeedingly higher ridges building up to the Meseta de Cobán and Sierra de Pocolha and eventually to the main Guatemalan highlands. The northern face of the Serrania de Chinajá is a fault scarp dropping abruptly from about 650 meters at the crest to about 140 meters at the base. From the base of the Serrania de Chinajá northward to the Río de la Pasión at Sayaxché the terrain is gently rolling and has a total relief of about 50 meters. North of the Río de la Pasión is a low dome reaching an elevation of 170 meters at La Libertad; see Stuart (1935:12) for further discussion of the physiography of central El Petén. The rocks in southern El Petén are predominately Miocene marine limestones; there are occasional pockets of Pliocene deposits. There is little evidence of subterranean solution at Chinajá, but northward in central El Petén karsting is common. The upper few inches of soil is humus rich in organic matter; below this is clay. Climate The climate of El Petén is tropical with equable temperatures throughout the year. Temperatures at Chinajá varied between a night-time low of 65° F. and a daytime high of 91° F. during the time of our visits. In the Köppen system of classification the climate at Chinajá and Toocog is Af. Rain falls throughout the year, but there is a noticeable dry season. To anyone who has traveled from south to north in El Petén and the Yucatán Peninsula, it is obvious from the changes in vegetation that there is a decrease in rainfall from south to north. There is a noticeable difference between Chinajá and Toocog. Although rainfall data are not available for Chinajá and Toocog, there are records for nearby stations (Sapper, 1932). At Paso Caballos on the Río San Pedro about 40 kilometers northwest of Toocog the average annual rainfall amounts to 1620 mm.; the driest month is March (21 mm.), and the wettest months are June (269 mm.) and September (265 mm.). At Cubilquitz, Alta Verapaz, about 35 kilometers south-southwest of Chinajá and at an elevation of 300 meters, the average annual rainfall is 4006 mm.; the driest month is March (128 mm.), and the wettest months are July (488 mm.) and October (634 mm.). During the 18 days in February and March, 1960, that we kept records on the weather at Chinajá moderate to heavy showers occurred on seven days. During our stay there in June and July rain fell every day, as it did in Toocog. However, during the week spent at Toocog in March no rain fell. Vegetation The vegetation of northern and central El Petén has been studied by Lundell (1937), who made only passing remarks concerning the plants of the southern part of El Petén. No floristic studies have been made there. The following remarks are necessarily brief and are intended only to give the reader a general picture of the forest. I have included names of a few of the commoner trees that I recognized. Chinajá is located in a vast expanse of unbroken rainforest. In this forest there is a noticeable stratification of the vegetation. Three strata are apparent; in the uppermost layer the tops of the trees are from 40 to 50 meters above the ground. The spreading crowns of the trees and the interlacing vines form a nearly continuous canopy over the lower layers. Among the common trees in the upper stratum are _Calophyllum brasiliense_, _Castilla elastica_, _Cedrela mexicana_, _Ceiba pentandra_, _Didalium guianense_, _Ficus_ sp., _Sideroxylon lundelli_, _Swietenia macrophylla_, and _Vitex_ sp. (Pl. 1, fig. 1). The middle layer of trees have crowns about 25 meters above the ground; these trees in some places where the upper canopy is missing form the tallest trees in the forest. This is especially true on steep hillsides. Common trees in the middle layer include _Achras zapote_, _Bombax ellipticum_, _Cecropia mexicana_, _Orbignya cohune_, and _Sabal_ sp. The lowermost layer reaches a height of about 10 meters; in many places in the forest this layer is absent. Common trees in the lower stratum include _Crysophila argentea_, _Cymbopetalum penduliflorum_, _Casearia_ sp., and _Hasseltia dioica_. The ground cover is sparce; apparently only a few small herbs and ferns live on the heavily shaded forest floor. Important herpetological habitats include the leaf litter, rotting stumps, and rotting tree trunks on the forest floor and the buttresses of many of the gigantic trees, especially _Ceiba pentandra_ (Pl. 2). Epiphytes, especially various kinds of bromeliads, are common. Most frequently these are in the trees in the upper and middle strata. At Toocog there is sharp break between savanna and forest (Pl. 7, fig. 2). The forest is noticeably drier and more open than at Chinajá (Pl. 9). The crowns of the trees are lower, and there is no nearly continuous canopy between 40 and 50 meters above the ground. Although _Swietenia macrophylla_ and other large trees occur, they are less common than at Chinajá. Especially common at Toocog are _Achras zapote_, _Brosimum alicastrum_, and various species of _Ficus_. GAZETTEER The localities from which specimens were obtained are cited below and shown on the accompanying map (Fig. 1). [Illustration: FIG. 1. Map of El Petén, Guatemala, showing localities mentioned in text.] Chinajá.--Lat. 16° 02´, long. 90° 13´, elev. 140 m. Camp of the Ohio Oil Company of Guatemala and formerly a small settlement. On some maps Chinajá is located just to the north of the Alta Verapaz--El Petén boundary; recent surveys place the location just to the south of the imaginary line through the rainforest. Field work was conducted in the immediate vicinity of the camp, on the lower slopes of the Serrania de Chinajá, and at several sites to the northwest and north-northwest of Chinajá, where the forest was being cleared. The entire area supports rainforest. La Libertad.--Lat. 16° 47´, long. 90° 07´, elev., 170 m. A town on the savannas in central El Petén; although we collected there in the rainy season, the specimens obtained on the savannas are not included in this report. Paso Subín.--Lat. 16° 38´, long. 90° 12´, elev. 90 m. A small settlement on the Río Subín, a tributary of the Río de la Pasión. Specimens were obtained in rainforest in the immediate vicinity of the settlement. Río de la Pasión.--A large river flowing northward through southern El Petén and thence westward into the Río Usumacinta. Specimens were obtained along the river between the Río Subín and Sayaxché. Río San Román.--A river flowing northward in south-central El Petén to the Río Salinas (Usumacinta). We collected along the river at a place about 16 kilometers north-northwest of Chinajá, approximately at Lat. 16° 10´, long. 90° 17´, elev. 110 m. In the dry season the river was clear; it is surrounded by rainforest. Sayaxché.--Lat. 16° 31´, long. 90° 09´, elev. 80 m. A town on the southern bank of the Río de la Pasión. Specimens were obtained in the rainforest and in cleared areas in the immediate vicinity of the town. Toocog (formerly Sojío).--Lat. 16° 41´, long. 90° 02´, elev. 140 m. A camp of the Ohio Oil Company of Guatemala located at the rainforest-savanna edge, 15 kilometers southeast of La Libertad. Although we collected on the savannas as well as in the forest, especially to the east of the camp, only species obtained in the forest are considered in this report. THE HERPETOFAUNA OF THE RAINFOREST In presenting an account of the herpetofauna of southern El Petén three items need to be considered: (1) The composition of the fauna; (2) the ecology of the fauna; (3) the relationships of the fauna. Each of these topics is discussed briefly below. Logically a discussion of the origin of the fauna should follow, but this is being withheld for inclusion in a report on the herpetofauna of the entire El Petén by L. C. Stuart and the author; at that time the above topics will be expanded to cover the herpetofauna of the whole region. Composition of the Fauna TABLE 1.--COMPOSITION OF THE HERPETOFAUNA IN SOUTHERN EL PETÉN, GUATEMALA. =============+============+============+============ Group | Families | Genera | Species -------------+------------+------------+------------ Gymnophiona | (1)[A] | (1) | (1) Caudata | 1 | 1 | 2 Salientia | 6 | 10 (1) | 19 (1) Crocodilia | 1 | 1 | 1 Testudines | 4 | 7 | 8 Sauria | 6 | 13 (1) | 19 (1) Serpentes | 4 | 21 (7) | 29 (10) +------------+------------+------------ Total | 22 (1) | 53 (10) | 78 (13) -------------+------------+------------+------------ [Footnote A: Numbers in parenthesis indicate the number of additional taxa that probably occur.] A total of 78 species of amphibians and reptiles has been found in the rainforests in southern El Petén; a break down into families and genera is given in table 1. Another 13 species probably occur in southern El Petén (see Hypothetical List of Species). The fauna primarily is composed of typical humid lowland forest inhabitants, such as: _Hyla ebraccata_ _Hyla loquax_ _Phyllomedusa callidryas taylori_ _Smilisca phaeota cyanosticta_ _Anolis biporcatus_ _Anolis capito_ _Anolis humilis uniformis_ _Eumeces sumichrasti_ _Ameiva festiva edwardsi_ _Imantodes cenchoa leucomelas_ _Leptophis ahaetulla praestans_ _Xenodon rabdocephalus mexicanus_ _Bothrops nasutus_ _Bothrops schlegeli schlegeli_ Nevertheless, the region also provides at least a limited amount of habitat suitable for some species that are more frequently found in open forest of a drier nature; such species include: _Hyla microcephala martini_ _Hyla staufferi_ _Hypopachus cuneus nigroreticulatus_ _Anolis sericeus sericeus_ _Eumeces schwartzei_ _Oxybelis aeneus aeneus_ Because of the absence of sufficiently open habitat or owing to the presence of competitors, some conspicuous members of sub-humid forests are not present in southern El Petén. Conspicuous absentees are the following: _Rhinophrynus dorsalis_ _Phrynohyas spilomma_ _Triprion petasatus_ _Anolis tropidonotus_ _Ctenosaura similis_ _Ameiva undulata_ _Cnemidophorus angusticeps_ _Conophis lineatus_ _Masticophis mentovarius mentovarius_ PLATE 7 [Illustration: FIG. 1. Edge of rainforest along airstrip at Chinajá, El Petén, Guatemala.] [Illustration: FIG. 2. Rainforest at edge of savanna at Toocog, El Petén, Guatemala.] PLATE 8 [Illustration: Interior of rainforest at Chinajá. Notice size of buttresses on large tree (_Ceiba pentandra_).] PLATE 9 [Illustration: Interior of rainforest at Toocog. Notice less dense vegetation as compared with Pl. 8.] PLATE 10 [Illustration: FIG. 1. Rainforest along Río San Román, 16 kilometers north-northwest of Chinajá.] [Illustration: FIG. 2. Rain pond in forest at Toocog. This was a breeding site for six species of frogs.] Ecology of the Herpetofauna Our two visits to Chinajá and Toocog afforded the opportunity to gather data on the ecology of the rainforests of southern El Petén and to study the relationships between the environment and members of the herpetofauna. Tropical rainforests present the optimum conditions for life, and it is in this environment that life reaches its greatest diversity. Here, too, biological inter-relationships are most complex. This complexity is illustrated by the presence of many species of some genera, all of which are found together in the same geographic region. In the rainforests of southern El Petén there are six species of _Anolis_, five of _Hyla_, four of _Bothrops_, and three of _Coniophanes_. Obviously, the diversity of ecological niches in the rainforest is sufficient to support a variety of related species. Of the examples mentioned above, fairly adequate ecological data were obtained for most of the species of _Anolis_, which will be used to show the ecological diversity and vertical stratification of sympatric species in the rainforests. Of the six species of _Anolis_, all except _A. sericeus_ are typically found in humid forests. _Anolis sericeus sericeus_ is poorly represented in the collections from southern El Petén, where it may be in competition with _Anolis limifrons rodriguezi_ that resembles _Anolis s. sericeus_ in size, coloration, and habits. Therefore, _Anolis sericeus sericeus_ is excluded from the following discussion. The common terrestrial species is _Anolis humilis uniformis_; sometimes this small species perches or suns on the bases of small trees or buttresses of some large trees. When disturbed it takes to the ground and seeks cover in the leaf litter or beneath logs or palm fronds. _Anolis lemurinus bourgeaei_ is about twice the size of _Anolis humilis uniformis_ and is usually observed on buttresses of large trees or on the lower two meters of tree trunks. Individuals were seen foraging on the ground along with _Anolis humilis uniformis_. At no time were _Anolis lemurinus bourgeaei_ observed to ascend the trunks of large trees; they always took refuge near the bases of trees. _Anolis limifrons rodriguezi_ is found on the stems and branches of bushes. It is a small species that sometimes is observed on the ground but was never seen ascending large trees. _Anolis capito_ is about the same size as _Anolis lemurinus bourgeaei_ and lives on the trunks of large trees. In the tops of the trees lives a large green species, _Anolis biporcatus_. Similar segregation habitatwise can be demonstrated for other members of the herpetofauna. The avoidance of interspecific competition in feeding is well illustrated by three species of snakes that probably are the primary ophidian predators on frogs. _Drymobius margaritiferus margaritiferus_ is diurnal and terrestrial; it feeds on frogs at the edges of breeding ponds by day. Also during the day _Leptophis mexicanus mexicanus_ feeds on frogs in bushes and trees. At night the activities of both of these species is replaced by those of _Leptodeira septentrionalis polysticta_, which not only feeds on the frogs in the trees and bushes, but descends to the ground and even enters the water in search of food. From the examples discussed above, the importance of the three dimensional aspect of the rainforest is apparent. The presence of a large and diverse habitat above the ground is of great significance in the rainforest, for of the non-aquatic components of the herpetofauna in the rainforests of southern El Petén, 42 per cent of the species spend at least part of their lives in the bushes and trees. Another important part of the forest is the subterranean level--the rich mulch, underground tunnels, and rotting subterranean vegetation. Of the 78 species of amphibians and reptiles in southern El Petén, seven are primarily fossorial, and half-a-dozen others are secondarily fossorial. Probably the fossorial members of the fauna are the least well represented in the collection, for such widespread species as _Dermophis mexicanus mexicanus_, _Rhadinaea decorata decorata_ and _Tantilla schistosa schistosa_ were expected, but not found. In the following discussion of the ecological distribution of amphibians and reptiles in the rainforest I have depended chiefly on my observations made in southern El Petén, but have taken into consideration observations made on the same species in other regions, together with reports from other workers. The reader should keep in mind that the evidence varies from species to species. Of some species I have observed only one animal in the field; of others, I have seen scores and sometimes hundreds of individuals. For species on which I have few observations or rather inconclusive evidence, the circumstance of inadequate data is mentioned. In analyzing the ecological distribution within the forest, it is convenient to recognize five subdivisions (habitats); each is treated below as a unit. 1. AQUATIC.--This habitat includes permanent streams and rivers (Pl. 10, fig. 1), some of which are clear and others muddy. In the rainy season temporary ponds form in depressions on the forest floor (Pl. 10, fig. 2); these are important as breeding sites for many species of amphibians. Aquatic members of the herpetofauna are here considered to be those species that either spend the greatest part of their lives in the water or usually retreat to water for shelter. Seven species of turtles and one crocodilian are aquatic. Of these, _Dermatemys mawi_, _Staurotypus triporcatus_, and _Pseudemys scripta ornata_ inhabit clear water, whereas _Chelydra rossignoni_, _Claudius angustatus_, _Kinosternon acutum_, and _K. leucostomum_ inhabit muddy water. _Crocodylus moreleti_ apparently inhabits both clear and muddy water, for in the dry season it lives along the clear rivers, but in the rainy season inhabits flooded areas in the forest as well. 2. AQUATIC MARGIN.--Extensive marshes were lacking in the part of southern El Petén that I visited; consequently, the aquatic margin habitat is there limited to the edges of rivers and borders of temporary ponds. _Bufo marinus_, _Rana palmipes_, and _Rana pipiens_ are characteristic inhabitants of the aquatic margin, although in the rainy reason _Bufo marinus_ often is found away from water. Observations indicate that _Tretanorhinus nigroluteus lateralis_ inhabits the margins of ponds and streams and actually spends considerable time in the water. Although _Iguana iguana rhinolopha_ is arboreal, it lives in trees along rivers, into which it plunges upon being disturbed. Species included in this category are those that customarily spend most of their lives at the edge of permanent water. Frogs and toads that migrate to the water for breeding and the snakes that prey on the frogs at that time are not assigned to the aquatic-margin habitat. 3. FOSSORIAL.--Characteristic inhabitants of the mulch on the forest floor are _Bolitoglossa moreleti mulleri_, _Lepidophyma flavimaculatum flavimaculatum_, _Scincella cherriei cherriei_, _Ninia sebae sebae_, _Pliocercus euryzonus aequalis_, and _Micrurus affinis apiatus_. Other species of snakes that spend most of their lives above ground often forage in the mulch layer; among these are _Coniophanes bipunctatus biserialis_, _Coniophanes fissidens fissidens_, _Coniophanes imperialis clavatus_, _Lampropeltis doliata polyzona_, and _Stenorrhina degenhardti_. Among the amphibians, at least _Hypopachus cuneus nigroreticulatus_, _Eleutherodactylus rostralis_, and _Syrrhophus leprus_ are known to seek shelter in the mulch. 4. TERRESTRIAL.--One turtle, _Geoemyda areolata_, is primarily terrestrial. Among the lizards, conspicuous terrestrial species are _Anolis humilis uniformis_ and _Ameiva festiva edwardsi_; _Anolis lemurinus bourgeaei_ and _Basiliscus vittatus_ spend part of their lives on the ground, but also live on trees and in bushes. _Eumeces schwartzei_ and _E. sumichrasti_ apparently are terrestrial. The only terrestrial lizard that is nocturnal is _Coleonyx elegans elegans_, which by day hides in the leaf litter or below ground. Nocturnal amphibians that are terrestrial include _Bufo marinus_, _Bufo valliceps valliceps_, _Eleutherodactylus rugulosus rugulosus_, _Syrrhophus leprus_, and _Hypopachus cuneus nigroreticulatus_. A large number of active diurnal snakes are terrestrial; these include _Boa constrictor imperator_, _Clelia clelia clelia_, _Dryadophis melanolomus laevis_, _Drymarchon corais melanurus_, _Drymobius margaritiferus margaritiferus_, _Pseustes poecilonotus poecilonotus_, and _Spilotes pullatus mexicanus_. Nocturnal terrestrial snakes include three kinds of _Bothrops_ (_B. atrox asper_, _B. nasutus_, and _B. nummifer nummifer_), all of which seem to be equally active by day. 5. ARBOREAL.--In this habitat the third dimension (height) of the rainforest probably is the most complex insofar as the inter-relationships of species and ecological niches are concerned. I have attempted to categorize species as to microhabitats within the arboreal habitat; in so doing, I recognize four subdivisions--bushes, tree trunks, tree tops, and epiphytes. Bush inhabitants include several species of lizards and snakes, all of which have rather elongate, slender bodies, and long tails. Common bush-inhabitants in southern El Petén are _Anolis limifrons rodriguezi_, _Basiliscus vittatus_, _Laemanctus deborrei_, _Leptophis mexicanus mexicanus_, and _Oxybelis aeneus aeneus_. All of these are diurnal, and all but _Laemanctus_ have been observed sleeping on bushes at night. Tree-trunk inhabitants include five species of lizards. _Thecadactylus rapicaudus_ lives on the trunks of large trees; _Sphaerodactylus lineolatus_ lives beneath the bark on dead trees and on corozo palms. _Anolis lemurinus bourgeaei_ lives on the bases and buttresses of large trees, from which it often descends to the ground. _Corythophanes cristatus_ and _Anolis capito_ were found only on tree trunks and large vines. The least information is available for the species living in the tree tops. The following species were obtained from tops of trees when they were felled, or have been observed living in the tree tops: _Anolis biporcatus_, _Iguana iguana rhinolopha_, _Celestus rozellae_, _Leptodeira septentrionalis polysticta_, _Leptophis ahaetulla praestans_, _Sibon dimidiata dimidiata_, and _Sibon nebulata nebulata_. Epiphytes, especially the bromeliads, provide refuge for a variety of tree frogs and small snakes. Of the tree frogs, _Hyla picta_, _Hyla staufferi_, _Phyllomedusa callidryas taylori_, _Similisca baudini_, and _Similisca phaeota cyanosticta_ have been found in bromeliads; other species probably occur there. Among the snakes, _Imantodes cenchoa leucomelas_, _Leptodeira frenata malleisi_, _Leptodeira septentrionalis polysticta_, _Sibon dimidiata dimidiata_, and _Sibon nebulata nebulata_ are frequent inhabitants of bromeliads; all of these snakes are nocturnal. Relationships of the Fauna Most of the 78 species of amphibians and reptiles definitely known from the rainforest in southern El Petén have extensive ranges in the Atlantic lowlands of southern México and Central America; many extend into South America. Sixty-two (80%) of the species belong to this group having extensive ranges in Middle America. Three species (_Syrrhophus leprus_, _Leptodeira frenata_, and _Kinosternon acutum_) are at the southern limits of their distributions in southern El Petén and northern Alta Verapaz, whereas _Eleutherodactylus rostralis_ and _Thecadactylus rapicaudus_ are at the northern and western limits of their distributions in El Petén. Nine (11%) species have the center of their distributions in El Petén and the Yucatán Peninsula; representatives of this group include _Claudius angustatus_, _Dermatemys mawi_, _Laemanctus deborrei_, and _Eumeces schwartzei_. In determining a measure of faunal resemblance, I have departed from the formulae discussed by Simpson (1960) and have analyzed the degree of resemblance by the following formula used to calculate an index of faunal relationships: C (2) / (N_{1} + N_{2}) = R, where C = species common to both faunas. N_{1} = number of species in the first fauna. N_{2} = number of species in the second fauna. R = degree of relationships (when R = 1.00, the faunas are identical; when R = 0, the faunas are completely different). The herpetofauna of southern El Petén has been compared with that in the Tikal-Uaxactún area (Stuart, 1958), that in the humid lowlands of Alta Verapaz (Stuart, 1950, plus additional data), and that in the Mexican state of Yucatán (Smith and Taylor, 1945, 1948, and 1950). The herpetofaunas of lowland Alta Verapaz and Yucatán are the largest, having respectively 94 and 91 species, where as there are 78 species known from southern El Petén and 64 from the Tikal-Uaxactún area. An analysis of faunal relationships (Table 2) shows that the faunas of the rainforests of southern El Petén and lowland Alta Verapaz are closely related. The relationships between these two areas and the Tikal-Uaxactún area in northern El Petén is notably less. Apparently the biggest faunal changes take place between southern El Petén and the Tikal-Uaxactún area, and between the latter and Yucatán. As stated by Stuart (1958:7) the Tikal-Uaxactún is transitional between the humid rainforests to the south and the dry outer end of the Yucatán Peninsula. The transitional nature of the environment is exemplified by a rather depauperate herpetofauna consisting of some species of both dry and humid environments and lacking a large fauna typical of either. Contrariwise, the continuity of the environment from southern El Petén to the lowlands of Alta Verapaz is reflected in degree of resemblance of the herpetofaunas. TABLE 2.--INDEX OF FAUNAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SOUTHERN EL PETÉN AND OTHER REGIONS. ======================+==========+==========+==========+========== | Lowland | Southern | Tikal- | | Alta | El | Uaxactún | Yucatán | Verapaz | Petén | Area | ----------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- Lowland Alta Verapaz | | .85 | .61 | .43 ----------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- Southern El Petén | .85 | | .64 | .41 ----------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- Tikal-Uaxactún Area | .61 | .64 | | .63 ----------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- Yucatán | .43 | .41 | .63 | ----------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- Most of the species of amphibians and reptiles found in southern El Petén are found in humid tropical forests from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec southeastward on the Atlantic lowlands well into Central America. ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES In the following pages various aspects of the occurrence, life histories, ecology, and variation of the species of amphibians and reptiles known from southern El Petén are discussed. Only _Cochranella fleischmanni_ reported by Stuart (1937) from Río Subín at Santa Teresa was not collected by us and is excluded. Because more worthwhile information was gathered for some species than others, the length and completeness of the accounts vary. All specimens listed are in the Museum of Natural History at the University of Kansas, to which institution all catalog numbers refer. Preceding the discussion of each species is an alphabetical list of localities from which specimens were obtained; numbers after a locality indicate the number of specimens obtained at each locality. =Bolitoglossa dofleini= (Werner) Chinajá, 1. An adult female having minute ovarian eggs has a snout-vent length of 81 mm., a tail length of 59 mm., 13 costal grooves, two intercostal spaces between adpressed toes, 38-35 vomerine teeth in irregular rows forming a broad arch from a point posterolaterad to the internal nares to a point near the anterior edge of the parasphenoid teeth, and 43-44 maxilliary-premaxillary teeth. In life the dorsum was rusty brown with irregular black and orange spots and streaks. The flanks were bluish gray with black in the costal grooves and creamy tan flecks along the ventral edge of the flank. The belly and underside of the tail were yellowish tan with dark brown spots laterally. The limbs were orange proximally and black distally; the pads of the feet were bluish black. The dorsal and lateral surfaces of the tail were yellowish orange with black spots. The iris was grayish yellow. Stuart (1943:17) reported this species from Finca Volcán, Alta Verapaz. He diagnosed his specimens as having 13 costal grooves and two or three intercostal spaces between adpressed toes. He stated that the vomerine teeth were about 12 in number and that in life the dorsum was mottled gray and black, the sides gray and brown, and the undersurfaces uniformly dark gray. These specimens differ noticeably from the individual from Chinajá in the number of vomerine teeth and in coloration. In August, 1961, I obtained a specimen of _Bolitoglossa dofleini_ at Finca Los Alpes, Alta Verapaz, approximately 13 kilometers airline south-southwest of Finca Volcán and at approximately the same elevation. Although the salamander was dead when found, it obviously was more heavily pigmented than the individual from Chinajá. The belly was bluish gray with black spots laterally; the dorsum was dull brownish gray with some brownish red streaks. The specimen is a female having small ovarian eggs, a snout-vent length of 90 mm., 13 costal grooves, and two intercostal spaces between adpressed limbs. There are 28-29 vomerine teeth, more than twice as many as in specimens from Finca Volcán (Stuart, 1943:17), but noticeably fewer than in the specimen from Chinajá. The presence of this species at Chinajá lends support to the idea that the specimen from the Río de la Pasión listed by Brocchi (1882:116) also is _Bolitoglossa dofleini_. Furthermore, the confirmed presence of this species in the lowlands of El Petén suggests that there may be genetic connection between _B. dofleini_ in the Alta Verapaz and _B. yucatana_ in the Yucatán Peninsula. _Bolitoglossa yucatana_ differs from _B. dofleini_ in having five intercostal spaces between adpressed toes and in having a different color pattern. Both are robust species having no close relationships to other species of _Bolitoglossa_ in northern Central America. The specimen from Chinajá was found in water in the axil of a large elephant-ear plant (_Xanthosoma_) by day in March. Its stomach contained fragments of beetles and a large roach. The natives did not know salamanders and had no name for them. =Bolitoglossa moreleti mulleri= (Brocchi) Chinajá, 2; Río San Román, 1. One specimen is a female having a snout-vent length of 80 mm., a tail length of 82 mm., and a total length of 162 mm. It contains 63 large eggs, the largest of which has a diameter of about three millimeters. This specimen has 13 costal grooves, four intercostal spaces between adpressed toes, and 12-13 vomerine teeth. A juvenile having a snout-vent length of 39 mm. and a tail length of 33 mm. has 12 costal grooves, three intercostal spaces between adpressed toes, and 8-8 vomerine teeth. In life these salamanders were uniformly dull brownish black above with a dull creamy yellow irregular dorsal stripe beginning on the occiput and continuing onto the tail. There are no yellow or orange streaks or flecks on the head or limbs. The specimen from the Río San Román was taken from the stomach of a _Pliocercus euryzonus aequalis_ and has not been studied in detail, because of its poor condition. The present specimens show no tendency for the development of a broad irregular dorsal band that encloses black spots or forms irregular dorsolateral stripes, as is characteristic of _B. moreleti mexicanus_, a subspecies that has been reported from La Libertad (Stuart, 1935:35) and Piedras Negras (Taylor and Smith, 1945:545) in El Petén, and from Xunantunich, British Honduras (Neill and Allen, 1959:20). Schmidt (1936:151) and Stuart (1943:13) found _B. moreleti mulleri_ in bromeliads at Finca Samac, Alta Verapaz. Taylor and Smith's (1945:545) and Neill and Allen's (1959:20) specimens of _B. moreleti mexicanus_ were obtained from bromeliads, but Neill and Allen (_loc. cit._) stated that the natives in British Honduras said that they had found salamanders beneath rubbish on the forest floor. My specimens were obtained from beneath logs on the forest floor in the rainy season. Possibly in drier environments the species characteristically inhabits bromeliads, at least in the dry season. =Bufo marinus= (Linnaeus) Chinajá, 3; 10 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1; 11 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1. During both visits to Chinajá this large toad was breeding in a small permanent pond in the camp. During the day the toads took refuge in crevices beneath the buildings or beneath large boulders by the pond. At dusk from four to ten males congregated at the pond and called. Tadpoles of this species were in the pond in March and in July. One juvenile was found beneath a rock in the forest, and another was on the forest floor by day. The natives' name for this species and the following one is _sapo_. =Bufo valliceps valliceps= Wiegmann Chinajá, 52; Río San Román, 8; Sayaxché, 2; Toocog, 1. This is one of the most abundant, or at least conspicuous, amphibians inhabiting the forest. Breeding congregations were found on February 24, March 2, March 11, and June 27. At these times the toads were congregated at temporary ponds in the forest or along small sluggish streams. Throughout the duration of both visits to Chinajá individual males called almost nightly at the permanent pond at the camp. The variation in snout-vent length of 20 males selected at random is 56.7 to 72.5 mm. (average, 64.8 mm.). Two adult females have snout-vent lengths of 80.4 and 87.6 mm. In all specimens the parotid glands are somewhat elongated and not rounded as in _Bufo valliceps wilsoni_ (see Baylor and Stuart, 1961:199). My observations on the condition of the cranial crests of the toads in El Petén agree with the findings of Baylor and Stuart (_op. cit._:198) in that hypertrophied crests are usual in large females. In the shape of the parotids and nature of the cranial crests the specimens from El Petén are like those from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in México. As I pointed out (1960:53), the validity of the subspecies _Bufo valliceps macrocristatus_, described from northern Chiapas by Firschein and Smith (1957:219) and supposedly characterized by hypertrophied cranial crests, is highly doubtful. In the toads from El Petén the greatest variation is in coloration. The dorsal ground-color varies from orange and rusty tan to brown, yellowish tan, and pale gray. In some individuals the flanks and dorsum are one continuous color, whereas in others a distinct dorsolateral pale colored band separates the dorsal color from dark brown flanks. In some individuals the venter is uniform cream color, in others it bears a few scattered black spots, and in still others there are many spots, some of which are fused to form a black blotch on the chest. In breeding males the vocal sac is orange tan. All specimens have a coppery red iris. Aside from the breeding congregations, active toads were found on the forest floor at night; a few were there by day. Some individuals were beneath logs during the day. =Eleutherodactylus rostralis= (Werner) Chinajá, 10. Because of the multiplicity of names and the variation in coloration, the small terrestrial _Eleutherodactylus_ in southern México and northern Central America are in a state of taxonomic confusion. Stuart (1934:7, 1935:37, and 1958:17) referred specimens from El Petén to _Eleutherodactylus rhodopis_ (Cope). Stuart (1941b:197) described _Eleutherodactylus anzuetoi_ from Alta Verapaz and El Quiché, Guatemala, suggested that the new species was an upland relative of _Eleutherodactylus rostralis_ (Werner), and used that name for the frogs that he earlier had referred to _Eleutherodactylus rhodopis_. Dunn and Emlen (1932:24) placed _E. rostralis_ in the synonymy of _E. gollmeri_ (Peters). Examination of series of these frogs from southern México, Guatemala, and Costa Rica causes me to think that there are four species; these can be distinguished as follows: _E. rhodopis._--No web between toes; one tarsal tubercle; tibiotarsal articulation reaches to nostril; iris bronze in life. _E. anzuetoi._--No web between toes; a row of tarsal tubercles; tibiotarsal articulation reaches to tip of snout; color of iris unknown. _E. rostralis._--A vestige of web between toes; no tarsal tubercles; tibiotarsal articulation reaches snout or slightly beyond; iris coppery red in life. _E. gollmeri._--A vestige of web between toes; no tarsal tubercles; tibiotarsal articulation reaches well beyond snout; iris coppery red in life. The presence of webbing between the toes, the absence of tarsal tubercles, and the coppery red iris distinguish _E. rostralis_ and _E. gollmeri_ from the other species. Probably _E. rostralis_ and _E. gollmeri_ are conspecific, but additional specimens are needed from Nicaragua and Honduras to prove conspecificity. On the other hand, the characters of the frogs from Chinajá clearly show that they are related to _E. gollmeri_ to the south and not to _E. rhodopis_ to the north in México. At Chinajá, _Eleutherodactylus rostralis_ was more abundant than the few specimens indicate, for upon being approached the frogs moved quickly and erratically, soon disappearing in the leaf litter on the forest floor. Most of the specimens were seen actively moving on the forest floor in the daytime; one was found beneath a rock, and one was on the forest floor at night. =Eleutherodactylus rugulosus rugulosus= (Cope) Chinajá, 2; 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 4. These frogs were found on the forest floor by day. With the exception of one female having a snout-vent length of 69.5 mm., all are juveniles. The apparent rarity of this species at Chinajá may be due to the absence of rocky streams, a favorite habitat of this frog. The local name for this frog is _sapito_, meaning little toad. =Leptodactylus labialis= (Cope) Toocog, 1. One juvenile having a snout-vent length of 16.4 mm. was found at night beside a pond in the forest. The scarcity of the species of _Leptodactylus_ in the southern part of El Petén probably is due to the lack of permanent marshy ponds. =Leptodactylus melanonotus= (Hallowell) Sayaxché, 1. One individual was found beneath a rock beside a stream in the forest. The local name is _ranita_, meaning little frog. =Syrrhophus leprus= Cope Chinajá, 2; 15 km NW of Chinajá, 1. An adult female having a snout-vent length of 27.5 mm. was found on the forest floor by day. Two juveniles having snout-vent lengths of 15.5 and 19.0 mm. were beneath rocks on the forest floor. The specimens are typical of the species as defined by Duellman (1958:8). =Hyla ebraccata= Cope Toocog, 66. This small tree frog congregated in large numbers at a forest pond at Toocog. Between June 30 and July 2 we collected specimens and observed the breeding habits of this and other species at the pond. Calling males were distributed around the pond, where they called from low herbaceous vegetation at the edge of the pond or from plants rising above the water. Calling commenced at dusk and continued at least into the early hours of the morning. On one occasion a female was observed at a distance of about 50 centimeters away from a calling male sitting on a blade of grass. The female climbed another blade of grass until she was about eight centimeters away from the male, at which time he saw her, stopped calling, jumped to the blade of grass on which she was sitting and clasped her. Clasping pairs were observed on blades of grass and leaves of plants above the water; most pairs were less than 50 centimeters above the surface of the pond. The eggs are deposited on the dorsal surfaces of leaves above the water. All eggs are in one plane (a single layer) on the leaf. External membranes are barely visible, as the eggs consist of a single coherent mass. Eggs in the yolk plug stage have diameters of 1.2 to 1.4 mm. Seventeen eggs masses were found; these contained from 24 to 76 (average 44) eggs. The jelly is extremely viscous and tacky to the touch. At time of hatching the jelly becomes less viscous; the tadpoles wriggle until they reach the edge of the leaf and drop into the water. Eleven tadpoles were preserved as they hatched; these have total lengths of 4.5 to 5.0 (average 4.77) mm. Hatchling tadpoles are active swimmers and have only a small amount of yolk. The largest tadpoles preserved have total lengths of 13.0 and 13.5 mm. At this size distinctive sword-tail and bright coloration have developed. [Illustration: FIG. 2. Tadpole of _Hyla ebraccata_ (KU 59986) from Toocog, El Petén, Guatemala. × 6.] Description of fully developed tadpole (KU 59986): Total length, 13.5 mm.; tail-length, 8.4 mm., 62 per cent of total length. Snout, in dorsal view, bluntly rounded; in lateral view less bluntly rounded; body depressed; head flattened; mouth terminal; eye large, its diameter 25 per cent of length of body; nostrils near tip of snout and directed anteriorly; spiracle sinistral and situated postero-ventrad to eye; cloaca median. Tail-fin thrice depth of tail-musculature, which extends beyond posterior end of tail-fin giving sword-tail appearance (Fig. 2). In life, black stripe on each side of body and on top of head; black band on anterior part of tail and another on the posterior part; body and anterior part of tail creamy yellow; dark red band between black bands on tail. Mouth terminal, small, its width about one-fifth width of body; fleshy ridge dorsally and ventrally; row of small papillae on ventral lip; no lateral indentations of lips; upper beak massive, convex, and finely serrate; lower beak small and mostly concealed behind upper; no teeth (Fig. 3). [Illustration: FIG. 3. Mouthparts of larval _Hyla ebraccata_ (KU 59986) from Toocog, El Petén, Guatemala. × 100.] =Hyla loquax= Gaige and Stuart Toocog, 14. These specimens were found at night when they were calling from low vegetation in a forest pond. Most of the frogs were several meters away from the edge of the pond. Although two clasping pairs were found, we obtained no eggs or tadpoles referable to this species. =Hyla microcephala martini= Smith Chinajá, 1; Toocog, 21. The specimen from Chinajá was calling from a small bush at the edge of a temporary grassy pond in a clearing in the forest. At Toocog this species was closely associated with _Hyla ebraccata_; males were calling from herbaceous vegetation in and around the forest pond. These frogs were not so abundant in the forest at Toocog as they were around ponds on the savanna at La Libertad. =Hyla picta= (Günther) Toocog, 8. This small tree frog was calling from herbs in a pond in the forest on June 30 and July 2. The voice is weak; probably greater numbers of males were present than are indicated by the few specimens collected, for the din from the more vociferous species made it impossible to hear _Hyla picta_ unless one was calling close by. =Hyla staufferi= Cope Chinajá, 1. This individual was calling from a low bush in the clearing at Chinajá. None was found in the pond in the forest at Toocog. Stuart (1935:38) and Duellman (1960:63) noted that _Hyla staufferi_ breeds early in the rainy season. Nevertheless, I think early breeding habits do not account for the near absence of this species in our collections from southern El Petén. In early July, 1960, a few individuals were heard at a pond on the savanna at La Libertad. In mid-July of the same year they were calling sporadically from temporary ponds in the lower Motagua Valley. Possibly the individual collected at Chinajá was accidentally transported there in cargo from Toocog, from which camp at the edge of the savanna planes fly to Chinajá weekly. My observations on this species throughout its range in México and Central America indicate that it inhabits savannas and semi-arid forests and usually is absent from heavy rainforest. Stuart (1948:34) obtained this species at Cubilquitz in the lowlands of Alta Verapaz. =Phyllomedusa callidryas taylori= Funkhouser Toocog, 25. Between June 30 and July 2 this species was abundant at a pond in the forest at Toocog. Calling males were as high as five meters in bushes and trees around the pond. At dusk males were observed descending a vine-covered tree at the edge of the pond; this strongly suggests that the frogs retreat to this tree and others like it for diurnal seclusion. Clasping pairs were found on branches and leaves above the water. The eggs are deposited in clumps usually on vertical leaves, but sometimes on horizontal leaves or on branches, vines, and aerial roots above the water. Twenty-six clutches of eggs contained from 14 to 44 (average 29) eggs. In a clutch in which the eggs are in yolk plug stage the average diameter of the embryos is 2.3 mm. and that of the vitelline membranes, 3.4 mm. Most of the eggs are in the external part of the gelatinous mass; the jelly is clear. The yolk is pale green, and the animal pole is brown. As development ensues, the yolk becomes yellow and the embryo first dark brown and then pale grayish tan. Upon hatching the tadpoles wriggle free of the jelly and drop into the water. One clutch of 19 eggs was observed to hatch in three minutes. Apparently, on dropping into the water the hatchling tadpoles go to the bottom of the pond, for one or two minutes pass from the time they enter the water until they reappear near the surface. The average total length of seven hatchling tadpoles is 7.4 mm. There is a moderate amount of yolk, but this does not form a large ventral bulge. Large tadpoles congregate in the sunny parts of the pond, where they were observed just beneath the surface. Many had their mouths at the surface. Except for constant fluttering of the tip of the tail, they lie quietly with the axis of the body at an angle of about 45 degrees with the surface of the water. Description of tadpole (KU 60006): total length, 24.5 mm.; tail-length, 15.4 mm.; body broader than deep; head moderately flattened; snout viewed from above blunt; nostrils close to snout and directed dorsally; eyes of moderate size and directed laterally; mouth directed anteroventrally; anus median; spiracle ventral, its opening just to left of midline slightly more than one-half distance from tip of snout to vent. Tail-fin slightly more than twice as deep as tail musculature, which curves upward posteriorly; tail-fin narrowly extending to tip of tail (Fig. 4). Color in life pale gray; in preservative white with scattered melanophores; tail-fin transparent. [Illustration: FIG. 4. Tadpole of _Phyllomedusa callidryas taylori_ (KU 60006) from Toocog, El Petén, Guatemala. × 4.] Upper lip having single row of papillae laterally, but none medially; lower lip having single row of papillae; no lateral indentation of lips; two or more rows of papillae at lateral corners of lips; tooth-rows 2/3; second upper tooth row as long as first, interrupted medially; inner lower tooth-row as long as upper rows, interrupted medially; second and third lower rows decreasingly shorter; upper beak moderate in size and having long lateral projections; lower beak moderate in size; both beaks finely serrate (Fig. 5). [Illustration: FIG. 5. Mouthparts of larval _Phyllomedusa callidryas taylori_ (KU 60006) from Toocog, El Petén, Guatemala. × 30.] =Smilisca baudini= (Duméril and Bibron) Chinajá, 9; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 42; Río de la Pasión, 1; Río San Román, 5; Sayaxché; Toocog, 2. Individuals of this species were found at night sitting on bushes and small trees in the forest in February and March and again in June and July. One was in the axil of a leaf of a _Xanthosoma_. In June and July males were heard nearly every night. The series of specimens from 20 kilometers north-northwest of Chinajá was taken from a breeding congregation in a shallow muddy pool in the forest. Tadpoles of this species were in small, often muddy pools in the forest. To my knowledge _Smilisca baudini_ is the only hylid to breed in these pools at Chinajá, although perhaps _Smilisca phaeota_ also utilizes them. The only other amphibian at Chinajá known to breed in the pools is _Bufo valliceps valliceps_. Although two specimens were on bushes at night at Toocog, _Smilisca baudini_ was not present at the pond where five other species of hylids were breeding. Nevertheless, _Smilisca baudini_ was calling from two ponds on the savannas near La Libertad. All of the specimens from southern El Petén have yellow or yellowish white flanks and ventrolateral surfaces. =Smilisca phaeota cyanosticta= (Smith) Chinajá, 4; 10 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1. All specimens were found in February and March. Those from Chinajá were obtained from _Xanthosoma_ and bromeliads; the individual from 10 kilometers north-northwest of Chinajá is an adult male that was calling from a puddle in a fallen tree on March 13. A juvenile having a snout-vent length of 34.7 mm. lacks the pale blue spots on the thighs; instead, the anterior and posterior surfaces of the thighs are bright red. =Hypopachus cuneus nigroreticulatus= Taylor Toocog, 1. An adult male having a snout-vent length of 41.7 mm. was found at night on the forest floor at the edge of a temporary pond. In life the dorsum was dark brown with chocolate brown markings; the stripe on the side of the head was white; the middorsal stripe was pale orange; the belly was black and white, and the iris was a bronze color. Characteristically this species inhabits savannas and open forest; thus, its occurrence in the rainforest at Toocog is surprising. This is the southernmost record for the species in El Petén; to the south in the highlands it is replaced by the smaller _Hypopachus inguinalis_, having rounded, instead of compressed, metatarsal tubercles. =Rana palmipes= Spix Chinajá, 11; 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 1; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1. With the exception of one recently metamorphosed juvenile having a snout-vent length of 30.7 mm. that was found on the forest floor by day on June 24, and one that was found beside a pool in a cave, all individuals were found at temporary woodland pools or along sluggish streams at night. The largest specimen is a female having a snout-vent length of 107 mm. =Rana pipiens= Schreber Chinajá, 1; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1; Río San Román, 1; Toocog, 1. All specimens were found near water at night. The largest individual is a female having a snout-vent length of 112.5 mm. =Crocodylus moreleti= Duméril and Duméril Chinajá, 1; Río San Román, 1. One specimen was obtained from a quiet pool in the Río San Román at night; another was found in a small sluggish stream at Chinajá. Two large individuals were seen in tributaries to the Río San Román. On the savannas at Toocog two small individuals were obtained in the dry season, at which time the crocodiles apparently were migrating to water. The local name for this species is _lagarto_. =Chelydra rossignoni= (Bocourt) Chinajá, 1; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1. The paucity of specimens of _Chelydra_ from Central America has resulted in rather inadequate diagnoses of various populations. The present specimens have carapace lengths of 250 and 238 mm. and plastral lengths of 185 and 176 mm. The length of carapace/bridge ratio is 6.0 and 6.1 per cent. Each individual has four barbels, the median pair of which are extremely long. In KU 55977 the lateral pair of barbels is forked at the base. The relative length of the plastral bridge in these specimens compares favorable with the ratio (.06-.08) given by Schmidt (1946:4) for five specimens from Honduras. _Chelydra serpentina_, which may occur sympatrically with _C. rossignoni_ in some parts of Central America, has a narrower plastral bridge and only two barbels beneath the chin. Furthermore, _C. rossignoni_ and _C. osceola_ in Florida have long, flat tubercles on the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the neck, whereas _C. serpentina_ has short, round tubercles. The specimen from Chinajá was found in a small sluggish stream; the other individual was in a muddy pool in the forest. The local name is _sambodanga_. =Claudius angustatus= Cope 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1. One specimen was unearthed from the bank of a small muddy stream by a bulldozer. This individual represents the second record for the species in Guatemala; the first was provided by specimens, likewise found in muddy waters, at Tikal (Stuart, 1958:19). The local name is _caiman_. =Kinosternon acutum= Gray 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 4; 30 km. NNW of Chinajá, 2. These turtles were found on the forest floor, in small sluggish streams, and in pools in the forest. One adult male had, in life, the top of the head yellow with black spots; the stripes on the head and neck were red. Specimens were obtained both in the dry and rainy seasons. The local name for both species of _Kinosternon_ is _pochitoque_. =Kinosternon leucostomum= Duméril and Bibron Chinajá, 3; 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 1; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 2. Individuals of this turtle were found on the forest floor and in small sluggish streams. In life most specimens had a tan or pale brown head with pinkish tan stripes on the head and neck. All individuals were obtained in February and March. No ecological differences between this species and _K. acutum_ were evident. =Staurotypus triporcatus= (Wiegmann) Paso Subín, 1. This species is represented in the collection by one complete shell found on the bank of the Río Subín. The carapace has a length of 292 mm. The local name is _Guao_. Natives stated that this turtle was not uncommon in clear rivers and lakes, a habitat suggested for the species by Stuart (1958:19). =Dermatemys mawi= Gray Chinajá, 1; Río San Román, 4. The record from Chinajá is based on a carapace found in a chiclero camp, where the turtle evidently had been brought for food. The four specimens from the Río San Román were obtained from edges of deep pools in clear water. In adult males the top of the head was reddish orange in life. One of the specimens from the Río San Román currently is living in the Philadelphia Zoological Gardens. The local name for this turtle is _tortuga blanca_; it is sought for its meat. =Geoemyda areolata= (Duméril and Bibron) Chinajá, 2. Two specimens were obtained from dense forest at Chinajá. The local name is _mojina_. =Pseudemys scripta ornata= (Gray) Paso Subín, 1. One subadult was obtained from clear water in the Río Subín. The stripes on the head and neck were yellow; there was no red "ear" on the side of the head. The stripes on the forelimbs were orange, and the ocelli on the carapace were red. The local name is _jicotea_. =Coleonyx elegans elegans= Gray Toocog, 1. One adult male having a snout-vent length of 89 mm. was found beneath a log in the forest. Locally this gecko is known as _escorpión_; the natives believe it to be deadly poisonous. The use of the name _escorpión_ seems to be restricted to lizards thought to be venomous. Nearly everywhere in México and Central America some species of lizard carries this appellation. In El Petén I heard the name used only for _Coleonyx elegans_ and _Thecadactylus rapicaudus_; in the lowlands of Guerrero, México, the name is applied to geckos of the genus _Phyllodactylus_. The venomous lizards of the genus _Heloderma_ in the lowlands of western México are called _escorpiónes_. In the mountains of southern México various skinks of the genus _Eumeces_, as well as lizards of the genus _Xenosaurus_, carry the same appellation. _Abronia_ in the mountains of México and _Gerrhonontus_ throughout México and Central America likewise are called _escorpiónes_. Although many people in various parts of Middle America consider most lizards poisonous, there is a unanimity of opinion concerning the venomous qualities of the various kinds of _escorpiónes_. I know of only two other lizards in Middle America that are so uniformly regarded in native beliefs; these are _Enyaliosaurus clarki_ in the Tepalcatepec Valley in Michoacán, called _nopiche_, and _Phrynosoma asio_ in western México, called _cameleón_. =Sphaerodactylus lineolatus= Lichtenstein 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 1; Toocog, 1. These small geckos were much more abundant than the few specimens indicate. They frequently were seen on the trunks of corozo palms, where they quickly took refuge in crevices at the bases of the fronds. The specimen obtained at Toocog was under the bark of a standing dead tree. In life the ventral surface of the tail was orange. The individual from Chinajá was in the leaf litter on the ground at the base of a dead tree. =Thecadactylus rapicaudus= (Houttuyn) 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 1; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 2. Two specimens were found beneath the bark of standing dead trees; another was found in the crack in the trunk of a mahogany tree about 13 meters above the ground. In life the dorsum was yellowish tan with dark brown markings; the venter was yellowish tan with brown flecks, and the iris was olive-tan. The largest specimen is a male having a snout-vent length of 95 mm.; all specimens have regenerated tails. Individuals when caught twisted their bodies and attempted to bite; upon grabbing a finger they held on with great tenacity. =Anolis biporcatus= (Wiegmann) 14 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1; 17 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 3; 30 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1; Sayaxché, 1. All specimens of this large anole were obtained from trees. Some individuals were found in the tops of trees immediately after they were felled. My limited observations on this anole suggest that it is an inhabitant of the upper levels of the forest. In life an adult male from 20 kilometers north-northwest of Chinajá was brilliant green above; the eyelids were bright yellow; the belly was white. The outer part of the dewlap was pale orange, and the median part was pinkish blue. A juvenile having a snout-vent length of 47 mm. and a tail length of 86 mm. was pale grayish green with pale gray flecks on the dorsum. The largest male has a snout-vent length of 98 mm. and a tail length of 217 mm.; the same measurements of the largest female are 89 and 213 mm. This species, together with all other anoles, is known locally as _toloque_. =Anolis capito= Peters Chinajá, 2; 14 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1; Río de la Pasión, 1. All individuals were observed on trunks of trees between heights of three and ten meters above the ground. The largest male has a snout-vent length of 81 mm. and a tail length of 155 mm.; the same measurements of the largest female are 87 and 150 mm. The streaked brown dorsum, combined with the lizards' habit of pressing the body against the trunks of trees, make this anole especially difficult to see. =Anolis humilis uniformis= Cope Chinajá, 24; 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 22; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 6; Sayaxché, 1. This small dull brown anole is a characteristic inhabitant of the forest floor, where the lizards move about in a series of quick, short hops and thus easily evade capture. Three individuals were found on small bushes, and four were on the bases of trees; otherwise, all were observed on the ground. Observations indicate that this species is active throughout the day, except during and immediately after heavy rains. The males have a deep red dewlap with a dark blue median spot. =Anolis lemurinus bourgeaei= Bocourt Chinajá, 11; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 4; 30 km. NNW of Chinajá, 2; Río de la Pasión, 1; Río San Román, 1; Sayaxché, 8; Toocog, 6. This moderate-sized anole characteristically inhabits the low bushes and bases of trees in the forest. Individuals were most readily observed on the buttresses of some of the gigantic mahogany and ceiba trees. When approached the lizards usually ran around the tree or ducked to the other side of the buttress; if the observer moved closer, they jumped to the ground and ran off. None was observed to ascend large trees. Some individuals were observed foraging on the forest floor; these took shelter on the bases of trees. One individual was sleeping on a palm frond at night. The adult males have a uniformly orange-red dewlap. =Anolis limifrons rodriguezi= Bocourt 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 2; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1. In dry forests and more open situations than occur at Chinajá this little anole is abundant, but in the wet forests of southern El Petén, only three specimens were found. Two were on palm fronds about two meters above the ground; the other was on a low bush. I suspect that ecologically this species overlaps _A. humilis uniformis_ and _A. lemurinus bourgeaei_, but too few observations are recorded to justify a definite statement at this time. =Anolis sericeus sericeus= Hallowell Chinajá, 2; Sayaxché, 1; Toocog, 1. This small anole is common and widespread in the Atlantic lowlands of southern México and northern Central America; usually it inhabits sub-humid regions. Consequently, its presence in the wet forests of southern El Petén was unexpected. The specimens from Chinajá were sleeping on low bushes at night, whereas the others were found on bushes by day. =Basiliscus vittatus= Wiegmann Chinajá, 6; Río de la Pasión, 1; Río San Román, 1; Sayaxché, 3; Toocog, 1. Individuals of this abundant species were most frequently seen in dense bushes along the margins of rivers or small streams. None was observed far from water. These lizards, like the anoles, are known locally as _toloque_. =Corythophanes cristatus= (Merrem) Chinajá, 3; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1. Three individuals were found on tree trunks; the fourth was on a thick vine about one meter above the ground. The two largest males have snout-vent lengths of 121 and 115 mm. and tail lengths of 265 and 243 mm. The largest female (KU 59603), obtained on June 28, has a snout-vent length of 125 mm. and a tail length of 247 mm. This individual contained eight ova varying in greatest diameter from 10.6 to 12.2 (average 11.1) mm. Also present are numerous ovarian eggs having diameters up to about 3.5 mm. One of the large males displayed a defensive behavior prior to capture. When first observed the lizard was clinging to a tree trunk about one and one-half meters above the ground. When I approached, the lizard turned its flanks towards me; then it flattened the body laterally, extended the dewlap, opened its mouth, and made short rushing motions. When touched it bit viciously. On the ground these lizards have a rather awkward bipedal gait that is much slower than in _Basiliscus vittatus_. In life an adult male (KU 55804) was reddish brown dorsally with dark chocolate brown markings; the venter was creamy white, and the iris was dark red. The natives call this lizard _piende jente_. =Iguana iguana rhinolopha= Wiegmann Río San Román, 2. The _iguana_, as this lizard is called locally, seems to be uncommon in the forested areas of southern El Petén. Possibly this is due to the fact that the flesh of this lizard is relished as food by the natives. My two specimens were in large trees at the edge of the river. =Laemanctus deborrei= Boulenger Chinajá, 1; Toocog, 5. On June 26 a female having a snout-vent length of 129 mm. and a tail length of 502 mm. was found on a bush in the forest. The lizard, when approached, faced the collector and opened its mouth. In life the dorsum was bright green; the lateral stripe was white, and the iris was yellowish brown. This specimen contained four ova having lengths of 13.4 to 14.2 (average 13.9) mm. On June 30 at Toocog five white-shelled eggs were found in a rotting log. Measurements of the eggs are--length, 23.5 to 25.0 (average 24.2) mm.; width, 15.0 to 15.5 (average 15.4) mm. These eggs hatched on August 30. The five young had snout-vent lengths of 43 to 45 (average 44) mm., and tail lengths of 137 to 140 (average 138) mm. In life the hatchlings had a dull dark green dorsum, pale bright green venter and stripes on head, and reddish brown iris. In preservative the hatchlings are creamy tan above with five or six square dark brown blotches middorsally. The natives consider this lizard to be one of the anoles; consequently, it is known as _toloque_. =Lepidophyma flavimaculatum flavimaculatum= Duméril Chinajá, 8; 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 2. Individuals were found beneath logs on the forest floor or moving about in the litter on the forest floor. One was observed crawling across a trail during a heavy rain. In some adults the tan dorsal spots are large and distinct; in others the spots are small and indistinct. Two juveniles, apparently recent hatchlings, were found on June 28 and July 5. These specimens have snout-vent lengths of 29 mm. and tail lengths of 38 and 41 mm. =Eumeces schwartzei= Fischer Chinajá, 1. One specimen (KU 59551) was found on the forest floor at midday; it is an adult female having a snout-vent length of 125 mm. and a tail length of 210 mm. This specimen is larger than those recorded by Taylor (1936:99) and extends the known range of the species south of Ramate, approximately 125 kilometers south-south-westward to Chinajá. =Eumeces sumichrasti= (Cope) 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1. One adult male having a snout-vent length of 82 mm. was found beneath a palm frond on the forest floor. In life the dorsum was dull brown; the chin was cream; the belly was yellow, and the underside of the tail was orange. A juvenile having a black body, yellow dorsal stripes, and a bright blue tail was observed on the forest floor. =Scincella cherriei cherriei= (Cope) Chinajá, 2; 30 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1; Toocog, 1. All individuals of this lizard were found in the leaf litter on the forest floor; many escaped capture. In life the tail is dull bluish gray. The number of dorsal scales varies from 59 to 61 (average 60); thus, these specimens fall within the range of variation of _S. cherriei cherriei_, and thereby differ from _S. cherriei stuarti_ to the west and _S. cherriei ixbaac_ to the north. =Ameiva festiva edwardsi= Bocourt Chinajá, 16; 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 10; Sayaché, 4; Toocog, 1. This abundant terrestrial lizard, locally called _lagartijo_, is found throughout the forest. A juvenile obtained on March 14 at Sayaxché has a snout-vent length of 42 mm. and a prominent umbilical scar. Other juveniles were observed at Chinajá in February and March, thereby indicating that the young probably hatch in the early part of the year. Juveniles have bright blue tails. =Celestus rozellae= Smith 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 2. Two specimens were obtained from trees by workmen in February. These lizards have snout-vent lengths of 70 and 83 mm. and tail lengths of 133 and 135 mm. There are 21 and 23 lamellae beneath the fourth toe; each has 31 longitudinal rows of scales around the body. =Boa constrictor imperator= Daudin 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 1; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 2; Toocog, 1. All specimens were found on the forest floor. One individual was found in combat with a large _Drymarchon corais melanurus_. Apparently, the _Drymarchon_ was attempting to devour the _Boa_, which had a total length of 1683 mm. Locally this snake is called _masacuata_; it is one of the few snakes believed by the local inhabitants to be non-poisonous. =Clelia clelia clelia= Daudin 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 1; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1. One specimen is represented only by the head; the snake was killed on the forest floor by workmen. Another individual was found in a pool of water at the base of a limestone outcropping in the forest; this specimen (KU 58167) is a female having a body length of 2220 mm. and a total length of 2634 mm. This snake contained 22 ova averaging 56 × 23 mm. Both specimens were uniform shiny black above and cream-color below. The local name is _sumbadora_. =Coniophanes bipunctatus bipunctatus= (Günther) Chinajá, 1. This snake was found on the forest floor by day; it is a male having 130 ventrals, an incomplete tail; cream-colored belly, and a pair of large brown spots on each ventral scute. =Coniophanes fissidens fissidens= (Günther) Toocog, 1. This male specimen was found beneath a rock in a sink hole. It has 122 ventrals and 77 caudals. A narrow temporal stripe extends along the upper edge of the anterior temporal and the lower edge of the upper secondary temporal. The belly is ashy white with a pair of small black spots on each ventral. =Coniophanes imperialis clavatus= (Peters) Chinajá, 3. All specimens were found on the forest floor by day. These small snakes are capable of rapid movement and quickly disappear in the litter on the ground. Two individuals evaded capture. The belly is creamy white anteriorly and vermillion red posteriorly. =Dryadophis melanolomus laevis= (Fischer) Chinajá, 3. These snakes, locally known as _sumbadora_, were found on the forest floor; two others were seen, but escaped. The variation in coloration has been a source of confusion in this species in northern Central America (see Stuart, 1941:86). All of the present specimens are males: KU 55709 has 178 ventrals, 121 caudals, and a total length of 914 mm.; the dorsum is olive-tan with six darker cross-bars on the neck; the belly is creamy white. KU 58160 has 188 ventrals, 123 caudals, and a total length of 1365 mm.; the dorsum is uniform olive-brown, except that some dorsal scales at midbody have black anterior borders like _D. melanolomus melanolomus_ has in the Yucatán Peninsula; the venter is pale yellow. KU 58158 has 179 ventrals, 122 caudals, and a total length of 723 mm.; the dorsum is rich chocolate brown with eight dark cross-bars on the neck; the belly is bright orange. Stuart (1941a:87) stated that in life two distinct color phases were observed in specimens collected by him in Alta Verapaz, Guatemala. One had an olive-brown dorsum and the other, a reddish orange dorsum. Stuart made no mention of variation in the color of the venter. Similar variation is known in _D. melanolomus alternatus_ in Costa Rica, where some individuals have orange-red venters. This color phase has been recognized as a distinct species, _Dryadophis sanguiventris_, by Taylor (1954:722). Examination of 18 specimens from Costa Rica shows no differences in scutellation, nor geographic segregation of two populations. I am convinced that the red-bellied _Dryadophis_ in Costa Rica, like those in Guatemala, represent a color phase of the subspecies inhabiting those areas and that _Dryadophis sanguiventris_ Taylor is a synonym of _Dryadophis melanolomus alternatus_ (Bocourt). =Drymarchon corais melanurus= (Duméril, Bibron and Duméril) 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 1; Sayaxché, 1. The specimen from Sayaxché was found at the edge of a clearing in the forest; that from 15 kilometers northwest of Chinajá was found on the forest floor coiled with a _Boa constrictor imperator_, which the _Drymarchon_ apparently was trying to eat. The _Drymarchon_ is a giant specimen having a total length of 2950 mm. (see Duellman, 1961:368). The _Boa_ with which it was coiled has a total length of 1683 mm. I was attracted to the snakes by a loud thrashing noise. When I approached the writhing mass, the snakes separated, but I was able to see that the _Drymarchon_ had its teeth firmly imbedded in the posterior part of the head of the _Boa_. From the _Drymarchon_ I forced the regurgitation of a recently ingested _Bothrops nummifer nummifer_ having a total length of 953 mm. These observations show that the snake-eating capabilities of _Drymarchon_ can hardly be over-estimated. In both _Drymarchon_ the anterior one-half of the body is olive-tan, which changes to bluish black posteriorly. The local name is _sumbadora_. =Drymobius margaritiferus margaritiferus= (Schlegel) Chinajá, 3; Sayaxché, 1. All individuals were obtained in clearings in the forest by day in the rainy season. Two individuals each contained a _Similisca baudini_ and another contained a _Bufo valliceps valliceps_. Locally this snake is known by the appropriate name of _ranera_. =Imantodes cenchoa leucomelas= Cope Chinajá, 4. With the exception of one that was found dead in camp, all individuals were taken from low vegetation by day. The dorsum is creamy tan with 28 to 35 (average 32) chocolate brown blotches, and the venter is ashy white with small brown flecks. Three males have 238 to 248 (average 244) ventrals and 148 to 154 (average 151) caudals; one female has 239 ventrals and 142 caudals. The largest specimen, a male, has a body length of 660 mm. and a total length of 943 mm. =Lampropeltis doliata polyzona= Cope Chinajá, 1. One female (KU 57156) having 230 ventrals and 54 caudals was found on the forest floor by day. This individual has a black snout with a white bar across the nasals and prefrontals, a white spot in the middle of the frontal, and a white band across the temporals and parietals that is bordered posteriorly by a black band. There are 28 white and 28 red rings on the body. The tips of the red scales are darkened. The black rings between the white and red rings are not so expanded as to interrupt the white rings dorsally as in _L. doliata abnorma_ as identified by Stuart (1948:70). Locally this snake, like all red, black, and white or yellow banded snakes, is called _coral_ or _coralillo_. =Leptodeira frenata malleisi= Dunn and Stuart Toocog, 1. This specimen, a male having 173 ventrals and 69 caudals, was found beneath the bark on a log in the forest. In life the dorsum was pinkish tan with 36 chocolate brown blotches on the body; the venter was rosy pink. =Leptodeira septentrionalis polysticta= Günther Chinajá, 3; Toocog, 11. If numbers of specimens are indicative of abundance, this is the most common snake in southern El Petén. All were found at night in the rainy season. At a pond in the forest at Toocog these snakes were observed on low vegetation, on the ground, and in the water. Evidently they congregate at breeding choruses of frogs. One _Leptodeira_ contained a _Smilisca baudini_ and another contained eggs of _Phyllomedusa callidryas taylori_. The natives call this snake _nahuyaca_. =Leptophis ahaetulla praestans= (Cope) 13 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1. Both specimens were obtained from trees when they were felled. One individual (KU 55716) has a body length of 1345 mm. and a total length of 2035 mm. In life the entire snake was uniform bright green; the eye was yellow. In preservative the dorsum is dark blue, and the venter is green. =Leptophis mexicanus mexicanus= Duméril, Bibron and Duméril Chinajá, 1; 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 1; Sayaxché, 4. All specimens came from low trees in the forest. The largest specimen is a male having a body length of 724 mm. and a total length of 1236 mm. In life the middorsum was a golden tan; the top of the head was a vivid green. One individual had ingested a _Smilisca baudini_. The local name is _bejuquillo_. =Ninia sebae sebae= (Duméril, Bibron and Duméril) Toocog, 1. This specimen, a male having 144 ventrals and 55 caudals, was found beneath bark on a log in the forest. There is a black band five scales in length on the nape followed posteriorly by a red band six scales in length and then by a complete black band one and one-half scales in length. The rest of the body is dull red with 16 incomplete black bands one to one and one-half scales in length on the anterior two-thirds of the body. =Oxybelis aeneus aeneus= (Wagler) Chinajá, 1; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1. One individual was found in a low tree; the other was in a bush. Both specimens are males; the largest has a body length of 754 mm. and a total length of 1286 mm. Bogert and Oliver (1945:388) distinguished _O. aeneus aeneus_ in Central and South America from _O. aeneus auratus_ in México in that the diameter of the eye is more than the length of the internasal, whereas in _O. aeneus auratus_ the diameter of the eye is less than the length of the internasal. Stuart (1958:27) stated that on the basis of this character three specimens from Tikal in northeastern El Petén definitely were _O. aeneus aeneus_. Of the present specimens from southern El Petén, one has an internasal:eye ratio of 1.08; the other has a ratio of 0.87. A careful review of these snakes is needed to verify the validity of the characters used to separate the subspecies and to determine areas of intergradation. The local name for the vine-snake is _bejuquillo_. =Pliocercus euryzonus aequalis= Salvin Chinajá, 1; Río San Román, 1. These specimens are tentatively referred to _P. euryzonus_. KU 57160 is a female having 130 ventrals, 87 caudals, and 23 black rings on the body; KU 58150 is a juvenile having 128 ventrals, 79 caudals, and 27 black rings on the body. In both specimens the tip of the snout is yellow; a broad yellow band on the parietals and temporals is bordered posteriorly by a black band on the nape. The black rings on the body are not bordered by yellow, but black rings on the tail have yellow borders ventrally. In the red interspaces between the black rings, black flecks and spots, especially posteriorly, tend to form secondary black rings (Fig. 6a). According to Stuart (1948:71), _P. euryzonus aequalis_ has 25 to 27 black rings on the body, whereas _P. elapoides salvini_, which also occurs in El Petén, has 15 to 23 black rings. [Illustration: FIG. 6. Dorsal color patterns of _Pliocercus euryzonus aequalis_ (A) and _Micrurus affinis apiatus_ (B).] The specimen from the Río San Román contained a partly digested _Bolitoglossa moreleti mulleri_. Locally _Piocercus_ is called _coral_ or _coralillo_. =Pseustes poecilonotus poecilonotus= (Günther) Chinajá, 3; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1. Two juveniles were on the forest floor; one juvenile and an adult were on low bushes. The juveniles have a tan dorsum with reddish brown blotches; the belly is gray, and the iris is cream-color above and brown below. The one adult is olive-brown above and creamy white below on the anterior three-fourths of the body; posteriorly it is black above and below. There are no paravertebral dark stripes nor pale spots on the dorsal scales. Two specimens (one juvenile and the adult) when encountered compressed the anterior part of the body laterally and struck repeatedly. Locally the adults are called _sumbadora_. =Sibon dimidiata dimidiata= (Günther) 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 2. Both snakes were obtained from trees when they were felled. In life the dorsum was pinkish orange with dark chocolate brown blotches narrowly edged with black. =Sibon nebulata nebulata= (Linnaeus) 20 km. NW of Chinajá, 1. This specimen, a male having a body length of 544 mm. and a tail length of 198 mm., was found in a felled tree. In life the belly was pink and black; the dorsal black blotches were narrowly outlined with pink. =Spilotes pullatus mexicanus= (Laurenti) Chinajá, 3; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1; Sayaxché, 1. This large snake, locally called _mica_, seems to be equally at home on the ground and in low trees and bushes. It is fast moving for a large snake; two individuals escaped capture. The natives said that this snake eats other snakes, but examination of stomachs revealed no supporting evidence. =Stenorrhina degenhardti= (Berthold) Chinajá, 1. This specimen, a female having 158 ventrals, 37 caudals, and a total length of 489 mm., was found on the forest floor. On the olive-brown dorsum are 27 irregular, narrow, dark brown, transverse bands. The head is uniform olive-brown; the chin and labials are cream-color. The venter is cream-color with a row of brown spots forming a midventral stripe. A large spider was found in the stomach. I have refrained from assigning a subspecific name to this snake. Cursory examination of specimens from throughout México and Central America reveals a bewildering array of variation in coloration that suggests that the subspecies _mexicanus_ is not recognizable, or that two species occur sympatrically in parts of southern México and northern Central America. =Tretanorhinus nigroluteus lateralis= Bocourt Chinajá, 1. A single male having 136 ventrals, 75 caudals, and a total length of 407 mm. was found by a stream in camp. The dorsum is pale grayish tan with 34 pairs of small chocolate brown spots, some of the anterior ones of which are connected across the back. A cream-colored lateral stripe is on the third and fourth dorsal scale-rows anteriorly and the second and third rows posteriorly. The lower dorsal scale rows are black. The venter is dark grayish brown with cream-colored flecks anteriorly and creamy gray posteriorly where the dark color is restricted to the midventral region and the lateral edges of ventrals and first dorsal scale-row. =Xenodon rabdocephalus mexicanus= Smith Chinajá, 1; 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 1. Both individuals were found on the forest floor. An adult male having a total length of 420 mm. has a cream-colored venter with brown flecks. A juvenile having a total length of 172 mm. has a creamy white belly with black crossbands. At the suggestion of L. C. Stuart, I am following Schmidt (1941:501) in placing _X. mexicanus_ as a subspecies of _X. rabdocephalus_. =Micrurus affinis apiatus= (Jan) 20 km. NNW of Chinajá, 2; Sayaxché, 1. All specimens were found beneath litter on the forest floor. All are males having 202 to 211 (average 205) ventrals, 53 to 56 (54.6) caudals, and 34 to 48 (41) primary black rings on the body. There are no yellow rings, and black spots in the red interspaces tend to form secondary black rings (Fig. 6b), the same as in _Pliocercus euryzonus aequalis_. The local name is _coral_ or _coralillo_. =Bothrops atrox asper= (Garman) 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 1; Sayaxché, 1. Although we found only two specimens, natives and workmen at the camp at Chinajá stated that the _barba amarilla_, as this snake is known locally, had been abundant when the camp had been established less than two years before our visit. =Bothrops nasutus= Bocourt 12 km. NW of Chinajá, 1. This specimen, a male having a total length of 415 mm., was found on the forest floor. The dorsum is brown with dark brown blotches separated middorsally by a narrow orange-tan stripe extending from the nape to the base of the tail. The belly is grayish tan with white flecks on the lateral edges of the ventrals. The local name is _nahuyaca_. =Bothrops nummifer nummifer= (Rüppell) 15 km. NW of Chinajá, 2; Sayaxché, 1. Two individuals were found on the forest floor, and one adult, having a total length of 953 mm., was removed from the stomach of a large _Drymarchon corais melanurus_. There is considerable variation in color and pattern. A juvenile (KU 58104), having a total length of 332 mm., has a tan dorsum with 19 interconnected dark brown, diamond-shaped, middorsal blotches, the lateral extensions of which are black; the belly is a cream-color with brown squares. An adult female (KU 55706), having a total length of 779 mm., has a dorsal coloration like the preceding specimen, except that the lateral extensions of the dorsal blotches are brown; the belly is a uniform cream-color. A second adult female (KU 55707), having a total length of 953 mm., has a brown dorsum with 21 interconnected black, diamond-shaped, middorsal blotches, the lateral extensions of which are black; the belly is a cream-color with black squares. The local name for this species is _braza de piedra_. =Bothrops schlegeli schlegeli= (Berthold) Paso Subín, 1. This specimen was taken from the thatched roof of a house at the edge of the forest and contained the remains of a small mammal. The local name is _nahuyaca_. HYPOTHETICAL LIST OF SPECIES Listed below are thirteen species that have not been found in southern El Petén but that probably occur there. =_Dermophis mexicanus mexicanus_= (Duméril and Bibron).--Natives at Chinajá know caecilians, which they call _dos cabezas_. This species has been taken in Tabasco and northern Chiapas. Its occurrence in southern El Petén is expected. Less likely, the caecilian known to the natives at Chinajá is _Gymnopis oligozona_, which is known from Finca Volcán on the southern slopes of the valley of the Río Cahabón in Alta Verapaz. =_Gastrophryne elegans_= (Boulenger).--This small fossorial frog is known from Piedras Negras (Taylor and Smith, 1945:604), 12 miles east of Yaxha (Stuart, 1934:7), and Tikal (Stuart, 1958:18), all in northern and central El Petén. Two specimens in the collection of the University of Kansas are from 28 kilometers northeast of Campur, Alta Verapaz. Probably the species ranges throughout the forested lowlands of northern Alta Verapaz and El Petén. =_Mabuya brachypoda_= Taylor.--The absence of this widespread lizard in our collections cannot be explained. Probably it occurs in southern El Petén, for it is known in northern and central El Petén and in Alta Verapaz. =_Dendrophidion vinitor_= Smith.--This snake is known from Piedras Negras, El Petén and from various localities in Alta Verapaz; it is an inhabitant of humid forest and should occur in southern El Petén. =_Elaphe triaspis mutabilis_= (Cope).--The subspecies _E. triaspis mutabilis_ is known from Alta Verapaz and _E. triaspis triaspis_ from the Yucatán Peninsula, British Honduras, and Uaxactún in northern El Petén. Because of the much higher degree of resemblance between the faunas of southern El Petén and Alta Verapaz as compared with southern El Petén and Yucatán, _E. triaspis mutabilis_ would be expected to occur in southern El Petén. =_Ninia diademata nietoi_= Burger and Werler.--This snake is known from Tikal and from Alta Verapaz; it is a small cryptophile that probably occurs in southern El Petén. =_Oxyrhophus petola aequifasciatus_= Werner.--This snake, which probably is conspecific with _Oxyrhophus baileyi_ in southern Veracruz, México, is known from Tikal, British Honduras, and Alta Verapaz; it is expected in southern El Petén. =_Pliocercus elapoides salvini_= Müller.--This species is widespread in the Atlantic lowlands of southern México and northern Central America; the subspecies _P. elapoides salvini_ occurs in Alta Verapaz and probably in southern El Petén. =_Rhadinaea decorata decorata_= (Günther).--This is another small cryptophile that is widespread on the Atlantic lowlands from México to Panamá; it definitely is expected at places like Chinajá in southern El Petén. =_Scaphiodontophis annulatus_= (Duméril and Bibron).--Three subspecies of _Scaphiodontophis annulatus_ are recognized in northern Central America: _S. annulatus annulatus_ from Alta Verapaz, _S. annulatus hondurensis_ from northern Honduras, and _S. annulatus carpicinctus_ from Piedras Negras and Tikal in El Petén and from British Honduras. This rare and highly variable species probably occurs in southern El Petén. =_Tantilla schistosa schistosa_= (Bocourt).--This widespread species in Central America is known from several localities in Alta Verapaz and almost certainly occurs in southern El Petén. =_Tropidodipsas sartori sartori_= Cope.--This fossorial species has been collected in northern El Petén and in Alta Verapaz. The natives at Chinajá described to me a _coral_ having orange rings on a black body that likely was this species. =_Micrurus elegans veraepacis_= Schmidt.--This species has been collected at various localities in Alta Verapaz and in Chiapas, inhabits areas like those in southern El Petén, and probably occurs there. SUMMARY A study of the amphibians and reptiles in the rainforests of southern El Petén, Guatemala, reveals the presence of 78 species; an additional 13 species probably occur there. In this tropical area having a high amount of rainfall most of the species of amphibians and reptiles have extensive ranges in the wet forests on the Atlantic lowlands of southern México and northern Central America; some species that more frequently are found in sub-humid forests also occur. Ecologically the fauna is divided into five major habitats--aquatic, aquatic margin, fossorial, terrestrial, and arboreal. Forty-two per cent of the 78 species are wholly or partly arboreal. The fauna is most closely related to that in Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, but includes many species that occur in the Tikal-Uaxactún area in northeastern Guatemala. _Eleutherodactylus rostralis_ (Werner) and _E. rhodopis_ (Cope) are redefined and their relationships are suggested. The color phases of _Dryadophis melanolomus laevis_ and _D. m. alternatus_ are discussed; _Dryadophis sanguiventris_ Taylor is synonymized with _Dryadophis melanolomus alternatus_ (Bocourt). The breeding habits, eggs, and tadpoles of the hylid frogs _Hyla ebraccata_ and _Phyllomedusa callidryas taylori_ are described, as are the eggs and juveniles of _Laemanctus deborrei_. LITERATURE CITED BAYLOR, E. R. AND STUART, L. C. 1961. A new race of _Bufo valliceps_ from Guatemala. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 74:195-202, August 11. BOGERT, C. M. AND OLIVER, J. A. 1945. A preliminary analysis of the herpetofauna of Sonora. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 83:297-426, March 30. BROCCHI, P. 1881-1883 Étude des batraciens de l'Amerique Centrale. Mission scientifique au Mexique. Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 3 (2):1-122, pls. 1-21. DUELLMAN, W. E. 1958. A review of the frogs of the genus _Syrrhophus_ in western Mexico. Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 594:1-15, pls. 1-3, June 6. 1960. A distributional study of the amphibians of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, México. Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 13:21-72, August 16. 1961. A record size for _Drymarchon corais melanurus_. Copeia, 1960 (4):367-368, January. DUNN, E. R. AND EMLEN, J. T. 1932. Reptiles and amphibians from Honduras. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 84:21-32, March 22. FIRSCHEIN, I. L. AND SMITH, H. M. 1957. A high-crested race of toad (_Bufo valliceps_) and other noteworthy reptiles and amphibians from southern Mexico. Herpetologica, 13:219-222, October 31. LUNDELL, C. L. 1937. The vegetation of Petén. Carnegie Institute Washington Publ. 178:1-244, pls. 1-39. June 16. NEILL, W. T. AND ALLEN, R. 1959. Studies on the amphibians and reptiles of British Honduras. Publ. Ross Allen's Reptile Inst., 2:1-76, November 10. SAPPER, K. 1932. Klimakunde von Mittelamerika. _In_ Handbuch Klimakunde, 2:1-74, Taf. 1-13. SCHMIDT, K. P. 1936. Guatemalan salamanders of the genus _Oedipus_. Zool. Ser. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., 20:135-166, October 31. 1941. The amphibians and reptiles of British Honduras. Zool. Ser. Field Mus. Nat. Hist, 22:475-510, December 30. 1946. Turtles collected by the Smithsonian Biological Survey of the Panamá Canal Zone. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 106 (8):1-9, pl. 1, August 1. SIMPSON, G. G. 1960. Notes on the measurement of faunal resemblance. Amer. Jour. Sci., 258-A:300-311. SMITH, H. M. AND TAYLOR, E. H. 1945. An annotated checklist and key to the snakes of Mexico. Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., 187: iv + 239 pp., October 5. 1948. An annotated checklist and key to the amphibia of Mexico. Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., 194: iv + 118 pp., June 17. 1950. An annotated checklist and key to the reptiles of Mexico exclusive of the snakes. Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., 199: v + 253 pp., October 26. STUART, L. C. 1934. A contribution to a knowledge of the herpetological fauna of El Peten, Guatemala. Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 292:1-18, June 29. 1935. A contribution to a knowledge of the herpetology of a portion of the savanna region of central Petén, Guatemala. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 29:1-56, pls. 1-4, October 1. 1937. Some further notes on the amphibians and reptiles of the Peten forest of northern Guatemala. Copeia, 1937 (1):67-70, April 10. 1941a. Studies of Neotropical Colubrinae VIII. A revision of the genus _Dryadophis_ Stuart, 1939. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 49:1-105, pls. 1-4, March 19. 1941b. Two new species of _Eleutherodactylus_ from Guatemala. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 54:197-200, December 8. 1943. Taxonomic and geographic comments on Guatemalan salamanders of the genus _Oedipus_. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 56:1-33, pls. 1-2, January 30. 1948. The amphibians and reptiles of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 69:1-109, June 12. 1950. A geographic study of the herpetofauna of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala. Contr. Lab. Vert. Biol. Univ. Michigan, 45:1-77, pls. 1-9, May. 1958. A study of the herpetofauna of the Uaxactun-Tikal area of northern El Peten, Guatemala. Contr. Lab. Vert. Biol. Univ. Michigan, 75:1-30, June. TAYLOR, E. H. 1936. A taxonomic study of the cosmopolitan scincoid lizards of the genus _Eumeces_. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 23:1-643, August 15. 1954. Further studies on the serpents of Costa Rica. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 36:673-801, July 15. TAYLOR, E. H. AND SMITH, H. M. 1945. Summary of collections of amphibians made in Mexico under the Walter Rathbone Bacon Traveling Scholarship. Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 95:521-613, June 30. _Transmitted November 29, 1962._ 29-5935 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Institutional libraries interested in publications exchange may obtain this series by addressing the Exchange Librarian, University of Kansas Library, Lawrence, Kansas. Copies for individuals, persons working in a particular field of study, may be obtained by addressing instead the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. There is no provision for sale of this series by the University Library, which meets institutional requests, or by the Museum of Natural History, which meets the requests of individuals. However, when individuals request copies from the Museum, 25 cents should be included, for each separate number that is 100 pages or more in length, for the purpose of defraying the costs of wrapping and mailing. * An asterisk designates those numbers of which the Museum's supply (not the Library's supply) is exhausted. Numbers published to date, in this series, are as follows: Vol. 1. Nos. 1-26 and index. Pp. 1-638, 1946-1950. *Vol. 2. (Complete) Mammals of Washington. By Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text. April 9, 1948. Vol. 3. *1. The avifauna of Micronesia, its origin, evolution, and distribution. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 1-359, 16 figures in text. June 19, 1951. *2. A quantitative study of the nocturnal migration Of birds. By George H. Lowery, Jr. Pp. 361-472, 47 figures in text. June 29, 1951. 3. Phylogeny of the waxwings and allied birds. By M. Dale Arvey. Pp. 473-530, 49 figures in text, 13 tables. October 10, 1951. *4. Birds from the state of Veracruz, Mexico. By George H. Lowery, Jr., and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 531-649, 7 figures in text, 2 tables. October 10, 1951. Index. Pp. 651-681. *Vol. 4. (Complete) American weasels. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 1-466, 41 plates, 31 figures in text. December 27, 1951. Vol. 5. Nos. 1-37 and index. Pp. 1-676, 1951-1953. *Vol. 6. (Complete) Mammals of Utah, _taxonomy and distribution_. By Stephen D. Durrant. Pp. 1-549, 91 figures in text, 30 tables. August 10, 1952. Vol. 7. Nos. 1-15 and index. Pp. 1-651, 1952-1955. Vol. 8. Nos. 1-10 and index. Pp. 1-675. 1954-1956. Vol. 9. *1. Speciation of the wandering shrew. By James S. Findley. Pp. 1-68, 18 figures in text. December 10, 1955. 2. Additional records and extension of ranges of mammals from Utah. By Stephen D. Durrant, M. Raymond Lee, and Richard M. Hansen. Pp. 69-80. December 10, 1955. 3. A new long-eared myotis (Myotis evotis) from northeastern Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker and Howard J. Stains. Pp. 81-84. December 10, 1955. 4. Subspeciation in the meadow mouse, Microtus pennsylvanicus, in Wyoming. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 85-104, 2 figures in text. May 10, 1956. 5. The condylarth genus Ellipsodon. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 105-116, 6 figures in text. May 19, 1956. 6. Additional remains of the multituberculate genus Eucosmodon. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 117-123, 10 figures in text. May 19, 1956. 7. Mammals of Coahuila, Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 125-335, 75 figures in text. June 15, 1956. 8. Comments on the taxonomic status of Apodemus peninsulae, with description of a new subspecies from North China. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 337-346, 1 figure in text, 1 table. August 15, 1956. 9. Extensions of known ranges of Mexican bats. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 347-351. August 15, 1956. 10. A new bat (Genus Leptonycteris) from Coahuila. By Howard J. Stains. Pp. 353-356. January 21, 1957. 11. A new species of pocket gopher (Genus Pappogeomys) from Jalisco, Mexico. By Robert J. Russell. Pp. 357-361. January 21, 1957. 12. Geographic variation in the pocket gopher, Thomomys bottae, in Colorado. By Phillip M. Youngman. Pp. 363-387, 7 figures in text. February 21, 1958. 13. New bog lemming (genus Synaptomys) from Nebraska. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 385-388. May 12, 1958. 14. Pleistocene bats from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo León, México. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 389-396. December 19, 1958. 15. New subspecies of the rodent Baiomys from Central America. By Robert L. Packard. Pp. 397-404. December 19, 1958. 16. Mammals of the Grand Mesa, Colorado. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 405-414, 1 figure in text. May 20, 1959. 17. Distribution, variation, and relationships of the montane vole, Microtus montanus. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 415-511, 12 figures in text, 2 tables. August 1, 1959. 18. Conspecificity of two pocket mice, Perognathus goldmani and P. artus. By E. Raymond Hall and Marilyn Bailey Ogilvie. Pp. 513-518, 1 map. January 14, 1960. 19. Records of harvest mice, Reithrodontomys, from Central America, with description of a new subspecies from Nicaragua. By Sydney Anderson and J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 519-529. January 14, 1960. 20. Small carnivores from San Josecito Cave (Pleistocene), Nuevo León, México. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 531-538, 1 figure in text. January 14, 1960. 21. Pleistocene pocket gophers from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo León, México. By Robert J. Russell. Pp. 539-548, 1 figure in text. January 14, 1960. 22. Review of the insectivores of Korea. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., and David H. Johnson. Pp. 549-578. February 23, 1960. 23. Speciation and evolution of the pygmy mice, genus Baiomys. By Robert L. Packard. Pp. 579-670, 4 plates, 12 figures in text. June 16, 1960. Index. Pp. 671-690 Vol. 10. 1. Studies of birds killed in nocturnal migration. By Harrison B. Tordoff and Robert M. Mengel. Pp. 1-44, 6 figures in text, 2 tables. September 12, 1956. 2. Comparative breeding behavior of Ammospiza caudacuta and A. maritima. By Glen E. Woolfenden. Pp. 45-75, 6 plates, 1 figure. December 20, 1956. 3. The forest habitat of the University of Kansas Natural History Reservation. By Henry S. Fitch and Ronald R. McGregor. Pp. 77-127, 2 plates, 7 figures in text, 4 tables. December 31, 1956. 4. Aspects of reproduction and development in the prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster). By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 129-161, 8 figures in text, 4 tables. December 19, 1957. 5. Birds found on the Arctic slope of northern Alaska. By James W. Bee. Pp. 163-211, plates 9-10, 1 figure in text. March 12, 1958. *6. The wood rats of Colorado: distribution and ecology. By Robert B. Finley, Jr. Pp. 213-552, 34 plates, 8 figures in text, 35 tables. November 7, 1958. 7. Home ranges and movements of the eastern cottontail in Kansas. By Donald W. Janes. Pp. 553-572, 4 plates, 3 figures in text. May 4, 1959. 8. Natural history of the salamander, Aneides hardyi. By Richard F. Johnston and Gerhard A. Schad. Pp. 573-585. October 8, 1959. 9. A new subspecies of lizard, Cnemidophorus sacki, from Michoacán, México. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 587-598, 2 figures in text. May 2, 1960. 10. A taxonomic study of the middle-American snake, Pituophis deppei. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 599-610, 1 plate, 1 figure in text. May 2, 1960. Index. Pp. 611-626. Vol. 11. Nos. 1-10 and index. Pp. 1-703, 1958-1960. Vol. 12. 1. Functional morphology of three bats: Sumops, Myotis, Macrotus. By Terry A. Vaughan. Pp. 1-153, 4 plates, 24 figures in text. July 8, 1959. *2. The ancestry of modern Amphibia: a review of the evidence. By Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Pp. 155-180, 10 figures in text. July 10, 1959. 3. The baculum in microtine rodents. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 181-216, 49 figures in text. February 19, 1960. *4. A new order of fishlike Amphibia from the Pennsylvanian of Kansas. By Theodore H. Eaton, Jr., and Peggy Lou Stewart. Pp. 217-240, 12 figures in text. May 2, 1960. 5. Natural history of the bell vireo. By Jon C. Barlow. Pp. 241-296, 6 figures in text. March 7, 1962. 6. Two new pelycosaurs from the lower Permian of Oklahoma. By Richard C. Fox. Pp. 297-307, 6 figures in text. May 21, 1962. 7. Vertebrates from the barrier island of Tamaulipas, México. By Robert K. Selander, Richard F. Johnston, B. J. Wilks, and Gerald G. Raun. Pp. 309-345, pls. 5-8. June 18, 1962. 8. Teeth of Edestid sharks. By Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Pp. 347-362, 10 figures in text. October 1, 1962. More numbers will appear in volume 12. Vol. 13. 1. Five natural hybrid combinations in minnows (Cyprinidae). By Frank B. Cross and W. L. Minckley. Pp. 1-18. June 1, 1960. 2. A distributional study of the amphibians of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, México. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 19-72, pls. 1-8, 3 figures in text. August 16, 1960. 3. A new subspecies of the slider turtle (Pseudemys scripta) from Coahuila, México. By John M. Legler. Pp. 73-84, pls. 9-12, 3 figures in text. August 16, 1960. 4. Autecology of the copperhead. By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 85-288, pls. 13-20, 26 figures in text. November 30, 1960. 5. Occurrence of the garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains. By Henry S. Fitch and T. Paul Maslin. Pp. 289-308, 4 figures in text. February 10, 1961. 6. Fishes of the Wakarusa river in Kansas. By James E. Deacon and Artie L. Metcalf. Pp. 309-322, 1 figure in text. February 10, 1961. 7. Geographic variation in the North American cyprinid fish, Hybopsis gracilis. By Leonard J. Olund and Frank B. Cross. Pp. 323-348, pls. 21-24, 2 figures in text. February 10, 1961. 8. Descriptions of two species of frogs, genus Ptychohyla; studies of American hylid frogs, V. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 349-357, pl. 25, 2 figures in text. April 27, 1961. 9. Fish populations, following a drought, in the Neosho and Marais des Cygnes rivers of Kansas. By James Everett Deacon. Pp. 359-427, pls. 26-30, 3 figs. August 11, 1961. 10. Recent soft-shelled turtles of North America (family Trionychidae). By Robert G. Webb. Pp. 429-611, pls. 31-54, 24 figures in text. February 16, 1962. Index. Pp. 613-624. Vol. 14. 1. Neotropical bats from western México. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 1-8. October 24, 1960. 2. Geographic variation in the harvest mouse. Reithrodontomys megalotis, on the central Great Plains and in adjacent regions. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., and B. Mursaloglu. Pp. 9-27, 1 figure in text. July 24, 1961. 3. Mammals of Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 29-67, pls. 1 and 2, 3 figures in text. July 24, 1961. 4. A new subspecies of the black myotis (bat) from eastern Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall and Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 69-72, 1 figure in text. December 29, 1961. 5. North American yellow bats, "Dasypterus," and a list of the named kinds of the genus Lasiurus Gray. By E. Raymond Hall and J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 73-98, 4 figures in text. December 29, 1961. 6. Natural history of the brush mouse (Peromyscus boylii) in Kansas with description of a new subspecies. By Charles A. Long. Pp. 99-111, 1 figure in text. December 29, 1961. 7. Taxonomic status of some mice of the Peromyscus boylii group in eastern Mexico, with description of a new subspecies. By Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 113-120, 1 figure in text. December 29, 1961. 8. A new subspecies of ground squirrel (Spermophilus spilosoma) from Tamaulipas, Mexico. By Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 121-124. March 7, 1962. 9. Taxonomic status of the free-tailed bat, Tadarida yucatanica Miller. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., and Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 125-133, 1 figure in text. March 7, 1962. 10. A new doglike carnivore, genus Cynaretus, from the Clarendonian Pliocene, of Texas. By E. Raymond Hall and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 135-138, 2 figures in text. April 30, 1962. 11. A new subspecies of wood rat (Neotoma) from northeastern Mexico. By Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 139-143. April 30, 1962. 12. Noteworthy mammals from Sinaloa, Mexico. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., Ticul Alvarez, and M. Raymond Lee. Pp. 145-159, 1 figure in text. May 18, 1962. 13. A new bat (Myotis) from Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 161-164, 1 figure in text. May 21, 1962. 14. The mammals of Veracruz. By E. Raymond Hall and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 165-362, 2 figures. May 20, 1963. 15. The recent mammals of Tamaulipas, México. By Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 363-473, 5 figures in text. May 20, 1963. More numbers will appear in volume 14. Vol. 15. 1. The amphibians and reptiles of Michoacán, México. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 1-148, pls. 1-6, 11 figures in text. December 20, 1961. 2. Some reptiles and amphibians from Korea. By Robert G. Webb, J. Knox Jones, Jr., and George W. Byers. Pp. 149-173. January 31, 1962. 3. A new species of frog (Genus Tomodactylus) from western México. By Robert G. Webb, Pp. 175-181, 1 figure in text. March 7, 1962. 4. Type specimens of amphibians and reptiles in the Museum of Natural History, the University of Kansas. By William E. Duellman and Barbara Berg. Pp. 183-204. October 26, 1962. 5. Amphibians and Reptiles of the Rainforests of Southern El Petén, Guatemala. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 205-249, pls. 7-10, 6 figures in text. October 4, 1963. More numbers will appear in volume 15. 
45873	----	REPTILES AND BIRDS. [Illustration: HAWKING IN THE MIDDLE AGES. _Frontispiece._] REPTILES AND BIRDS. A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THEIR VARIOUS ORDERS, WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE HABITS AND ECONOMY OF THE MOST INTERESTING. BY LOUIS FIGUIER, AUTHOR OF "THE WORLD BEFORE THE DELUGE," "THE VEGETABLE WORLD," "THE INSECT WORLD," ETC. ETC. ILLUSTRATED WITH 307 WOODCUTS. BY MM. A. MESNEL, A. DE NEUVILLE, AND E. RIOU. Edited and Adapted by PARKER GILLMORE ("UBIQUE"). NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND CO. 1870. LONDON: PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO., CITY ROAD. PREFACE. In presenting to the public this English version of LOUIS FIGUIER'S interesting work on Reptiles and Birds, I beg to state that where alterations and additions have been made, my object has been that the style and matter should be suited to the present state of general knowledge, and that all classes should be able to obtain useful information and amusement from the pages which I have now the honour and pleasure of presenting to them. On commencing my undertaking I was not aware of the immensity of the labour to be done, and fear that I must have relinquished my arduous task but for the kind encouragement of FRANK BUCKLAND, Esq., Inspector of Salmon Fisheries, and HENRY LEE, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c., to both of whom I take this opportunity of returning my sincere thanks. PARKER GILLMORE ("UBIQUE"). _December, 1869._ CONTENTS. REPTILES. PAGE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER I. AMPHIBIA, OR BATRACHIANS. Structural Distinctions 8 Intelligence 13 Characteristics 15 Historical Antiquity 18 Distribution 19 Frogs 19 Habits of Life 21 Development of Young 22 Green 23 Common 23 Green Tree 24 Toads 25 Natterjack 26 Surinam 28 Land Salamanders 31 Spotted 32 Black 33 Aquatic Salamanders 33 Crested 34 Gigantic 34 Transformations and Reproduction 35 CHAPTER II. OPHIDIAN REPTILES, OR TRUE SNAKES. Snakes 38 Burrowing 42 Ground 43 Tree 43 Fresh-water 43 Sea 43 Innocuous 46 Blind 46 Shield-tail 47 Black 49 Rat 49 Ringed 49 Green and Yellow 52 Viperine 52 Desert 53 Whip 54 Blunt-heads 56 Boas 56 Diamond 59 Carpet 59 Rock 61 Natal Rock 61 Guinea Rock 61 Royal Rock 61 Aboma 62 Anaconda 65 Cobra 70 Asp 75 Bungarus 76 Pit Vipers 78 Fer-de-lance 79 Jararaca 80 Trimeresurus 80 Rattle 82 Copperhead 82 Tic-polonga 88 Puff Adders 89 Common Adder 92 CHAPTER III. THE ORDER OF LIZARDS--SAURIANS. Lizards, Distribution and Division 99 Grey 109 Green 110 Ocellated 110 Ameivas 112 Iguanas 117 Basilisk 127 Anoles 129 Flying 132 Gecko 134 Chameleons 136 Crocodiles 141 Jacares 145 Alligators 145 Caiman 147 True 149 Gavials 153 CHAPTER IV. CHELONIANS, OR SHIELDED REPTILES. Formation 155 Distribution and Classification 157 Tortoises 158 Land 158 Margined 159 Moorish 159 Greek 160 Elephantine 160 Genus Pyxis 161 Ditto Kinixys 161 Homopodes 161 _Elodians, or Marsh Tortoises_: Mud 162 Emydes 163 Pleuroderes 164 _Potamians, or River Tortoises_: Trionyx 164 _Thalassians, or Sea Tortoises_: Green 177 Hawk's-bill 177 Loggerhead 178 Leather-back 178 BIRDS. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. Anatomy 181 Plumage 184 Beaks 189 Digestive Organs 191 Powers of Sight 193 Vocal Organs 195 Nests 197 Reproduction 201 Longevity 203 Utility 205 Classification 207 CHAPTER I. THE NATATORES, OR SWIMMING BIRDS. Divers 212 Great Northern 213 Imbrine 216 Arctic 216 Black-throated 216 Red-throated 217 Penguins 218 Manchots 219 Grebes 221 Castanean 222 Crested 223 Guillemots 224 Chapter II. DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS. Mallard 232 Golden-eyed Garrot 242 Poachard 243 Shoveller 244 Shieldrake 246 Eider Duck 247 Common Teal 250 Velvet Duck 253 Scoter, Black 253 Great-billed 258 Goosander 259 Smew 260 Goose 261 Wild 262 Bean 266 Domestic 266 Bernicle 269 White-fronted Bernicle 269 Swan 270 Whooping 273 Black 277 Frigate Bird 277 Tropic Bird 279 Darter 281 Gannet 283 Cormorant 285 Shag 289 Pelicans 291 White 294 Crested 295 Brown 296 Spectacled 297 CHAPTER III THE LARIDÆ. Tern 299 Little 301 Noddy 302 Silver-winged 302 Arctic 302 Whiskered 303 Gull-billed 303 Roseate 303 Sandwich 303 Caspian 303 Scissors-bills 303 Black 304 Gulls 304 Large White-winged 306 Great Black-backed 306 Herring 306 Sea Mews 304 White, or Senator 307 Brown-masked 307 Laughing 307 Grey 308 Skua 308 Parasite 309 Richardson's 309 Pomerine 309 Common 310 Petrels 310 Giant 311 Chequered 311 Fulmar 311 Stormy 311 Blue 312 Puffins 312 Grey 312 English 312 Brown 312 Albatross 312 Common 314 Black-browed 314 Brown 314 Yellow and Black-beaked 314 CHAPTER IV. GRALLATORES, OR WADING BIRDS. _Palmidactyles_: Flamingo 317 Avocet 320 Stilt Bird 321 _Macrodactyles_: Water Hens 322 Common 323 Purple, or Sultana Fowl 324 Rails 325 Coots 326 Bald 328 Crested 328 Blue 328 Glareola 328 Jacana 328 Kamichi 330 Horned 332 Faithful 332 _Longirostres_: Sandpipers 332 Brown 334 Greenshank 334 Redshank 334 Pond 334 Wood 334 Green 334 Common 334 Turnstone 334 Ruff 336 Knot 338 Sanderlings 339 Woodcock 339 Snipe 343 Common 344 Great 345 Jack 345 Wilson's 345 Godwit 345 Curlew 346 Ibis 348 Sacred 348 Green 351 Scarlet 351 _Cultrirostres_: Spoonbills 352 White 352 Rose-coloured 352 Storks 353 White 353 Black 357 Argala 357 Jabiru 359 Ombrette 359 Bec-ouvert 359 Drome 359 Tantalus 360 Boatbill 360 Herons 361 Common 362 Purple 364 White 364 Bitterns 366 Crane 366 Ash-coloured 366 Demoiselle 371 Crested 371 Hooping 371 Caurale 373 _Pressirostres_: Cariama 373 Oyster-catchers 373 Runners 376 Lapwings 376 Plovers 378 Great Land 379 Doterel 379 Ringed 379 Kentish 380 Golden 380 Pluvian 381 Bustard 381 Great 381 _Brevipennæ_: Ostrich 383 Rhea 390 Cassowary 392 Emu 393 Apteryx 395 _Extinct Brevipennæ_: Dodo 397 Epiornis 397 Dinornis 397 CHAPTER V. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS. Habits, origin, &c. 399 _Tetraonidæ_: Capercailzie 401 Grouse, Black 402 Pinnated 402 Ruffed 403 Cock of the Plains 402 Gelinotte 403 Ptarmigans 404 Common 404 Red Grouse 405 _Perdicides_: Gangas 405 Pin-tailed Sand Grouse 406 Heteroclites 406 Quails 406 Partridges 410 Grey 415 Partridges, Red-legged 417 Gambra 417 Colin, Virginian 417 Californian 418 Solitary 419 Francolins 419 Chinese 419 European 420 African and Indian 420 Coturnix 420 Turnix tachydroma 420 Tinamides 420 Chionidæ 421 Megapodidæ 421 _Phasianidæ_: Pheasants 422 Common 422 Golden 425 Silver 425 Ring-necked 427 Reeves's 427 Lady Amherst's 427 Argus 427 Gallus 427 Common 427 Bankiva 429 Jungle-fowl 429 Bronzed 429 Fork-tailed 429 Kulm 429 Negro 429 Tragopans 435 Pintados 435 Turkeys 437 Wild 437 Domestic 440 Ocellated 441 Peacocks 441 Domestic 442 Wild 444 Polyplectrons 444 Impeyan Pheasants 444 Alectors 444 Hocco, or Curassow 444 Pauxis 446 Penelopes, or Guans 446 Hoazins 446 _Columbidæ_: Colombi-Gallines 447 Pigeons (Colombes) 448 Ring or Wood 450 Wild Rock 450 Common Domestic 450 Pouter 451 Roman 451 Swift 452 Carrier 452 Tumbler 452 Wheeling 452 Nun 452 Fan-tailed 452 Turtle Dove 453 Ring Dove 453 Passenger 453 Columbars 456 CHAPTER VI. SCANSORES, OR CLIMBERS. Parrots 457 Macaw 464 Parrakeets 465 Tabuan 465 Parrot, Grey 466 Green 466 Cockatoos 466 Toucans 467 Proper 468 Aracaris 469 Cuckoos 469 Grey 469 Indicators 472 Anis 473 Barbets 474 Trogons 475 Resplendent 476 Mexican 476 Woodpeckers 476 Wry-necks 479 Jacamars 480 CHAPTER VII. PASSERINES. _Syndactyles_: Hornbills 482 Rhinoceros 483 Fly-catchers 483 King-fishers 484 Ceyx Meninting 486 Bee-eaters 486 Common 488 Momots 487 _Tenuirostres_: Hoopoes 488 Epimachus 490 Promerops 490 Colibri 491 Proper 491 Humming-birds 491 Creepers 495 Picumnus 496 Furnarius 496 Sucriers 497 Soui-mangas 497 Nuthatches 498 _Conirostres_: Birds of Paradise 499 Great Emerald 500 King Bird 500 Superb 500 Sifilets 501 Crows 502 Raven 502 Carrion 502 Royston 502 Rook 502 Jackdaw 502 Magpies 507 Common 508 Brazilian 509 Chinese 509 Jays 509 Nut-cracker 510 Rollers 511 Starlings 512 Common 513 Sardinian 513 Baltimore Oriole 514 Beef-eater 514 Crossbill 515 Grosbeak 516 Bullfinch 517 Siskin 517 House Sparrow 518 Goldfinch 519 Linnets 519 Chaffinch 520 Canary 521 Widow Bird 523 Java Sparrow 523 Weaver Birds 523 Republican 524 Buntings 524 Reed 525 Cirl 526 Ortolan 526 Snow 527 Tits 527 Great 528 Long-tailed 528 Larks 529 Crested Lark 531 _Fissirostres_: Swallow 531 Salangane 537 Goatsuckers 538 Night-jar 540 Guacharos 541 _Dentirostres_: Manakins 542 Cock of the Rock 542 Warblers 542 Nightingale 543 Sedge Warbler 545 Night Warbler 545 La Fauvette Couturière 546 Garden 547 Robin 547 Wrens 547 Golden-crested 548 European 548 Wood 548 Stone Chat 549 Wagtails 550 Pied 551 Quaketail 551 Pipits 552 Lyretail 552 Orioles 553 Golden 553 Mino 554 Honey-sucker 555 Ouzel, Rose-coloured 555 Water 556 Solitary Thrush 556 Blackbird, Common 557 Ringed 559 Solitary 559 Thrush, Polyglot 559 Song 560 Redwing 561 Tanagers 561 Drongos 562 Cotingas 563 Caterpillar-eater 563 Chatterers 564 Fly-catchers 565 Tyrants 567 Cephalopterus ornatus 567 Shrikes 568 Vangas 571 Cassicus 571 CHAPTER VIII. RAPTORES, OR BIRDS OF PREY. _Nocturnal_: Horned Owls 576 Great 576 Virginian 579 Short-eared 579 Ketupu 581 Scops 581 Hornless Owls 583 Sparrow 583 Small Sparrow 584 Pampas Sparrow 584 Burrowing 585 Tawny 585 Barn 585 Canada 588 Hawk 589 White 589 Caparacoch 590 Harfang 590 Lapland 591 Ural 591 _Diurnal_: Eagles 592 Royal 602 Imperial 602 Bonelli's 602 Tawny 602 Booted 602 Reinwardt's 602 Vulturine 602 Sea Eagles 602 European 603 American 604 Marine 604 Piscivorous 604 Caffir 604 Mace's 604 Pondicherry 604 Indian 604 Osprey 605 Huppart 606 Falco urubitinga 606 Harpy 606 White-bellied Eagle 607 Falcons 608 Gyrfalcons 608 White 609 Iceland 609 Norway 609 Falcons 610 Lanier 610 Sultan 610 Peregrine 610 Hobby 613 Merlin 613 Kestrel 613 Bengal 613 Goshawk 622 Sparrow-hawks 623 Common 623 Dwarf 623 Chanting Falcon 624 Kites 624 Common 624 Black 625 Parasite 625 American 625 Buzzards 626 Common 627 Honey 627 Rough-legged 627 Harriers 627 Hen 628 Moor 628 Frog-eating 628 Pale-chested 629 Jardine's 629 Ash-coloured 629 Caracaras 629 Brazilian 629 Chimango 629 Long-winged 629 Chimachima 629 Funebris 631 Vultures 631 Griffons 632 Bearded 632 Sarcoramphi 634 Condor 634 King Vulture 638 Cathartes 639 Urubu 639 Turkey Buzzard 641 Common Vulture 641 Percnopterus 641 Vulture, Pondicherry 642 Kolbe's 642 Yellow 642 Sociable 645 Chinese 646 Oricou 646 Serpent-eaters 646 Secretary Bird 646 ERRATA. _Phasianus cristatus indicus_, in page 448, should be attributed to Brisson, not Latham. The synonym for Ring Pigeon, in page 448, should be _Columba palumbus_. Woodcut 182 represents the Stock Dove, erroneously named Wood Pigeons in page 450. REPTILES AND BIRDS. INTRODUCTORY. There is little apparent resemblance between the elegant feathered warbler which makes the woods re-echo to its cheerful song, and the crawling reptile which is apt to inspire feelings of disgust when the more potent sensation of terror is absent--between the familiar Swallow, which builds its house of clay under the eaves of your roof, or the warbler whose nest, with its young progeny, carefully watched by the father of the brood in the silent watches of the night, is now threatened by the Serpent which has glided so silently into the bush, its huge mouth already open to swallow the whole family, while the despairing and fascinated parents have nothing but their slender bills to oppose to their formidable foe. "Placed side by side," says Professor Huxley, "a Humming-bird and a Tortoise, or an Ostrich and a Crocodile, offer the strongest contrast; and a Stork seems to have little but its animality in common with the Snake which it swallows." Nevertheless, unlike as they are in outward appearance, there is sufficient resemblance in their internal economy to bring them together in most attempts at a classification of the Animal Kingdom. The air-bladder which exists between the digestive canal and kidneys in some fishes, becomes vascular with the form and cellular structure of lungs in reptiles; the heart has two auricles, the ventricle in most is imperfectly divided, and more or less of the venous blood is mixed with the arterial which circulates over the body; but retaining their gills and being therefore transitional in structure, they are also cold-blooded. In birds, the lungs are spongy, the cavity of the air-bags becoming obliterated by the multiplication of vascular cellules; the heart is four-chambered, transmitting venous blood to the lungs, and pure arterial blood to the body; the temperature is raised and maintained at 90° to 100° Fahr. Thus Reptiles, like Birds, breathe the common air by means of their lungs, but respiration is much less active. "Although," remarks Professor Owen, "the heart of Birds resembles in some particulars that of Reptiles, the four cavities are as distinct as in the Mammalia, but they are relatively stronger, their valvular mechanism is more perfect, and the contractions of this organ are more forcible and frequent in birds, in accordance with their more extended respiration and their more energetic muscular action." It is true, as Professor Huxley informs us, that the pinion of a bird, which corresponds with the human hand or the fore paw of a reptile, has three points representing three fingers: no reptile has so few.[1] The breast-bone of a bird is converted into membrane-bone: no such conversion takes place in reptiles. The sacrum is formed by a number of caudal and dorsal vertebræ. In reptiles the organ is constituted by one or two sacral vertebræ. [1] _Vide_, however, p. 8.--ED. In other respects the two classes present many obvious differences, but these are more superficial than would be suspected at first glance. And Professor Huxley believes that, structurally, "reptiles and birds do really agree much more closely than birds with mammals, or reptiles with amphibians." While most existing birds differ thus widely from existing reptiles, the cursorial or struthious genera, comprising the Ostrich, Nandou, Emu, Cassowary, Apteryx, and the recently extinct Dinornis of New Zealand, come nearer to the reptiles in structure than any others. All of these birds are remarkable for the shortness of their wings, the absence of a crest or keel upon the breast-bone, and some peculiarities of the skull, which render them more peculiarly reptilian. But the gap between reptiles and birds is only slightly narrowed by their existence, and is somewhat unsatisfactory to those who advocate the development theory, which asserts that all animals have proceeded, by gradual modification, from a common stock. Traces had been discovered in the Mesozoic formations of certain Ornitholites, which were too imperfect to determine the affinities of the bird. But the calcareous mud of the ancient sea-bottom, which has hardened into the famous lithographic slate of Solenhofen, revealed to Hermann von Meyer, in 1861, first the impression of a feather, and, in the same year, the independent discovery of the skeleton of the bird itself, which Von Meyer had named _Archæopteryx lithographicus_. This relic of a far-distant age now adorns the British Museum. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Archæopteryx lithographicus.] The skull of the Archæopteryx is almost lost, but the leg, the foot, the pelvis, the shoulder-girdle, and the feathers, as far as their structure can be made out, are completely those of existing birds. On the other hand, the tail is very long. Two digits of the manus have curved claws, and, to all appearance, the metacarpal bones are quite free and disunited, exhibiting, according to Professor Huxley, closer approximation to the reptilian structure than any existing bird. Mr. Evans has even detected that the mandibles were provided with a few slender teeth. On the other hand, the same writer points out certain peculiarities in the single reptile found also among the Solenhofen slates, which has been described and named _Compsognathus longipes_ by the late Andreas Wagner. This reptile he declares "to be a still nearer approximation to the missing link between reptiles and birds," thus narrowing the gap between the two classes. While we think it proper to point to these structural resemblances of one class of the animal creation to others very different in their external appearance, it is necessary to guard ourselves and our readers from adopting the inferences sometimes deduced from them; that "these infinitely diversified forms are merely the final terms in an immense series of changes which have been brought about in the course of immeasurable time, by the operation of causes more or less similar to those which are at work at the present day." Domestication and other causes have no doubt produced changes in the form of many animals; but none from which this inference can be drawn, except in the imagination of ingenious men who strain the facts to support a preconceived hypothesis. In spite of the innumerable forms which the pigeon assumes by cross-breeding and domestication, it still remains a pigeon; the dog is still a dog, and so with other animals. Nor does it seem to us to be necessary, or calculated to advance our knowledge in natural history, to form theories which can only disturb our existing systems without supplying a better. Systems are necessary for the purpose of arrangement and identification; but it should never be forgotten that all classifications are artificial--a framework or cabinet, into the partitions of which many facts may be stowed away, carefully docketed for future use. "Theories," says Le Vaillant, "are more easily made and more brilliant probably than observations; but it is by observation alone that science can be enriched." A bountiful Creator appears to have adopted one general plan in the organization of all the vertebrate creation; and, in order to facilitate their study, naturalists have divided them into classes, orders, and genera, formed on the differences which exist in the structure of their vital functions. The advantages of this are obvious, but it does not involve the necessity of fathoming what is unfathomable, of explaining what is to man inexplicable in the works of GOD.[2] [2] This, however, is a subject upon which naturalists of the highest rank hold different opinions, many of those most highly qualified to form a correct judgment advocating the tenets propounded by Mr. Charles Darwin.--ED. In previous volumes of this series[3] we have endeavoured to give the reader some general notions of the form, life, and manners of the branches of the animal kingdom known as Zoophytes, Mollusca, Articulata, and Pisces. We now continue the superior sub-kingdom (to which the fishes also belong) of the Vertebrated Animals, so called from the osseous skeleton which encircles their bodies, in which the vertebral column, surmounted by the cranium, its appendage, forms the principal part. [3] "The Ocean World," from the French of Louis Figuier. "The Insect World," from the French of the same author. The presence of a solid frame in this series of animals admits of their attaining a size which is denied to any of the others. The skeleton being organized in such a manner as to give remarkable vigour and precision to all their movements. In the vertebrated animals the nervous system is also more developed. There is, consequently, a more exquisite sensibility in them than in the classes whose history we have hitherto discussed. They possess five senses, more or less fully developed, a heart, a circulation, and their blood is red. We have now to deal with a class advanced above that of fishes, that of Reptilia, which is divided as follows:-- AMPHIBIA--(BATRACHIA, CUV.) Animals having ribs or processes, or short, slight, and free vertebræ, forming a series of separate centrums, deeply cupped at both ends, one of which is converted by ossification in the mature animal into a ball, which may be the front one, as in the Surinam Toad, _Pipa_, or the hind ones in the Frogs and Toads, _Rana_. The skin is nude, limbs digitate, gills embryonal,--permanent in some, in most lost in metamorphosis,--to be succeeded by pulmonary respiration,--or both; a heart with one ventricle and two auricles. They consist of:-- I. OPHIOMORPHA. Cæciliadæ or Ophiosomæ. II. ICTHYOMORPHA. Proteidæ or Sirens, Proteus, Newts, and Salamanders. III. THERIOMORPHA. _Aglosa_ Pipa or Surinam Toads. _Ranidæ_ Frogs. _Hylidæ_ Tree Frogs. _Bufonidæ_ Toads. CHELONIA, OR TURTLES. Distinguished by the double shield in which their bodies are enclosed, whether they are terrestrial, fresh-water, or marine. The Turtles, _Chelonia_, have the limbs natatory. Mud Turtles, _Trionyx_, } limbs amphibious. Terrapens, _Emys_, } Tortoises, _Testudo_, limbs terrestrial. LACERTILIA. Having a single transverse process on each side, single-headed ribs, two external nostrils, eyes with movable lids; body covered with horny, sometimes bony, scales. _Lacerta_--the Monitors, Crocodiles, Lizards; having ambulatory limbs. _Anguis_--Ophisaurus, Bimanus, Chalcides, Seps; limbs abortive; no sacrum. OPHIDIA. Having numerous vertebræ with single-headed hollow ribs, no visible limbs, eyelids covered by an immovable transparent lid; body covered by horny scales. It includes:-- _Viperinæ_--the Vipers and Crotalidæ. _Colubrinæ_--the Colubers, Hydridæ, and Boidæ. CROCODILIA. Teeth in a single row, implanted in distinct sockets; body depressed, elongated, protected on the back by solid shield; tail longer than the trunk, compressed laterally, and furnished with crests above. The several families are:-- _Crocodilidæ_--the Gavials, Mecistops, Crocodiles. _Alligatoridæ_--Jacares, Alligators, Caiman.[4] [4] By some naturalists the _Amphibia_ are considered as a distinct class, by other as a sub-class either of _Reptilia_ or of _Pisces_. Of the reptiles proper (at present existing), the arrangement into the orders _Testudinata_ (or Tortoises), _Sauria_ (or Lizards), and _Ophidia_ (or Snakes), is the one most generally adopted; but De Blainville elevates the _Loricata_ (or Crocodiles) to the rank of an order, and others have adopted a division of corresponding rank, _Saurophidia_, for the _Anguis_ series above referred to; but the latter are merely limbless Lizards (or with abortive limbs) akin to the Scinques.--ED. CHAPTER I. AMPHIBIA, OR BATRACHIANS. Those geographers who divide the world into land and sea overlook in their nomenclature the extensive geographical areas which belong permanently to neither section--namely, the vast marshy regions on the margins of lakes, rivers, and ponds, which are alternately deluged with the overflow of the adjacent waters, and parched and withering under the exhalations of a summer heat; regions which could only be inhabited by beings capable of living on land or in water; beings having both gills through which they may breathe in water, and lungs through which they may respire the common air. The first order of reptiles possesses this character, and hence its name of Amphibia, from +amphibios+, having a double life. The transition from fishes to reptiles is described by Professor Owen, with that wonderful power of condensation which he possesses, in the following terms:--"All vertebrates during more or less of their developmental life-period float in a liquid of similar specific gravity to themselves. A large proportion, constituting the lowest organised and first developed forms of this province, exist and breathe in water, and are called fishes. Of these a few retain the primitive vermiform condition, and develop no limbs; in the rest they are 'fins' of simple form, moving by one joint upon the body, rarely adapted for any other function than the impulse or guidance of the body through the water. The shape of the body is usually adapted for moving with least resistance through the liquid medium. The surface of the body is either smooth and lubricous or it is smoothly covered with overlapping scales; it is rarely defended by bony plates, or roughened by tubercles. Still more rarely it is armed with spines." Passing over the general economy of fishes we come to the heart. "The heart," he tells us, "consists of one auricle receiving the venous blood, and one ventricle propelling it to the gills or organs submitting that blood in a state of minute subdivisions to the action of aërated water. From the gills the aërated blood is carried over the entire body by vessels, the circulation being aided by the contraction of the surrounding muscles." The functions of gills are described by the Professor with great minuteness. "The main purpose of the gills of fishes," he says, "being to expose the venous blood in this state of minute subdivision to streams of water, the branchial arteries rapidly divide and sub-divide until they resolve themselves into microscopic capillaries, constituting a network in one plane or layer, supported by an elastic plate, covered by a tesselated and non-ciliated epithelium. This covering and the tunics of the capillaries are so thin as to allow chemical interchange and decomposition to take place between the carbonated blood and the oxygenated water. The requisite extent of the respiratory field of capillaries is gained by various modes of multiplying the surface within a limited space." "Each pair of processes," he adds, "has its flat side turned towards contiguous pairs, and the two processes of each pair stand edgeway to each other, being commonly united for a greater or less extent from their base; hence Cuvier describes each pair as a single bifurcated plate, or 'feuillet.'" The modification which takes place in the respiratory and other organs in Reptilia, is described in a few words. "Many fishes have a bladder of air between the digestive canal and the kidneys, which in some communicate with an air-duct and the gullet; but its office is chiefly hydrostatic. When on the rise of structure this air-bladder begins to assume the vascular and pharyngeal relations with the form and cellular structure of lungs, the limbs acquire the character of feet: at first thread-like and many jointed, as in the _Lepidosiren_; then bifurcate, or two-fingered, with the elbow and wrist joints of land animals, as in _Amphiuma_; next, three-fingered, as in _Proteus_, or four-fingered, but reduced to the pectoral pair, as in _Siren_." In all reptiles the blood is conveyed from the ventricular part of the heart, really or apparently, by a single trunk. In Lepidosiren the veins from the lung-like air-bladders traverse the auricle which opens directly into the ventricle. In some the vein dilates before communicating with the ventricle into a small auricle, which is not outwardly distinct from the much larger auricle receiving the veins of the body. In Proteus the auricular system is incomplete. In Amphiuma the auricle is smaller and less fringed than in the Sirens, the ventricle being connected to the pericardium by the apex as well as the artery. This forms a half spiral turn at its origin, and dilates into a broader and shorter bulb than in the Sirens. "The pulmonic auricle," continues the learned Professor, "thus augments in size with the more exclusive share taken by the lungs in respiration; but the auricular part of the heart shows hardly any outward sign of its diversion in the Batrachians. It is small and smooth, and situated on the left, and in advance of the ventricle in Newts and Salamanders. In Frogs and Toads the auricle is applied to the base of the ventricle, and to the back and side of the aorta and its bulb." In the lower members of the order, the single artery from the ventricle sends, as in fishes, the whole of the blood primarily to the branchial organs, during life, and in all Batrachians at the earlier aquatic periods of existence. In the Newt three pairs of external gills are developed at first as simple filaments, each with its capillary loop, but speedily expanding, lengthening, and branching into lateral processes, with corresponding looplets; those blood-channels intercommunicating by a capillary network. The gill is covered by ciliated scales, which change into non-ciliated cuticle shortly before the gills are absorbed. In the _Proteus anguinus_, three parts only of branchial and vascular arches are developed, corresponding with the number of external gills. In _Siren lacertina_ the gills are in three pairs of branchial arches, the first and fourth fixed, the second and third free, increasing in size according to their condition. The AMPHIBIA, then, have all, at some stage of their existence, both gills and lungs co-existent: respiring by means of branchiæ or gills while in the water, and by lungs on emerging into the open air. All these creatures seem to have been well known to the ancients. The monuments of the Egyptians abound in representations of Frogs, Toads, Tortoises, and Serpents. Aristotle was well acquainted with their form, structure, and habits, even to their reproduction. Pliny's description presents his usual amount of error and exaggeration. Darkness envelops their history during the middle ages, from which it gradually emerges in the early part of the sixteenth century, when Belon and Rondiletius in France, Salviani in Italy, and Conrad Gesner in Switzerland, devoted themselves to the study of Natural History with great success. In the latter part of the same century Aldrovandi appeared. During fifty years he was engaged in collecting objects and making drawings, which were published after his death, in 1640, edited by Professor Ambrossini, of Bologna, the Reptiles forming two volumes. In these volumes, twenty-two chapters are occupied by the Serpents. But the first arrangement which can be called systematic was that produced by John Ray. This system was based upon the mode of respiration, the volume of the eggs, and their colour. Numerous systems have since appeared in France, Germany, and England; but we shall best consult our readers' interest by briefly describing the classification adopted by Professor Owen, the learned Principal of the British Museum, in his great work on the Vertebrata. The two great classes Batrachians and Reptiles, include a number of animals which are neither clothed with hair, like the Mammalia, covered with feathers like the birds, nor furnished with swimming fins like fishes. The essential character of reptiles is, that they are either entirely or partially covered with scales. Some of them--for instance, Serpents--move along the ground with a gliding motion, produced by the simple contact and adhesion of the ventral scales with the ground. Others, such as the Tortoises, the Crocodiles, and the Lizards, move by means of their feet; but these, again, are so short, that the animals almost appear to crawl on the ground--however swiftly, in some instances. The locomotive organs in Serpents are the vertebral column, with its muscles, and the stiff epidermal scutes crossing the under surface of the body. "A Serpent may, however, be seen to progress," says Professor Owen, "without any inflection, gliding slowly and with a ghost-like movement in a straight line, and if the observer have the nerve to lay his hand flat in the reptile's course, he will feel, as the body glides over the palm, the surface pressed as it were by the edges of a close-set series of paper knives, successively falling flat after each application." Others of the class, such as the Tortoises, Crocodiles, and Lizards, move by the help of feet, which are generally small and feeble--in a few species being limited to the pectoral region, while in most both pairs are present. In some, as in various Lizards, the limbs acquire considerable strength. There is one genus of small Lizards, known as the Dragons, _Draco_, whose movements present an exception to the general rule. Besides their four feet, these animals are furnished with a delicate membranous parachute, formed by a prolongation of the skin on the flanks and sustained by the long slender ribs, which permits of their dropping from a considerable height upon their prey. Batrachians, again, differ from most other Reptilia by being naked: moreover, most of them undergo certain metamorphoses; in the first stage of their existence they lead a purely aquatic life, and breathe by means of gills, after the manner of fishes. Young Frogs, Toads, and Salamanders, which are then called _tadpoles_, have, in short, no resemblance whatever to their parents in the first stage of their existence. They are little creatures with slender, elongated bodies, destitute of feet and fins, but with large heads, which may be seen swimming about in great numbers in stagnant ponds, where they live and breathe after the manner of fishes. By degrees, however, they are transformed: their limbs and air-breathing lungs are gradually developed, then they slowly disappear, and a day arrives when they find themselves conveniently organized for another kind of existence; they burst from their humid retreat, and betake themselves to dry land. "The tadpole meanwhile being subject to a series of changes in every system of organs concerned in the daily needs of the coming aërial and terrestrial existence, still passes more or less time in water, and supplements the early attempt at respiration by pullulating loops and looplets of capillaries from the branchial vessels." (Owen.) Nevertheless, they do not altogether forget their native element; thanks to their webbed feet, they can still traverse the waters which sheltered their infancy; and when alarmed by any unusual noise, they rush into the water as a place of safety, where they swim about in apparent enjoyment. In some of them, as _Proteus_ and the amphibious _Sirens_, where the limbs are confined to the pectoral region, swimming seems to be the state most natural to them. They are truly amphibious, and they owe this double existence to the persistence of their gills; for in these perennibranchiate Batrachians, arteries are developed from the last pair of branchial arches which convey blood to the lungs: while, in those having external deciduous gills, the office being discharged, they lose their ciliate and vascular structure and disappear altogether. The skull in Reptiles generally consists of the same parts as in the Mammalia, though the proportions are different. The skull is flat, and the cerebral cavity, small as it is, is not filled with brain. The vertebral column commences at the posterior part of the head, two condyles occupying each side of the vertebral hole (Fig. 2). The anterior limbs are mostly shorter than the posterior, as might be expected of animals whose progression is effected by leaps. Ribs there are none. The sternum is highly developed, and a large portion of it is cartilaginous; it moves in its mesial portions the two clavicles and two coracoid bones, which fit on to the scapula, the whole making a sort of hand which supports the anterior extremities, and an elongated disk which supports the throat, and assists in deglutition and respiration. The bone of the arm (_humerus_) is single, and long in proportion to the fore arm. In the Frogs (_Rana_), the ilic bone is much elongated, and is articulated in a movable manner on the sacrum, so that the two heads of the thigh bones seem to be in contact. The femur, or thigh, is much lengthened and slightly curved, and the bones of the leg so soldered together as to form a single much elongated bone. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Skeleton of a Frog.] The respiration of Reptiles and some of the Batrachians, like that of Birds and Mammals, is aërial and pulmonary, but it is much less active. Batrachians have, in addition, a very considerable cutaneous respiration. Some of them, such as Toads, absorb more oxygen through the skin than by the lungs. Their circulation is imperfect, the structure of the heart only presenting one ventricle; the blood, returning after a partial regeneration in the lungs, mingles with that which is not yet revivified: this mixed fluid is launched out into the economic system of the animal. Thus Reptiles and Batrachians are said to be _cold-blooded_ animals, more especially the former, in which the respiratory organs, which are a constant source of interior heat, are only exercised very feebly. Owing to this low temperature of their bodies, reptiles affect warm climates, where the sun exercises its power with an intensity unknown in temperate regions; hence it is that they abound in the warm latitudes of Asia, Africa, and America, whilst comparatively few are found in Europe. This is also the cause of their becoming torpid during the winter of our latitudes: not having sufficient heat in themselves to produce reaction against the external cold, they fall asleep for many months, awakening only when the temperature permits of their activity. Serpents, Lizards, Tortoises, Frogs, are all subjected to this law of their being. Some hybernate upon the earth, under heaps of stones, or in holes; others in mud at the bottom of ponds. The senses are very slightly developed in these animals; those of touch, taste, and smell, are very imperfect; that of hearing, though less obtuse, leaves much to be desired; but sight in them is very suitably exercised by the large eyes, with contractile eye-balls, which enables certain reptiles--such, for instance, as the Geckos, to distinguish objects in the dark. Most Reptiles and Batrachians are almost devoid of voice: Serpents, however, utter a sharp hissing noise, some species of Crocodiles howl energetically, the Geckos are particularly noisy, and Frogs have a well-known croak. In Reptiles and Batrachians the brain is small, a peculiarity which explains their slight intelligence and the almost entire impossibility of teaching them anything. They can, it is true, be tamed; but although they seem to know individuals, they do not seem to be susceptible of affection: the slight compass of their brain renders them very insensible, and this insensibility to pain enables them to support mutilations which would prove immediately fatal to most other animals. For instance, the Common Lizard frequently breaks its tail in its abrupt movements. Does this disturb him? Not at all! This curtailment of his being does not seem to affect him; he awaits patiently for the return of the organ, which complaisant nature renews as often as it becomes necessary. In the Crocodiles and Monitor Lizards, however, a mutilated part is not renewed, and the renovated tails of other Lizards do not develop bone. In some instances, the eyes may be put out with impunity, or part of the head may be cut off; these organs will be replaced or made whole in a certain time without the animal having ceased to perform any of the functions which are still permitted to him in his mutilated state. A Tortoise will continue to live and walk for six months after it is deprived of its brain, and a Salamander has been seen in a very satisfactory state although its head was, so to speak, isolated from the trunk by a ligature tied tightly close round the neck. There is another curious peculiarity in the history of Reptiles and Batrachians: each year as they awake from their state of torpor, they slough their old covering, and thus each year renew their youth; so far as the skin is concerned, it is certain that they retain their youth a very long time. Their growth is slow, and continues almost through the whole duration of their existence; they are, moreover, endowed with remarkable longevity. This is not very astonishing, if we consider that (at least in our latitudes) they remain torpid for several months yearly; thus using up less of the materials of life than most animals, they ought, consequently, to attain a more advanced age. The activity of organization in Reptiles and Batrachians is so slight that their stomachs feel less of the exigencies of hunger; hence they rarely take nourishment; they digest their food with equal deliberation. With the exception of the Land Tortoises, whose regimen is herbivorous, most reptiles feed on living prey. Some, such as Lizards, Frogs, and Toads, prey on worms, insects, small terrestrial or aquatic Molluscs; others, such as Ophidians and Crocodiles, attack Birds, and even Mammalia. Large Serpents, owing to the distensibility of their oesophagus, swallow animals much larger than themselves. The Boa-constrictor darts upon the Deer, binds him in its snaky coils, breaks his bones, and little by little swallows him entirely. Reptiles, whether Batrachians, Ophidians, or Chelonians, are mostly _oviparous_, sometimes _ovo-viviparous_, and some of them are very prolific. The eggs of some are covered with a calcareous envelope, as in the Turtle. Sometimes they are soft, and analogous to the spawn of fish, as in the Batrachians. They do not hatch their eggs by sitting upon them, but bury them in the sand, and take no further care of them, trusting to the heat of the sun, which hatches them in due course. To this the Pythons form a partial exception. Batrachians content themselves with diffusing their spawn or eggs in the marshy waters or ponds, or they bear them on their backs until the time of hatching approaches. On leaving the egg the young Tortoises have to provide immediately for their own wants, for the parents are not present to bring them their nourishment or to defend them against their enemies. This parental protection, so manifest among the superior animals, does not exist in oviparous species; that is, in those whose eggs are not hatched in the body of the mother. The young are, so to speak, produced in a living state, and fully prepared for the battle of life. The loves of these animals present none of that character of mutual affection and tender sympathy which distinguishes the Mammalia and Birds.[5] When they have ensured the perpetuity of their species, they separate, and betake themselves again to their solitary existence. [5] Birds, however, are oviparous, and nevertheless manifest the strongest parental affection.--ED. Some reptiles attain dimensions truly extraordinary, which render them at times very formidable. Turtles are met with which weigh as much as sixteen hundred pounds, and the carapace of one of these measured as much as six feet in length. The size of an ordinary Crocodile is from eight to nine feet, but they have been seen twenty-four and even thirty feet long, with a mouth opening from six to eight feet wide. [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Skeleton of a Turtle.] In Chelonians the surface of the skull is continuous without movable articulations. The head is oval in the Land Tortoises, the interval between the eyes large and convex, the opening of the nostrils large, the orbits round. The general distinguishing characteristic of Tortoises is the external position of the bones of the thorax, at once enveloping with a cuirass or buckler the muscular portion of the frame, and protecting the pelvis and shoulder bones. The ribs are inserted by means of sutures into these plates, and united with each other. A three-branched shoulder and cylindrical shoulder-blade are characteristic of the Tortoises. In tropical regions enormous Serpents are found, which are as bulky as a man's thigh, and are said to be not less than forty feet in length. Roman annals mention one forty feet long, which Regulus encountered in Africa during the Punic wars, and which is fabulously said to have arrested the march of his army. These gigantic reptiles are not, however, the enemies which man has most cause to fear; their very size draws attention to them in such a manner that it is easy to avoid them. It is quite otherwise with Vipers twenty or thirty inches long; they glide after their prey without being seen, strike it cruelly with their fangs, leaving in the wound a venom which produces death with startling rapidity. Doubtless this fatal power was the origin of the worship which was rendered to certain reptiles by barbarous nations of old, and these animals are indeed still venerated by many savage races. The whole class of Reptiles are, for the most part, calculated to inspire feelings of disgust, and such has been the sentiment in all ages. Few people can suppress a movement of fright at the sight of an ordinary Snake, Lizard, or Frog, notwithstanding that they are most inoffensive animals. Several causes concur to this aversion. In the first place the low temperature of their bodies, contact with which communicates an involuntary shudder in the person who tries to touch one of them; then the moisture which exudes from the skins of Frogs, Toads, and Salamanders; their fixed and strong gaze, again, impresses one painfully in thinking of them; the odour which some of them exhale is so disgusting, that it alone sometimes causes fainting; add to this the fear of a real or often exaggerated danger, and we shall have the secret of the sort of instinctive horror which is felt by many people at the sight of most reptiles. Nevertheless, the injurious species are exceptional amongst reptiles, and there are not any amongst the Batrachians, for it is altogether a mistake to take for venom the fluid which the toad discharges.[6] It is true that these animals are repulsive in appearance, we can nevertheless recognise their services in the economy of nature. Inhabitants of slimy mud and impure swamps, they make incessant war upon the worms and insects which abound in those localities. In their turn they find implacable enemies in the birds of the marshes, which check their prodigious multiplication. In this manner equilibrium is maintained. [6] The _Necturus_, a Siren-like animal inhabiting the lakes of North America, has a series of small, fang-like teeth above and below, which are stated to give an envenomed bite.--"Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1857, p. 61. For poison-organs in certain fishes, _vide_ the same publication for 1864, p. 155.--ED. Some of the animals which now occupy our attention render more direct service to man by the part which they fulfil at his table. Frogs are eaten in the south of France, Italy, and many other countries; and in some parts of the south of France, Adders are eaten under the name of Hedge-eels. We know the favour in which Turtles are held in England, where turtle-soup is considered a dish only fit for merchant princes. In some countries Iguanas, Crocodiles, and even Serpents are eaten. Viper-broth, which was known to Hippocrates, is discontinued as an article of food. As we have already remarked, the peculiar nature of their organization leads Reptiles and Batrachians to seek the warmer regions of the earth. It is in those regions that they attain the enormous dimensions which distinguish certain Serpents; there, too, they secrete their most subtle poisons, and display the most lively colours--which, if less rich than those of Birds and Fishes, are not less startling in effect. Many Serpents and Lizards glitter with radiant metallic reflections, and some of them present extremely varied combinations of colour. Chameleons are found in the same localities, but in the Old World only; these and some other Lizards are remarkable for changing their colour, a phenomenon which is also seen among the Frogs, but in a smaller degree. Reptiles and Batrachians were numerous in the early ages of our globe. It was then that those monstrous Saurians lived, whose dimensions even are startling to our imagination. The forms of the Reptiles and Batrachians of the early ages of the earth were much more numerous, their dimensions much greater, and their means of existence more varied than those of the present time. Our existent Reptiles are very degenerate descendants of those of the great geological periods, unless we except the Crocodiles and the gigantic Boas and Pythons. Whilst the Reptiles of former ages disported their gigantic masses, and spread terror amongst other living creatures, alike by their formidable armature and their prodigious numbers, they are now reduced to a much lower number of species. There are now but little more than 1,500 species of Reptiles and Batrachians described, and only 100 of those belong to Europe.[7] [7] _Vide_ subsequent notes on this subject, in p. 31, &c. I. BATRACHIA. Animals which compose this class have long been confounded with reptiles, from which they differ in one fundamental peculiarity in their organization. At their birth they respire by means of gills, and consequently resemble fishes. In a physiological point of view, at a certain time in their lives, these animals are fishes in form as well as in their habits and organization. As age progresses, they undergo permanent metamorphosis--they acquire lungs, and thenceforth an aërial respiration. It is, then, easy to understand that these animals hold a doubtful rank, as they have long done, amongst Reptiles, which are animals with an aërial respiration; they ought to form a separate class of Vertebrates.[8] [8] They are regarded by some naturalists as a sub-class of Fishes rather than of Reptiles, as _piscine_ forms certain of which develop to a parallelism with the ordinary _reptilian_ condition of advancement; their reproduction especially favouring this view or idea.--ED. Batrachians establish a transitional link between Fishes and Reptiles--they are, as it were, a bond of union between those two groups of animals. In the adult state Batrachians are cold-blooded animals with incomplete circulation, inactive respiration, and the skin is bare. In the introductory section to this chapter we have given the general characteristics which belong to them. The Frogs--Tree Frogs, Toads, Surinam Toads, Salamanders, and Newts--are the representatives of the principal families of Batrachians of which we propose giving the history. The Frogs, _Rana_, have been irreparably injured by their resemblance to the Toads. This circumstance has given rise to an unfavourable prejudice against these innocent little Batrachians. Had the Toad not existed, the Frog would appear to us as an animal of a curious form, and would interest us by the phenomena of transformation which it undergoes in the different epochs of its development. We should see in it a useful inoffensive animal of slender form, with delicate and supple limbs, arrayed in that green colour which is so pleasant to the eye, and which mingles so harmoniously with the carpeting of our fields. [Illustration: Fig. 4.--The Edible Frog (_Rana esculenta_).] The body of the Edible Frog, _Rana esculenta_ (Fig. 4), sometimes attains from six to eight inches in length, from the extremity of the muzzle to the end of the hind feet. The muzzle terminates in a point; the eyes are large, brilliant, and surrounded with a circle of gold colour. The mouth is large; the body, which is contracted behind, presents a tubercular and rugged back. It is of a more or less decided green colour on the upper, and whitish on the under parts. These two colours, which harmonize well, are relieved by three yellow lines, which extend the whole length of the back, and by scattered black marbling. It is, therefore, much to be regretted that prejudice should cause some at least of us to turn away from this pretty little hopping animal, when met with in the country; with its slight dimensions, quick movements, and graceful attitudes. For ourselves, we cannot see the banks of our streams embellished by the colours and animated with the gambols of these little animals without pleasure. Why should we not follow with our eyes their movements in our ponds, where they enliven the solitude without disturbing its tranquillity. Frogs often leave the water, not only to seek their nourishment, but to warm themselves in the sun. When they repose thus, with the head lifted up, the body raised in front and supported upon the hind feet, the attitude is more that of an animal of higher organization than that of a mean and humble Batrachian. Frogs feed on larvæ, aquatic insects, worms, and small mollusks. They choose their prey from living and moving creatures; for they set a watch, and when they perceive it, they spring on it with great vivacity. A large Indian species (_R. tigrina_) has been seen to prey occasionally upon young Sparrows. Far from being dumb, like many oviparous quadrupeds, Frogs have the gift of voice. The females only make a peculiar low growl, produced by the air which vibrates in the interior of two vocal pouches placed on the sides of the neck; but the cry of the male is sonorous, and heard at a great distance: it is a croak which the Greek poet, Aristophanes, endeavoured to imitate by the inharmonic consonants, _brekekurkoax, coax_! It is principally during rain, or in the evenings and mornings of hot days, that Frogs utter their confused sounds. Their chanting in monotonous chorus makes this sad melody very tiresome. Under the feudal system, during the "good old times" of the middle ages, which some people would like to bring back again, the country seats of many of the nobility and country squires were surrounded by ditches half full of water, all inhabited by a population of croaking Frogs. Vassals and villains were ordered to beat the water in these ditches morning and evening in order to keep off the Frogs which troubled the sleep of the lords and masters of the houses. Independent of the resounding and prolonged cries of which we have spoken, at certain times the male Frog calls the female in a dull voice, so plaintive that the Romans described it by the words "ololo," or "ololygo." "Truly," says Lacépède, "the accent of love is always mingled with some sweetness." When autumn arrives Frogs cease from their habitual voracity, and no longer eat. To protect themselves from the cold, they bury themselves deeply in the mud: troops of them joining together in the same place. Thus hidden, they pass the winter in a state of torpor; sometimes the cold freezes their bodies without killing them. This state of torpor gives way in the first days of spring. During the month of March, Frogs begin to awake and to move themselves; this is their breeding season. Their race is so prolific that a female can produce from six to twelve hundred eggs annually. These eggs are globular, and are in form a glutinous and transparent spheroid, at the centre of which is a little blackish globule; the eggs float, and form like chaplets on the surface of the water. [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Development of the Tadpole. 1. Egg of the Frog. 2. The Egg fecundated, and surrounded by its visicule. 3. First state of the Tadpole. 4. Appearance of the breathing gills. 5. Their development. 6. Formation of the hind feet. 7. Formation of the fore feet, and decay of the gills. 8. Development of the lungs, and reduction of the tail. 9. The perfect Frog.] All who have observed the small ponds and ditches in the country at this season, will have seen these light and elegant crafts swimming on the surface of the water. After a few days, more or less according to the temperature, the little black spot which is the embryo of the egg, and which has developed itself in the interior of the glairy mass which envelops it, disengages itself and shoots forth into the water: this is the tadpole of the Frog. The body of the tadpole is oval in shape, and terminates in a long flat tail, which forms a true fin; on each side of the neck are two large gills, in shape like a plume of feathers; the tadpole has no legs. These gills soon begin to wither, without aquatic respiration ceasing, however; for, besides these, the tadpole possesses interior gills like fishes. Soon after, the legs begin to show themselves, the hind legs appearing first; they acquire a considerable length before the fore feet begin to show themselves. These develop themselves under the skin, which they presently pierce through. When the legs have appeared, the tail begins to fade, and, little by little, withers away, until in the perfect animal it entirely disappears. About the same time the lungs become developed, and assume their functions. In Fig. 5 may be traced the successive phases of its transformation from the egg to the tadpole, till we finally reach the perfect Batrachian. Through these admirable modifications we see the Fish, little by little, become a Batrachian. In order to follow this strange metamorphosis, it suffices to gather some Frog's eggs, and to place them with some aquatic herbs in an aquarium, or in a globe with Gold and Silver Fish; it there constitutes a most interesting spectacle, and we advise our readers to give themselves this instructive and easy lesson in natural history. At present, there exist two species of Frog in Europe: the _Green_ or _Edible Frog_, and the _Common Frog_. The Green Frog is that which we have described, and of which we have given a representation in Fig. 4. They are found in running streams and stagnant waters. It is this species to which La Fontaine alludes in one of his fables. Common Frogs are smaller than the preceding: they inhabit damp places in fields and vineyards, and only return to the water to breed or to winter. The flesh of the Edible Frog is very tender, white, and delicate. As an article of food, it is lightly esteemed by some, but undeservedly so. Prepared in the same manner, Green Frogs closely resemble very young fowls in taste. In almost all parts of France Frogs are disdained as articles of food; it is only in the south that a taste for them is openly avowed, and there Frogs are sought for and brought to market. Therefore, I never could comprehend how the notion popular in England, when it is wished to express contempt for Frenchmen, should be to call them Frog-eaters. It is a reproach which might be addressed to Provençals and Languedocians like the author of this work, but not at all to the majority of Frenchmen. [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Green Tree Frog (_Hyla_).] The Green Tree Frog is easily distinguished by having little plates under its toes. These organs are a species of sucker, by means of which the animal is enabled, like the house-fly, to cling strongly to any surface, however smooth and polished it may be. The smoothest branch, even the lower surface of a leaf, forms a sufficient hold and support to these delicate organs. The upper part of the body is of a beautiful green, the lower part, where little tuberculi are visible, is white. A yellow line, lightly bordered with violet, extends on each side of the head and back, from the muzzle to the hind legs. A similar line runs from the jaw to the front legs. The head is short, the mouth round, and the eyes raised. Much smaller than the ordinary Frog, they are far more graceful. During the summer they live upon the leaves of trees in damp woods, and pass the winter at the bottom of some pond, which they do not leave till the month of May, after having deposited their eggs. They feed on small insects, worms, and mollusks; and in order to catch them, they will remain in the same place an entire day. During the glare of the sun, they remain hidden amongst the leaves; but when twilight approaches, they move about and climb up the trees. We must repeat of these Green Tree Frogs what we have already said of Frogs. Get rid of all prejudice towards their kind, and then you will examine with pleasure their lively colours, which harmonize so well with the green leaves; remark their tricks and ambuscades; follow them in their little hunting excursions; see them suspended upside down upon the leaves in a manner which appears marvellous to those who are not aware of the organs which have been given to enable them to attach themselves to the smoothest bodies: and it will give as much pleasure as can be derived from the consideration of the plumage, habits, and flight of birds. The croak of the Green Tree Frogs is like that of other Frogs, although less sharp and sometimes stronger in the males; it can be pretty well translated by the syllables _caraccarac_, pronounced from the throat. This cry is principally heard in the morning and evening; then, when one Frog begins to utter its croak, all the others imitate it. In the quiet night the voice of a troop of these little Batrachians sometimes reaches to an enormous distance. Toads, _Bufo_, are squat and disagreeable in shape: it is difficult to comprehend why nature, which has bestowed elegance and a kind of grace upon Frogs and Tree Frogs, has stamped the Toad with so repulsive a form. These much despised beings occupy a large place in the order of nature: they are distributed with profusion, but one cannot say exactly to what end; their movements are heavy and sluggish. In colour they are usually of a livid grey, spotted with brown and yellow, and disfigured by a number of pustules or warts. A thick and hard skin covers a flat back; its large belly always appears to be swollen; the head a little broader than the rest of its body; the mouth and the eyes are large and prominent. It lives chiefly at the bottom of ditches, especially those where stagnant and corrupt water has lain a long time. It is found in dung heaps, caves, and in dark and damp parts of woods. One has often been disagreeably surprised on raising some great stone to discover a Toad cowering against the earth, frightful to see, but timorous, seeking to avoid the notice of strangers. It is in these different obscure and sometimes foetid places of refuge that the Toad shuts itself up during the day; going out in the evening, when our common species moves by slight hops; whilst another, the Natterjack Toad, _Bufo calamita_, only crawls, though somewhat fastly. When seized, it voids into the hand a quantity of limpid water imbibed through the pores of its skin; but if more irritated, a milky and Venemous humour issues from the glands of its back. [Illustration: Fig. 7.--The Common Toad (_Bufo vulgaris_).] One peculiarity of its structure offers a defence from outward attacks. Its very extensible skin adheres feebly to the muscles, and at the will of the animal a large quantity of air enters between this integument and the flesh, which distends the body, and fills the vacant space with an elastic bed of gas, by means of which it is less sensible to blows. Toads feed upon insects, worms, and small mollusks. In fine evenings, at certain seasons especially, they may be heard uttering a plaintive monotonous sound. They assemble in ponds, or even in simple puddles of water, where they breed and deposit their eggs. When hatched, the young Toads go through the same metamorphosis as do the tadpoles of the Frogs. Their simple lives, though very inactive, are nevertheless very enduring; they respire little, are susceptible of hibernation, and can remain for a considerable time shut up in a very confined place. It is proper, however, to caution the reader against believing all that has been written about the longevity of Toads. Neither must implicit faith be given to the discovery of the living animal (Fig. 7) in the centre of stones. "That Toads, Frogs, and Newts, occasionally issue from stones broken in a quarry or in sinking wells, and even from coal-strata at the bottom of a mine," is true enough; but, as Dr. Buckland observes, "the evidence is never perfect to show that these Amphibians were entirely enclosed in a solid rock; no examination is made until the creature is discovered by the breaking of the mass in which it was contained, and then it is too late to ascertain whether there was any hole or crevice by which it might have entered." These considerations led Dr. Buckland to undertake certain experiments to test the fact. He caused blocks of coarse oölitic limestone and sandstone to be prepared with cells of various sizes, in which he enclosed Toads of different ages. The small Toads enclosed in the sandstone were found to die at the end of thirteen months; the same fate befell the larger ones during the second year: they were watched through the glass covers of their cells, and were never seen in a state of torpor, but at each successive examination they had become more meagre, until at last they were found dead. This was probably too severe a test for the poor creatures, the glass cover implying a degree of hardness and dryness not natural to half amphibious Toads. Moreover, it is certain that both Toads and Frogs possess a singular facility for concealing themselves in the smallest crevices of the earth, or in the smallest anfractuosities of stones placed in dark places. This animal, so repulsive in form, has been furnished by nature with a most efficient defensive armature; namely, an acrid secretion which will be described farther on. It is a bad leaper, an obscure and solitary creature, which shuns the sight of man, as if it comprehended the blot it is on the fair face of creation. It is, nevertheless, susceptible of education, and has occasionally been tamed; but these occasions have been rare. Pennant, the zoologist, relates some curious details respecting a poor Toad, which took refuge under the staircase of a house. It was accustomed to come every evening into a dining-room near to the place of its retreat. When it saw the light it allowed itself to be placed on a table, where they gave it worms, wood-lice, and various insects. As no attempt was made to injure it, there were no signs of irritation when it was touched, and it soon became, from its gentleness (the gentleness of a Toad!), the object of general curiosity; even ladies stopped to see this strange animal. The poor Batrachian lived thus for six and thirty years; and it would probably have lived much longer had not a Crow, tamed, and, like it, a guest in the house, attacked him at the entrance of his hole, and put out one of his eyes. From that time he languished, and died at the end of a year. [Illustration: Fig. 8.--Surinam Toad (_Pipa monstrosa_).] Nearly allied to the Toads, _Bufo_, the Surinam Toad, _Pipa_, holds its place. Its physiognomy is at once hideous and peculiarly odd: the head is flat and triangular, a very short neck separates it from the trunk, which is itself depressed and flattened. Its eyes are extremely small, of an olive, more or less bright, dashed with small reddish spots. It has no tongue. There is only one species of Pipa, viz. the American Pipa (Fig. 8), which inhabits Guiana and several provinces of Brazil. The most remarkable feature in this Batrachian is its manner of reproduction. It is oviparous, and when the female has laid her eggs, the male takes them, and piles upon the back of his companion these, his hopes of posterity. The female, bearing the fertilized eggs upon her back, reaches the marshes, and there immerses herself; but the skin of the back which supports the eggs soon becomes inflamed, erysipelatous inflammation follows, causing an irritation, produced by the presence of eggs, which are then absorbed into the skin, and disappear in the integument until hatched. The young Pipa Toads are rapidly developed in these dorsal cells, but they are extricated at a less advanced stage than almost any other vertebrate animal. After extrication, the tadpole grows rapidly, and the chief change of form is witnessed in the gills. As to the mother Batrachian, it is only after she has got rid of her progeny that she abandons her aquatic residence.[9] [9] The same phenomena occur, with certain variations, in some other American Batrachians, as the _Nototrema marsupiatum_ of Mexico, and the _Notode'phys ovifera_ of Venezuela. In the _Alytes obstetricans_ of France, Switzerland, and the Rhine district, the ova (about sixty in number) adhere to the hind-legs of the male parent!--ED. The Batrachians differ essentially from all other orders of REPTILIA. They have no ribs; their skin is naked, being without scales. The young, or _tadpoles_, when first hatched, breathe by means of gills, being at this stage quite unlike their parents. These gills, or branchiæ, disappear in the tailless Batrachians, as the Frogs and Toads, in which the tail disappears, are called. In the tadpoles the mouth is destitute of a tongue, this organ only making its appearance when the fore limbs are evolved. The habits also change. The tadpole no longer feeds on decomposing substances, and cannot live long immersed in water. The branchiæ disappear one after the other, by absorption, giving place to pulmonary vessels. The principal vascular arches are converted into the pulmonary artery, and the blood is diverted from the largest of the branchiæ to the lungs. In the meantime the respiratory cavity is formed, the communicating duct advances with the elongation of the oesophagus, and at the point of communication the larynx is ultimately developed. The lungs themselves extend as simple elongated sacs, slightly reticulated on the inner surface backwards into the abdominal cavity. These receptacles being formed, air passes into and expands the cavity, and respiration is commenced, the fore limbs are liberated from the branchial chambers, and the first transformation is accomplished. The alleged Venemous character of the Common Toad has been altogether rejected by many naturalists; but Dr. Davy found that Venemous matter was really contained in follicles in the true skin, and chiefly about the head and shoulders, but also distributed generally over the body, and on the extremities in considerable quantities. Dr. Davy found it extremely acrid, but innocuous when introduced into the circulation. A chicken inoculated with it was unaffected, and Dr. Davy conjectures that this acrid liquid is the animal's defence against carnivorous Mammalia. A dog when urged to attack one will drop it from its mouth in a manner which leaves no doubt that it had felt the effects of the secretion. In opposition to these opinions the story of a lad in France is told, who had thrust his slightly wounded hand into a hole, intending to seize a Lizard which he had seen enter. In place of the Lizard he brought out a large Toad. While holding the animal, it discharged a milky yellowish white fluid which introduced itself into the wound in his hand, and this poison occasioned his death; but then it is not stated that the boy was previously healthy. Warm and temperate regions with abundant moisture are the localities favourable to all the Batrachians. Extreme cold, as well as dry heat, and all sudden changes are alike unfavourable to them. In temperate climates, where the winters are severe, they bury themselves under the earth, or in the mud at the bottom of pools and ponds, and there pass the season without air or food, till returning spring calls them forth. The species of this family are very numerous. MM. Duméril and Bibron state that the Frogs, _Rana_, number fifty-one species; the Tree Frogs, _Hyla_, sixty-four; and the Toads, _Bufo_, thirty-five. They are found in all parts of the world, the smallest portion being found in Europe, and the largest in America. Oceania is chiefly supplied with the Tree Frogs. There are several curious forms in Australia, and one species only is known to inhabit New Zealand. The enormous fossil _Labyrinthodon_, of a remote geological era, is believed to have been nearly related to these comparatively very diminutive Batrachians.[10] [10] In Dr. Günther's Catalogue of the _Batrachia Salientia_ (as Dr. Gray terms them) in the collection of the British Museum, published in 1858, and which includes all the ascertained species up to the time of publication, as many as 282 are enumerated, which are arranged under twenty-five groups holding the rank of families.--ED. TAILED BATRACHIANS, Sometimes called Urodeles, from +oura+, "tail," +dêlos+, "manifest." The constant external character which distinguishes these Amphibians in a general manner is the presence of a tail during the whole stage of their existence. Nevertheless they are subject to the metamorphoses to which all the Amphibians submit. "The division, therefore, of reptiles," says Professor Rymer Jones, "into such as undergo metamorphoses and such as do not, is by no means philosophical although convenient to the zoologist, for all reptiles undergo a metamorphosis although not to the same extent. In the one the change from the aquatic to the air-breathing animal is never fully accomplished; in the tailed Amphibian the change is accomplished after the embryo has escaped from the ovum." Salamanders have had the honour of appearing prominently in fabulous narrative. The Greeks believed that they could live in fire, and this error obtained credence so long, that even now it has not been entirely dissipated. Many people are simple enough to believe from the Greek tradition that these innocent animals are incombustible. The love of the marvellous, fostered and excited by ignorant appeals to superstition, has gone even further than this; it has been asserted that the most violent fire becomes extinguished when a Salamander is thrown into it. In the middle ages this notion was held by most people, and it would have been dangerous to gainsay it. Salamanders were necessary animals in the conjurations of sorcerers and witches; accordingly painters among their symbolical emblems represented Salamanders as capable of resisting the most violent action of live coal. It was found necessary, however, that physicians and philosophers should take the trouble to prove by experiment the absurdity of these tales. The skull of the Land or Spotted Salamander, _Salamandra maculosa_, is well described by Cuvier as being nearly cylindrical, wider in front so as to form the semi-circular face, and also behind for the crucial branches, containing the internal ears. The cranium of the aquatic Salamander differs from the terrestrial in having the entire head more oblong, and they differ also among themselves. [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Land Salamander.] In the Land Salamander the body is black and warty with large irregular yellow spots distributed over the head, back, sides, feet, and tail. They affect obscure and moist places, and only issue from their retreat in the night or morning, walking slowly, and dragging themselves with difficulty along the surface of the ground. They live upon flies, beetles, snails, and earth worms. They remain in the water to deposit their eggs; the young are born alive, and furnished with fully-developed gills. Moreover Salamanders are gifted with a power which causes them to be much dreaded by other animals: it has the power of discharging an acrid and milky humour, with a very strong odour, from the surface of its body, which serves as a defence against many animals which would otherwise attack it. It has been proved by experiment that this liquid, when introduced into the circulatory system by a small wound is a very active poison, and causes certain death to the smaller animals. This species is found in most parts of Europe, but not in the British Islands. The Black Salamander, _Triton alpestris_, has no spots; it is found on the highest European mountains, in the regions of snow, and principally on the highest Alps. [Illustration: Fig. 10.--Newts, or Aquatic Salamanders.] Newts, or Aquatic Salamanders, have not a round conical tail like the terrestrial species, but have that appendage compressed or flattened laterally. The males (during the breeding season only) are recognised chiefly by the membranous serrated ridge or crest which extends along the whole length of the back, from the head to the extremity of the tail, as represented in Fig. 10. Newts are highly aquatic; they are found in ditches, marshes, and ponds, which after the breeding season they leave for moist places on land, often then finding their way into drains and cellars. They are carnivorous, feeding upon different insects and on the spawn of Frogs, not even sparing individuals of their own species. The females deposit their eggs singly, fixing them on the under surface of the leaves of aquatic plants. "Some Newts," says Professor Owen, "deposit their eggs upon aquatic plants, such as _Polygonum persicaria_, folding the leaf by means of the hind feet in such a way that its under surface is turned inwards and the fold made to stick by the adhesive coating of the egg, which she inserts in the fold." The young are hatched fifteen days after. These animals give utterance to a very peculiar noise, and when touched emit an odour quite characteristic. It has been ascertained that Newts can live for a long time, not only in very cold water, but even in the midst of ice, being sometimes taken in blocks of ice which are formed in the ditches and ponds which they inhabit. When the ice-flakes melt they seem to awaken from their torpor, and betake themselves to their accustomed movements with their recovered liberty. Lacépède states that he found Aquatic Salamanders even during summer in pieces of ice obtained from the ice-dealers, where they had remained without movement or nourishment from the time when the ice had been gathered from the marshes. Newts present another remarkable feature in the facility with which they repair any mutilations they may have undergone. Not only do their tails grow again when broken off, but even their feet are reproduced in the same manner, and the process may be many times repeated. The Crested Newt, _Triton cristatus_, is frequently found in the neighbourhood of Paris; the skin of its back is rough and warty, of a brownish colour, with large black spots and white projecting points; the belly has black spots upon an orange ground. The Dutch traveller, Sieboldt, has introduced a species of Aquatic Salamander, which inhabits the mountain lakes and marshes of Japan. This species is remarkable for its gigantic growth. Instead of being the size of a finger, as is the case with those indigenous to Europe, this Batrachian is four feet and a half in length, and weighs fifty pounds. Magnificent specimens of this gigantic Salamander, the _Sieboldtia maxima_, may be seen by the visitors to the London Zoological Gardens. The largest of them measured and weighed as above (March 3rd, 1869). An analogous large fossil species was described as the _Homo diluvii testis_! The transformation of the tailed Batrachians, from the _tadpole_ condition to the air-breathing and four-footed state, is one of the most interesting exhibitions of Nature, and one which everyone may verify for himself. We cannot in our brief description have a more trustworthy guide than Professor Rymer Jones, who selects the Water Newt, _Triton cristatus_, as an example:-- "Immediately before leaving the egg," he says, "this tadpole presents both the outward form and internal structure of a fish. The flattened and vertical tail, fringed with a broad dorsal and oval fin; the shape of the body and gills, appended to the side of the neck, are all apparent; so that were the creature to preserve this form throughout its life the naturalist would scarcely hesitate in classing it with fishes, properly so called. "When first hatched it presents the same fish-like body, and rows itself through the water by the lateral movement of the caudal fin. The only appearance of legs as yet visible consists in two minute tubercles, which seem to be sprouting out from the skin immediately behind the branchial tufts, and which are, in fact, the first buddings of anterior extremities. Nevertheless, to compensate to a certain extent for the total want of prehensile limbs, which afterwards become developed, two supernumerary organs are provisionally furnished in the shape of two minute claspers on each side of the mouth; by means of these the little creature holds on to the leaves which are under water. "Twelve days after issuing from the egg, the two fore-legs, which at first resembled two little nipples, have become much elongated, and are divided at their extremity into two or three rudiments of fingers. The eyes, which were before scarcely visible, being covered by a membrane, distinctly appear. The branchiæ, at first simple, are divided into fringes, wherein red blood now circulates; the mouth has grown very large, and the whole body is so transparent as to reveal the position of the viscera within. Its activity is likewise much increased; it swims with rapidity, and darts upon minute aquatic insects, which it seizes and devours. "About the twenty-second day the tadpole for the first time begins to emit air from the mouth, showing that the lungs have begun to be developed. The branchiæ are still large. The fingers upon the fore-legs are completely formed. The hind-legs begin to sprout beneath the skin, and the creature presents, in a transitory condition, the same external form as that which the _Siren lacertina_ permanently exhibits. "By the thirty-sixth day the young Salamander has arrived at the development of the _Proteus anguinus_; its hind-legs are nearly completed; its lungs have become half as long as the trunk of the body, and its branchiæ more complicated in structure. "At about the forty-second day the tadpole begins to assume the form of an adult Newt. The body becomes shorter, the fringes of the branchiæ are rapidly obliterated, so that in five days they are reduced to simple prominences covered by the skin of the head; and the gills opening at the sides of the neck, which allowed the water to escape from the mouth as in fishes, and were, like them, covered with an operculum formed by a fold of the integument, are gradually closed; the membranous fin of the tail contracts, the skin becomes thicker and more deeply coloured, and the creature ultimately assumes the form and habits of the perfect Newt, no longer possessing branchiæ, but breathing air, and in every particular the Reptile." But however curious the phenomena attending the development of the tadpoles of the Amphibian Reptiles may be to the observer who merely watches the changes perceptible from day to day in their external form, they acquire tenfold interest to the physiologist who traces the progressive evolution of their internal viscera; more especially when he finds that in these creatures he has an opportunity afforded him of contemplating, displayed before his eyes, as it were, upon an enlarged scale, those phases of development through which the embryo of every air-breathing vertebrate animal must pass while concealed within the egg, or yet unborn.[11] [11] In the British Museum Catalogue (1850) these Amphibians are styled _Batrachia Gradientia_, and are distributed under three families, comprising fifty-two recognised species. The class _Amphibia_ is divided by Dr. Gray into five orders--viz. _Batrachia_, _Pseudosauria_, _Pseudophidia_, _Pseudichthyes_, and _Meantia_. Of these the first, or the _Batrachia_, are divided into the sub-orders _Salientia_ and _Gradientia_, the latter consisting of three families, _Salamandridæ_, _Molgidæ_, and _Plethodontidæ_. The second order, _Pseudosauria_, comprises the families _Protonopsidæ_ (which contains the _Sieboldtia maxima_) and _Amphiumidæ_. The third order, _Pseudophidia_, consists of only one family, _Cæciliidæ_. The fourth order, _Pseudichthyes_, also contains one family only, the _Lepidosirenidæ_. The fifth order, _Meantia_, comprises the two families _Proteidæ_ and _Sirenidæ_. Twenty-four ascertained species are distributed amongst the last four of these orders; but the limits of this work do not permit of a more detailed notice of these various groups of _Batrachia Gradientia_. More recently, Dr. Günther, in his work on the reptiles of the Indian region, has pointed out certain structural characters connected with the generative system which show that the _Pseudophidia_ do not properly belong to the _Batrachia_; nor is their place in the system as yet quite satisfactorily determined. They seem rather to be a very humble form of reptile; while the _Pseudichthyes_ should rather be subordinated to the class _Pisces_: though, as we have seen, there are naturalists who would refer all of the _Batrachia_ to the fish class, certain forms amongst them rising to a parallelism of development with _Reptilia_, but still not constituting true reptiles. The mode of reproduction especially is in favour of this view. Both _Pseudophidia_ and _Pseudichthyes_ are intertropical or subtropical animals, whereas the rest of the _Batrachia Gradientia_ belong almost exclusively to the northern temperate zone; any exceptional case occurring probably in very elevated regions. Of sixty-six ascertained species, forty-nine are American, and there are five from Japan, inclusive of the _Sieboldtia maxima_. But more species have been discovered since the catalogue cited has been drawn up, and of course there must be many yet to be discovered. Five species are referred to the _Pseudophidia_, and three only to the _Pseudichthyes_.--ED. CHAPTER II. OPHIDIAN REPTILES, OR TRUE SNAKES. Reptiles are, as has been said in the preceding chapter, Vertebrated Animals, breathing by lungs, having red and cold blood; that is to say, not producing sufficient heat to render their temperature superior to that of the atmosphere. Destitute of hairs, of feathers, of mammary glands, and having bodies covered with scales. Snakes, properly so called, have the tympanic bone, or pedicle of the lower jaw, movable, and nearly always suspended to another bone, analogous to the mastoid bone, which is attached to the cranium by muscles and ligaments, a conformation which gives to these animals the vast power of distension they possess. Their trachea is long, their hearts placed far back, and the greater number have one very long lung and vestiges of a second. They are divided into non-Venemous and Venemous; and the latter are subdivided into Venemous with maxillary teeth, and Venemous with isolated fangs. The Snakes prey almost exclusively on animals of their own killing; the more typical species attacking such as are frequently larger than themselves: and the maxillary apparatus is, as we have seen, modified so as to permit of the requisite distension. According to Professor Owen's clear and intelligible description, the two superior maxillary bones have their anterior extremities joined by an elastic and yielding fibrous tissue with the small and single intermaxillary bone; the lower maxillary rami are similarly connected. The opposite extremity of each ramus is articulated to a long and movable vertical pedicle formed by the tympanic bone, which is itself attached to the extremity of a horizontal pedicle formed by the mastoid bone, so connected as to allow of a certain yielding movement upon the cranium. The other bones have similar loose movable articulations, which concur in yielding to the pressure of large bodies with which the teeth have grappled. The class of Reptiles is divided into three orders:--the OPHIDIANS, comprehending the Snakes; the SAURIANS, the Lizards and Crocodiles; and the CHELONIANS, the Turtles and Tortoises. OPHIDIANS. In Ophidians, commonly known under the name of Snakes, the body is long, round, and straight. They have neither feet, fins, nor other locomotive extremities. Their mouths are furnished with pointed hooked teeth. In the Boas and Pythons the teeth are slender, curved, bending backwards and inwards above their base of attachment. In others each maxillary bone has a row of larger ones, which gradually decrease in size as they are placed further back. These teeth are not contiguous, being separated by considerable intervals. The smaller non-Venemous Serpents, such as the _Colubridæ_, have two rows of teeth in the roof of the mouth. Each maxillary and mandibular bone includes from twenty to twenty-five teeth. In the Rattlesnakes and some other typical genera of poisonous Snakes, the short maxillary bone only supports a single perforated fang. Their lower jaw is highly distensible; the opening beings longer than the skull. They have no neck; their eyelids are immovable; their skin is coriaceous, highly extensible, and scaly or granulous, covered with a thin caducous epidermis, which detaches itself in one entire piece, and is reproduced several times in one year. Their movements are supple and varied. In consequence of the sinuosity of their bodies,--for, though scale-clad, Snakes are without apparent means of progression,--they make their way with the utmost facility, by walking, leaping, climbing, or swimming. According to the genus chiefly, the very numerous species inhabit either arid or moist places, the ground, or bushes and trees. Some pass much of their time in the water, and one family (that of the _Hydrophidæ_) is exclusively aquatic--even pelagic in the instance of one very widely diffused species, the _Pelamis bicolor_. In the Arboreal Snakes the tail is very long, and highly prehensile; in others, as the Vipers, it is short and without any prehensility. In the Sea Snakes (_Hydrophidæ_), it is laterally much compressed. Like other true reptiles, Snakes abound more especially in warm climates, and there are many kinds of them in Australia; but the order has not a single representative in New Zealand. Most of the Snakes feed on living animals, only a few on birds' eggs. Several kinds of them prey habitually on other Snakes, as the genera _Hamadryas_, _Bungarus_, and _Elaps_, even _Psammophis_ occasionally; and there are rare instances of non-Venemous Snakes preying upon poisonous ones. The Venemous kinds first kill their victim by poisoning it; various others by smothering it between the coils of their body. As they do not possess organs for tearing the prey to pieces, nor a dentition fit for mastication, the prey is swallowed entire; and in consequence of the great width of the mouth, and of the extraordinary extensibility of the skin of the gullet, they are able to swallow animals of which the girth much exceeds their own. The Sea Snakes prey mostly upon fishes, and the ordinary Water Snakes (_Homolopsidæ_, &c.) on frogs and other Batrachians. Certain swallowers of birds' eggs have peculiar spinous processes proceeding from the vertebræ of the neck, the object of which is to fracture the shell of an egg during the process of deglutition. Most of the Ophidian Reptiles are oviparous, but many are ovo-viviparous. The Pythons alone (so far as ascertained) perform a sort of incubation, which has been repeatedly observed of captive specimens of these huge Serpents. Many Snakes are remarkable for their great beauty of colouring, or of the pattern of their markings; but on account of the poisonous property of so many of them, the whole order is popularly regarded with horror and apprehension, and the most foolish tales are current respecting various species of them. Thus many people suppose that there are Snakes which rob cows of their milk; and the skeleton of a child being found in the same hollow with a number of harmless Snakes (the North American _Coryphodon constrictor_), it was concluded, as a matter of course, that the Serpents must have both killed the child and stripped off its flesh, which latter is what no Snake could possibly do. People are prone to exaggerate, and commonly evince a fondness for the marvellous, which induce those of hot countries more especially, where the species of Ophidians are numerous, to declare every Snake met with as usually the most Venemous one in their country; and thus travellers often come away with exceedingly erroneous impressions on the subject. The Indian region surpasses every other part of the globe in the number and variety of its Ophidians, and almost every investigation of a limited but previously unexplored district, is tolerably sure to add largely to our previous knowledge of them. What, however, the late Sir J. Emerson Tennent asserts of those inhabiting Ceylon, is equally applicable to other parts of the Indian region. "During my residence in Ceylon," he remarks, "I never heard of the death of an European which was caused by the bite of a Snake; and in the returns of coroners' inquests made officially to my department, such accidents to the natives appear chiefly to have happened at night, when the reptiles, having been surprised or trodden on, inflicted the wound in self-defence. For these reasons the Cingalese, when obliged to leave their houses in the dark, carry a stick with a loose ring, the noise of which, as they strike it on the ground, is sufficient to warn the Snakes to leave their path." In some parts of the vast Indian region the natives regard the innocuous Chameleon as Venemous; in other parts various Geckos, or other Lizards. In Bengal there is a current notion regarding a terrifically poisonous Lizard, which is termed the _Bis-cobra_, but which has no existence except in the imagination of the natives--who bring the young of the Monitors and occasionally other well-known Lizards as exemplifying the object of their dread. Again, the little harmless Burrowing Snakes (_Typhlops_), which, superficially, have much the appearance of earth-worms, are there popularly regarded as highly poisonous, though not only are they harmless, but physically incapable of wounding the human skin. Strangers who are little versed in zoology are commonly led astray by such errors on the part of natives of those countries, and, unfortunately, there is a number of stock vernacular names which are applied to very different species in different localities. Thus Europeans in India are familiar with the appellation "Carpet Snake," as denoting a very deadly reptile, but nobody can there point out what the Carpet Snake really is; and the one most generally supposed to bear that name is a small innocuous Snake (_Lycodon aulicus_), which is common about human dwellings. In the Australian colony of Victoria, however, the appellation Carpet Snake is bestowed upon a terribly Venemous species (_Hoplocephalus curtus_); while in the neighbouring colony of New South Wales, a harmless and even useful creature (_Morelia spilotes_) is habitually known as the Carpet Snake. With regard to the poison of Venemous Snakes, attention has lately been directed to the virtue of ammonia or volatile alkali. This should be administered internally, mixed with alcoholic spirit and water, in repeated doses; and it should also be injected into a vein--about one drachm of the _liquor ammoniæ_ of the shops being mixed with two or three times that quantity of water. The patient should be kept moving as much as possible, and the effects of a galvanic battery should also be tried in cases where animation is nearly or quite suspended. By these means it is asserted that quite recently, in Australia, some very remarkable cures have been effected. The _Ophidia_ have many enemies, as the well-known Mongoose among mammalia, also Swine, and various ruminating quadrupeds, as Deer and Goats. In the bird class, the famous Serpent-eater, or Secretary-bird of South Africa, is one of their chief destroyers; and there are various other Snake-devouring birds of prey, besides the great African Ground Hornbill,--even the Pea-fowl and sundry Storks and other waders. Comparatively large birds of the King-fisher family prey chiefly upon Snakes and Lizards in Australia; and of reptiles, besides those Snakes which prey upon other Snakes, the Monitor Lizards frequently seize and devour them. The series of Ophidians is arranged by our most eminent herpetologist, Dr. A. Günther, into five subordinate groups, which he characterises as follows:-- I. _Burrowing Snakes_, living under ground, only occasionally appearing above the surface. They are distinguished by a rigid cylindrical body, short tail, narrow mouth, small head not distinct from the neck, little teeth in small number, and by the absence or feeble development of the ventral shields. They feed chiefly on small invertebrate animals. Not any of them are Venemous. II. _Ground Snakes_, or species which live above ground, and only occasionally climb bushes or enter the water; their body is more or less cylindrical, very flexible in every part, and of moderate proportions. Their ventral shields are broad. They feed chiefly on terrestrial vertebrate animals. By far the greater number of Snakes belong to this category, and it is represented by many variations in all of the three sub-orders to be noticed presently. III. _Tree Snakes_, or species passing the greater part of their life on bushes and trees, which they traverse with the utmost facility. They are distinguished either by an exceedingly slender body, with broad, sometimes carinated, ventral shields, or by a prehensile tail. Many of the species are characterised by their vivid coloration, of which green forms the principal part. We shall see, in the sequel, that the first and third sub-orders offer numerous instances of Tree Snakes; the Tree Snakes of the second sub-order being confined to Tropical Africa. They feed on animals which have a mode of life similar to their own; only a few species on eggs. IV. _Fresh-water Snakes_, distinguished by the position of the nostrils, which are placed on the top of the snout, and by a tapering tail. They inhabit fresh-waters, and are, therefore, excellent swimmers and divers; only a few species (which also in external characters approach the following group, that of the true Sea Snakes) venture out to sea. They feed on fishes, frogs, crustaceans, and other water animals, and are viviparous. Not any of them are Venemous. V. _Sea Snakes_, distinguished by a strongly compressed tail, and by the position of the nostrils, which are placed as in the last group. They live in the sea, only occasionally approaching the land, feed on marine fishes, are viviparous and Venemous. One genus only (_Platurus_) has the ventral shields so much developed as to be able to move on land. No Oceanic Serpent is known of gigantic dimensions, such as is currently alleged to have been seen by unscientific observers. "Although these five groups," remarks Dr. Günther, "are not separated from each other by defined lines of demarcation, and frequently pass into one another by intermediate forms, yet a family and genus which should be composed of species of several of these groups would be a very unnatural assemblage of heterogeneous forms." It is also remarked by the same naturalist that there is no sharp boundary line between the order of Snakes and that of Lizards. There are various limbless Saurians of Ophidian appearance, but the systematic position of which is decided by the structure of their jaws. The Common Orvet, or Slow-worm, is a familiar instance. On the other hand, certain Ophidians remind us, by several characters, of the Saurian type,--as the Snakes constituting the families _Typhlopidæ_, _Tortricidæ_, _Xenopeltidæ_, and _Uropeltidæ_, which are distinguished by polished, closely adherent, rounded, sub-equal scales, much resembling the smooth scales of various Scincoid Lizards; most of them have a very narrow mouth, unlike the enormous gape of the typical Serpents, and some are without that longitudinal fold in the median line of the chin which is so characteristic of most Ophidians; moreover, most of them have rudiments of the bones of a pelvic arch. "The reason," alleges Dr. Günther, "why we adopt the view of those systematists who refer such reptiles to the Ophidians, instead of associating them with the limbless Scincoid Lizards, is the loose connection of the jaw-bones, a character which must be considered as peculiar to the Ophidians, and which is only somewhat less developed in the families mentioned than in the typical forms. The two halves of the lower jaw in Ophidians, namely, are not united by a bony symphysis, but by an elastic ligament. The peculiar mobility of the jaw bones enables the Snakes to extend the gape in an extraordinary degree, and to work their prey down through the collapsed pharynx." The same naturalist classifies the _Ophidia_ into three sub-orders, in which the Venemous Snakes are separated from the others; but to some herpetologists this arrangement must appear rather forced, as his _Venemous Colubrine Snakes_ have certainly a much nearer resemblance in other respects to the _Colubridæ_ than they have to the _Viperine Snakes_. For the most part, these reptiles are provided with numerous teeth, which are lengthened, conical, thin and pointed like a needle, and more or less bent backwards. In Dr. Günther's _first sub-order_, that of _Non-Venemous Snakes_, the teeth are either entirely smooth, or only the last of the maxillary series is provided with a faint longitudinal groove, which is not intended to convey a virus into the wound, the groove appearing rather to increase the strength of the tooth. Many of them have long teeth in front of the jaws or of the palate, but these are never grooved or perforated, and only serve to afford a firmer hold on the living and struggling prey. "The structure of the venom-tooth is not the same in all poisonous Snakes: in some it is fixed to the maxillary bone, which is as long or nearly as long as in the non-Venemous Snakes, and generally bears one or more ordinary teeth on its hinder portion. The venom-tooth is fixed more or less erect, not very long, and its channel is generally visible as an external groove. The poisonous Snakes with such a dentition have externally a more or less striking resemblance to the non-Venemous Serpents, and on this account they are designated as _Venemous Colubrine Snakes_, forming our _second sub-order_." Two very distinct families are here brought together--viz. the _Elapidæ_ (which comprises the Cobras and many others), and the _Hydrophidæ_ (or Sea Snakes). "In the other Venemous Snakes, composing the _third sub-order_, the maxillary bone is extremely short, and does not bear any teeth except an exceedingly long fang, with a perfectly closed externally invisible channel in its interior. Although this tooth also is fixed to the bone, the bone itself is very mobile, so that the tooth, which is laid backwards when at rest, can be erected the moment the animal prepares to strike. This tooth or fang, like all the other teeth, is not only occasionally lost, but appears to be shed at regular intervals. From two to four other venom-fangs in different stages of development, destined to replace the one in action, exist between the folds of the gum, and are not anchylosed to the bone." The more characteristic Venemous Snakes appertain to this sub-order--viz. the two families _Crotalidæ_ (comprehending the Rattlesnakes, the Fer-de-lance, &c.) and _Viperidæ_ (comprising the Vipers, Puff-adders, &c.). Let it be particularly borne in mind that the supposed distinguishing characters of all poisonous Snakes, as assigned by sundry mischievously ignorant writers, are those of the third of the foregoing sub-orders almost exclusively. Even the broad, flat, and lanceolate form of head is exemplified in certain Tree Snakes of the non-Venemous genus _Dipsas_, and not in the Cobras and others that are quite as deadly--e.g. _Hoplocephalus_, _Bungarus_, _Naja_, _Elaps_, and others constituting the Colubriform family _Elapidæ_. FIRST SUB-ORDER. _Ophidii Coluberiformes_ (Günther), Innocuous Snakes. These are distributed by Dr. Günther under numerous families, of which we can only notice the more prominent, and some of the more conspicuous species, in a popular exposition. The _Typhlopidæ_, or Blind Snakes, comprise forms which are the most remote from the true Ophidian type. They live under ground, their rigid body and short curved tail being adapted for burrowing. After showers of rain they occasionally appear above ground, and then they are tolerably agile in their serpentine movements. The eye, which is scarcely visible in many species, can give to them only a general perception of light. They feed on worms and small insects, the tongue being forked, and, as in other Snakes, frequently exserted. They are oviparous. The smallest species of Snakes belong to this family, some of them being only half the size of a common earth-worm, to which they bear a superficial resemblance. Such, indeed, are the small vermiform Snakes already referred to, as being foolishly considered Venemous by most natives of India. Species of this family inhabit almost every country within and near the tropics. The _Tortricidæ_ are akin to the _Typhlopidæ_, and have rudiments of hind limbs hidden in a small groove on each side of the vent, also a longitudinal fold at the chin. The "Coral Snake" of Demarara (_Tortrix scytale_) appertains to this family; and the genus _Cylindrophis_, different species of which inhabit the great Asiatic archipelago, with the island of Ceylon. The family _Xenopeltidæ_ consists of a single species only, so far as hitherto known, the _Xenopeltis unicolor_, which is common in the Indo-Chinese and Malayan countries. It grows to three or four feet in length, and when alive is uniformly steel-blue, most beautifully iridescent, beneath white; but the blue fades to brown after long immersion in spirits. Young examples have a white collar. Mr. W. Theobald remarks of it that "this Snake is common in Lower Pegu and the Tenasserim provinces, and is very malignly beautiful, though of repulsive physiognomy. The skin is loose and thick, and its habits are nocturnal. The following illustrates its ferocious nature:--I once remarked a Colubrine Snake (_Ptyas mucosa_), some five feet in length, in the hedge of the Circuit-house of Bassein. On running downstairs, the Snake had vanished, but on searching for it I saw its tail sticking out of a hole beneath a wooden plant-case. Do what I might I could not drag it out, as it seemed held fast within. I therefore, with some trouble, overturned the plant-case, and then saw that the unlucky Colubrine Snake was firmly pinned by a large _Xenopeltis_, into whose hole it had unwittingly entered. The _Xenopeltis_ seemed about four feet in length; but, on perceiving itself uncovered, released its hold of the _Ptyas_ and made its escape." The _Xenopeltis_ preys chiefly on small mammalia, which it hunts for in their subterranean holes; and in some respects it approximates the _Pythonidæ_. The _Uropeltidæ_, or Shield-tails, constitute a very curious family of Burrowing Snakes, which bear considerable resemblance to the _Typhlopidæ_, but have a very peculiar, short, strong, posteriorly shielded tail, adapted for working their way below the surface. The species are mostly small, and hitherto they have been found chiefly in Ceylon, but a few also in the peninsula of India. They are by no means scarce, but escape observation from their peculiar mode of life. Dr. Kelaart remarks that "they are timid creatures, seldom making their appearance above ground; living chiefly in ant-hills or dunghills, sometimes also several feet deep in rich loamy soil. They feed on ants, small earth-worms, and the larvæ of insects, and at least one species has been ascertained to be viviparous. Five genera and eighteen species of them are recognised." The _Calamaridæ_ form an extensive family of diminutive slender Snakes, from one to two feet in length, many species of which inhabit both the Old World and the New, though the same kinds are not found both East and West. They keep to the ground, beneath stones, fallen trees, &c.; and their food appears to consist chiefly of insects. They are gentle, and never attempt to bite, and themselves very commonly become the prey of the smaller _Elapidæ_, certain of which indeed bear considerable resemblance in appearance to the _Calamaridæ_, but are readily distinguished by possessing the poison-fangs. The _Oligodontidæ_ are another extensive family of small ground Snakes, which are peculiar to South-eastern Asia and its great archipelago. They conduct to the terrene genera of the great family _Colubridæ_. The _Colubridæ_ are divided by Dr. Günther into ground Colubrines (_Coronellinæ_), true Colubrines (_Colubrinæ_), bush Colubrines (_Dryadinæ_), and fresh-water Colubrines (_Natricinæ_); and he remarks that "they are found in every part of the temperate and tropical regions, but are only scantily represented in Australia and in the islands of the Pacific. The species are so numerous and show such a gradual passage between extreme forms, that, although genera can be easily characterized, it is almost impossible to distinguish wider groups by definite characters." Among them the _Coronellinæ_ approximate the immediately preceding families, and, like them, live on the ground, and are not generally of brilliant colouring, though a few species which frequent grassy plains are of a bright green colour. The _Colubrinæ_ "form, as it were," writes Dr. Günther, "the nucleus of the whole sub-order of innocuous Snakes: they are typical forms, not characterized by the excessive development of some particular organ, but by the fairness of the proportions of all parts. Yet some of them have a more slender body than others which always live on the ground; they are land Snakes, but swim well when driven into the water, or climb when in search of food. They are of moderate or rather large size." In the _Dryadinæ_ the form is elongate and somewhat compressed, indicating their climbing propensities; they have the body not so excessively slender as in the true Tree Snakes, to which they lead off. They are much more numerous in the New World than in the Old, and their ground-colour is very commonly green. The _Natricinæ_ are generally not very elongate or compressed, and most of them have keeled scales. They freely enter the water in pursuit of their food, which consists chiefly of frogs and fishes. All the Snakes of the preceding three sub-families overpower their prey by throwing some coils of the body round or over it, and commence to swallow it only after it has been smothered, or at least exhausted; but the _Natricinæ_ swallow their prey immediately after they have seized it. Of the sub-family _Coronellinæ_, one species of the typical genus _Coronella_ is widely diffused over Europe, and has only of late years been recognised as an inhabitant of the British Islands, the _Coronella austriaca_. Another, _C. girondica_, occurs in Italy. Others are found in Africa, America, and Australia. The _C. austriaca_ has somewhat the appearance of the common Adder, for which it is often mistaken; but it is non-Venemous, though rather a fierce reptile, which bites and holds on; and as it occurs in Malta (where no Venemous species is known to exist), it is doubtless the supposed Viper which seized upon the apostle Paul. Several other genera are recognised. Of the _Colubrinæ_, _Rhinechis scalaris_, _Coluber æsculapii_, _C. quadrilineatus_, _Elaphis quater-radiatus_, and three species of _Zamenis_ inhabit Europe: there are five of _Coluber_ in North America, and the well-known "Black Snake" of the Anglo-Americans is the _Coryphodon constrictor_. Other species of _Coryphodon_ or _Ptyas_ inhabit South-eastern Asia, as the different "Rat Snakes" of Anglo-Indians, of which _Ptyas mucosus_ is particularly common in India, where it is encouraged by reasonable people as a destroyer of the far more troublesome Brown Rat (_Mus decumanus_). The _Dryadinæ_ are chiefly American, and do not call for particular further remark; but the _Natricinæ_ are very numerous, and there are three species in Europe of its most prominent genus, _Tropidonotus_--viz. _T. natrix_, _T. hydrus_, and _T. viperinus_. [Dr. Günther gives as many as twenty-one species of this genus as inhabitants of the Indian region alone, and there is reason to believe that that number is far from being complete. Others inhabit North America and North-western Australia, and some generic groups have been detached that are not very conspicuously separable.] [Illustration: Fig. 11.--Ringed Snake (_Tropidonotus natrix_).] The Ringed Snake, _Tropidonotus natrix_, is often found in fine seasons near human habitations. It deposits its eggs, which are fifteen to twenty in number, commonly in dunghills, in one agglutinated mass. Exposed to the air, these eggs soon shrivel and dry, and the embryos within them perish. The Ringed Snakes are also found near rivers and meadows, by the side of water-courses, into which they love to plunge; hence they are sometimes called Water Serpents, Swimming Serpents, Hedge Eels, and other provincial synonyms. They sometimes attain to as much as and more than a yard in length. The summit of their head is covered with nine large scales, disposed in four rings. The upper part of the body is of a more or less darkish grey colour, marked on each side with irregular black spots. Between the two rows of spots are two other longitudinal rows, which extend from the head to the tail. The belly varies from black to a bluish white. Upon the neck are two whitish or pale yellowish spots, which form a kind of half collar or ring, from which its name is derived; these two spots become much more apparent from being contrasted with two other very dark triangular spots placed near them. They prey upon lizards, frogs, and mice, and they even surprise young birds, and devour the eggs in their nests, for they climb trees with facility. Towards the end of the autumn they seek the warmest places, approaching near to houses; or they retire into subterranean holes, often at the bottom of some hedge, which is almost always in an elevated place, secure from inundations. The Ringed Snake is found in nearly all European countries, and can be handled without danger. Lacépède gives some interesting details, showing the gentleness of its habits. They are easily tamed, and can be kept in houses, where they soon accustom themselves to those who have the care of them. At a sign from their keeper, they will twist themselves round his fingers, arms, and neck, insinuate their heads between his lips to drink his saliva, and to hide and warm themselves they creep under his clothes. In their wild state, the adult Ringed Snake lives in the fields; and, when full-grown, shows great irritation when attacked. When exasperated, they move their tongues, erect themselves with great vivacity, and even bite the hand which tries to seize them; but their bite is quite harmless. [This Ringed Snake is the _Natrix torquatus_ of Ray, well known to naturalists. The female is larger than the male. Its food consists a good deal of frogs, which are generally caught by the leg, and swallowed alive, in spite of resistance and very distressing cries. When the skin has just been cast, the Ringed Snake presents beautiful markings, especially when seen swimming across some clear running stream, its head and neck raised above the limpid water, and the sun shining on its bright enamelled skin. It has been supposed, not unnaturally, that the Snake casts its skin at fixed intervals; this, Mr. Bell considers to be a mistake. He has always found that it depended on the temperature of the atmosphere and on their state of health and feeding. "I have known the skin thrown off" he adds, "four or five times during the year. It is always thrown off by reversing it, so that the transparent covering of the eyes and that of the scales are always found in the exuviæ. Previous to this curious phenomenon, the whole cuticle becomes somewhat opaque, the eyes dim, and the animal is evidently blind. It also becomes more or less inactive, until at length, when the skin is ready for removal and the new skin perfectly hard underneath, the animal bursts it at the neck, and creeping through some dense herbage or low brushwood, leaves it detached, and comes forth in brighter and clearer colours than before." The Ringed Snake begins to hybernate, in some warm hedge or under the root of some tree, or other sheltered situation, about the end of autumn; and there they coil themselves up, sometimes in numbers, till the spring again calls them forth. Many instances are told of this Snake being tamed. Mr. Bell had one which knew him from all other persons; it would come to him when let out of its box, and crawl under the sleeve of his coat, and every morning come to him for its draught of milk.] The Green and Yellow Snake is also about a yard in length, and is common in the south and west of France; they have been taken in the forest of Fontainebleau. The beautiful colours in which they are clothed causes them to be easily distinguished from the Viper. The eyes are edged with golden-coloured scales; the upper part of the body is of a very dark greenish colour, upon which is extended a large number of radiating lines, composed of small yellowish spots of different shapes, some long, others lozenge shape, giving it a chequered appearance. These chequers extend from the head to the tail. The belly is yellowish; the large plates which cover it have a black spot at each end, and are bordered with a very thin black line. This inoffensive reptile is extremely timid, and generally hides itself from observation, taking to flight at the least alarm. They are said to be easily tamed. [Illustration: Fig. 12.--_Tropidonotus viperinus._] The Viperine Snake (Fig. 12) has the body of a greyish or dirty yellow colour, having on the middle of the back a series of blackish spots so close to each other as to give the idea of one small continuous wavy line from head to tail. The sides are covered with isolated spots, forming lozenge-like figures, the centres of which are of a greenish tint. This is the smallest of all the European _Colubridæ_, and, like the others, it is found in most parts of Europe. [The _Psammophidæ_, or Desert Snakes, are akin both to the _Colubridæ_ and to the Tree Snakes of the next family; but the latter, remarks Dr. Günther, may always be distinguished either by their green coloration, by the horizontal pupil to the eye, or the absence of a long, anterior, maxillary tooth. In the _Psammophidæ_ the pupil of the eye is round or vertical. Most of the species of this family belong to the fauna of tropical Africa, which also produces a slender form (in _Psammophis elegans_). The other species are of a stouter habit, frequenting plains, or at all events living on the ground. Of the Indian _Psammophis condanarus_, Dr. Jerdon procured one which had killed and was swallowing a small Viper (_Echis carinata_), this being one of the few instances in which a non-Venemous Snake has been known to overpower a poisonous one. We have heard the same of a small Boa-like Serpent (_Chilabothrus?_) in the West Indies, which is said to prey upon the formidable _Crotalidæ_. The _Psammodynastes pulverulentus_ has a wide geographical range over South-eastern Asia and its islands. Although innocuous, it has the aspect of a Venemous species. In a kindred African family, the _Rachiodontidæ_, the species of _Dasypeltis_ have the maxillary teeth minute and few in number (four to seven); but they have also some remarkable gular teeth, which are formed by the elongated inferior spinous processes of the hinder cervical vertebræ. The object of the latter is to crush the shells of birds' eggs, upon which the Snakes in question habitually feed. Of the more characteristic Tree Snakes, the _Dendrophidæ_ have the body and tail much compressed, or very slender and elongated; the head generally lengthened, narrow, flat, and distinct from the slender neck; the snout rather long, obtuse or rounded in front; cleft of the mouth wide; and the eye of moderate size, or large, with round pupil. These are Diurnal Snakes, which live entirely upon trees, where they prey chiefly on arboreal lizards and frogs. Species of them inhabit all tropical countries. They are mostly of great beauty, and the Indian _Chrysopelea ornata_ is excessively so, being variegated with yellow and crimson upon a black ground; but the crimson soon fading when a specimen is immersed in spirit. Others are very variable in their colouring, as the African _Bucephalus capensis_ and the Indian _Dendrophis picta_. The next family of _Dryiophidæ_, or the Whip Snakes, have a still more slender and elongated body, which has been aptly compared to the thong of a whip. The head is very narrow and long, with tapering snout, ending in a protruded rostral shield, which is sometimes modified into a flexible appendage; eyes of moderate size, and all the Asiatic species have the pupil of the eye horizontally linear, and a long fang-like tooth in the middle of the maxillary. The whole of this group are provided with a posterior grooved tooth. They are chiefly nocturnal, and their movements are wonderfully rapid and graceful among the branches of trees. They are numerous almost everywhere in tropical countries. In general the various Whip Snakes are of a bright leaf-green colour, with two white stripes on the belly, so that they are difficult to discern among the foliage. In the genus _Langaha_, which is peculiar to Madagascar, the muzzle is elongated into a fleshy appendage, which is covered with small scales, constituting about one-third of the total length of the head. This appendage is dentated in one species (_L. crista-galli_), and not so in another (_L. nasuta_). In the Indian genus _Passerita_ the snout is long and pointed, terminating in a flexible appendage. The name of Whip Snake is applied by Anglo-Indians to all of the species of _Dendrophidæ_ and of _Dryiophidæ_, and the erroneous notion prevails that they are highly Venemous, and that they spurt venom into people's eyes. The same is believed in South Africa of the _Bucephalus capensis_. Even Gordon Cumming asserts that one night a Snake which his servant had tried to kill with his loading-rod flew up at his eye, and "spat poison into it. Immediately," he adds, "I washed it well at the fountain. I endured great pain all night, but next day my eye was all right."[12] [12] "A Hunter's Life in South Africa," vol. ii. p. 133. _Vide_ also Chapman's "Travels in the Interior of South Africa," vol. ii. p. 34. We have personally captured or assisted in capturing various species of both families in India, and it is no easy matter to do so sometimes, from the rapidity of their movements among the branches of trees and bushes; but most assuredly we never saw one of these most beautiful reptiles attempt to dart or to spurt at anybody, and as they have no poison fangs the latter must needs be an error.--ED. Of a beautiful green species (_Philodryas viridissimus_), appertaining to the family of _Dendrophidæ_, in Brazil, Dr. Wurcherer writes:--"I am always delighted when I find that another Tree Snake has settled in my garden. You look for a bird's nest, the young ones have gone, but you find their bed occupied by one of these beautiful creatures, which will coil up its body, of two feet in length, within a space not larger than the hollow of your hand. They appear to be always watchful; for at the instant you discover one, the quick playing of the long, black, forked tongue will shew you that you too are observed. On perceiving the slightest sign of your intention to disturb it, the Snake will dart upwards through the branches and over the leaves, which scarcely appear to bend beneath the weight. A moment more, and you have lost sight of it." Some of the true Whip Snakes attain to six or seven feet in length, or even more; and with reference to the vague application of vernacular names (_vide_ p. 42), it may here be remarked that the "Little Whip Snake" of the Australian colony of Victoria denotes a poisonous Snake of a very different family (the _Hoplocephalus flagellum_). The _Dipsadidæ_ are a numerous family of tropical Tree Snakes, which also have a much compressed body, but short and triangular-shaped head, which is broad behind; the eye large, having generally a vertical pupil. Some of them attain to six or seven feet in length, and all live on warm-blooded animals. It is remarkable that certain of the species prey on birds solely, whilst others attack only mammalia. Their coloration varies a good deal, and species of them inhabit most tropical and subtropical countries. The _Lycodontidæ_ are an extensive family of small Ground Snakes, inhabiting Africa and tropical Asia, which have the body generally of moderate length, or rather slender, and the head also of moderate length and width, with generally a depressed, flat, and somewhat elongated muzzle; maxillary with a fang-like tooth in front, but without a posterior grooved tooth. The African species feed on Mice and other small nocturnal mammalia; while the Indian species (which have a vertical pupil) prey chiefly, if not wholly, on the smaller Scincoid Lizards, which they would appear to follow into the place of their retreat. _Lycodon aulicus_ is one of the commonest Snakes of the Indian region, and is quite harmless, though often ignorantly supposed to be dangerously poisonous. The _Amblycephalidæ_, or Blunt-heads, comprise a few species of moderate or small size, akin to the _Dipsadidæ_, but the narrow mouth of which necessitates their feeding on insects, and they live on trees and bushes, or under the roofs of huts. Of the Indo-Chinese and Malayan _Amblycephalus boa_, Dr. Günther remarks that "the head of this most singular Snake resembles much that of a mastiff, the lips being arched and tumid. It climbs with great facility, frequenting the roofs of the natives' huts in pursuit of its insect food. It attains to a length of three feet, the tail being a third." Of a second genus, _Pareas_, three species inhabit the same region. The _Pythonidæ_, or Pythons, and Boas, are celebrated for the enormous magnitude to which some of the species attain. These are emphatically the great constrictor Serpents, to all of which the name of _Boa-constrictor_ is popularly applied, although this appellation refers properly to one only of them which is peculiar to South America. Various genera of them inhabit Africa, South-eastern Asia and its islands, Australia, and South America, with the West Indies.] The Pythons are large Serpents of Asia and Africa. They live in marshy places, and near the margins of rivers. They are non-Venemous, but possessed of immense muscular power, which enables some of the species to kill, by constriction, animals of much larger circumference than themselves. Aristotle tells us of immense Lybian Serpents, so large that they pursued and upset some of the triremes of voyagers visiting that coast. Virgil's Laocoon, so vividly represented in the well-known marble group, owes its origin, no doubt, to the descriptions current of constricting Serpents. Quoting Livy, Valerius Maximus relates the alarm into which the Roman army, under Regulus, was thrown by an enormous Serpent, having its lair on the banks of the Bagradus, near Utica. This Serpent Pliny speaks of as being a hundred and twenty feet long. But, without multiplying instances to which time has lent its fabulous aid, and coming to more modern times, Bontius speaks of Serpents in the Asiatic islands as beings so various that he despairs of even enumerating them all. "The great ones," he says, "sometimes exceed thirty-six feet, and have such capacity of throat and stomach, that they swallow entire Boars." Adding that he knew persons who had partaken of a Hog cut out of the stomach of a Serpent of this kind. "They are not poisonous," he adds, "but they strangle by powerfully applying their folds round the body of their prey." Mr. M'Leod, in his interesting voyage of the _Alceste_, states that during a captivity of some months at Whidah, on the coast of Africa, he had opportunities of observing Serpents double this length, one of which engaged a negro servant of the governor of Fort William in its coil, and very nearly succeeded in crushing him to death. There can be no doubt that the length is here much exaggerated. About thirty feet is the utmost length attained by the most gigantic Serpents of which we possess accurate knowledge. The body of the PYTHON is large and round. They live on trees in warm damp places, on the banks of streams or water-courses, and attack the animals which come there to slake their thirst. Hanging by the tail to the trunk of a tree they remain immovable in their ambush until their opportunity comes, when they dart upon their prey, fold their bodies round it with amazing rapidity, and crush it in their monstrous folds. Animals as large as Gazelles, and even larger, thus become their victims. Their jaws are extremely distensible, as we have seen; for, having neither breast-bone nor false sides, they can easily increase the diameter of the opening, so as to swallow the most voluminous prey. The Ophidians (as we have seen) surpass all other Reptiles in the number of their vertebræ, with incomplete hæmal arches; these constitute the skeleton of the long, slender, limbless trunk. All these vertebræ coalesce with one another, and are articulated together by ball-and-socket joints. Besides this articulation to the centrum, the vertebræ of Ophidians articulate with each other by means of joints which interlock by parts reciprocally receiving and entering one another, like the tenon-and-mortise joint in carpentry. "The vertebral ribs have an oblong articular surface, concave above and almost flat below, in the Python. They have a large medullary cavity, with dense but thin walls, with a fine cancellated structure at their articular ends. Their lower end supports a short cartilaginous membrane, closing the hæmal arch, which is attached to the broad and stiff abdominal scute. These scutes, alternately raised and depressed by muscles attached to the ribs and integuments, aid in the gliding movement of serpents." The peculiar motion of Snakes was first noted by Sir Joseph Banks, and commented on by Sir Everard Home. Sir Joseph was observing a _Coluber_ of unusual size, and thought he saw its ribs come forward in succession, like the feet of a caterpillar. To test this, he placed his hand under the animal, the ends of the ribs were distinctly felt pressing upon the surface in regular succession, leaving no doubt that the ribs formed so many pairs of levers, by means of which it moves its body from place to place. The muscles which bring forward these ribs, according to Sir Everard, consists of five sets. One from the transverse process of each vertebra and the rib immediately behind it, which rib is attached to the next vertebra. The next set goes from the rib near the spine, and passes over two ribs, sending a slip to each, and is inserted into a third, a slip connecting it with the next muscle in succession. Under this is a third set, issuing from the posterior side of each rib, passing over two ribs, and sending a lateral slip to the next muscle, and is also inserted in the third rib behind. And so on throughout the five sets of muscles. On the inside of the chest there is a strong set of muscles attached to the anterior surface of each vertebra, and passing obliquely forward over four ribs is inserted into the fifth one only in the centre. From this part of each rib a strong flat muscle comes forward on each side, before the viscera, forming the abdominal muscles and uniting in a middle tendon, so that the lower half of each rib which is beyond the origin of this muscle, and which is only laterally connected to it by a loose cellular membrane, is external to the belly of the animal, and is used for the purpose of progressive motion, while that half of each rib which is next the spine, as far as the lungs extend, is employed in respiration. These observations of Sir Everard Home apply to all Snakes; but the muscles were compared with a skeleton of the _Boa-constrictor_ in the Hunterian Museum, which is thirteen feet nine inches in length. The habit of attaching themselves to trees, and holding on by the tail, their heads and bodies floating listlessly on some sedgy river, is explained by the structure of the tail. Dr. Meyer has minutely described the manner in which they hook themselves on to a tree, which gives them the power of a double fulcrum. The apparatus which gives this power is a spur or nail on each side of the vent in the _Pythonidæ_, in which the anatomist discovered the elements of an unguinal phalanx articulated with another bone much stronger, which is concealed under the skin. Following the arrangement of the _Pythonidæ_, adopted by Dr. J. E. Gray in the Catalogue of the British Museum, we find:-- I. _Morelia_, having a strong prehensile tail, distinct head, truncate muzzle, crown of the head with small shield-like plates. Of this genus there are two species. The Diamond Snake (_M. spilotes_), a native of Australia, and of a bluish-black colour; and the Carpet Snake (_M. variegata_), from Port Essington and Swan River. It is whitish, with irregular black-edged olive spots, and an olive head, with two or three white spots in the centre of the crown. II. _Python_, having the crown shielded to behind the eyes. Of this genus there are two species, which have sometimes been referred to the Boas. The Pythons bear the same general appearance. Upon their bodies is traced a sort of blackish-brown chain, presenting nearly quadrangular links upon a clear yellowish ground, extending from the nape of the neck to the extremity of the tail. The suscephalous region is partly covered by a large brownish-black spot. Upon each side of the head is a black band, which frequently extends from the nostril, passing by the eye, as far as, and up to, the commissures or corners of the lips. [Illustration: Fig. 13.--Natal Rock Snake (_Hortulia natalensis_).] _P. reticulatus_, the Ular Sawad of the Malay countries, found also in Burmah and Siam, has the four front upper labial plates pitted; the frontal plate simple; the head has a narrow, longitudinal, brown stripe. This is one of the most handsomely marked species of the whole family, its body being covered with a gay lacing of black and golden yellow. It is said to attain the great length of thirty feet, and is stout in proportion. In its native wilds the powers of this gigantic reptile are said to be enormous, being able to subdue a full-grown Buffalo; and even a Man has been said to fall a prey to its fury. A Malay prao had anchored for the night under an island of the Celebes. One of the crew had gone ashore in search of the favourite betel nut, and is supposed on his return to the beach to have fallen asleep. In the dead of the night his comrades were roused by his screams; they pulled ashore with all expedition, but came too late; the cries had ceased, and the wretched man had breathed his last in the folds of one of these enormous Serpents. They killed the creature, cut off the head, and carried it, together with the lifeless body of their comrade, to the vessel. The right wrist of the corpse bore the mark of the Serpent's teeth, and the disfigured body showed that the man had been crushed by the constrictive folds of the reptile round the head, breast, and thighs. The Ular Sawad arranges its eggs by placing them in a group, which is covered by the body. This statement, first made by Mr. Bennett, has been confirmed by the observations of M. Lamare Picquot, and by observations on other species of Python in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, and in the London Zoological Gardens. The Rock Snake of India and Ceylon (_P. molurus_) is another species to which the name of Boa-constrictor has been given. It has the two pairs of front upper, and three hind lower labial shields pitted, and the frontal plates double. Of this gigantic Serpent several specimens are generally to be seen in the Zoological Gardens. III. _Hortulia_, having the upper and lower labial shields deeply pitted; muzzle and forehead with symmetrical shield; nostrils lateral. They are natives of Africa, and three species are known, namely, the Natal Rock Snake, having the lower labial shields deeply pitted, the muzzle and forehead with symmetrical shields, the nostrils lateral; the Guinea Rock or Fetish Snake (_H. Sebæ_), closely resembling the last in many structural points; and the Royal Rock Snake (_H. regia_), having the four pairs of the upper front labials pitted, the upper ocular plate single, the lower labial shields four in number and broad. The Royal Rock Snake inhabits Western Africa. It is black in colour, marked on the middle of the back with a series of oblong white spots, the sides being marked by another series of large white spots, with one or two black spots in the upper part; the head black, with a streak over the nostrils and the top of the eyes, another from the lower edge of the eye, the lips and chin beneath are white. The Natal Rock Snake (_H. natalensis_, Fig. 13) is described by Sir Andrew Smith as being gigantic in size, he having seen a skin measuring twenty-five feet, although part of the tail was absent. "It feeds," he says, "on small quadrupeds; and for some days after swallowing one it remains in a torpid state, when it may be easily destroyed." Of this opportunity, however, the South Africans never avail themselves; they have a horror of the reptile, but believe that it has an influence over their destinies, and affirm that no one has ever been known to kill one and prosper. The Guinea Rock or Fetish Snake (_H. Sebæ_, Fig. 14) is typical of the genus, and has also been referred to the Boa-constrictor, and closely resembles the Natal Rock Snake. It is a native of the warmer parts of Africa. A living specimen at the Zoological Gardens is estimated to weigh a hundredweight. Of the genera _Liasis_ and _Nardoa_ there are five species, very imperfectly known. [Illustration: Fig. 14.--Guinea Rock Snake (_H. Sebæ_).] IV. _Epicrates_, an American and West Indian species, having the crown scaly; the forehead with symmetrical shields. The Aboma (_E. cenchria_) is one of the largest of the group, sometimes attaining dimensions quite gigantic. It is yellowish in colour, with a row of large brown rings running the whole length of the back, and variable spots on the sides; these are generally dark, with a whitish semi-lunar mark. This formidable Reptile has all the habits of its congeners; it is found in the marshy swamps of tropical America, and near the rivers, where it lies in wait for its prey. [Illustration: Fig. 15.--Aboma (_Epicrates cenchria_).] The Boas, properly so called, have the scales smooth; labial shields smooth, not pitted; the body compressed, tapering to the tail, which is long and prehensile; the head is comparatively small, being enlarged behind, and contracted towards the muzzle, which is rather short. The crown is covered with scales; the nostrils lateral, between two plates. Four species of this genus are recognised by naturalists, all of which have been described by travellers as the true Boiguacu, or _Boa-constrictor_ of Linnæus. This species has the scaly circle of the orbit separated from the upper labial plates by one or two series of scales. A large chain consisting of blackish hexagonal spots, alternating pale oval stains, notched and jagged, extending the whole length of the back, and forming a very elegant design. This species seems to be strictly confined to tropical America. Humboldt found it in Guiana, and the Prince de Wied observed it in Brazil. All the specimens in the British Museum are from that part of the New World. This is supposed to be the Tlicoatl and Temacuilcahuilia (the words meaning "fighting with five men"), described by Hernandez, the latter name being derived from its size and strength. "It attacks," he says, "those it meets, and overpowers them with such force, that if it once coils itself round their necks, it strangles and kills them, unless it bursts itself by the violence of its own efforts." The same author states that he has seen Serpents as thick as a man's thigh, which had been taken when young by Indians and tamed. That this Boa attains an immense size is a well-established fact. Shaw mentions a skin in the British Museum, in one of his lectures, which measured thirty-five feet in length. Three other species--the Lamanda (_B. diviniloqua_), from Santa Lucia; the Emperor (_B. imperator_), a native of Mexico; and _B. eques_, the Chevalier Boa of Peru--are all to be occasionally seen in the Zoological Gardens. The _Boa anaconda_, more properly _Eunectes murinus_, is also a native of tropical America. The name of Anaconda has become well known through Mr. Lewis's celebrated tale, so called, in which its predatory habits are displayed in such a manner as to enthral and fascinate the reader, as the author makes the reptile fascinate its victim. The name, Mr. Bennett tells us, is of Cinghalese origin, and is popularly applied to all very large Serpents. This species is of a brownish tint, with a double series of colours extending from head to tail; the sides are covered with annular spots with white disks surrounded by blackish rings. Seba has represented this creature lying in wait for Mice; but this is probably the prey of the young Anaconda. Another provincial name, "El Troga Venado" (the Deer Swallower), is probably applied to the matured Reptile. [Illustration: Fig. 16.--Anaconda (_Eunectes murinus_).] The following description of the actions of one of these large non-Venemous Serpents, which accompanied a specimen sent to the United Service Museum, by Sir Robert Ker Porter, is probably a fair description of the habits of all the large _Pythonidæ_:--"This species is not Venemous, nor is it known to injure man (at least not in this part of the New World); however, the natives of the plain stand in great fear of it, never bathing in waters where it is known to exist. Its common haunt, or rather domicile, is invariably near lakes, swamps, and rivers; likewise close and wet ravines produced by inundations of the periodical rains. Fishes, as well as other animals which repair there to drink, are its prey. The creature lurks watchfully under cover of the water, and, while the unsuspecting animal is drinking, suddenly makes a dash at its nose, and with a grip of its back-reclining range of teeth, never fails to secure the terrified beast beyond the power of escape. In an instant the sluggish waters are in turbulence and foam. The whole form of the Serpent is in motion; its huge and rapid coilings soon encircle the struggling victim, and but a short interval elapses ere every bone in the body of the expiring prey is broken." Sir Robert then describes the manner in which the prey is swallowed, being previously lubricated by the Serpent's saliva; but Professor T. Bell, after carefully watching the constricting Serpent's mode of swallowing its prey, asserts that this is a delusion. "The mucus is not poured out till it is required to lubricate the dilated jaws and throat for the seemingly disproportionate feat." [The small, but very distinct family of _Erycidæ_ have the body of moderate length, cylindrical, covered with small and short scales; the tail very short, with only a single series of subcaudal scales; head somewhat elongate; eye rather small, with vertical pupil. Adult individuals have, like the Pythons, a short conical prominence in a groove on each side of the vent; this being the extremity of a rudimentary hind limb. "The Snakes of this family," remarks Dr. Günther, "shew great similarity to the Pythons and Boas, with regard to their internal structure as well as to their external characters. But their tail is very short, not flexible, and much less prehensile; and whilst the Serpents just mentioned are more or less arboreal, frequenting marshy places with luxuriant vegetation, the _Erycidæ_ inhabit dry, sandy, or stony plains, burrowing with the greatest facility below the surface, and entering crevices and holes in search of their prey, which consists of Mice, Lizards, and other burrowing Snakes. Probably they are semi-nocturnal, and able to see in dark places as well as in the night. They are found in Northern Africa, in the islands of the Mediterranean, in the arid parts of India, and probably in Arabia; two species are known to have been brought from Sikhim." The _Cursoria elegans_ is said to be from Afghanistan; _Eryx iacalus_ inhabits Greece and Egypt; and there is also _E. thebaicus_ in the latter country, and _E. Johnii_ in India. Another Indian species is the _Gongylophis conicus_, which the natives erroneously persist in declaring to be Venemous. The _Eryx Johnii_ is frequently found in the possession of the serpent-charmers of its native country, who mutilate the end of its short, thick tail in such a manner that the scarred extremity somewhat resembles the form of the head. Such specimens are shewn as deadly Two-headed Snakes, and, as such, are occasionally brought alive to Europe. An example of this species lived in the London Zoological Gardens for about eight years, and fed regularly on young Mice. The keeper assured Dr. Günther that it frequently covered its prey with saliva. It always kept itself hidden below the gravel at the bottom of its cage. This species attains to a length of nearly four feet, the tail measuring but four inches. The _Acrochordidæ_ constitute a very remarkable small family, of which one genus is terrene, and another highly aquatic in its habits. Whether a third genus, the Javanese _Xenodermus_, should be referred to it, is doubtful in the opinion of Dr. Günther. These Snakes have the body of moderate length, rounded, or slightly compressed, and covered with small wart-like, not imbricate, tubercular or spiny scales; tail rather short, prehensile; head rather small, not distinctly separated from the neck, and covered with scales like those of the body; nostrils close together, at the top of the snout; teeth short, but strong, of nearly equal size, and situate both in the jaws and on the palate. These serpents are viviparous. One of them, _Acrochordus javanicus_, inhabits Java and the Malayan peninsula, where it is considered rare. It grows to a length of eight feet, and its habits are terrene. The late Dr. Cantor justly compares its physiognomy to that of a thorough-bred bull-dog; a female in his possession brought forth no fewer than twenty-seven young in the course of about twenty-five minutes; they were active, and bit fiercely. Hornstedt found a quantity of undigested fruits in the stomach of this Serpent! Upon which Dr. Günther remarks that no opportunity of making further observations on the habits of this remarkable Snake should be lost. The aquatic member of this family, _Chersydrus granulatus_, inhabits from the coasts of India to those of New Guinea and the Philippine Islands. Sometimes it is met with at a distance of three or four miles from the shore. Mr. W. Theobald remarks that it is plentiful in the Bassein River (in British Burmah), in salt water below Gnaputau, and, with various other Sea Snakes, is frequently swept by the tide into the fishing baskets of the natives. The ebb-tide, running like a sluice, sweeps various Fishes, Crustaceans, Snakes, and even Porpoises occasionally, into the broad mouths of those baskets, where they are at once jammed into a mass at the narrow end of the creel. "The _Chersydrus_," he adds, "is more nearly connected with the _Hydrophidæ_ than with the next family, being as essentially aquatic as any of the former, to which, save from its wanting the poison-gland, it might be appropriately referred. Indeed, it has been erroneously asserted by some authors to be Venemous." The _Homalopsidæ_ are an extensive family of Snakes, of thoroughly aquatic habits, which are only occasionally found on the margins of rivers; several of them enter the sea, and in some parts of their organization they approximate to the true marine Snakes. They may be easily recognised by the position of the nostrils on the top of the snout, which enables them to breathe by raising only a very small portion of the head out of the water; an arrangement which is likewise seen in the Hippopotamus, the Crocodile, the Sea Snakes, and other aquatic animals. Many of them have a distinctly prehensile tail, by means of which they hold on to projecting objects. Their food consists either entirely of Fishes, or, in some species, of Crustaceans also. All appear to be viviparous, and the act of parturition is performed in the water. Not any of them attain a large size-about three or four feet in length, or considerably less; and in captivity they refuse to feed. All the Asiatic species of this family have a grooved fang at the hinder extremity of the maxillary bone. The species are numerous, and are arranged into many generic divisions. The majority are from the grand Indian region, extending to China and to Australia, but there are also several from the New World. The _Herpeton tentaculatum_, of Siam, is very remarkable from its snout terminating in two flexible, cylindrical, scaly tubercles, which are supposed to be employed as organs of touch under water--perhaps to discern its food, which as yet has not been ascertained. The largest known example of this curious Snake is only twenty-five inches long, of which the tail measures six inches. We now proceed to the first family of Poisonous Snakes, that of THE SEA SNAKES (_Hydrophidæ_), which are very distinct from all that follow, though less so from certain of the harmless species appertaining to the two families last treated of. Some of their distinctions have been already noticed (p. 45), but they are especially characterised by their highly compressed tail, indicative of their thoroughly aquatic habits. According to Dr. Günther, there is no other group of Reptiles the species of which are so little known, and the synonymy of which is so much confused, as that of the Sea Snakes. Most naturalists who have worked at them have been misled by the idea that the species were not nearly so numerous as they actually are. Mr. W. Theobald makes out as many as twenty-five inhabiting the Bay of Bengal and the adjacent seas, to which area this group of Reptiles is mainly confined, a few species extending to northern Australia, and one, the most emphatically pelagic, the _Pelamis bicolor_, even to the Pacific Ocean. One genus only, _Platurus_, approaches the Land Snakes in several of its characters; having much the physiognomy of an _Elaps_, with the cleft of the mouth not turned upwards behind, as in other Sea Snakes; the eye also is rather small, nor is the tail at all prehensile. There are two species of this particular form, one of which, _P. scutatus_, is rather common, and its geographic range extends from the Bay of Bengal and the China seas to the coasts of New Zealand; the distribution of the other, _P. Fischeri_, being nearly as extensive. The great genus _Hydrophis_ has the posterior part of the body highly compressed, and most of the species are more or less of a bluish lead-colour, like that of the sea, or black, banded with white or yellowish white. They are so abundant in the Indian seas that some of them are taken with every haul of a fishing-net, and they are helpless and seemingly blind when out of the water; the fishermen commonly seizing them, one after the other, by the nape and throwing them back into the sea. Some of them (_Microcephalophis_ of Lesson) have the head very small and the neck exceedingly slender, while the compressed body is large and thick. THE COLUBRINE Venemous SNAKES. These are comprised under the one family, _Elapidæ_, all of which have an erect, immovable, grooved, or perforated fang in the fore-part of the maxillary bone. There is little in their external appearance to distinguish them from the harmless Colubrine Snakes, to which they are more nearly akin, in all but their poison-fangs, than they are to the Rattlesnakes and Vipers; yet some of the most poisonous of Ophidians appertain to this family, as exemplified by the well-known Cobras of the Indian region and of Africa, and also by some of the worst Snakes that inhabit Australia. In the colony of Victoria alone as many as ten species of Snakes are known, one only of which, _Morelia variegata_, is harmless; and one only of them, the formidable Death-adder (_Acanthopis antarctica_), belongs to the sub-order of the Viperine Snakes. The rest are included among the Colubriform Venemous Snakes, and most of the accidents from poisonous Snakes in that colony are due to what is there known as the Carpet Snake, _Hoplocephalus curtus_, while the Snake that bears the same name in the adjacent colony of New South Wales is the innocuous _Morelia spilotes_, which is a small Serpent of the family of _Pythonidæ_. Of the total number of Snakes known in all Australia, by far the greater number are Venemous, which is the reverse of what occurs elsewhere. Only about five species, however, are really dangerous throughout the great island-continent, for in many of them the poison is by no means virulent. Thus, of _Diemansia psammophis_, which sometimes exceeds four feet in length, Mr. Krefft remarks that "its bite does not cause any more irritation than the sting of a bee." Also, that "the bite of _Hoplocephalus variegatus_ is not sufficiently strong to endanger the life of a man. I have been wounded by it several times," writes Mr. Krefft, "and experienced no bad symptoms beyond a slight headache; the spot where the fang entered turning blue to about the size of a shilling for a few days." Again, of _Brachysoma diadema_, "this very handsome little Snake is Venemous, but never offers to bite, and may be handled with impunity." Far otherwise, however, is the venom of _Hoplocephalus curtus_, and also of some others. _H. curtus_ is one of the worst Snakes of Australia, where it inhabits the more temperate parts of the country from east to west. Its bite is almost as deadly as that of the Indian Cobra, to which it is, indeed, considerably allied. "A good-sized Dog bitten became paralyzed within three minutes, and was dead in fifty minutes afterwards; a Goat died in thirty-five minutes; a Porcupine Ant-eater (_Echidna hystrix_) lived six hours; and a common Tortoise, an animal which will live a day with its head cut off, died in five hours after being bitten." The _H. superbus_ replaces it in Tasmania. The Cobras (_Naja_) are widely known, alike from the virulence of their poison, and for their remarkable dilatable disk or "hood" on the nape, the ribs which support this hood being much elongated. Two species are commonly recognised, the Cobra di capella of Southern Asia (_Naja tripudians_), and the Asp (_N. haje_) of Africa; but there are marked local varieties of both species, and the _N. sputatrix_ of the Malay countries should probably be recognised as a third species. Those of India, with Ceylon, have a mark like a pair of spectacles upon the hood, while those of Burmah and the neighbouring countries eastward have only an oval black spot upon it. In India the commonest colour of this formidable reptile is uniform brown, though many are of a pale yellowish straw colour, and there are others of every shade between that and black. It grows to a length of about five feet, seldom more. "Almost every writer on the natural productions of the East Indies," remarks Dr. Günther, "has contributed to the natural history of this Snake, which has been surrounded by such a number of fabulous stories, that their repetition and contradiction would fill a volume." It is very generally diffused over the Indian region, though, as Mr. Theobald notices, from its nocturnal habits it is less often seen than many harmless species. "This Snake is, I believe," he adds, "of inoffensive habits, unless irritated, but is, of course, a dangerous neighbour to have in a house.[13] Not only in Burmah, where the respect for animal life is greatest, but in India also I have known a Cobra enticed or forced into an earthen jar, and then carried by two men across a river, or some distance from the village, and liberated. Dr. Günther remarks that, 'singularly enough, it has never been obtained in the valley of Nepâl.' This is very easily accounted for," continues Mr. Theobald, "since few would venture to kill a Cobra, even for scientific purposes, in the rigorously Hindu state of Nepâl. In British India, decent Hindus will not kill a Cobra; and if one has taken up his abode in a house, he is permitted to remain, or else carefully inveigled into an earthen-pot, and carried away as described. Of course only the orthodox Hindu is so careful to abstain from injuring the Cobra, and their reverential feeling is now perhaps rather the exception than the rule, though probably as strong as ever in Nepâl." A fine example of the still more formidable gigantic Cobra (_Hamadryas elaps_), to be noticed presently, was obtained from an earthen pot which had floated out to sea. [13] Although the _Cobra di capella_ is so plentiful in India, we could never hear of one instance of a European being stung by one during a residence of more than twenty-one years in that country. They prey chiefly on Rats, the presence of which is the attraction which brings them about human habitations; and they also prey occasionally upon young chickens, and commonly upon Toads.--ED. The late Sir J. Emerson Tennent mentions that "the Cinghalese remark that if one Cobra be destroyed near a house, its companion is almost certain to be discovered immediately after--a popular belief which I had an opportunity of verifying on more than one occasion. Once, when a Snake of this description was killed in a bath of the Government House at Colombo, its mate was found in the same spot the day after; and again, at my own stables, a Cobra of five feet long having fallen into the well, which was too deep to permit its escape, its companion, of the same size, was found the same morning in an adjoining drain.[14] On this occasion the Snake, which had been several hours in the well, swam with ease, raising its head and hood above water; and instances have repeatedly occurred of the Cobra di capella voluntarily taking considerable excursions by sea" (or by rivers, as the writer has personally witnessed).] [14] "Pliny," remarks Sir J. E. Tennent, "notices the affection that subsists between the male and female Asp (or African Cobra); and that if one of them happens to be killed, the other seeks to avenge its death"--lib. viii. c. 37. Cobras are much dreaded, for they instil the most subtle poison into their bites. Their manners are very singular. When at rest the neck of the animal is no larger in diameter than the head; but when under the influence of passion and irritation the neck swells at the same time that the animal raises the front part of his body vertically, holding this part straight and rigid as an iron bar. The lower part of the body rests upon the ground, and serves as a support to the upper part, which is movable and capable of locomotion. This faculty of dilating the neck is as striking a trait in the organization of the Cobras, as the rattle is in _Crotalus_. The ancient inhabitants of Egypt adored them; they attributed to their protection the preservation of grain, and allowed them to live in the midst of their cultivated fields. The Cobra is no longer an object of adoration in the East, but is held sacred by many people, and it serves in nearly every country of Asia as a very curious spectacle; being the Serpent chiefly used by snake-charmers in these countries, terrible as it seems to us. [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Snake-charmers.] [Illustration: Fig. 18.--Hooded Snake.] The action of the snake-charmer is as follows: he takes in his hand a root, the virtue of which is supposed to preserve him from the Venemous effects of the bite of the Cobra. Drawing the reptile from the cage in which he keeps it confined, he irritates it by presenting a stick to it; the animal immediately erects the fore part of its body, swells its neck, opens its jaws, extends its forked tongue, its eyes glitter, and it begins to hiss. Then a sort of battle commences between the Serpent and the charmer; the latter, striking up a monotonous sort of song, opposes his closed fist to his enemy, sometimes using his right hand and sometimes his left. The animal fixes its eyes upon the fist which threatens it, follows all its movements, balances its head and body, and thus simulates a kind of dance. Other charmers obtain from the Cobra an alternating and cadenced movement of the neck by the help of sounds which are drawn from a whistle or small flute. It is said that these mysterious jugglers are able, by some sympathetic action they possess, to plunge these dangerous enemies into a sort of lethargy and death-like rigidity, and to bring them at will out of this momentary torpor. It is certain, at any rate, that they handle these animals, whose bite is extremely dangerous, with considerable impunity, and without having in any way neutralized or intercepted the venom. It is supposed by some that these charmers take the precaution of exhausting the venom of the Cobra every day by forcing it to bite something several times before exhibiting it. It is also certain that they more frequently draw the poison fangs--a wound from which can kill in the course of two or three hours. The Asp (_Naja haje_) has a less dilatable neck; it is of a greenish colour, and marked with brownish spots. It is smaller than the former; is found in the west and south of Africa; and is especially common in Egypt. It was said to have been this Reptile which caused the death of Cleopatra. [The genus _Hamadryas_ of Cantor (_Ophiophagus_ of Günther) differs very little from the true Cobras, but has a less developed hood, and a single small tooth placed at some distance behind the fang. The only species, _H. elaps_, attains to thirteen feet in length, and is proportionately formidable, being much less timid and retiring in its habits than the Cobras of the genus _Naja_. It preys habitually on other Snakes, and seems to be more plentiful eastward of the Bay of Bengal than it is in India. In Burmah it is styled the Gnán, and Mr. Theobald tells us that its venom is fatal in a few minutes. "One of these Snakes," he adds, "was brought in alive, and a snake-charmer came up to display his command over the animal. At first (as I am told) the Snake seemed cowed by the authoritative 'Hah' of the man; but suddenly, through some carelessness on his part, the Snake struck him on the wrist. The poor fellow at once ran off home to get an antidote, but fell down before reaching his own door, and died in a few minutes. When at Tonghu," continues Mr. Theobald, "I heard a case of an Elephant being killed by one of these Snakes, which I have no reason for doubting. The Elephant was a fine powerful male, and was pulling down with his trunk some creepers or boughs, when a large 'Gnán,' which was disturbed in the tree, struck the Elephant on the trunk between the eyes. The Elephant at once retreated, became faint, and died in about three hours." This terrible Snake would appear to be not uncommon in the Andaman Islands, and its range of distribution extends through the Malay countries to the Philippines and to New Guinea. The genus _Bungarus_ is so called from the vernacular appellation of Bungarum, which is applied to one of the species on the Coromandel coast. Some of them are very like Cobras without the hood, as the "Kerait" (_B. cæruleus_), which is a much-dreaded Snake in India, but the geographic range of which extends neither to the countries eastward nor to Ceylon. The Snakes of this genus have a row of broad hexagonal scales along the middle of the back. The Kerait grows to four feet and a half in length, and has the upper parts of a bluish or brownish black, either uniform or more generally marked with numerous narrow white cross-lines, which mostly radiate from a white vertebral spot. In its habits it resembles the Cobra, preying on small Mammalia, Lizards, Toads, and probably other Snakes occasionally. The "Raj-sámp" (literally Lord Snake) is a larger and thicker species than the Kerait, beautifully marked throughout with alternate broad rings of black and golden-yellow. This one is found almost generally throughout the Indian region, and would seem to prey entirely on other Snakes, especially of the _Tropidonotus_ genus. It is of very sluggish habits, and frequents moist places and the vicinity of water. A species, or local variety (_B. ceylonicus_), takes its place in Ceylon, and there is also a kindred species (_B. semifasciatus_) in China and Formosa. According to Cantor, the Bungarums are capable of darting nearly the anterior half of the body. Their bite is very dangerous; but "the magnitude of the danger," remarks Dr. Günther, "depends, as in other Venemous Snakes, on many circumstances--chiefly on the size and energy of the individual Snake and on the place of the wound. As the fangs of the Bungarums are comparatively short, the wound is always superficial, and can be easily excised and cauterised; also, experiments made on some of the lower animals show that the general effect on the whole system becomes visible only after a lapse of time." Of poisonous Snakes akin to the Bungarums, there are the _Xenurelaps bungaroides_, founded on a single specimen received from the Khásya hills (north of Sylhet); and the _Megærophis flaviceps_, which inhabits the Indo-Chinese and the Malayan countries, but not India. The latter attains to more than six feet in length, and when alive or fresh the head and neck are vivid blood-red, which soon fades to a pale buff hue in specimens immersed in spirit, and hence the faulty name of _flaviceps_. As many as seven genera--_Glyphodon_, with two ascertained species; _Diemansia_, with four; _Hoplocephalus_, with eight; _Pseudechis_, with one; _Pseudo-naja_, with one; _Brachysoma_, with three; and _Vermicalla_, with one--are peculiar to Australia with Tasmania, making twenty known species of Colubriform Venemous Snakes in that range of territory, where others doubtless remain to be discovered; and there is one described as _Pseudo-elaps superciliaris_, which is suspected to be a second species of _Pseudo-naja_. The _Cyrtophis scutatus_ of South Africa is a sort of hoodless Cobra, without any small teeth behind its fangs. In America there is only the genus _Elaps_, with numerous species, which are mostly of small size, and in some instances are very brightly coloured, as one of the Coral Snakes[15] of Brazil (_E. corallinus_), which is beautiful coral-red, with the body encircled by equidistant black rings. The genus _Elaps_ in America is represented in Africa by _Homorelaps_, in the Indian region by _Callophis_, and in Australia by _Vermicalla_. In general, these are small and slender Snakes, too much so to be held in much dread. What Dr. Günther remarks of the species of _Callophis_ will apply, as we believe, equally to the others:--"They appear to prefer hilly countries to the plains, live constantly on the ground, and are slow in their movements. In their habits, in their form, and in their powerless muscular organization, they show the greatest similarity to the _Calamariæ_; and this is why the _Callophides_ feed almost entirely on the latter, the Venemous Snake being able to overpower the non-Venemous. Both of these genera have also the same geographical distribution; and Ceylon, where we do not find the _Calamariæ_, is not inhabited by a single _Callophis_. If we are allowed to judge from the number of individuals of both genera brought to Europe in collections, the _Calamariæ_ are about twice as numerous as the _Callophides_." Cantor, who had opportunities of observing them, states that they are generally seen lying motionless, with the body thrown into many irregular folds, but not coiled. Although they are diurnal, their sight, from the minuteness of the pupil, appears to be as defective as their sense of hearing, and they may be closely approached without apparently being aware of danger. He never observed them to strike voluntarily, even when provoked, and he had difficulty in making an adult _C. gracilis_ bite a Fowl; although, of course, the venom of these Snakes is as virulent as that of a Viper, the animals used for the experiments having died in the course of from one to three hours after they had been wounded. Therefore the greatest caution should be observed in catching or handling these Snakes. The shortness of their fangs and the small quantity of their poisonous fluid, however, will always give a very fair chance of recovery if the proper remedies be applied, should an accident occur. Two or three species of this genus inhabit India, and the rest are found in the Indo-Chinese and Malayan countries, one of the most common of them (_C. intestinalis_) having likewise been received from the Philippines. The _C. nigrescens_ of the mountains of southern India attain to four feet in length, but they are mostly about half of that size, or even smaller. [15] This name being also applied to the harmless _Tortrix scytale_ Lastly, we arrive at THE VIPERINE SNAKES, which have a long, perforated, erectile fang on the maxillary bone, which is extremely short and bears no other teeth. This is described in greater detail subsequently (pp. 93, 94). They are arranged under the two families _Crotalidæ_ and _Viperidæ_. The _Crotalidæ_, or Pit Vipers, have the body robust, the tail of moderate length, or rather short, sometimes prehensile; head broad, sub-triangular, frequently scaly above or imperfectly shielded; a deep pit on the side of the snout, between the eye and nostril; the eye of moderate size, with vertical pupil. They are viviparous. The Pit Vipers are found only in Asia and America; those of the New World surpassing the Asiatic species in size, and therefore they are much more dangerous. Some live in bushes, others on the ground. A rudiment of the curious caudal appendage of the American Rattlesnakes is found as a simple spine-like scale in the Asiatic species, constituting the genus _Halys_. Some have the head covered with scales, having small shields on the edge of the forehead and brows; the cheeks are scaly, and the tail ends in a spine. Of these, the American genus _Craspedocephalus_ and the Asiatic genus _Trimeresurus_ have the subcaudal plates two-rowed to the tip. The genus _Craspedocephalus_ comprises the terrible Fer-de-lance of certain islands in the West Indies, which occurs on the mainland of South America, where four other species are recognised--one of them being found as far north as Mexico.] [Illustration: Fig. 19.--Fer-de-lance (_Trigonocephala mycalæ_)] The Fer-de-lance (_C. lanceolatus_) is met with in Martinique, Santa Lucia, and in the little island of Boquin, near St. Vincent. It attains to a length of nearly six feet; its colour is not always yellow, sometimes it is greyish, and even marbled with brown; the head, which is large, is remarkable for a triangular space, the three angles of which are occupied by the muzzle and the two eyes. This space, raised at its front edge, represents the head of a lance, large at its base and slightly rounded at the summit. On each side of the upper jaw, one, sometimes two, and even three, fangs are visible; all of which the animal makes use of for the purpose of wounding and discharging his venom. Of the poison fangs of the Fer-de-lance, Professor Owen remarks, "that they (in common with the Rattlesnake and Viper) are coated with a thin layer of a sub-transparent and minutely cellular cement. This disposition of the dentinal tubes is obedient to the general law of verticality, and the external surface of the tooth can be exposed to no other pressure than that of the turgescent duct with which it is in contact." It feeds on Lizards and the smaller Mammals, especially Rats, but it is capable of killing large animals, such as Oxen. The Negroes working among the sugar-cane, and soldiers in the Martinique service, often become victims to the Fer-de-lance. This Snake is, unfortunately, very prolific, and its venom is so subtle, that animals stung by it die three hours, twelve hours, one day, or several after the accident; but their death is certain. The wound produces extreme pain, and is immediately followed by more or less livid swelling; the body becomes cold and insensible, the pulse and respiration become slower, the head becomes confused, coma appears, and the skin turns bluish; sometimes extreme thirst and spitting of blood are experienced, and paralysis attacks the whole system. Another species is known in Brazil as the "Jararaca" (_C. brasiliensis_), and there is a third in the same country, the _C. bilineatus_; a fourth, _C. elegans_, is believed to be from the west coast of South America; and a fifth, _C. atrox_, inhabits from Demerara to Mexico. All of them are most highly formidable and dangerous Snakes, which are held in especial dread. The ten or more species of _Trimeresurus_ occupy their place in the woodland districts of tropical Asia and its islands. In them the hinder labial shields are the smallest. The head is triangular, covered above with small scales, except the foremost part of the snout and the superciliary region, which generally are shielded; body with more or less distinctly keeled scales, in from seventeen to twenty-five series. Body and tail of moderate length, prehensile. These reptiles are more or less arboreal, as is indicated by their prehensile tail, and by their green or varied coloration. "In general," remarks Dr. Günther, "they are sluggish, not attempting to move out of the way, and as they very closely resemble the branch on which they rest, they are frequently not perceived until they prepare to dart, vibrating the tail, and uttering a faint hissing sound, or until they have struck the disturber of their rest. Accidents caused by them, therefore, are not of uncommon occurrence, and it is a fortunate circumstance that comparatively few of them attain to a size of more than two feet, so that the consequences of their bite are less to be dreaded than that of various other poisonous Snakes. Indeed, numerous cases are on record which show that the symptoms indicating a general effect on the system were of short duration, extending only over from two to forty-eight hours, and confined to vomiting, retching, and fever. After the pain and swelling of the bitten member or spot have subsided, the vicinity round the wound becomes discoloured, mortifies, and is finally thrown off as a black, circular slough, after which health is speedily restored. The bite of larger specimens, from two to three feet long, is more dangerous, and has occasionally proved fatal; so that the greatest care should always be observed in the immediate treatment of the patient. When roused, these Snakes are extremely fierce, striking at everything within their reach; and Cantor states that in the extreme of fury they will fix their fangs in their own bodies. Frogs, small mammalia, and birds form their food, and I have never found a Lizard or Snake in their stomach." Three or more of the species inhabiting India and Burmah are of a beautiful leaf-green colour, which changes to dull blue after long immersion in spirit. The commonest of them, _T. carinatus_, varies remarkably in colouring, however, in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; if, indeed, the species be quite the same. These grow to over three feet in length, of which size they are sufficiently formidable. The kindred genus, _Peltopelor_, is founded on a single species inhabiting the mountains of Southern India, _P. macrolepis_, which is remarkable for the very large scales with which its head and body are covered. _Lachesis_, with two species, is another kindred genus in South America, in which the end of the tail has four rows of scales underneath. The _Calloselasma rhodostoma_ is a very formidable reptile of this same series, which inhabits the Malay countries. It has a remarkably broad head, and grows to three feet or more in length. Dr. Günther states that "it is one of the most beautiful and most dangerous of Venemous Snakes. Feeding on frogs, it frequents grassy plains, and approaches gardens and human dwellings. Kuhl was eye-witness to a case where two Men, bitten by one and the same Snake, expired five minutes after." Another Malayan species is known as the _Atropos acouba_. The genus _Halomys_ is characteristic of the fauna of Central Asia, the species being found in Tartary, on the northern side of the Himalayas, in China, in Japan, and in Formosa. One of them occurs in the Western Himalaya, at an altitude of 9,000 feet, and another has been referred to this genus from the mountains of Southern India. The "carawalla" of Ceylon (_Hypnale nepa_) is likewise found on the mountains of Southern India. It is a small species, but a good deal dreaded, although, remarks Dr. Günther, "its bite is but exceptionally fatal to Man, and in such cases death does not occur before the lapse of some days. There is always every hope of restoring the patient by a timely application of the proper remedies." Its crown is more shielded than is usual with Snakes of this family, and it varies much in colouring. The rest of the _Crotalidæ_ are American, and consist of the famous Rattlesnakes and their immediate kindred. In the genus _Cenchris_ the tail ends with a spine, and the tip of the tail has several rows of scales beneath. The well-known "Copperhead" (_C. contortrix_) belongs to this genus, and the black "Water Viper" (_C. piscivorus_). The last has bred repeatedly in the London Zoological Gardens, and is rather a large species, of very aquatic propensities. "The Copperhead," according to Dekay, "is a vicious reptile, and its venom is justly dreaded, being considered as deadly as that of the Rattlesnake; and an instance is recorded in which a Horse, struck by one of these reptiles, died in a few hours. Its motions are sluggish, and when approached it assumes a threatening aspect, raising its head and darting out its tongue. It chiefly occurs in pastures and low meadow grounds, feeding on Field-mice, Frogs, and the smaller disabled birds." The poison of the black Water Viper is equally to be dreaded. The true Rattlesnakes have the tail furnished with the extraordinary appendages at its tip which will be described presently. According to differences in the shields and scales covering the head, Dr. Gray arranged them into three genera--_Crotalophorus_, with three species; _Uropsophus_, with one; and _Crotalus_ also with one, _C. horridus_, which appears to be the only one known in South America. Of the common Northern Rattlesnake (_Uropsophus durissus_), Dekay remarks that, "although furnished with such deadly weapons, the Rattlesnake can scarcely be termed a vicious animal, for he rarely strikes unless almost trodden upon. When suddenly disturbed, he throws himself into a coil, and warns the aggressor by rapidly vibrating his rattles, which, however, can scarcely be heard beyond the distance of a few yards. This is most usually the case, but they occasionally strike without the slightest warning. At the moment the Snake strikes, he ejects the venom forcibly into the wound. In an instance of a very large Rattlesnake from Florida (_C. horridus_), which was irritated, he struck violently against the iron wire on the side of the cage, and spurted the venom to the distance of three feet."[16] The fibulæ, or rattles, seldom exceed fifteen in number, and are rarely so many.] [16] We have seen a Cobra thus spurt its venom against the plate-glass cover of the box in which it was kept.--ED. The common Northern Rattlesnake sometimes attains to six feet in length, the middle being about the size of a man's leg; the colour of the back is grey, mixed with yellow. Upon this foundation extends a longitudinal row of black spots, bordered with white; towards the muzzle the flat head is covered with six scales larger than the others, and disposed in three transverse rows, each formed of two scales. The males are smaller, much more brightly and less darkly coloured than the other sex. The very long and visible fangs are situated in front of the upper jaw. The scales on the back are oval, and raised in the middle by a bone which extends in the direction of their greatest diameter. The underpart of the body is furnished with a single row of large plates. The Rattlesnake owes its name to a remarkable peculiarity in its structure; the extremity of the tail is furnished with small horny cells, articulated one into the other. When the animal advances these little capsules resound slightly, like the dry husks of beans which still retain their seeds, thus giving notice of the approach of this terrible enemy. The sibilant rattle of these appendages is not very loud, but it may be heard about thirty paces off, and announces the approach of the reptile while it is still at that distance. [Illustration: Fig. 20.--Northern Rattlesnake (_Uropsophus durissus_).] Rattlesnakes feed on small mammals and upon other reptiles, waiting patiently for their approach; when close to them, the Rattlesnake throws itself upon them. They are oviparous; and for some time after they are hatched, the young are said to seek a refuge in the mouth of their mother. During summer Rattlesnakes remain in the midst of stony mountains, uncultivated places, or places covered with wild wood; they generally choose those parts most exposed to the heat,--the sunny shores of a fountain or stream where small animals come to drink. They like also to place themselves under the shadow of an old fallen tree. Audubon, the celebrated ornithologist, says that he has often met with Rattlesnakes rolled up in a state of torpor when the temperature was low. Rattlesnakes are revered by some of the American natives, who know how to lure them from their houses without killing them; for it is a singular fact that this terrible animal is not insensible to the sound of music. Chateaubriand's remarks will be read with interest: "In the month of July, 1791," says this celebrated writer, "we were travelling in Upper Canada with some savage families of the Ounoutagnes. One day, when we had stopped in a plain on the banks of the river Genedie, a Rattlesnake entered our camp. We had a Canadian amongst us who played on the flute; wishing to amuse us, he approached the animal with this new kind of weapon. At the approach of his enemy, the splendid reptile at once coiled itself up spirally, flattened its head, puffed out its cheeks, contracted its ears, and showed its envenomed fangs, while its forked tongue moved rapidly, and its eyes burned like red-hot coals; its body became inflated with rage, rose and fell like a pair of bellows; its dilated skin bristled with scales; and its tail, which produced a sinister sound, oscillated with lightning rapidity. The Canadian now began to play upon his flute. The Snake made a movement expressive of surprise, gradually drew its head backwards, closed its inflamed mouth, and, as the musical sounds struck it, the eyes lost their sharpness, the vibration of its tail relaxed, and the noise which it made became weaker, and finally died away altogether; the coiled-up line became less perpendicular, the orbs of the changed Snake opened, and in their turn rested in wider concentric circles on the ground. The scales of the skin were also lowered, and immediately recovered their wonted brilliancy, and, turning its head slowly towards the musician, it remained immovable in an attitude of pleased attention. At this moment the Canadian walked away a few steps, drawing low and monotonous tones from his flute; the reptile lowered his neck, opened a way among the fine grass with its head, and crawled in the steps of the musician who thus fascinated him, stopping when he stopped and following him when he began to move away. The Snake was thus conducted from our camp in the midst of a throng of spectators--as many Red-skins as Europeans--who could hardly believe their eyes." It is generally agreed that Rattlesnakes only attack Men in self-defence, but it is at all times a dangerous neighbour, and it is important to know how to keep them at a distance in countries where they abound. The Pig is an excellent auxiliary in obtaining this result. In the west and south of America, when a field or farm is infested by these ferocious reptiles, it is usual to put a Sow with its young brood there, and the Snakes, it is said, will soon be eaten up. It appears that owing to the fatty matter which envelopes the body of this animal, it is safe from the Venemous bite. Besides, it likes the flesh of the Snakes, and eagerly pursues them. According to Dr. Franklin, when a Pig sees a Rattlesnake, it smacks its jaws, and its hairs bristle up; the Snake coils itself up to strike his enemy; the Pig approaches fearlessly, and receives the blow in the fold of fat which hangs upon the side of its jaw. Then he places a foot on the tail of the Snake, and with his teeth he begins to pull the flesh of his enemy to pieces, and eats it with evident enjoyment.[17] The Pig is not the only animal employed to destroy Rattlesnakes. Dr. Rufz de Lavison, who has long resided in the French Antilles, and who has since been manager of the Jardin d'Acclimatation, of Paris, has published a highly interesting work, in which he relates the very important services which certain birds, especially the Secretary-bird, or Serpent-eater (imported from South Africa), render by destroying Rattlesnakes in the West Indies. We have said that the _Crotalidæ_ are some of the most dangerous of any Snakes; let us mention some facts which show the frightful power of their venom. A _Crotalus_, about three feet in length, killed a Dog in about fifteen minutes, a second in two hours, and a third in about four hours. Four days after he bit another Dog, which only survived thirty seconds; and another, which only struggled four minutes. Three days afterwards it bit a Frog, which died at the end of two seconds; and a Chicken, which perished at the end of eight minutes. [17] Dekay, in his "Natural History of New York," remarks that it is a popular belief that Hogs are particularly destructive to Rattlesnakes; but neither their bristly hide nor their thick teguments afford them perfect immunity from the stroke of this reptile. I was informed by a respectable farmer that he lost three Hogs in one season by the poison either of the Copperhead or Rattlesnake.--ED. An American, named Drake, arrived at Rouen with three live Rattlesnakes. In spite of the care which he had taken to preserve them from cold, one of them died. He put the cage which contained the other two near to a stove, and excited them with a small stick, to assure himself that they were alive and in health. As one of the Snakes made no movement, Drake took it by the head and tail and approached a window to see if it was dead; the animal turned its head quickly, and bit the unfortunate man on the back of his left hand; as he replaced it in the cage he was bitten anew in the palm of the same hand. "A doctor! a doctor!" cried the unhappy man. He rubbed his hand upon some ice which was close by, and two minutes after, he bound the wrist tightly with a cord. Four hours later a doctor arrived, and cauterized the wound, but alarming symptoms soon appeared. Syncope, noisy respiration, scarcely any pulsation, and involuntary evacuations followed; the eyes closed, their pupils contracted; the limbs became paralyzed, and the body cold. Drake died at the end of nine hours. Some experiments made by a friend of Dr. Bell seem to present different results. This gentleman had received a living Rattlesnake from America, intending to try the successive effects of its bite upon some Rats. He introduced one into the cage with the Snake: it immediately struck the Rat, and the latter died in two minutes. Another that was placed in the cage ran to the farthest corner, uttering cries of distress. The Snake did not attack it immediately; but after about half an hour, on being irritated, it struck the Rat, which, however, exhibited no signs of being poisoned for several minutes; nor did it die for about twenty minutes after the bite had been inflicted. A third Rat, remarkably large, was then introduced into the cage, and exhibited no signs of terror, nor did it seem to be noticed by its dangerous companion: after watching some time, the gentleman retired to bed, leaving the Rattlesnake and Rat in the cage together. In the morning the Snake lay dead, and the Rat had supped on the muscular part of its backbone. Unfortunately, Dr. Bell does not remember at what season this experiment took place, but thinks it was not in very warm weather. The climate of France differing only slightly from that of the United States, it is consequently well adapted for the production of Rattlesnakes. If a living male and female of these dangerous _Crotalidæ_ were to escape from a menagerie, they would soon infest the country with their terrible progeny. It is for this decisive reason that public exhibitions of Rattlesnakes are forbidden in France. Nevertheless, two or three may be seen in the collection of the Museum of Natural History at Paris, miserably installed in a chest, which is quite unworthy of this establishment. The Rattlesnakes are enclosed in a double cage, and every measure of precaution is taken which prudence demands. It is a remarkable fact that the poison is secreted after death. Dr. Bell, in his "History of British Reptiles," adduces the following as evidence of the facts:--He was dissecting very carefully and minutely the poison apparatus of a large Rattlesnake, which had been dead some hours; the head had been taken off immediately after death; yet, as Dr. Bell continued his dissection, the poison continued to be secreted so fast as to require to be dried up occasionally with a sponge or rag: and his belief is, that there could not be less than six or eight drops of the poison. It is obvious that such experiments require the utmost caution, seeing that preparations are not without danger. [The family of the _Viperidæ_, or true Vipers, are peculiar to the Old World, inclusive of Australia, with the sole known exception of one species in Peru. They have generally a robust body, with non-prehensile tail; the head broad or thick, generally scaly above or incompletely shielded; the eye of moderate size, with vertical pupil, and they are at once distinguished from the _Crotalidæ_ by the absence of the pit below the eye. The scales are keeled except in one genus (_Acanthopis_). For the most part, these reptiles inhabit exposed and arid situations, though perhaps all of them will take to the water on occasions, as does the common British Adder. They are divided, firstly, into those which have a depressed head, rounded on the sides, and covered with acutely-keeled scales. Some of these have large nostrils in the centre of a ring-like shield, edged with a large scale above. Such are the genera _Daboia_ in the warmer parts of Asia, and _Clotho_, which is peculiar to Africa--both genera are terrifically Venemous. The famous _Tic-polonga_ of Ceylon (_Daboia elegans_) is also widely diffused over India and Burmah. It is beautifully marked with three rows of white-edged, oblong, brown spots. Occasionally the spots forming the middle row are connected like the beads of a necklace, whence the name _Cobra monil_ (literally _Coluber moniliger_), applied to the young of this Viper by the Indo-Portuguese, and now corrupted into "Cobra de Manilla," which bears the reputation of being a highly poisonous Snake of diminutive size; it attains, however, to a length of nearly five feet, the tail then measuring about eight inches, with considerable thickness of body. It is nocturnal, and preys chiefly on Mice. In Burmah this formidable Viper is dreaded almost as much as the _Hamadryas_. It has been obtained in the Himalayas at an elevation of 5,500 feet, at Almorah, and elsewhere. Mr. Theobald has known one to kill a Bull-terrier in twenty minutes. The _D. xanthina_ is a second species of this form inhabiting Asia Minor. [Illustration: Fig. 21.--The Horned Puff-adder (_Clotho cornuta_).] The genus _Clotho_ consists of the terrible Puff-adders of Africa, of which there are at least four or five species. Among the best known of them are the ordinary Puff-adder (_C. arietans_), and the Berg-adder (_C. atropos_), of the Cape colonists. The Rhinoceros Puff-adder, _C. nasicornis_, of Guinea, has the scales over the nostrils of the male produced into a long recurved spine; and in the Horned Puff-adder, _C. cornuta_, of South Africa, there is a group of small horn-like scales over each eye. Examples of the Common and of the Rhinoceros Puff-adders may generally be seen in the reptile house of the London Zoological Gardens. The last mentioned is a huge Viper of wondrous beauty, both of colouring and in the complex pattern of its markings, especially as seen when it has newly shed its epidermis; but the aspect of its surprisingly broad, flat, and triangular-shaped head unmistakably betokens its terrific powers. Its head is remarkably massive. One peculiarity of the Puff-adders is that they sometimes hold on to their victim by their long fangs. Thus, of the common _C. arietans_ Sir A. Smith remarks that "although generally inactive, it is by no means so when attacked--its movements are then bold and energetic, and when once it seizes the obnoxious object, it retains its hold with great determination, and some considerable exertion is often necessary to detach it."[18] The traveller Burchell remarks of this Snake that "its venom is said to be most fatal, taking effect so rapidly as to leave the person who has the misfortune to be bitten no chance of saving his life, but by instantly cutting out the flesh surrounding the wound. Although I have often met with this Snake," he adds, "yet, happily, no opportunity occurred of witnessing the effects of its poison; but, from the universal dread in which it is held, I have no doubt of its being one of the most Venemous species of Southern Africa. There is a peculiarity which renders it more dangerous, and which ought to be known to every person liable to fall in with it. Unlike the generality of Snakes, which make a spring or dart forward when irritated, the Puff-adder, it is said, throws itself backwards, so that those who should be ignorant of this fact would place themselves in the very direction of death, while imagining that by so doing they were escaping the danger. The natives, by keeping always in front, are enabled to destroy it without much risk. The Snakes of South Africa, as of Europe, lie concealed in their holes in a torpid state during the colder part of the year. It is, therefore, only in the hottest summer months that the traveller is exposed to the danger of being bitten." Dr. Gray refers doubtfully to this genus both the _Echidna inornata_ of Sir A. Smith, and the _E. mauritanica_ of Duméril and Bibron, from Algeria; likewise a Peruvian species named _Echidna ocellata_ by Tschudi, which is the only known instance of a member of this family inhabiting the New World. The appellation _Echidna_, however, belongs properly to the Porcupine Ant-eaters of the class Mammalia. [18] In Chapman's "Travels in the Interior of South Africa" (vol. ii. p. 59), we read--"May 19th. I lost my best Dog, Cæsar. He had seized a large Puff-adder by the tail, and shook it. When the Snake was released it darted at the Dog's face, and having fixed its fangs in its cheek, stuck there like a Bull-dog until it was killed. The Dog only survived ten minutes."--ED. [Illustration: Fig. 22.--The Unadorned Puff-adder (_Clotho inornata_).] The species of _Cerastes_ and of _Echis_ have the nostrils much smaller than the preceding, and are Vipers of less formidable size. In the two species of _Cerastes_, or Horned Viper, the eyebrows of the male bear commonly a sort of horn. _C. Hasselquistii_ is common in Egypt, and the other, _C. Richii_, inhabits Tripoli. Of _Echis_ there is one species in Egypt and North Africa--_E. arenicola_, and another in India--_E. carinata_. The latter grows to about twenty inches long, of which the tail measures two inches and a third. These Vipers commonly lie half-buried in the sand, which they much resemble in colour. They feed upon Centipedes (_Scolopendra_), and no case is known of their bite having proved fatal. The remaining _Viperidæ_ have the head more or less shielded. They are divided by Dr. Gray into _Vipera_ (with two European species, not found in Britain--_V. aspis_ from the Alps, and _V. ammodytes_ from the countries bordering on the Mediterranean);--_Pelias_, which contains only the Common British Adder, _P. berus_; _Sepedon_, with one species only, from South Africa, _S. hæmachates_; _Causus_, with also only one African species, _C. rhombeatus_; and finally, _Acanthopis_, founded on the Death-adder of the Australian colonists, _A. antarctica_, which is the only member of the family _Viperidæ_ known to inhabit Australia, where the Poisonous Colubrine Snakes are so numerous. It is also the only known species the scales of which are smooth or not keeled. It seldom exceeds thirty inches in length, and varies a good deal in colour. Like other _Viperidæ_ it is sluggish in its movements, but when irritated it flattens itself out generally in the form of the letter S, turning round to one side or the other with astonishing rapidity, but never jumping at its enemy or throwing itself backward, as the Puff-adders are described to do. The Death-adder is found in almost every part of Australia northward of the thirty-sixth parallel of south latitude.] The Common Adder (_Pelias berus_), is not improbably the +Echis+ of Aristotle, and the _Vipera_ of Virgil, as it is the _Manasso_ of the Italians, the Adder of the country-people in England and Scotland, and the Vipère of France. It is found in all these countries, and in Europe generally. [Illustration: Fig. 23.--The Common Adder (_Pelias berus_).] The Common Adder varies in length, from thirteen or fourteen inches to double that length; and from two to three or even four inches in girth. Its general colour varies considerably: in some it is olive, in others reddish-brown, varying sometimes to an ashy-grey; at other times it is greyish-black. A waving brown or blackish line runs along the back. A row of unequal spots of the same colour is observable on the flanks; the belly is slate-coloured; the head nearly triangular, a little larger than the neck, obtuse and truncated in front, and covered with granulated scales. Six small plates cover the muzzle, two of which are perforated for the nostrils, which are lateral, forming a blackish spot. Above is a sort of V shape, formed by two black bands. The upper jaw is a white ground, spotted with black; the lower jaw is yellow. The eyes are small and sharp, edged with black. The tongue is long, grey, and forked. Adders are met with in the wooded, stony, and mountainous regions of southern and temperate Europe--in France, Italy, England, Germany, Prussia, Sweden, Poland, and even Norway. They are met with in the heaths near London and in the neighbourhood of Paris; they are met with at Montmorency, and in the forest of Fontainebleau. They feed upon Lizards, Frogs, mollusks, worms, insects, and small mammalia, such as Field-mice, Shrews, and Moles. They pass the winter and early spring in a state of torpor in deep hollows, where they are sheltered from the cold. It is not unusual to find several Adders coiled up together in one heap, entwined and intimately interlaced together. The movement of Adders is abrupt, slow, and irregular. They appear to be shy and timid creatures, shunning the day, and only seeking their food in the evening. The young come into the world naked and living: so long as they are maintained within the mother, they are enclosed in eggs with membranous shells. Soon after their birth the young Vipers, whose length does not exceed six or seven inches, are abandoned by the mother, and left to shift for themselves. They do not, however, acquire their full development till they are six or seven years old. Adders are justly considered objects of fear and horror both to Men and to other animals. They carry with them a formidable apparatus, of which it is important that both the structure and the mode of action should be known. This Venemous apparatus is composed of three parts--the secreting glands, the canal, and the hooked fangs. The gland is the organ which secretes the venom; it is situated upon the sides of the head, behind and a little beneath the globe of the eye; it is formed of a number of inflated bladders, composed of a granulous tissue, and disposed with great regularity along the excretory canal, not unlike the barbs of a pen-feather. This arrangement, however, is only visible through a microscope. The tube destined to conduct the secreted venom through the gland is straight and cylindrical; after being filled, in its short journey it ends in two peculiar hook-like teeth, called fangs, tapering to a point, and in shape horn-like. They are much longer than the others, and placed one to the right, the other to the left of the upper jaw. The Adder, then, is furnished with two of these poison-fangs; they are curved and sharp-pointed, convex anteriorly, and furnished with a straight duct which commences in one part by a slit placed at the anterior part of its base, terminating by a second and smaller cleft towards its point, and on the same side. This last cleft is like a little trench or fine furrow, which extends the whole length of the convexity. These hooked teeth are surrounded by a fold of the gums, which receives and partly hides them, like a sheath, when they are at rest or hidden. They are attached to the upper maxillary bones, which are small and very mobile, and are put in motion by two muscles. Behind them are dental germs, intended to replace them when they fall out. The other teeth in the roof of the mouth belong to the palate, where they form two rows. [Illustration: Fig. 24.--Fangs and Tongue of a Poisonous Colubrine Snake.] Such are the terrible weapons of the Viper group. It is not, therefore, as many persons still believe, with the tongue that the Adder inflicts its wound; the forked, projecting tongue serves them as a feeler, and to drink with, but cannot inflict a wound. We have said that when in a state of repose the hooked teeth are hidden; when the animal wishes to use them, they issue from their fleshy sheath, somewhat in the same manner as a man draws his knife, when attacked, to defend himself, and in this case the knife is poisoned. Adders use their fangs to seize the small animals which serve as their prey. They do not voluntarily attack a Man; on the contrary, they flee at his approach. But if he imprudently places his foot on or attempts to seize them, they defend themselves vigorously. Let us see how an Adder conducts itself when it hunts its prey and takes it. In this case it may be supposed to act without passion, merely seizing its prey for food; it simply bites, sinking its fangs into the body of its victim. In proportion as the fangs penetrate the body of the animal the poison flows into the canal, which again conducts it to the fangs under the influence of the contracting muscles, by which they are raised and made to press upon the gland; but this movement causes the Adder to close its mouth, and the venom is injected into the wound. Adders bite in much the same manner when seized by the tail or middle of the body; but when they think themselves attacked and become irritated, they _strike_ rather than bite. At first they coil themselves up into several superposed circles, then they will uncoil themselves to their whole length with excessive quickness, extending their bodies like a spring, drawing it out with the rapidity of lightning, and gliding over a space equal to their own length; for they never leave the ground. They will now open their jaws wide, erect their fangs, and strike, first throwing back their heads, by which means they contrive to strike as with a hammer. Dr. Bell expresses doubts, in his "History of British Reptiles," of the existence of any well-authenticated case in this country of an Adder bite terminating fatally.[19] At the same time he cautions all persons against exposure to them in the heat of summer and autumn, when the poison is most virulent. The remedy applied to such a bite is to rub the part with olive oil, over a chafing dish of coals, and to take a strong dose of ammonia (spirit of hartshorn) internally. [19] A few cases have been known.--ED. Open copses, dry heaths, new woodland clearings, and sandy wastes are the usual haunts of the Adder; and in such places its hibernaculum is usually found in winter, where several of the same species lie intertwined in a torpid state. It was long supposed that Adders, and Snakes generally, exercise a sort of magnetic action from a distance--a power which has been called _fascination_. This impression has been denied, and attributed, not without reason, to a less mysterious cause; namely, the sentiment of profound terror which these creatures inspire. This terror manifests itself in animals by tremblings, spasms, and convulsions. The sight of a Venemous Snake sometimes renders its victims immovable, incapable of flight, and as it were paralyzed, and they allow themselves to be seized without opposing the slightest resistance. Others give themselves over to confused movements, which, far from saving them, only make their capture easier. M. Duméril, while pursuing experiments in the Museum of Natural History, demonstrative of the sudden and mortal action of the bite of a Viper on little birds, saw a Goldfinch, which he held in his hands, die suddenly, merely at the sight of the Viper. In warm countries, wounds produced by the larger species of these terrible reptiles are extremely dangerous--they swell, become red and ecchymose, and sometimes livid; the wounded person is seized with syncope, fever, and a series of morbid symptoms, which often terminate in death. The remedy is to bind immediately a ligature above the wound with a band, such as a rolled handkerchief, a cord, or a string, so as to stop all communication of the blood with the rest of the body, and thus prevent the absorption of the venom into the system till more effectual means can be adopted. It is well to suck the wound and make it bleed; it is necessary also to make an incision, so as to expose the internal parts, and then to cauterize the wound immediately, either with a red-hot iron or by means of a caustic agent. For this purpose the following composition may be employed:-- Perchloride of iron 60 grains. Citric acid 60 " Hydrochloric acid 60 " Water 144 " A few drops of this is poured on the wounded part, which is then covered with a small piece of lint. Iodine or iodinet of potassium can also be employed. M. Viand-Marais has substituted the following composition for this compound with great success:-- Water 50 grains. Iodinet of Potassium 50 " Metallic iodine 50 " To facilitate the introduction of caustic into the wound, the same naturalist has invented a little bottle closed with emery; the stopper, which is long, and conical at the lower end, plunges into the liquid. By means of this stopper the medicated substance can be made to penetrate by drops as far as the bottom of the wound, which has been previously enlarged by the bistoury. This little apparatus will replace with advantage the bottle of volatile alkali with which Viper-hunters are usually furnished. But all these means are only useful when applied immediately. The limbs and round about the wound must besides be rubbed with ammoniacal liniments. Afterwards emollient poultices should be used to lower the swelling and reduce the chances of congestion; while tonics, sudorifics, and sometimes ammoniacal potions should be given internally. It is a remarkable fact that this venom, which is one of the most virulent poisons known, can yet be swallowed with impunity. It is neither acrid nor burning, and only produces a sensation on the tongue analogous to that caused by greasy matter. But if introduced into a wound in sufficient quantities, it enters into the blood, and causes death with frightful rapidity. This is a characteristic common to all morbid and Venemous virus. The strength of the venom varies according to the species of Snake, and likewise the condition of the animal. The same species is more dangerous in hot than in cold or temperate regions. The bite is serious, according as the poison is more or less abundant in the glands, and probably with the degree of rage experienced by the animal, as Professor Owen supposes. [Of Snakes in general it has been remarked that "all strangers in countries where these reptiles abound are apt to exaggerate their danger; but in a year or two they think as little of them as we do in England. I never knew an instance of a Snake attacking a person unless it was trodden upon or molested, and even then they almost always give warning by hissing, or endeavour to effect their escape. During my residence in the Cape colony, I have at different times trodden on them or kicked them in the grass unintentionally, but was never bitten."[20] This writer, however, could hardly have accidentally placed his foot upon a Puff-adder.[21]] [20] Moodie's "Ten Years in South Africa," vol. i. p. 318. [21] Subsequent experiments with the virus of the Indian Cobra have conclusively proved that ammonia is not a sufficient antidote, as alleged in p. 95.--ED. CHAPTER III. THE ORDER OF LIZARDS.--SAURIANS. This is the second order of the great section of Scaly Reptiles (_Squamata_), as distinguished from the Shielded Reptiles (_Cataphracta_). The name Saurian, +Sauros+, given by Aristotle to the genus of Lizards, has been more comprehensively applied to a group of Reptiles which have the body elongated, covered with scales, or having the skin rough like shagreen. They have, for the most part, four feet, the toes of which are furnished with hooked claws; their eyelids are movable, and their jaws armed with encased teeth; they have a distinct tympanum, a heart with two auricles and a single ventricle, sometimes partially valved, having sides and a sternum. They are not subject to metamorphosis, and, finally, they are furnished with a tail. ["By far the greater number of the Saurians," writes Dr. Günther, "are easily distinguished from the other orders of reptiles by their elongated form, by their movable thorax covered with skin, by the presence of legs, and by their general integuments, which are either folded into scales, or granular, or tubercular, or shielded; still, there are many Saurians which, at a superficial glance, might easily be taken for members of the preceding order--that of the Snakes; and it cannot be denied that there is a gradual transition from one of these orders to the other. On the part of the Saurians, we allude to those which have no externally visible limbs, and which combine with a greatly elongate, cylindrical body, the peculiar kind of locomotion we observe in Snakes. Yet the greater affinity of these reptiles to the ordinary Lizards is indicated by another character, which is in intimate connection with their mode of life. The Snakes, having movable maxillary bones, and mandibles not joined by a symphidis, are enabled to swallow other animals of apparently greater bulk than their own. In the Saurians the maxillæ are fixed and immovable, and the mandibles are joined by an osseous suture, so that the cleft of the mouth can be dilated only in the usual vertical direction. Moreover, in these limbless Saurians we always find bones of the shoulder hidden below the skin, whilst no trace of them can be discovered in the true Snakes. The motions of some Lizards are extremely slow, while those of others are executed, with very great, but not lasting, rapidity. Many of them have the power of changing their colours, which depends on the presence of several layers of cells loaded with different pigments; these layers the animal compresses by more or less inflating its lungs, whereby the changes in the coloration are effected." Dr. Günther does not follow Dr. Gray in arranging all true reptiles into the two grand divisions of Shielded Reptiles (_Cataphracta_) and Scaly Reptiles (_Squamata_), but he includes the _Crocodilidæ_ among the Saurians as a first grand division of them--_Emydosauri_, and the other Lizards constitute his second grand division of them--_Lacertini_. These latter are again primarily divisible according to the structure of the tongue. Thus, in the series of _Leptoglossa_, the tongue is elongate, forked, and exsertile, much as in the Ophidians; in that of _Pachyglossa_ the tongue is short, thick, attached to the gullet, and is not exsertile; and in the _Vermilingues_ it is Worm-like, club-shaped in front, and very exsertile. The various genera of Saurians which have either not a trace of external limbs, or have them more or less diminutive and rudimentary--either the usual two pairs or one pair only, and in the latter case sometimes the fore and sometimes the hind pair being deficient--are included among the _Leptoglossa_, or the series which have a forked and protrusile tongue; and, so far as is practicable, we will commence by noticing the different serpentiform genera; only, in a classification which is not confessedly superficial, it will be found that the various Snake-like Saurians appertain to several distinct natural families, most of the other genera belonging to which have, in sundry cases, limbs that are well developed. Some of them, therefore, will have to be noticed as the different families to which they belong are successively treated of; and there will yet remain the curious serpentiform family of _Amphisbænidæ_, which Dr. Gray refers to his grand series of Shielded Reptiles (_Cataphracta_). The same naturalist divides the _Leptoglossa_ into two tribes, which he styles _Geissosaura_ and _Cyclosaura_; and, as constituting particular division of the former, he includes under it the family _Typhlopidæ_, which Dr. Günther refers--as we have seen--to the order of Ophidians. In the series of _Geissosaura_, the scales of the belly and (almost always) of the back and sides are quincuncial, rounded, and imbricate; the tongue is narrow, short, flat, and but slightly forked; and the head is of a conical shape, and is covered with regular shields. Of the families thus characterised, some only have distinct eyelids, as the families _Acontiadæ_, _Ophiomoridæ_, _Sepsidæ_, and _Scincidæ_; while others have the eyelids rudimentary and the eyes exposed, as the families _Lialisidæ_, _Aprasiadæ_, _Pygopodidæ_, and _Gymnopthalmidæ_. In the _Acontiadæ_ the nostrils are placed in the enlarged rostral plate, with a longitudinal slit behind. The form of the body much resembles that of our common Orvet, or Blind-worm, and their limbs, when present, are so rudimentary that they can aid little in locomotion. One genus, _Acontias_, is without limbs, and the eyes are furnished with a lower lid, while the upper eyelid is rudimentary. Of this, one species, _A. meleagris_, inhabits South Africa; and another, _A. Layardii_, has been discovered in Ceylon. The genus _Nessia_ has four rudimentary limbs, and the rostral shield is large, sub-conical, and depressed. In one species, _N. monodactyla_, the limbs are diminutive, the posterior placed far apart from the anterior, all being very short, weak, and undivided into toes. In another, _N. Burtoni_, each foot is divided into three minute toes. Both species are peculiar (so far as known) to Ceylon, and the habits of this family are much the same as those of our common Orvet (_Anguis fragilis_). The family of _Ophiomoridæ_ is founded on a single genus and species, _Ophiomorus miliaris_, which inhabits North Africa. As remarked by Dr. Gray, this reptile seems to be intermediate to the _Acontiadæ_ and the _Scincidæ_, and makes it appear as if the large rostral shield of the former was formed of the united rostral, supra-nasal, and nasal shields of the present family, and of the _Scincidæ_. It has an elongate, cylindrical body, without external limbs, and the ears are hidden under the skin; the eyes are distinct, with valvular eyelid; and the scales of the body and somewhat elongate tail are hexagonal. The _Sepsidæ_ differ from the preceding, and also from the great family of the _Scincidæ_, by having the nostrils placed in the front edge of a small shield, in a notch at the hinder side of the rostral plate, which latter is rather large and square. The eyes are distinct, the lower eyelid scaly, or with a transparent disk. Body fusiform or sub-cylindrical, elongate. These reptiles burrow in dry sand, and are peculiar to the anciently-known continents and certain islands. Some have a wedge-shaped head, with prominent rostral plate. Of these the genus _Sphenops_ has more developed limbs, each dividing into four toes; and the only species, _S. sepsoides_, inhabits Egypt and other parts of North Africa. _Sphenocephalus_ has a more slender and elongate shape, and the limbs are placed more distantly apart; the anterior minute, and fitting into a groove, the posterior as large as in _Sphenops_, and each of them having but three toes, of which the innermost and next are sub-equal, and the outer much shorter. The only known species, _S. tridactylus_, is common in Afghanistan. In _Scelotes_ the anterior limbs disappear altogether; and the only known species, _S. bipes_, inhabits South Africa. Other genera have a pyramidal head, with the rostral plate erect, and rounded in front. Such are the five following, each founded on a single species:--_Gongylus ocellatus_, from North Africa and the borders of the Mediterranean; _Thyrus Bojeri_, from the Mauritius; _Amphiglossus astrolabi_, from Madagascar; _Seps tridactylus_, from the south of Europe and north of Africa; and _Heteromeles mauritanicus_, from North Africa. The last has only two toes to the fore-feet, three to the hind; and _Seps_ has three toes to each foot, while the other three genera have five to each foot. In general these animals are found in dry and elevated spots, where they hide themselves in the sand or under stones. [Illustration: Fig. 25.--Seps tridactylus.] The _Scincidæ_ have the head covered with shields, which are symmetrically arranged. Tongue slender, free, extersile, terminating in two pointed lobes. Scales on the back rounded, quincuncial, imbricate; those on the belly similar to those on the back and on the sides. No fold across the throat or along the side; no femoral or inguinal pores. Tail generally long, rounded, fragile. Eyes and eyelids well developed. Nostrils in a separate plate, between the frontal and labial shields. Generally four limbs, moderately developed, sometimes feeble or hidden below the skin. The species of this family are exceedingly numerous, and inhabit almost every part of the tropical regions, some extending into the temperate zones. They are thoroughly land Lizards, preferring dry ground, and hiding themselves in the sand, under stones, fallen leaves, &c., very few of them entering the water. They do not attain to any considerable size, only a few species of Australia and the West Indies growing to the thickness of a man's wrist, and exceeding a foot in length. Some of them are viviparous, others deposit from eight to twelve globular eggs. Dr. Gray divides them into the sub-families of _Scincinæ_, or those which have the scales thin, smooth, and neither striated nor keeled; the nostrils in a single smooth plate, without any lunate groove behind; and the tail round, tapering, unarmed; and _Tropidophorinæ_, or those which have the scales thick, bony, rugous, striated, and with one or more keels upon each of them; the rostral plate rounded in front, and the body fusiform, with well-developed limbs, which terminate always in the full complement of toes. A few species of the _Scincinæ_ have no external limbs, thus approximating in their appearance to certain of the burrowing Ophidians.] The Orvet, or Blind-worm, _Anguis fragilis_, is small, cylindrical in shape, about eleven or twelve inches in length, and having the exterior appearance of Snakes. The scales which cover the body are small, smooth and shining, being red in the middle, and edged with white, of a silvery yellow on the upper part, and dusky beneath; the sides somewhat dusky brown, and the throat slightly marbled with white, black, and yellow. Two larger spots appear, one above the muzzle, the other upon the back of the head; from this point two blackish longitudinal rays start, which extend to the tail, as well as two other nut-brown rays, which start from the eyes; the markings vary, however, in different countries, and probably with age and sex. [Illustration: Fig. 26.--Orvet, or Blind-worm (_Anguis fragilis_).] The Orvet is found in woods and dry, sandy, and stony wastes. They are timid, harmless creatures, retiring into holes and concealing themselves in moss at the foot of trees to hide themselves from observation. They feed upon worms, insects, and the smaller mollusks. Although perfectly harmless, the country-people are strongly prejudiced against them, believing their bite to be a deadly poison. This animal is extremely brittle. Laurenti and others assert that when captured it throws itself into a position of such rigidity that it sometimes breaks in two, and that a smart blow of a switch will at any time divide it. [There are little-known species of _Anguis_ in India and South Africa, which are at least provisionally so considered, and certainly do not differ essentially; and next we come to forms in which the limbs are successively more developed. Such are the _Ophiodes striatus_ of Brazil, which has two short, flattened, undivided, and one-pointed limbs, corresponding to the usual hind pair; the _Brachymeles bonitæ_ of the Philippines, in which there are two pairs of short and rudimentary limbs, the fore bearing two minute claws, while the hind are undivided; _Venira bicolor_, of the same archipelago has very short limbs, the fore and hind being placed distantly apart, but in this genus all have five distinct toes; _Chiamelea lineata_, from some part of India, and _Hagria Vosmaërii_, from Bengal, are kindred forms which conduct to the genus _Eumeces_, the species of which are very numerous, and spread over nearly all the different countries between or near the tropics, and in certain of them (as the Burmese _E. anguinus_) the limbs are still remarkably diminutive, and (as in _E. isodactylus_ of Cambodia) the fore and hind limbs are placed very far apart, the body and tail being long and anguiform. In various other species of _Eumeces_, however, the proportions are more those of an ordinary Scink, as again in the kindred genera _Mabonia_ and _Plestiodon_, which are widely distributed. In other series of Scinks, the distinctions of which are far from being conspicuous, we again have limbless genera, or nearly so, as the Australian _Soridia lineata_, which has one pair of small, posterior, undivided extremities; while in another Australian form, the _Rhodona punctata_, the anterior pair of limbs are simple and undivided, while the hinder divide into two unequal toes, and the two pairs of limbs are situate as distantly apart. And thus we may continue to trace the successive gradations, in sundry genera, until we arrive at the _Scincus officinalis_ of North Africa, a well-known reptile, the geographical range of which extends eastward into Afghanistan, and which was formerly in considerable request for its supposed medicinal properties. Indeed, this notion still prevails in Hindustan, into which country dried specimens of both this reptile and of _Sphenocephalus tridactylus_ (p. 101) are brought by Afghan traders, and are sold in the bazaars. Both of these are Sand Lizards, which burrow into the sand with great rapidity. We now come to the _Tropidophorinæ_, or second sub-family of Scinks indicated by Dr. Gray (_vide_ p. 102), which have always well-developed limbs, the body only moderately elongated, and the scales variously keeled. Several species of larger size appertain to this series, as the _Cyclodus gigas_ of Australia, and the curious Stump-tail Lizards, _Trachydosaurus rugosus_ and _T. asper_, of the same insular continent, which latter have most prominently rugous scales, and the tail literally appearing like the short and abrupt stump of one. _Egernia Cunninghami_ and _Tropidolesma_ (of different species) are other comparatively large Australian Lizards; and examples of most of those that have been mentioned may generally be seen alive in the London Zoological Gardens, where the _Cyclodus gigas_ has bred and proves to be viviparous. Of the species of _Euprepes_, of which several inhabit the Indian region, some (as the very common _E. rufescens_) are viviparous, and others (as _E. multicarinata_) are oviparous. These have three more distinct, though not prominent, keels upon each scale; and the different species inhabit both the Old World and the New, as well as Australia. The Galliwasps (_Celestus_) of the West Indies, and sundry other genera, do not greatly differ. Of _Tropidophorus_, which has exceedingly rugged scales, the species inhabit the Indo-Chinese countries, and one (_T. cocinsinensis_) is found likewise in the Philippines; while of another (_T. Berdmorei_), in Burmah, Mr. Theobald remarks that "its scales are dull and lustreless, and the coloration peculiar for a Scink. It harbours under half-immersed stones, and enters the water and gravel freely." In several of this family of Lizards the scales are beautifully iridescent, and many of them show longitudinal pale or white lines, or are otherwise variegated. Nearly akin to the extensive family of _Scincidæ_, there are three small families (as classed by Dr. Gray), the species of which are peculiar to Australia. They have small, undivided, posterior limbs only, or are quite limbless. These families are the _Lialisidæ_, founded on three or more species of a single genus, _Lialis_; the _Aprasiadæ_, founded upon one species only--_Aprasia pulchella_, which is limbless; and the _Pygopodidæ_, comprising the two genera _Pygopus_ and _Delma_, the former containing two, the latter only one ascertained species. The _Gymnopthalmidæ_ constitute still another small family, quadrupedal, but with the limbs small and weak. Of seven genera referred to it, five are Australian, one is European, and one belongs to South America. _Ablepharus pannonicus_ is a small Lizard of this family, inhabiting Eastern Europe, with a congener, _A. bivittatus_, in the Caucasus; and _Gymnopthalmus lineatus_ inhabits Brazil and the Island of Martinique. In the second tribe of _Leptoglossa_, entitled _Cyclosaura_, the scales of the belly are square, in cross bands; those of the back and tail are rhombic and imbricate, or circular and subgranular; the tongue is lengthened, and more or less conspicuously furcate; and the eyes are diurnal, having two valvular lids. The limbs are generally well developed; but in several genera they still are more or less rudimentary, or even absent. There are four small families in which the sides are rounded and covered with scales like the back. Of these, that of _Chamæsauridae_ is founded upon the South African _Lacerta anguina_ of Linnæus, now _Chamæsaura anguina_, which has the limbs quite rudimentary. In the American families of _Cercosauridæ_, _Chirocolidæ_, and _Anadiadæ_, the limbs are moderately developed, and have each five toes. The two last-mentioned families are founded each upon a single species, _Chirocolus imbricatus_ and _Anadia ocellata_; and the other contains the two genera _Circosaura_ and _Lepisoma_--of which the first comprises some two or three species only. All of these reptiles have exceedingly long tails, though not so inordinately long as in the _Lacertidæ_ of the genus _Tachydromus_. Certain other families have a distinct longitudinal fold, covered with small granular scales on each side. These are the families _Chalcidæ_, _Holaspidæ_, and the more extensive one of _Zonuridæ_. The _Chalcidæ_ have the head covered with regular many-sided shields, and the lateral fold is indistinct; limbs small and rudimentary, and the hind feet are undivided in the genera _Chalcis_ and _Bachia_, with three tubercles in place of toes in _Microdactylus_, and with four clawed toes in _Brachypus_. Each of these genera is founded on a single species, and all are doubtless peculiar to the New World. The _Holaspidæ_ is also founded on one species only, the _Holaspis Guentheri_, which again is supposed to be South American. It has four well-developed limbs, a double row of plates along the back and upper surface of the tail, and the latter organ is curiously serrated laterally. The _Zonuridæ_ constitute a considerable family, to which some eighteen or twenty genera are assigned, and which present considerable modification of form. The ears are distinct, whereas in the _Chalcidæ_ they are hidden under the skin. The head is pyramidal, or depressed, and covered with regular many-sided shields; eyes with two valvular lids. Limbs mostly well developed, but short in some, and rudimentary, or even wanting in the so-called "Glass-snakes" which constitute the sub-family _Pseudopodinæ_. There is no external trace of them in the North American Glass-snake, _Ophisaurus ventralis_; and in the Old World genus, _Pseudopus_, there is only one pair, posterior, rudimentary, and undivided. These reptiles are long, and serpentiform in shape: whilst in other Saurians the whole skin of the belly and of the sides is extensible, the extensibility is limited in the "Glass-snakes" to a separate part of the skin; and, as Dr. Günther remarks, "the scaly covering of the upper and lower parts is so tight that it does not admit of the same extension as in Snakes and other Lizards; and the _Pseudopus_, therefore, could not receive the same quantity of food in its stomach as those animals, were it not for the expansible fold of the skin running along each side of its trunk." One species of _Pseudopus_, the _P. Pallasii_, inhabits Asia Minor and the south-east of Europe; and there is another, _P. gracilis_, in the Indo-Chinese countries (or those lying eastward of the Bay of Bengal). A second sub-family, _Gerrhonotinæ_, is peculiar to America, and consists of more ordinarily-shaped Lizards, which are ranged in four genera. Together with the _Ophisaurus_, or American Glass-snake, they are the only known _Zonuridæ_ that inhabit the New World. The great mass of this family and all of its most characteristic species are African, and these are arranged by Dr. Gray under the sub-families _Cicigninæ_ and _Zonurinæ_. In the first of these sub-families the tail is smooth, or unarmed, and in the second it is spinous. The Cordules, _Cordylus_, _Zonurus_, &c., are very characteristic Lizards chiefly of Southern Africa, several species of which have been figured by Sir Andrew Smith. They are mostly of shortish form, and the neck is more or less spinous; the body-scales in some (as _Zonurus cataphractus_) being extraordinarily rugous. These Lizards squeeze themselves into crevices in the rocks, in which they hold on so firmly by their nuchal spines that it is next to impossible to dislodge them, the tail commonly giving way at once if it be attempted to pull them forth by means of it. The family of _Lacertidæ_, comprising our ordinary European Lizards, have no longitudinal fold along the sides, but generally one across the throat; the tail is very long, rounded, with its scales arranged in rings, being also fragile; the head is covered with shields, which are symmetrically arranged; scales on the back granular or rhombic; on the sides granular; on the belly largely quadrangular or rounded, and arranged in cross-bands; eyes diurnal, with eyelids; the tympanum distinct; limbs always four, and well developed. This group of Lizards has no representative in America or (so far as known) in Australia. The sub-family of _Tachydrominæ_ is included by Dr. Gray in the family _Zonuridæ_. These are Asiatic Lizards, with a most inordinate length of tail, the fore and hind limbs being not placed distantly apart, as in the various anguiform Lizards already treated of--there is an indistinct collar, and the toes are not serrated or keeled. Two genera have been distinguished, _Tachydromus_ and _Tachysaurus_, the latter founded on a Japanese Lizard, _T. japonicus_. At least three species are known of _Tachydromus_, two of which inhabit China, _T. septentrionalis_ and _T. meridionalis_; the third belonging to the Indo-Chinese countries, _T. sex-lineatus_. In an example of the last, measuring fourteen inches long, the tail occupies eleven inches and a half. It is the longest-tailed creature that we have any knowledge of, in proportion to its other parts; indeed, something quite wonderful to behold and muse over. The rest of the _Lacertidæ_ are chiefly from Africa and the south of Europe; there are probably more of them to be discovered in Middle Asia, and only three or four species are known to inhabit the Indian region. Fifteen or more genera are recognised. In temperate Europe (inclusive of the British Islands) two species are common--the _Zootica vivipara_ and the _Lacerta agilis_. The former, as its name imports, is viviparous, whereas the other genera belonging to the family are (so far as known) oviparous. Others occur in the south of Europe.] The common Grey or Sand Lizard (_L. agilis_), sometimes attains the length of from eight to ten inches, of which the tail occupies more than half. These little inoffensive creatures, so common in Southern Europe, are slender and active; their movements are so rapid that they escape the eye as quickly as a bird. They require a mild temperature, and seek shelter among ruins. When the sun strikes with its meridian force upon a wall, they may be seen basking in its rays, enjoying themselves delightedly upon the heated surface. They seem to be pervaded with the blessed warmth, and mark their pleasure by soft undulations of the tail. It is commonly said that the Lizard is the friend of Man, since far from flying at his approach, they seem to regard his appearance with great complacency. They pass the winter at the bottom of small holes which they have hollowed out of the earth, where they become torpid. At the commencement of spring they issue from their hiding-place, and each seeks its mate; they go in pairs, male and female, it is said, living in faithful union for many years, sharing between them the domestic arrangements, which comprise hatching the young and nursing them in their helplessness, carrying them into warm and sunny places, and sheltering them from cold and damp. Lizards feed chiefly upon insects, and especially flies. All who have watched the actions of the Grey Lizards must have observed that the caudal vertebræ are so extremely fragile that they separate on the slightest touch, the tail remaining in the hand of any one attempting to seize it. These tails sometimes grow again. When an attempt is made to seize a Grey Lizard on the wall it lets itself fall to the ground, and remains there a moment immovable before attempting to run, evidently simulating death. Grey Lizards are easily tamed, and appear happy in captivity. From their extreme gentleness they soon become familiar with their keepers, and return caress for caress, approaching mouth to mouth, and suck the saliva from between their lips with a grace that few people would allow them to display. In the Green Lizard, _L. viridis_, the scales of the temple are many-sided and unequal, with a central layer; back granular and oblong, with shelving sides; throat fold distinct. Nothing can be more brilliant than the variegated colouring with which it is ornamented. Its favourite locality is a slightly elevated woody place, where the sun's rays readily penetrate. It is also found in sunny meadows. It feeds upon small insects, and shows no alarm at the presence of Man, but stops to look at him. Snakes, on the contrary, they seem to fear much, but when they cannot avoid them they fight courageously. In length they are about eighteen inches. [Illustration: Fig. 27.--Green Lizard and Ocellated Lizard.] Green Lizards are found in Jersey and Guernsey, and other warm countries of Europe, on the African coast of the Mediterranean, and they are not rare in France. How often have we admired their magnificent colours in the neighbourhood of Montpelier, where they rival the green of the meadows, and glitter in the sun like so many living emeralds! In the Ocellated Lizard, _L. ocellata_, the upper part of the body is green, variegated, spotted, and reticulated or ocellated with black, having large round blue spots upon the flanks; the underpart of the body is white, frosted with green; in size it is about twenty inches. They are found at Fontainebleau, in the south of France, and in Spain. They establish themselves in hard sand, often between two beds of calcareous rock, upon some steep declivity, more or less directly exposed to the south; they are also found between the roots of old stems, either in hedgerows or vineyards. They feed almost exclusively on insects; but are said to attack Mice, Shrews, Frogs, and even Snakes, and to destroy the eggs of the Partridge. They have sometimes been tamed by feeding them on milk. [In the genus _Ophiops_, two species of which inhabit Asia Minor, and one of them the shores of the Mediterranean, the eyelid is rudimentary and the eye exposed, whence the name, signifying "snake eye." So far as known, the habits of the various Lizards which constitute the family of _Lacertidæ_ are much the same. The family of _Teidæ_ is peculiar to the New World, and some of the species attain to the length of several feet. In these Lizards the head is pyramidal, and is covered with regular many-sided shields; supra-orbital plate horny; the teeth solid and well rooted; tongue elongate, flat, free (rarely slightly sheathed at its base); the scales of the back are regular and keeled, and of a rhombic shape; sides flat, and covered with small granular scales; the throat scaly, with a double collar, rarely indistinct. In some the throat has two cross-folds, with large six-sided scales within; and of these some have the ventral shields small, long, and smooth, while others have them much broader. The former are known as the Teguexins (_Teius_ and _Callopistes_), and the latter as the Ameivas (_Ameiva_, and three other genera). One species of Teguexin, _Teius teguexin_, may commonly be seen alive in the London Zoological Gardens. This is a large and powerful Lizard, exceeding five feet in length when full grown, and extremely active. It feeds on small living animals of any kind, and will even devour poultry, and especially their eggs, for which latter it manifests an especial liking, as observed in captivity. Sometimes it has been known to prey on other and kindred Lizards, as the Ameivas. The teeth of this species are strong, and the reptile can bite with great force. It is a bold and determined combatant when attacked, and if it succeeds in seizing its foe, retains its hold with pertinacity. Its flesh is eaten by some people, who consider it excellent. Together with a second species, _T. nigropunctatus_, it inhabits Brazil, and the two species of _Callopistes_ are also South American, one at least of them occurring in Chili. The species of this family, although strong and agile, never ascend trees, but range at will the hot sandy plains or the dense and damp underwood on the margins of lakes and rivers, into which they plunge when alarmed, and remain below the surface until the danger has passed away, their capacious lungs and imperfect circulation permitting them to endure a very long immersion without inconvenience. The Ameivas have a long whip-like tail, and peculiarly elongated toes on their hind feet. The species of _Ameiva_ and _Cnemidophorus_ are numerous, and the genera _Dicrodon_ and _Acrantus_ are founded each of them upon a single species. In general these are Lizards which correspond with the ordinary _Lacertidæ_ of the Old World. One species only, _Cnemidophorus sex-lineatus_, inhabits the Southern States of North America; there are at least four others in Mexico, and the rest belong to South America and the Antilles. "The _Ameiva dorsalis_," writes Mr. Gosse, "is one of the most common of the reptiles of Jamaica, and is as beautiful as abundant. Its colours are striking, but not showy, and its countenance has a very meek expression. All its motions are elegant and sprightly; when it is proceeding deliberately, its body is thrown into latent curves the most graceful imaginable; but when alarmed its swiftness is so excessive that it appears as if it literally _flew_ over the ground, and the observer can scarcely persuade himself that it is not a bird. It is very timid, and though its toes are not formed as in the Geckos and Anoles, for holding on against gravity, I have seen a large Ameiva run with facility on the side of a dry wall, along the perpendicular surfaces of the large stones." A second series occurs in those _Teidæ_ which have a collar of large shields on the throat. As many as five genera of them have been established, each upon a single species, and all are from intertropical America. In _Crocodilurus lacertinus_ the two rows of crests along the tail recall to mind the Crocodiles, whence the name bestowed. Others have been styled Dragons, as the Great Dragon, _Ada guianensis_, and the Smaller Dragon, _Custa bicarinata_. All bear a certain amount of superficial resemblance to the Crocodiles, and the Great Dragon grows to six feet in length, and is found in many parts of South America. This large reptile runs up the trunks of trees with facility, is quick when on the ground, and it also swims, though not particularly well. It preys upon such small animals as it can manage to seize, and chiefly frequents the inundated savannahs and marshy localities, where it is seen basking in the sunshine; but there is considerable difficulty in taking this Lizard, as it makes generally for its burrow in some raised spot, and bites desperately in self-defence. Its flesh is eaten, and is considered a delicacy. Its eggs, also, are considerably esteemed at Cayenne and other places, and each female lays some dozens of them. The family of _Helodermidæ_ is founded on a very remarkable Lizard from Mexico, the _H. horridum_, which is of the same size as the Great Dragon, and in some respects approximates the following Old World family of _Varanidæ_. Its back and sides are covered with oblong, hexagonal, very convex and shield-like scales, and the belly with oblong, rather convex plates; tail cylindrical, with oblong, convex scales above, and flat, elongate, thin plates beneath. The head is somewhat flattened, and is covered with polygonal, convex shields; the muzzle is rounded; and the teeth are on the inner side of the jaws, incurved, with a groove on the front of their inner side. The bite of this reptile is said to be severe. The family of _Varanidæ_ inhabit South-eastern Asia and its islands, Africa, and Australia. In this family are comprised the largest of existing Lizards, with the exception of the _Crocodilidæ_. They are very commonly miscalled Iguanas by Europeans and their descendants, in the countries where they are found. These reptiles have a pyramid-shaped head, more or less elongated, and covered with small and scale-like, but not imbricate, shields. Their teeth are acute and compressed. The tongue is elongate, slender, terminating in a long fork, and is retractile into a sheath at its base. Their scales are small, equal on the sides and on the back, and arranged in cross rings; those on the belly and tail are square, in cross bands. Tail long, and generally more or less compressed. The feet are well developed, with five toes on each, which are armed with strong claws. Most of them live near water, and they are excellent swimmers, their long and compressed tail serving as a propeller. Their movements on land are not much less rapid than in the water. Several of the species climb trees, and they are more or less nocturnal in their time of action, though also about by day. They are exclusively carnivorous, feeding on the different water animals, and on the eggs of birds, and likewise on those of other large reptiles; some of them are also destructive to ducklings, and to various Snakes. Dr. Günther remarks that "their external nasal opening leads into a spacious cavity situated in the snout; when the animal dives, it closes the nasal aperture, and retaining a certain quantity of air in that pouch, or rather in the two pouches, it is enabled to remain under water for a prolonged period without the necessity of rising to the surface in order to breathe. It is the same plan of structure as that with which a large northern Seal (_Cystophora borealis_) is provided." In like manner, the air-bag connected with the one developed lung of the Ophidians retains the necessary supply of air during the tedious process of deglutition or swallowing. The nostrils are variously placed, either mid-way between the eye and muzzle, or nearer to one or to the other; and according to this and some other differences, Dr. Gray divides the _Varanidæ_ into as many as seven genera, but Dr. Günther would seem to admit not more than two genera. When the tail of these Lizards is mutilated, the lost portion is never renewed; whereas in the preceding families of the _Zonuridæ_, _Lacertidæ_, and _Teidæ_ a new tail or portion of one soon sprouts forth--but this renewed portion contains no bony vertebræ, and it remains smooth externally; when the fracture is cleft, as sometimes happens, two new tails are put forth. Another family of Lizards in which the tail is thus commonly renewed is that of the Geckos; but never in the _Iguanidæ_, the _Agamidæ_, and the _Chameleonidæ_, any more than in the _Varanidæ_. The species of this family defend themselves vigorously, when attacked, by lashing forth smart blows with the tail, as do also the Crocodiles and the larger _Iguanidæ_. In the genus _Varanus_, the nasal apertures form an oblique slit, in, or nearly in, the middle, between the eye and the tip of the snout. The scales are elliptic and small; those on the back and on the sides are not imbricate, each of them being surrounded by a small, circular, granular fold. Tail with a low crest, formed by two or four series of strongly keeled scales. Throat with a transverse fold. One very common in India and Ceylon is the _V. dracæna_, which grows to a length of five feet, the tail being longer than the body. These reptiles live in holes, and in mid-day they steal out of their cells to seek their food, which consists chiefly of the smaller reptiles and of insects. In many parts of India, and in Ceylon, the flesh is much eaten by the natives. The late Dr. Kelaart states that he once tried some excellent soup made from it, which tasted not unlike hare-soup. At Trincomali, he tells us, they are hunted down by Dogs, and sold in the market for sixpence each. This species climbs walls, and holds on so firmly with its strong claws, wherever these can be inserted, that it is actually used by house-breakers in India to help in raising themselves up a wall or building, the man grasping the tail, while the reptile affords a lift by endeavouring to escape from him upwards. It lays twenty or thirty eggs, which in texture and appearance resemble those of many Snakes, being similarly agglutinated together by a viscid mucus. Sir J. E. Tennent remarks that "one of the earliest, if not the first, remarkable animal to startle a stranger on arriving in Ceylon, whilst wending his way from Point de Galle to Colombo, is this large Lizard, which may be seen at noonday searching for Ants and other insects in the midst of the highway and along the fences. When disturbed, but by no means alarmed, by the approach of Man, it moves off to a safe distance; and the intrusion being at an end, it returns again to the occupation in which it had been interrupted. It lives in any convenient hollow, such as a hole in the ground, or the deserted nests of the Termites; and some small ones, which frequented my garden at Colombo, made their retreat in the heart of a decayed tree." Of another species, _V. flavescens_, which inhabits Lower Bengal, and to the eastward in Burmah, &c., Mr. Theobald remarks that "large specimens are not often procurable by Europeans, as they are much sought after by both Burmese and Karéns as choice articles of food. They are chiefly hunted with Dogs, whose scent enables them to discover the Varans in the hollow trees in which they habitually shelter themselves. A Burman, though ordinarily a lazy man, will think nothing of cutting down and breaking up a large tree in which one of these creatures has sought refuge. The _Varanidæ_ deposit their eggs in the ground, usually selecting a deserted White-ant's nest. The eggs are cylindrical, with tapering ends, of a dirty white colour and leathery texture (those of _V. dracæna_ are two inches long), and, being esteemed an uncommon luxury by the Burmese, sell dearer than fowls' eggs. They are oily and feculent-looking, though devoid of any nauseous odour, and some Europeans eat them with pleasure." A well-known African species, the _V._ or _Psammosaurus scincus_, extends (without the slightest difference) to the extreme desert region of the north-west of India, and more habitually frequents dry localities than others. In this species the nasal apertures are placed very near the eyes. In the genus _Hydrosaurus_, the nostrils are more or less rounded, and are situate near the extremity of the snout. These animals are more decidedly aquatic than the preceding, and some of the species grow to seven or even eight feet in length. Such is the _H. giganteus_ of Australia, where three, if not four, species inhabit. In all south-eastern Asia and its islands, its range extending to Lower Bengal but not to India proper, although found in Ceylon, the _H. salvator_ is a common species, which, according to the late Dr. Cantor, is "very numerous in hilly and marshy localities of the Malayan peninsula. It is commonly, during the day, observed in the branches of trees overhanging rivers, preying upon birds and their eggs and smaller Lizards, and when disturbed it throws itself from a considerable height into the water; it will courageously defend itself with teeth and claws, and by blows with its tail." We have now to treat of the PACHYGLOSSA, which are those Lizards which have the tongue short, thick, attached to the gullet, and not exsertile. These fall under two very distinct tribes--the _Strobilosaura_ and _Nyctisaura_ of Dr. Gray, or the tribe of the Iguanas and their kindred, and that of the Geckos and their kindred. The tribe of STROBILOSAURA Have the scales of the back and sides imbricate, generally rhombic, and those of the lower parts imbricate and of small size. Tail with more or less distinct whorls of scales. The eyes diurnal, with round pupil, and valvular lids. Feet with toes of very unequal length. Many of these reptiles have a row of spines or spine-like scales along the back and tail, which in some are very long, while others have high dorsal and caudal crests, an expansile gular pouch, or other adornments. Like the Varans among the _Leptoglossa_ (p. 114), these Lizards do not renew the tail, or a portion of it, after mutilation. There are two great families of them--one peculiar to the Old World with Australia, the other to the New World; but as families they do not differ much, and might very well be retained as divisions of the same extensive family. In the family of _Iguanidæ_, all of which inhabit America or its islands, the teeth are round at the root, dilated and compressed at the tip, and toothed at the edge; they are placed in a simple series on the inner side of the jaws, just below the edge, and are covered on the inner side by the gums; as they fall out they are replaced by others, which grow at the base of their predecessors, and gradually cause the absorption of their roots. Probably not fewer than a hundred and fifty species are now recognised, which are distributed under more than fifty genera. We can only notice a few of the most remarkable of these Lizards, some of the larger of which attain a length of five or six feet, with proportionate bulk of body. As a general rule, the larger species are mainly herbivorous, while the smaller are chiefly insectivorous, though many of the latter also devour fruit. As most of them are remarkable for their rapid changes of colouring, the name of Chameleon is often misapplied to them, in the supposition that the Chameleons are the only Lizards in which that curious phenomenon is observable. In one remarkable species, the _Sphærops anomalus_, inhabiting Brazil, it is stated that the eye nearly resembles that of the true Chameleons, and it is also one of those which are particularly celebrated for its changes of hue.] [Illustration: Fig. 28.--Iguana tuberculata.] The name _Iguana_ was given by Laurenti to a heterogeneous group of Saurians, various forms being included which were first separated by Daudin. The Iguanas, as thus restricted, are characterized by a very large thin dew-lap under the neck, a double row of small palatal teeth, and a crest on the back and tail; the latter long, slender, compressed, and covered with small imbricated and carinated scales. Messrs. Duméril and Bibron describe the genus, thus modified, as principally remarkable for the cutaneous prolongation which constitutes the deep and thin dew-lap, or pouch, the free border of which describes a curved line, and is dentated at the part nearest the chin. The head is moderately long, and has the form of a pyramid with four faces. The neck is slightly compressed, the limbs long, the toes unequal and sometimes denticulate on the edge. The five toes of the posterior feet are graduated; the tail, which is long and slender, is slightly flattened from right to left. The Iguanas live chiefly on trees, but they take readily to the water, swimming with great facility. There are numerous species, all of which are found in South America and the Antilles. In the Island of Isabella, Sir E. Belcher found swarms of them which he had reason to consider omnivorous, feeding voraciously on birds' eggs and the intestines of birds and insects. The Common Iguana, _I. tuberculata_, which inhabits a great part of South America, is one of the best known species of this family. These reptiles are easily recognised from the large pouch underneath the neck, and the dentated crest which extends from the head to the extremity of the tail. The tail, feet, and body are covered with small scales. On the upper part, their colour is a more or less decided green, sometimes becoming blue, at others slate-coloured; the lower part is of a yellowish green. The sides present zigzag, roundish, brown scales, edged with yellow; frequently a yellow line is traced obliquely in front of the shoulder, and some individuals are sprinkled with brown; others have the limbs spotted with brown on a black ground. The tail is surrounded with brownish rays alternating with others green and yellow. When full grown it attains the length of four feet, but the more ordinary length of the animals is about thirty inches. They are very gentle creatures, and perfectly harmless, feeding almost exclusively on vegetables. They are hunted in America for their flesh, which is excellent; and they are especially common at Surinam, in the neighbourhood of Cayenne, and in Brazil. [Of a kindred species, _Metopoceros cornutus_, which also is common in the Antilles, an excellent description has been published by Lieutenant Tyler,[22] which we must endeavour to condense. This reptile attains a length of five, and sometimes even of six feet, the tail being about twice and three quarters the length of the body. When first hatched it measures four inches. The mouth is large, and is armed with two rows of maxillary and two of palatal teeth, which appear simply to be intended to crop leaves and to provide the stomach with vegetable food. Each maxillary tooth is a little double-edged saw, and they are so lapped over each other that the reptile, in closing its mouth upon a leaf, cuts through it completely. The tongue is curiously used by the animal to draw food into the mouth, and to forward it down the gullet, or to repel it at will, and the only use of the palatal teeth appears to be to secure the food while the tongue moves forward to afford fresh assistance in its journey down the throat. The tongue is always covered by a glutinous secretion, which is perceptibly appended to the jaws when the mouth is open. Between the lower jaw and the chest is a pouch, which the animal draws in or extends simultaneously with the compression or swelling out of the body when enraged or excited. The portion of the gular pouch attached to the jaw is inflatable, and food is sometimes retained in it for a considerable period, but the lower part is merely extensible. [22] "Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1850, p. 106. "Whilst always retaining the same colours, this Iguana has the power of considerably changing its hues; but these changes are gradually performed. The colours become more dull as the period of the change of cuticle approaches--which is not, however, very frequent. Each scale has its own tint, and the colours being thus irregularly blended, an appearance is given, particularly to the younger reptiles, very much like that of worsted-work. "These Iguanas live principally on trees, and near the windward coast of the island" (of St. Lucia). "They are not much seen, excepting in the months of February, March, and April, when they quit their hiding-places, and repair to the sea-shore or other sandy places to lay their eggs in the sand. The older females lay a great number of eggs. I have known an instance of one in confinement laying five in one day, and thirty-two within the space of ten minutes five days afterwards, making thirty-seven in all. Younger females are much less prolific, according to their size. The eggs are very liable to destruction by Ants, which fact probably accounts for their being usually deposited in sea-sand. They are soft, and without any white, and their shell resembles the most beautiful kid leather used for French gloves, of a very light straw-colour. They are about the size of those of a domestic Pigeon, but rather longer; but they vary in dimensions according to the age and size of the Iguana. "This Iguana is not averse to water, when not too cold, taking to it only when the sun is shining; in fact, not moving about much at any other time. Its mode of swimming differs from that of other Lizards, inasmuch as it places its four legs close by the side of its body, and swims entirely with its tail. It dives with great facility, and remains sometimes for a considerable time under water. I believe that it never ventures into the sea. The tail is a very valuable limb; for, besides being the sole means of swimming possessed by the animal, it is of great use in climbing trees, although not prehensile; and it is a most important weapon of defence, a blow from it being frequently sufficient to inflict a severe wound. In fact, this reptile is rather formidable when brought to bay in the woods. It is hunted by the natives with Dogs trained for the purpose. The Dog, immediately upon scenting it, gives tongue, and, if on the ground, the Dog seizes it by the back, and either kills it or maims it, which makes its capture easy; if in a tree, the Iguana is either shaken down--a matter ordinarily of no small difficulty--or the branch is cut off. It is almost useless to attempt to find these reptiles without Dogs, as the resemblance of their colour to that of the trees which they inhabit prevents them from being easily seen. Few Dogs but those accustomed to the sport will touch them, as, in addition to the blows which they inflict with the tail, they bite and scratch furiously; and when once they lay hold of anything with their teeth, they can only be made to let go by an inducement to bite some other attractive object being offered to them. They run into holes when chased, if an opportunity offers, and when their eyes are hidden from view, they fancy that their whole body is safely covered. The flesh, particularly of the female, is a great delicacy; it is cooked in various ways, sometimes in a fricassee, with the eggs whole, sometimes roasted or stewed. The eggs have a very glutinous consistence. The flesh is said to disagree with some constitutions. "Unless when caught young, it is very difficult to induce these reptiles to feed in confinement, and particularly when watched. Their disposition is sulky and savage, and I have known some of them," continues Lieutenant Tyler, "to die in confinement from starvation, rather than feed. This has caused me to try the following plan, which I find very successful, of affording them nourishment:--I hold them by the lower part of the body with one hand, and with the other I irritate them until they open their mouth and attempt to bite, when I insert food; and by annoying them in this way, I have not only made them eat their natural food, but I have killed some of them by forcing them to eat corn and leaves, which appear to have disagreed with them. By some of the natives this Iguana is said to eat Lizards and insects; but I have opened several, and I have never succeeded in finding any but vegetable matter in the stomach." Of the habits of a kindred species of Iguana, the _Cyclura lophura_, inhabiting Jamaica, Mr. Gosse has given an elaborate description; and he tells us that the gular pouch in the _Iguanidæ_ "is _extensible_, but not _inflatable_," as is the current opinion. Holbrook and others have remarked the same; and Professor Thomas Bell describes the fold of skin as being drawn down by a peculiar arrangement of the lingual bone, and a singular cartilage fixed to it and attached also to the skin. These parts are moved by delicate muscles, so that, when the cartilage is drawn down, the skin of course is distended, and follows it "in the same way that the silk is stretched over the whalebone of an umbrella." "In fact the skin," writes Professor Holbrook, "when distended in life by the animal, does not resemble the inflated vocal sacs of the Frogs and Toads, which are round, but looks like a fold of the skin, pinched and drawn down, the two portions of it being in contact, like a dew-lap." It appears that the _Cyclura_, also, is exclusively herbivorous; and Mr. Gosse remarks upon the severe wounds which it inflicts upon Dogs with its sharply-serrated tail. In general, the larger species of this family are solely vegetable-feeders, while the smaller kinds (such as the Anoles) are more or less insectivorous; and there are some, of intermediate size, which even prey occasionally upon the kindred Anoles and other small animals. The genera of these reptiles are exceedingly numerous, as we have seen, and amongst so many there must be considerable variety in the habits; but we can only notice a very few of them. Within the limited area of the small archipelago of the Galapagos, situated on the equator about ten degrees west of South America, there are two remarkable species of _Iguanidæ_, of which the habits have been described and commented upon by Mr. Darwin in his volume of the "Voyage of H.M.S. _Beagle_." One of them is particularly so, because, as that naturalist observes, it is the only existing Saurian which can properly be said to be a maritime animal. In the whole of that group of islands, as he tells us, there is only one rill of fresh water that reaches the coast; yet this reptile frequents the sea-beaches, and no other parts of the islands. He adds that it is the only known existing Lizard that feeds exclusively on aquatic productions. Although he refers both species to the genus _Amblyrhynchus_, the aquatic sort now constitutes the genus _Oreocephalus_ of Dr. Gray, and it bears the name of _O. cristatus_. This Lizard, according to Mr. Darwin, "is extremely common on all the islands throughout the archipelago of the Galapagos. It lives exclusively on the rocky sea-beaches, and is never found--at least, I never saw one--even ten yards inshore. It is a hideous-looking creature, of a dirty black colour, stupid and sluggish in its movements. The usual length of a full-grown one is about a yard, but there are some even four feet long. I have seen a large one which weighed twenty pounds. On the island of Albemarle they seem to grow to a greater size than on any other. These Lizards were occasionally seen some hundred yards from the shore swimming about; and Captain Colnett, in his 'Voyage,' says, 'they go out to sea in shoals to fish.' With respect to the object, I believe that he is mistaken; but the fact stated on so good an authority cannot be doubted. When in the water the animal swims with perfect ease and quickness, by a serpentine movement of its body and flattened tail--the legs, during this time, being motionless and closely collapsed on its sides. A seaman on board sank one, with a heavy weight attached to it, thinking thus to kill it directly; but when an hour afterwards he drew up the line, the Lizard was quite active. Their limbs and strong claws are admirably adapted for crawling over the rugged and fissured masses of lava which everywhere there form the coast. In such situations, a group of six or seven of these ugly reptiles may oftentimes be seen on the black rocks, a few feet above the surf, basking in the sun with outstretched legs. I opened the stomachs of several," continues Mr. Darwin, "and in each case found it largely distended with minced sea-weed of that kind which grows in thin foliaceous expansions of a bright green or dull red colour. I do not recollect having observed this sea-weed in any quantity on the tidal rocks; and I have reason to believe that it grows at the bottom of the sea, at some little distance from the coast. If such is the case, the object of these animals occasionally going out to sea is explained. The stomach contained nothing but the sea-weed. Mr. Bynoe, however, found a piece of a Crab in one; but this might have got in accidentally. The intestines were large, as in other herbivorous animals." The food of this Lizard, equally with its compressed form of tail, and the certain fact of its having been seen voluntarily swimming out at sea, absolutely prove its aquatic habits; nevertheless, as we are told by Mr. Darwin, "there is in this respect one strange anomaly, namely, that when frightened it will not enter the water. From this cause, it is easy to drive these Lizards down to any little point overhanging the sea, where they will sooner allow a person to catch hold of their tail than jump into the water. They do not seem to have any notion of biting; but when much frightened they squirt a drop of fluid from each nostril. One day I carried one to a deep pool left by the retiring tide, and threw it in several times as far as I was able. It invariably returned in a direct line to the spot where I stood. It swam near the bottom, with a very graceful and rapid movement, and occasionally aided itself over the uneven ground with its feet. As soon as it arrived near the margin, but still being under water, it either tried to conceal itself in the tufts of sea-weed, or it entered some crevice. When it thought the danger was passed, it crawled out on the dry rocks, and shuffled away as quickly as it could. I several times caught this same Lizard by driving it down to a point, and though possessed of such perfect powers of diving and swimming, nothing would induce it to enter the water; and as often as I threw it in, it returned in the manner above described. Perhaps this singular piece of apparent stupidity may be accounted for by the circumstance that this reptile has no enemy whatever on shore, whereas at sea it must often fall a prey to the numerous Sharks. Hence, probably urged by a fixed and hereditary instinct that the shore is its place of safety, whatever the emergency may be, it there takes refuge. I asked several of the inhabitants if they knew where it laid its eggs: they said, that although well acquainted with the eggs of the other kind, they had not the least knowledge of the manner in which this species is propagated--a fact, considering how common an animal this Lizard is, not a little extraordinary. During our visit (in October) I saw extremely few small individuals of this species, and none I should think under a year old. From this circumstance it seems probable that the breeding season had not commenced." The terrene species, _Amblycephalus subcristatus_, unlike the aquatic one, is confined to the central islands of the Galapagos archipelago, where they inhabit both the higher and damp, as well as the lower and sterile parts; but in the latter they are much more numerous. "I cannot give a more forcible proof of their numbers," relates Mr. Darwin, "than by stating that, when we were left at James Island, we could not for some time find a spot free from their burrows on which to pitch our tent. These Lizards, like their brothers of the sea-kind, are ugly animals; and, from their low facial angle, have a singularly stupid appearance. In size, perhaps, they are a little inferior to the latter, but several of them weighed between ten and fifteen pounds each. The colour of their belly, front legs, and head (excepting the crown, which is nearly white) is a dirty yellowish orange; the back is of a brownish red, which, in the younger specimens, is darker. In their movements they are lazy and half-torpid. When not frightened, they slowly crawl along, with their tails and bellies dragging on the ground. They often stop and doze for a moment, with closed eyes, and hind legs spread out on the parched soil. These Lizards inhabit burrows; which they sometimes excavate between fragments of lava, but more generally on level patches of soft volcanic sandstone. The holes do not appear to be very deep, and they enter the ground at a small angle; so that when walking over one of these Lizard _warrens_, the soil is constantly giving way, much to the annoyance of the tired pedestrian. This animal, when excavating its burrows, alternately works the opposite sides of its body. One front leg for a short times scratches up the soil, and throws it towards the hind foot, which is well placed so as to heave it beyond the mouth of the hole. This side of the body being tired, the other takes up the task, and so alternately. I watched one for a long time," continues Mr. Darwin, "till half of its body was buried; I then walked up and pulled it by the tail; at this it was greatly astonished, and soon shuffled up to see what was the matter; and then stared me in the face, as much as to say, 'What made you pull my tail?' They feed by day, and do not wander far from their burrows; and, if frightened, they rush to them with a most awkward gait. Except when running downhill, they cannot move very fast; which appears chiefly owing to the lateral position of their legs. They are not at all timorous; when attentively watching any one, they curl up their tails, and raising themselves on their front legs, nod their head vertically, with a quick movement, and try to look very fierce, but in reality they are not at all so; if one just stamps the ground, down go their tails, and off they shuffle as quickly as they can. I have several times observed small fly-eating Lizards, when watching anything, nod their heads in precisely the same manner; but I do not at all know for what purpose. If the _Amblyrhynchus_ is held, and plagued with a stick, it will bite it very severely; but I caught many by the tail, and they never tried to bite me. If two are placed on the ground, and held together, they will fight and bite each other till blood is drawn. Those individuals (and they are the greater number) which inhabit the lower country, can scarcely taste a drop of water throughout the year; but they consume much of the succulent cactus, the branches of which are occasionally broken off by the wind. I have sometimes thrown a piece to two or three when together; and it was amusing enough to see each trying to seize and carry it away in its mouth, like so many hungry Dogs with a bone. They eat very deliberately, but do not chew their food. The little birds are aware how harmless these creatures are: I have seen one of the thick-billed Finches (peculiar to the Galapagos) picking at one end of a piece of cactus--which is in request among all the animals of the lower region--whilst a Lizard was eating at the other; and afterwards the little bird, with the utmost indifference, hopped on the back of the reptile. The stomachs of several that I opened were full of vegetable fibres and leaves of different trees, especially of a species of _Acacia_. In the upper region they live chiefly on the acid and astringent berries of the guayavita, under which trees I have seen these Lizards and the huge Tortoises feeding together. To obtain the acacia leaves, they crawl up the low, stunted trees; and it is not uncommon to see one, or a pair, quietly browsing, whilst seated on a branch several feet from the ground. "The meat of these animals, when cooked, is white; and by those whose stomachs rise above all prejudices, it is relished as very good food. Humboldt has remarked, that in intertropical South America, all Lizards which inhabit _dry_ regions are esteemed as delicacies for the table. The inhabitants of the Galapagos say, that those inhabiting the damp region drink water, but that the others do not travel up for it from the sterile country, like the gigantic Land Tortoises. At the time of our visit, the females had within their bodies numerous large elongated eggs. These they lay in their burrows, and the inhabitants seek them for food." These two curious Lizards of the Galapagos agree nearly in general structure, and in many of their habits; and neither of them has that rapidity of movement which is characteristic of various other _Iguanidæ_. The form of the head resembles a good deal that of a land Tortoise, and we find the same form of head, and again the same disinclination to bite, in certain herbivorous Lizards, such as the _Uromastyx_ and kindred forms, which are referred by Dr. Gray to the corresponding Old World family of _Agamidæ_.] In the family of Iguanas the Basilisk may be noted. According to ancient authors, reproduced by writers of the middle ages, the Basilisk, although such a small animal, could produce instant death by its sting. The man whose eyes met theirs was supposed to be at once devoured by an intense fire. Such are the fabulous ideas which tradition has transmitted to us about these animals. It is to be remarked, however, that the Basilisk of modern herpetology is not the +basiliskos+, or Royal Serpent, of the ancients, the Cockatrice of Scripture. The reptile which now bears the name is an inoffensive animal, living in the forests of Guiana, Martinique, and Mexico, and leaping from branch to branch, in order to gather the seeds or seize the insects on which it feeds. The Basilisk is distinguished from the other Iguanian Lizards by the absence of the long and dilatable skin under the throat, and by the presence of an elevated crest which runs along the whole length of the back and tail. [Illustration: Fig. 29.--Hooded Basilisk.] The Hooded Basilisk, _B. americanus_ (Fig. 29), measures seven or eight inches from the nose to origin of the tail, which is itself nearly three times as long, being nineteen or twenty inches in length. Upon the occiput it has a sort of horn or bag, in shape like a hood, round at the summit, and slightly inclined towards the neck. This bag, when distended, is about the size of a pullet's egg. In the male the back and tail are surmounted by a raised crest, such as we have described above, sustained in its thickness by the knotty process of the vertebræ. The general colour is a mixture of sandy brown, slightly marbled on the back and sides, with shades of blue on the upper part, and a silvery white underneath. On the throat are larger bands of brown, and on each side of the eye is a white ray bordered with black, which is lost upon the back; and the tail is so remarkably attenuated towards its extremity as to show the articulations of the vertebræ beneath. [According to Mr. O. Salvin, the Basilisk is very common about Lanquin, in the province of Guatemala, where it may frequently be seen on the low branches of a bush, and it is particularly fond of basking on the boughs of a felled tree in a clearing near a stream. In some specimens of the males, we are informed, the tail is much more compressed than in others. In a series of the young the crest is shown in all stages of development. We also learn from this naturalist that, notwithstanding the compressed form of its tail, the Basilisk does not habitually enter the water, as most writers have supposed. The sub-family of Anoles (_Anoliinæ_) have mostly the skin of their toes widened (under the ante-penultimate phalanx) into an oval disk, striated crosswise underneath, which enables them to attach themselves to various surfaces. They do not attain the large size of the Iguanas, and the habits and characteristics of the various species inhabiting Jamaica are thus vividly described by Mr. P. H. Gosse in his "Naturalist's Sojourn" in that beautiful island. "The stranger," he remarks, "walks into the dwelling-house. Lizards, still Lizards, meet his eyes. The little Anoles (_A. iodurus_, _A. opalinus_, &c.) are chasing each other in and out between the _jalousies_, now stopping to protrude from the throat a broad disk of brilliant colour, crimson or orange, like the petal of a flower, then withdrawing it, and again displaying it in coquettish sport. Then one leaps a yard or two through the air and alights on the back of his playfellow; and both struggle and twist about in unimaginable contortions. Another is running up and down on the plastered wall, catching the Ants as they roam in black lines over its whitened surface; and another leaps from the top of some piece of furniture upon the back of the visitor's chair, and scampers nimbly along the collar of his coat. It jumps on the table;--can it be the same? An instant ago it was of the most beautiful golden green, except the base of the tail, which was of a soft, light, purple hue; now, as if changed by an enchanter's wand, it is of a dull sooty brown all over, and becomes momentarily darker and darker, or mottled with dark and pale patches of a most unpleasing aspect. Presently, however, the mental emotion, whatever it was--anger, or fear, or dislike--has passed away, and the lovely green hue sparkles in the glancing sunlight as before." The green colour of certain of these Anoles so closely resembles that of foliage, that they are apt to be overlooked. Thus Mr. Gosse was about to throw a net over a Butterfly, when, as he remarks, "on a slight rustle among the leaves, I observed that it was fluttering as if unable to get away. My impression was that an invisible Spider's-web was holding it; but, looking closer, I found that a little green Anolis had the Butterfly in its mouth. Its colour was so exactly that of the verdant leaves of the bush, that I had not perceived it before, although my eyes were fixed on the spot. I have also observed the same species feeding on Ants. On a gateway a number of scattered Ants of a small kind were running to and fro, as they very frequently are seen to do. A beautiful male Anolis had stationed himself on the post perpendicularly, with the head downwards, and as the Ants one by one came near him he snapped them up. Each capture was the work of an instant; he touched the post with his muzzle, and the Ant was gone: they were evidently seized with the lips, not with the tongue. These little creatures are as playful as they are pretty. As they creep about they often catch sight of another of the same species; immediately one suddenly raises and depresses the head and fore-parts, flirts the tail from side to side, and extends the goitre by means of the elastic arched bone in front, till its tip reaches nearly as far as the muzzle. The brilliant goitre is thus alternately extended and relaxed several times. After being thus 'signalized' for a few seconds, one darts towards the other, who usually runs away, apparently as if wishing to be caught." Elsewhere Mr. Gosse describes the noosing of an example of a fine Lizard of this Anolis group, the _Dactylæ Edwardsii_, which is also a native of Jamaica, "about a foot long, and of a lively green colour. He was very savage, biting at everything near: presently his colour began to change from green to blackish, till it was of an uniform bluish black, with darker bands on the body, and a brownish black on the tail; the only trace of green was just around the eyes." He was placed in a cage, and "at night," continues Mr. Gosse, "I observed him vividly green as at first--a token, as I presumed, that he had in some measure recovered his equanimity. The next day he continued very fierce. I hung the cage out in the sun; two or three times in the course of the day I observed him green, but for the most part he was black. The changes were rather quickly accomplished. The food of this Lizard appears to include both vegetable and animal substances. I was never able to induce one to eat in captivity; but the dissection of several has given me this result. Thus in one I have found seeds and farinaceous substance; in another the fragments of a brilliant beetle of the weevil group. I once observed one deliberately eat the ripe glass-berries, munching half of one at a mouthful."[23] [23] "A Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica," by P. H. Gosse. Thus far we have treated of chiefly arboreal _Iguanidæ_; and although a Marine Lizard (_Trachycephalus cristatus_) cannot well be so designated, it nevertheless belongs to the same particular series. We have next a long series of mainly terrene genera of the same great American family, in which the body is subtrigonal or depressed. As many as twenty-two genera, with sixty-one species of the terrene _Iguanidæ_, were catalogued by Dr. Gray in 1845, and a good many have since been added. There is a corresponding series in the kindred Old World family of _Agancidæ_, and in neither instance are the majority of them ground-frequenting Lizards to any great extent. Thus, of Dr. Gray's first genus _Tropidolipis_ (so named from its large keeled scales), and of which as many as nine species are given from Mexico, a tenth (_T. undulatus_, of the United States) is described by Professor Holbrook to inhabit chiefly the pine-forests, where it is often found under the bark of decaying trees; it also commonly chooses old fences for its basking-place. "It is exceedingly rapid in its motions, climbing with great facility to the tops of trees, and is hence not taken alive without great trouble. Its food consists of insects, especially such as are found under decaying wood." The colouring of this Lizard is remarkably brown, with narrow zigzag black bands above, and green below, with a white medium stripe bordered with black; throat and breast black, with a broad green band across. Various species of kindred genera were collected by Mr. Darwin, and are figured in the "Zoology of H.M.S. _Beagle_," and of one of these (probably _Lecolænus Darwinii_), which he observed at Bahia Blanca, in Northern Patagonia, he remarks that "it lives on the bare sand near the sea-coast, and from its mottled colour, the brownish scales being speckled with white, yellowish red, and dirty blue, can hardly be distinguished from the surrounding surface. When frightened it attempts to avoid discovery by feigning death, with outstretched legs, depressed body, and closed eyes: if further molested, it buries itself with great quickness in the loose sand. This Lizard, from its flattened body and short legs, cannot run quickly." With others these Lizards constitute the sub-family _Tropidolepinæ_ of Dr. Gray, which are followed by the sub-family _Phrynosominæ_, in which some very singular Lizards find their place. The most extraordinary of them constitute the genus _Phrynosoma_, four species of which inhabit Western North America. These have great spines to the occiput, in these respects resembling the African genus _Cordylus_ (p. 107), and very Toad-like proportions, looking somewhat like Toads with short tails; and again they decidedly approximate in appearance to the curious _Moloch horridus_ of Western Australia, which belongs to the corresponding Old World family of _Agancidæ_; and, like that strange reptile, they are slow of motion, and perfectly harmless, and they may be handled with impunity, as they never attempt to bite.] FLYING LIZARDS. [Illustration: Fig. 30.--Flying Lizard (_Draco volans_).] Flying Lizards (_Draco_) have the head small, the nostrils in a scale, tubular, on the side ridge; tympanum white and opaque. They live on trees, walking with agility with their wings folded by their sides. These wings they expand and use as a parachute when they throw themselves upon their prey from the tops of trees or other elevated places. But they cannot move them as birds do their wings. These remarkable appendages also serve to drive away insects. [The fabulous Dragons of the ancient Greeks were Serpents or Lizards with remarkably piercing sight, which guarded treasures and devoured men. The Dragons of mediæval artists were frightful and fantastic beings, one half Bat and the other half quadruped or Serpent. The little Saurians which now bear the once dreaded name are no less interesting, although they are no longer monsters; they are distinguished from all other reptiles by a kind of wing, which is a large fold of skin, or membrane, on each side of the body. These wings are entirely independent of the other members, being sustained by six false ribs, which do not surround the abdomen, but rather extend horizontally. They are the only existing examples of our day of that organic arrangement which distinguished the reptiles known under the name of _Pterodactyli_, and which belonged to the jurassique period of geology. Dr. Gray divides the Draconina into three genera, namely:-- I. _Dracos_, having the ears naked, nostrils below the fore ridge, of which three species are described--viz., _D. volans_, the Flying Lizard (Fig. 30), having the scales of the back broad, generally smooth, those of the throat granular; wings grey, fulvous, or brown, spotted and marbled with black, sometimes forming four or five oblique black bands near the outer edge; the sides with a series of large keeled scales: the Timor Flying Lizard, _D. viridis Timorensis_ of Schlegel; and the Fringed Flying Lizard, _D. fimbriatus_, keeled. II. _Draconella_, of which there are two species, one _D. Dussumieri_, having the nape crested; and _D. hæmatopogon_, the Red-throated Dragon, without crest on the nape. III. _Dracunculus_, of which five species are described--namely, _D. quinquefasciatus_, the Banded Flying Lizard, nape not crested, having a longitudinal fold; _D. lineatus_, having the nape crested, the ears slightly concave; _D. ornatus_, wings grey, reticulated with black, and having broad black bands at the edge; the Spotted Winged Dragon, _D. maculatus_, grey, and the wings black spotted; and _D. spilopterus_, having the wing reddish near the body.] GECKOTIDÆ, OR THICK-TONGUED LIZARDS. This singular family of Saurians have the head wide and flattened, the mouth wide, the nostrils distant and lateral, the eyes large, with short lids; the tongue short, fleshy, and capable of slight elongation. The body is thick and short, low on the legs, rather squat and depressed, with a belly trailing on the ground; back without crest. The skin is defended by granular scales, interlaced with others of a tubercular character; they are almost always of a sombre colour. Their feet are short, wide apart, and robust; they are furnished on the upper part with imbricated laminæ, which enable them to adhere firmly to the surface of even the smoothest bodies, and to run with rapidity in all directions on a plain surface, and even to remain stationary with the back downwards, like the common house Fly. More generally, however, their hooked and retractile claws, like those of cats, assist them in climbing, crawling up trees, rocks, and even perpendicular walls, and to remain there immovable for several hours. Their flexible bodies mould themselves into the depressions of the surface of the earth, in which they become scarcely visible, their natural colour blending, and being confounded with, the colour of the soil. Their eye-balls, which dilate and contract considerably, protect them from the action of the sun's rays, and enable them, it is thought, to see in the dark. They are nocturnal, avoid the sun's rays, and catch their food in the chinks of rocks. Their movements are rapid, silent, and sudden. They hibernate, and are provided with fatty masses in the groin which are supposed to be a provision for their nourishment during that period. Geckos emit sounds which resemble the noise an equestrian makes when he would encourage his horse--smacking their tongues on the palate to produce the sound. They seek habitations in which they can find food, and are timid, inoffensive, and quite incapable of inflicting injury either by their bite or claws; but their repulsive appearance makes them objects of general repugnance, and has caused evil properties to be attributed to them. Thus people try to destroy them by every possible means. There are about sixteen known species of Geckos distributed in all quarters of the globe, but chiefly in warm countries. [Illustration: Fig. 31.--Platydactylus homalocephalus.] [The _Geckotidæ_ are divided into many genera, according to the construction of the toes. Duméril refers to the comparative shortness and general structure of the feet and conformation of the toes, which he describes and figures in detail. The lower surface and the sole he states are very dilatable, and furnished with small plates or lamellæ, following or overlying each other in a mode which varies in the different species. The nails are sometimes wanting on all the toes, but more frequently hooked, and more or less retractile; the toes sometimes united at the base, and in _Platydactylus_ the extremity of the toe expands into a fan shape, as in the Tree Frogs. The membranous and soft plates of the lower surface of the toes have various modifications in different genera, which have been made the basis of their arrangement. The Wall Gecko is supposed by Gesner to be the Lizard spoken of by Aristophanes and Theophrastus, and the Tarentula of the Italians: and there is little doubt that it was the +Aakalabônme+ of Aristotle and the ancient Greeks; it clambered about their walls catching spiders, on which it fed. Schneider has shown it was the _Stellio_ of Pliny. Linnæus mentions three species, which he places with his great genus _Lacerta_. Modern herpetologists, following Cuvier and Duméril, class them according to the structure under the several genera _Ascalabotes_, _Platydactylus, Hemidactylus_, _Ptyodactylus_, _Thecadactylus_, _Stenodactylus_, and _Gymnodactylus_.] The Wall Gecko (_P. homalocephalus_), Fig. 31, is of an ashy grey colour, as if powdered on the upper part of the body. It is white underneath, and inhabits the islands of the Mediterranean, as well as the countries which form the basin of that sea, such as Italy, France, Spain, and Africa. They are generally found in old walls; they are, however, sometimes seen running on those of modern habitations. They feed on all sorts of insects, particularly on the dipterous insects and Arachnidans. CHAMELEO. (LAURENTI.) The genus _Chameleo_, of which ten species are described in the British Museum Catalogue, are natives of Africa and Asia and naturalised in Southern Europe. They live on trees, clinging to the branches by their feet and prehensile tails; they move slowly and with great caution, feeding upon insects, which they catch with singular dexterity by the rapid elongation of their tongue, which is viscid at the tip. Certain groundless metaphors, deeply rooted in the popular mind, have singularly distorted the truth in respect to these reptiles. It is commonly believed that the Chameleon often changes its shape, that it has no fixed colour belonging to itself, but takes that of all objects which it approaches. This singular idea has descended from very ancient times. According to the reports of Theophrastus and Plutarch, the Chameleon takes all colours in turn but white; according to Aristotle it changes colour all over the body; but Ælian seems to have had views more in accordance with those of modern observers, for he says when it takes other colours than grey and disguises itself, it covers only certain parts of the body with them. Altogether the ancients made the Chameleon a very fantastic animal; hence in the familiar comparisons of literature these fabulous beings serve as a type to designate uncertain principles; to paint fawning men, who have neither character nor individuality of their own, but who bend themselves to the will and adopt the opinions of others. Putting aside the imaginary attributes accorded to the Chameleon by the fancies of the ancients, and painting them such as they are, we still see in them animals most worthy of observation and highly interesting to the naturalist, as well for the singular formation of different parts of their bodies as for their remarkable habits, and even for peculiarities which have given some sanction to the errors and prejudices to which we have alluded. Chameleons have compressed bodies; the back round and projecting, or rather pyramidal; the skin granulated; the head angular, with salient occiput resting on a short and thick neck; their legs are slender; the hind, as well as the fore toes are five; the tail prehensile and round. The eyes are very large and protruding, their globes covered by a single shagreen-like eyelid, which the animal can dilate or contract at will, but which leaves little liberty to a small hole pierced at the centre, through which a quick and rather brilliant eye-ball is perceived. The eyes, in the Chameleon, are thus completely enveloped, as if they were too delicate to sustain any glaring light; but this is not all--their eyes have a singular mobility. By certain special muscular arrangements they have the power to direct them on objects either together or separate. Sometimes they turn their eyes in such a manner that one eye looks back and the other forward. With one eye they can see objects above them, while with the other they can see those situated below. It is a common saying in France, applied to the Chameleon, "that it could look into Champagne and see Picardy in flames." The vermiform and retractile tongue is also a most singular organ. It is cylindrical, about six inches long, terminating in a fleshy, dilatable, and somewhat tubular tip, which is covered with a glutinous secretion, by the aid of which it seizes its insect food, and draws it towards its mouth. The feet have five very long and almost equal strong and hooked claws, but the skin of the legs extends to the end of these toes, and unites them in a very peculiar manner. Not only is this skin attached to each of the toes, but it envelops them, and forms, as it were, two bundles,--the one of three fingers, and the other of two. From this structure one can anticipate the extreme difference which exists between the habits of Chameleons and those of Lizards. These two bundles of long toes are placed in such a manner as to enable them to seize the branches easily on which they love to perch; they can grasp these branches by holding on with one bundle of fingers before, and the other behind, in the same manner as Woodpeckers, Cuckoos, and Parrots. Chameleons are better able to preserve their equilibrium upon trees than upon the ground; consequently they are more often seen in those ærial domiciles. Besides, their long and strong prehensile tail serves them as a fifth limb. They swing themselves about like monkeys, grasping the small branches, and thus saving themselves from falling. Moreover, they are cautious, moving at all times very slowly when going from one branch to another. Walking becomes much more difficult for them when they rest upon a level surface--groping their way as they advance, placing their feet upon the earth, one after the other, with the greatest circumspection. They also steady themselves on the ground by the aid of their tail. In their walk they display a certain gravity which contrasts with their diminutive size and the agility which might be expected from them. Even when perched upon a tree their movements exhibit a slowness and deliberation that one would be inclined to say was affected. It is true that the arrangement of their eyes, and the rapid movements of their tongue, render personal activity superfluous in their search for food. They can see their prey and their enemies from a great distance, and in all directions. The latter they readily avoid. As to their prey, when about to seize it, the Chameleon rolls round its extraordinary eye-balls so as to bring them to bear on the devoted object. As soon as it arrives within range of the tongue, that organ is projected with unerring precision, returning into the mouth with the prey adhering to the viscous tip. This tongue they can extend to a length sometimes surpassing that of their body. The skin of the Chameleon does not adhere to the muscles everywhere; some spaces are left free, into which the air penetrates, causing the skin to heave and swell; this mechanism is voluntary, the animal having the power of inflating or relaxing it at pleasure. When this great living bladder is emptied, the animal may be said to resemble a bag of gold-beaters' skin filled with bones. Chameleons exhibit great variation in their colours; that is to say, they may be almost white, sometimes yellowish, at other times green, reddish, and even black, either in portions, or all over their bodies. These changes of colour were for a long time attributed to the greater or less distention of the vast lungs they possess, and to the corresponding modifications in the quantity of blood sent to the skin; but this explanation is now abandoned. According to Mr. Milne Edwards, the cause of these variations of colour lie in the peculiar structure of their skin, in which there exists two layers of membranous pigment, placed the one above the other, but disposed in such a manner as to appear simultaneously under the cuticle, and at other times so that the one hides the other. Again, occasionally the cuticle is hidden under the superficial pigment. [Sixteen or seventeen species of Chameleon are described in the British Museum Catalogue. I. Having an erect fin on the back, the belly crested; which includes the Fringed Chameleon, _C. cristatus_, a native of Fernando Po. II. Having the back high, and compressed belly and sides, with a toothed crest; including the Side-crested Chameleon, _C. laterales_, a native of Madagascar. III. The back and belly having a toothed crest, the sides simple, the scales small and equal, muzzle simple; including the Common Chameleon, _C. vulgaris_, with many synonyms. It is a native of the East Indies, is the recognised type of the family (Fig. 32), and the one most commonly brought to England. There are probably two varieties,--one from North Africa, which is also found in Sicily and the South of Spain; the other, the East Indian variety--_C. Senegalensis_, the Senegal Chameleon, a native of West Africa; _C. arpelis_, from Ashantee and Gaboon; _C. verrucosus_, a native of Bourbon and Madagascar; the Rhinoceros Chameleon, _C. rhinoceroceratus_, also from Madagascar. IV. Having a toothed crest on the back, with the belly and sides simple, the chin and muzzle simple; including _C. tuberculiferus_, a native of South Africa; _C. cucullatus_, the Hooded Chameleon, a native of Madagascar; _C. nasutus_, having the chin simple, and the muzzle compressed, and _C. bifurcus_, having the muzzle in the male forked--both natives of Madagascar; _C. Tigris_, Seychille Islands; _C. ventralis_, from South Africa, and _C. pumilus_, from the Cape of Good Hope. [Illustration: Fig. 32.--Chameleo vulgaris.] V. Having back and belly without crest; including _C. Parsonii_, a native of Madagascar; and _C. Owenii_, the Three-horned Chameleon, from Fernando Po, and _C. Brookesianus_, an adult species, from S. W. Brookes's collection. EMYDOSAURIANS Have the head large, covered with a thick skin, ears closed with two valves, gape very wide, tongue short, jaws with a single series of cone-shaped teeth inserted in sockets; back with a hard disc formed of a longitudinal series of square keeled plates of hard bony consistence embedded in the skin; the under surface covered with smooth thin square plates; legs short, feet webbed, with four to five toes, the three inner toes of each foot only armed with claws. They are divided into two groups:-- I. _Crocodilidæ_, having the lower canines fitting into a notch in the edge of the upper jaw. II. _Alligatoridæ_, having the canines fitting into a pit in the upper jaw.] CROCODILES. The Shielded Saurians, as Duméril designates the largest of living species of that order of reptiles, have the body depressed, elongated, and protected on the back with a solid carinated shield or buckler; the tail longer than the trunk, compressed laterally, annulated and crested above; having four very short feet; the toes of the posterior feet united, or web-footed, each foot having three claws only; head depressed and elongated into a muzzle; the gape of the mouth extending back beyond the skull; tongue fleshy, adherent; teeth conical, simple, hollowed at the base or towards the root, unequal in length, and in a single row. Such is a brief summary of the family by Duméril and Bibron. If the Eagle is the king of the air, the Tiger and the Lion the tyrants of the forests, and the Whale the monarch of the deep, the Crocodile has for the exercise of his undisputed control the maritime shores of tropical seas and the borders of tropical rivers. Living on the confines of land and water, this formidable reptile is at all times the scourge of those human beings who are compelled to reside near its haunts. Much larger than the Tiger, Lion, or Eagle, the Crocodile surpasses all terrestrial animals, with the exception of the Elephant, Hippopotamus, and some Serpents, in its power of destruction. Crocodiles have the head depressed and elongated into a muzzle, in the front of which the nostrils are seen close to a fleshy tubercule, and furnished with movable valves. The mouth opens up to the ears; the jaws are of commensurate length, and are armed, as we have seen, with conical-pointed teeth, bent back, and disposed in such a manner that when the mouth is closed they pass one under the other. These teeth are implanted in a single row, and continually maintained in a good condition by an organic system which ensures their immediate reparation. In short, each tooth is hollowed at the base in such a manner as to form the cell or sheath of another tooth of a larger calibre. The new tooth, which presses on, exercises a sort of absorption upon the base of the old hollow tooth, so that the first is developed while the second is decaying. In some species the front teeth of the lower jaw are so long and sharp that they perforate the edge of the upper jaw and appear above the muzzle when the mouth is closed. The lower jaw alone is movable, and that only in a downward movement. The mouth is without lips, consequently, whether walking or swimming, the teeth of Crocodiles are always visible. This formidable conformation gives to the Crocodile an aspect at once terrible and alarming, which is increased by two wicked-looking eyes placed obliquely and close together, surmounted by a kind of eyebrow. The tail of these animals is very long, as thick as the body at the junction, and in shape it is flat, like an oar; this enables them to steer through the water like a fish, and to swim with rapidity. They have four short legs, of which the hinder have toes, united by a natatory membrane, and only three claws to each foot. The skin is coriaceous, thick, and resistant; being also protected by very thick knots intermingled with plates of different size, according to the parts of the body they protect. On the skull and face the skin adheres closely to the bone, and there is no trace of scales. Nature has provided for the safety of these animals by covering them with a cuirass, the resistance of which is proof against almost everything. Thus the scales which defend the back and the upper part of the tail are square, and form hard transversal bands possessed of great flexibility, which prevents them from breaking. Down the centre of the back there is a hard crest, which adds to the strength of their armour. This cuirass is in many points proof against a bullet from a gun. The plates which cover the belly, the upper part of the head, neck, tail, and legs are also arranged in transversal bands, but less hard, and without crests. It is at these weaker and consequently vulnerable parts that those inhabitants of the waters which are enemies to Crocodiles manage to attack them successfully. The general colour of the Crocodile is a dullish brown, with sometimes a shade of green along the back; the head and the sides are marked with green, or at least they have a greenish tint, with blackish spots; the under part of the legs and belly are of a yellowish grey. All these shades, however, vary with age and sex, and the nature of the water in which the animals live. Crocodiles are oviparous, and their eggs are provided with resistant shells. These eggs are deposited by the female in some secluded place in the sand on the banks of the river, and are hatched simply by the ambient heat, without any assistance from the mother. The female Crocodiles of the Nile deposit their eggs where the solar heat soon brings them to maturity. In certain countries, such as the neighbourhood of Cayenne and Surinam, the eggs are buried under a kind of mound which the Alligators raise in damp places by gathering together leaves and herbaceous stems. This vegetable debris undergoes a kind of fermentation, the result of which is an increase of temperature, which, joined to that of the atmosphere, produces the desired result. Lacépède describes an egg in the Museum of Natural History in Paris, which was laid by a Crocodile fourteen feet in length, which was killed in Upper Egypt. This egg is only two inches and five lines in its greatest diameter; in its least diameter it is one inch and eleven lines. It is oval and whitish. Its shell is cretaceous in substance, like the eggs of birds, but not so hard. At the time of their birth the little Crocodiles are only about six inches in length, but their growth is very rapid. They abound in large rivers in the tropics, and in marshy places near their banks. They often come on shore, for they are amphibious. In the night they watch for their prey. They feed exclusively on flesh--that is to say on fish, small Mammalians, aquatic birds, and reptiles. When they have seized a large object they drag it under the water, where it soon dies by asphyxia; there they leave it to macerate, when they eat it by instalments. In this manner men are sometimes carried away by Crocodiles, but it is contrary to the habits of the animal to suppose that they are devoured immediately. When a Crocodile has succeeded in seizing a negro, it does not devour him till the body becomes decomposed, when it can tear it to pieces with greater facility. From the general structure of their bony framework it is difficult for Crocodiles to turn round or move otherwise than forward. This circumstance renders it easy to escape their pursuit. When chased by a Crocodile, it can be avoided by describing a circle, or running in a succession of curves. Upon the banks of the Lake of Nicaragua, in America, an Englishman was once pursued by an Alligator which had surprised him when on its margin. The animal was gaining upon him rapidly, when some Spaniards who witnessed the scene cried out to him to run round it. Thus fortunately warned the pursued dodged the Alligator, and escaped from his dangerous enemy (Fig. 33). [Illustration: Fig. 33.--The Englishman and the Caiman, or the Circular Flight.] [No specimens of the _Crocodilidæ_ have been found in Europe, and until very recently none had been found in Australia, but they are very common in the new colony of Queensland, an Alligator twenty feet long having been shot on the banks of the Mackenzie river, which was afterwards exhibited at Rockhampton. Crocodiles, properly so called, are found in Africa, Asia, and America. The Gavials seem to be limited to the Ganges and other large rivers in India. Besides the Gavial, Asia produces three other species, namely, _C. vulgaris_, _C. galeatus_, and _C. bifurcatus_. Of the first, Siam is the chief locality; the others are found in the rivers which debouch into the Indian Ocean and the Ganges. THE ALLIGATORIDÆ Include the _Jacares_, _Alligators_, and _Caimans_. The _Jacares_ have the head oblong and depressed, with a ridge across the face in front of the eyes; teeth unequal, canines of the lower jaw fitting into a pit in the upper jaw; toes only partially webbed, eyelids fleshy, nostrils separated by a cartilage. Five species are described--namely, _J. fissipes_, from Tropical America, six feet in length; _J. sclerops_, from the Brazils; _J. Nigra_, also from the Brazils; _J. punctulatus_, with triangular oblong head, muzzle elongated, thin and flat, with a rounded point in front, and a slight enlargement behind the nostrils; _J. vallefrons_, differing slightly from the above--both natives of the Brazils. _Alligators_ have the jaws oblong, much depressed, broad and nearly parallel; forehead with a small longitudinal ridge between the orbits; feet fringed, toes half webbed, the outer toes free; nostrils separated by a bony septum rising from the upper edge, muzzle lengthening with age. One species only is known, which is a native of North America; it attains a length of six to seven feet, and is known also as _Crocodilus Mississipensis_. The _Caimans_ have the jaws oblong, depressed, rounded, and swollen at the end, without frontal ridges or maxillary pits; teeth unequal, the lower canines fitting into pits in the upper jaw; toes webbed. There are three species described--_C. trigonatus_, _C. palpebrosus_, and _C. goddeceps_, all natives of Tropical America. The Jacares, Alligators, and Caimans are natives of America, which country is fruitful in other species of the family. _C. acutus_ is also found in Martinique and San Domingo; _C. rhombifor_, at Cuba; _A. palpebrosus_, _A. sclerops_, _A. punctulatus_, and _A. cynocephalus_ are natives of the southern part of the American Continent; and _A. lucius_ is found in the north.] The principal characteristics of the American Crocodile are a head one-third its length, and a very short muzzle; teeth unequal in shape and size, the fourth lower tooth being buried in the upper jaw when the mouth is closed; the first teeth of the lower jaw piercing the upper at a certain age, so as to appear through the muzzle when closed. The hinder legs and feet rounded, having neither crest nor indentation on their edges; the intervals of the toes more than half covered with a short membrane, forming semi-palmated feet. It is generally admitted, as we have stated above, that there are five species of this genera, all exclusively American, the type of which is the Alligator, or _Caiman_. _A. Mississipensis_ (Gray) belongs properly to North America, through the whole southern extent of which it is found. They are gregarious, living together in large herds in the Mississippi and its southern tributaries; they are also found in the lakes and marshes of Louisiana, Carolina, and even as far north as thirty degrees of north latitude. Alligators do not appear to leave fresh water. During the winter season they bury themselves in the mud of the marshes, and await in a state of torpor the return of spring, which is the signal of their restoration to activity. In the neighbourhood of Bayou Sarah, on the Mississippi, flats of lakes and marshes stretch away to a vast extent on either bank; every year these reservoirs are flooded by the overflow of the river, when they are visited by myriads of fishes. The heat soon partly dries up these lakes, leaving only about two feet deep of water, thus displaying a vast amount of prey ready prepared for the shore birds and Crocodiles. Millions of ibis, herons, cranes, and cormorants wade into the water in pursuit of these fish. In the deepest portions vast quantities of these imprisoned fish accumulate, and these parts are known in the country as the Alligators' holes. Thither these reptiles crowd, pressing one against the other, and they soon thoroughly clear it of the fish which lately were in such dense crowds. As evaporation proceeds and the marshes gradually dry up, the fish are more and more exposed to their voracious enemies. The Alligators pursue and devour them in the water, whilst the ibis destroys those which seek the banks for refuge. Alligators fish chiefly during the night. In the hours of darkness and obscurity they assemble in large herds, chase the fish before them, driving them into some retired creek, where they rejoice their hearts at the expense of the unfortunate finny tribes, which they force into their widely opened mouths by a lateral movement of their tails. On these occasions the clashing of their jaws may be heard at the distance of a mile. Alligators are found by thousands in Mexican waters, and nearly all North American rivers to the south of them. In the beautiful transparent waters of Lake Claro they abound, and are without difficulty seen by the naked human eye. Here they are so closely pressed one against the other that they resemble a raft of trees recently felled, and the resemblance is further increased by the colour of their backs and the bark of a newly-felled tree being identical. In this united and immovable condition, while waiting for their prey, the approach of a boat is disregarded; but they rush with avidity at everything animate which either falls or is thrown into the lake. Many children of poor negro women become a prey to the Caiman in this locality. They rarely, however, pursue men, yet they would not hesitate to devour them if their imprudence has placed them close to their terrible jaws. The natives of Mexico hunt the Caiman. When they meet an isolated individual asleep, they throw a lasso round its body, and when secured, gag it. After this operation, the victim's career is terminated by hammering on his head. There is another means which the Indians use to capture the Caiman. They provide themselves with four pieces of hard wood about a foot long, and as thick as a man's finger, and pointed at each end; round these they tie a cord in such a manner that, supposing the cord to be an arrow, the four sticks would form the head of it. They then fasten the other end of the cord round a tree, and bait with meat. This device is thrown into the water. When the Caiman snaps at the prey the points of the hook, on straining on the line, penetrate into its flesh. Having waited till the Alligator is dead, it is drawn from the water, when the captors further gratify their dislike and spirit of revenge by breaking its skull with stones and sticks. Another method of capturing Alligators is practised by the residents on the upper waters of the giant river Orinoco. A tree is bent (generally a bamboo is selected from its elasticity) till the top is brought down to the butt, a bait is then placed on a sharp hook, the line attached to it being fastened securely to the small end of the bent tree, which is caused to relax its position by an ingenious piece of mechanism which gives way the moment the least strain is felt upon the line; the tree-point becoming thus released, straightens itself with great velocity, and drags the victim from the water. Frequently the Alligator, from constant pursuit and interruption, becomes excessively wary and difficult to destroy; when such is the case, a live bait is sometimes successfully employed. For instance, a Dog with a hook tied to his back is taken in a canoe and dropped in the water; it is seldom the unfortunate cur is permitted to swim far before being seized. It is currently believed that the Alligator prefers dog-flesh to all others. The negroes on the plantations in the South-Western States of America, by imitating the barking of a dog, frequently lure these reptiles from their hiding-places, when a well-directed bullet terminates their career. Alligators are very voracious, but, like Serpents and Turtles, they can live a long time without nourishment. In Brown's "Natural History of Jamaica," he asserts that he has known the Caiman to live several months without food. The following experiments have been tried in that island:--The mouth of an Alligator was muzzled by a strong cord, it was then thrown into a reservoir of water. Thus these animals lived a considerable time. They were seen to rise occasionally to the surface of the water, until death came to their rescue. Let us add to this, that Crocodiles bred in captivity in the menagerie of the Museum of Natural History, at Paris, sometimes live for several months without eating. [Illustration: Fig. 34.--Alligator (_Crocodilus lucius_).] The female Alligator takes more care of her young than the female Crocodile, properly so called. She conducts them to the water, and in the slimy mud she disgorges her half-digested food for their nourishment. The TRUE CROCODILES are indigenous to Africa, but they are found also in Manilla and India. Their length of head is almost double its breadth. The fourth tooth of the lower jaw is the longest and largest of all, and passes into an indentation hollowed out in the edge of the upper jaw, becoming visible on the outside. The hind feet have on their external edge a dentated crest, and the interstices of their toes, externally, are palmated. The principal type is the Common Crocodile, _C. vulgaris_, which sometimes attains the length of nine or ten feet. The upper part of the body of these reptiles is of an olive green colour spotted with black, and marbled upon the head and neck with the same colour, also the back and tail; two or three broad, oblique black bands are visible upon the flanks of the under part of the body, which is of a yellowish green. Crocodiles abound in Africa. Formerly they were found in all parts of the Nile, but lately it is said that _C. vulgaris_ is no longer to be met with in the Delta, but that it exists in great numbers in the Thebaid and in the Upper Nile. They are also found in the rivers Senegal and Niger, in Caffraria, and in Madagascar. Most authors give them the name of Crocodiles of the Nile. This species are found also in India. The Crocodile was considered a sacred animal by the ancient Egyptians. In ruins of temples mummies of Crocodiles are still found in a perfect state of preservation. The Romans introduced living Crocodiles at the national games in the Colosseum. At first only five were imported under the ædileship of Scaurus. Under the Emperor Augustus thirty-six were killed in the Circus of Flaminius. Several ancient medals represent this reptile, the body of which perfectly resembles that which now lives in the waters and on the banks of the Nile. There is a truly wonderful fact in the natural history of the Crocodile. Listen to what Herodotus, the father of history, tells us with regard to it:--"When the Crocodile takes his food in the Nile, the interior of its mouth is always covered with _bdella_ (flies). All birds, with one single exception, flee from the Crocodile; but this one, the Nile Bird, _Trochylus_, far from avoiding it, flies towards the reptile with the greatest eagerness, and renders it a very essential service. Every time the Crocodile goes on shore to sleep, and at the moment when it lies extended with open jaws, the Nile Bird enters the mouth of the terrible animal and delivers it from the _bdella_ which it finds there; the Crocodile shows its recognition of the service, and never harms the bird." This fact, reported by Herodotus, was long considered to be a fable, but the naturalist, Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, who formed part of the commission that General Bonaparte took with him in his expedition into Egypt, had on several occasions opportunities of proving the truth of the historian's narrative. In a memoir read to the Academy of Science on the 28th of January, 1828, he says, "It is perfectly true that there exists a little bird which flies about, perpetually seeking, even in the mouth of the Crocodile, the insects which form the principal part of its nourishment." This bird, which Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire recognised as the _Charadrius Ægyptius_ of ornithologists, is like a Plover. The _bdella_, which thus torment the Crocodiles, and even excite them to madness, are no other than our European gnats. Myriads of these insects haunt the banks of the Nile, and when these giants of its waters repose on its margin, warming themselves in the sun, they become the prey of these insignificant pigmies. It is like the war between the Lion and the Mouse, described by La Fontaine. The _bdella_ fly into the Crocodiles' mouths in such numbers that they cover the entire surface of the palate, and form a brownish crust. These little pests pierce the tongues of the reptiles with their stings. It is then that this bird comes into the mouth of the monster to catch them, and deliver it from such innumerable enemies. The Crocodile with one bite could easily destroy the bird, but he knows too well what he owes to this friend to do it an injury. Crocodiles of the Nile are more voracious than the American Alligators. Hasselquist asserts that in Upper Egypt they often devour women who come to draw water from the Nile, as well as children playing upon its banks. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire says, that in the Thebaid they often met with Arabs wanting an arm or leg, who accused Crocodiles of this mutilation. Sir Samuel Baker also mentions, in his late work on the Nile and its tributaries, the desire of these amphibia for human flesh, and the dread they are held in by the natives. Livingstone, the celebrated traveller, gives the following account of an encounter he had with one of these ferocious animals:-- "The Crocodile," says the celebrated traveller, "makes many victims every year among the children who are so imprudent as to play on the banks of the Liambia when their mothers go to fetch water. The Crocodile stupefies its victim with a blow from its tail, then drags it into the river, where it is soon drowned. In general, when the Crocodile perceives a Man it dives, and furtively glides away from the side which he occupies. Sometimes, on the other hand, it precipitates itself with surprising agility towards the person it has discovered, which may be noticed from the disturbance caused on the surface of the water. An Antelope which is being hunted and takes to the water, in the lagunes of the Barotsé valley, a Man or a Dog who goes there to seek for game, will scarcely fail to be seized by a Crocodile, of whose presence he has not the slightest suspicion. It often happens that, after having danced in the moonlight, the young natives of the river's bank will often plunge into the water in order to refresh themselves, when, being seized by an Alligator, they perish." [This mode of attack (striking with the tail) is also one of the methods adopted by the Alligator of America for disabling its prey. A friend, on whose veracity I have much dependence, while shooting wild fowl on one of the tributaries of the Lower Mississippi, had the fortune to witness a fight between a Bear and an Alligator. He was called to the scene of the struggle by the noise made by the combatants, in the dry cane, that yielded to their pressure as they fought in each other's embrace. Several times both ceased only to recover breath and fresh energy; at length the Alligator missed striking the foe with its tail, Bruin seized the opportunity, and with all his efforts succeeded in turning the amphibian on its back, where he held him for some minutes, at the same time gnawing one of the fore-shoulders. A final struggle of the now worsted Alligator hurled both into the water, where they disappeared, the disturbed surface telling of the dreadful contest that was being prolonged beneath; after the lapse of over a minute the Bear came up, evidently much fatigued, and swam ashore, my friend forbearing to wound, or possibly kill, the gallant conqueror.] Crocodiles, it is said, which have never eaten human flesh, are much less dangerous than those that have acquired a taste for it. Mr. Combes states that he was assured by an inhabitant of Khartoum, who had reached the town with the Egyptian troops--that is to say, before the horrors committed by the Desterdar, acting with Mehemet Bey, who had been Governor of the Soudan some time before Mr. Combes's voyage--that the Crocodiles appeared to be quite indifferent to human flesh; but after the many executions by drowning ordered by Mehemet Bey, as he was told by a native whom he interrogated--"since the Nile has been loaded with the carcasses of my brethren"--the monsters which inhabit it have become habituated to substantial food, which they scarcely knew before: so that afterwards those swimming in the river, or even bathing on its banks, were exposed to imminent danger. Natives of Africa shoot the Crocodile with a gun, or attack it with a barbed javelin, which is thrown by hand, and aimed at the fore-shoulder. Some Egyptians are reported to be daring enough to swim under the Crocodile, and pierce him in the belly with a dagger. The negroes of Senegal are said to be equally expert. If they surprise the animals in parts of the river where there is not sufficient water for them to swim, they attack the monster with a lance; and with their left arm wrapped in a sheet of leather, they commence by aiming with their weapon at the eyes and throat; then they thrust the arm, encased in leather, into its mouth, and, holding it open, their enemy is either suffocated or expires under the wounds received. Traps are also employed successfully for their destruction. In Egypt the natives dig a deep hole in the ordinary route of the Crocodiles, which is easily discovered by the trail they leave in the sand. This hole is covered with branches and strewed with earth. The Crocodile is now alarmed with loud cries, which disturb and drive him back to the river, by the same way that it has left it. As it passes over the treacherous hole it falls in, when it is killed, often with the most brutal cruelty. At other times a thick cord is attached to a large tree, and to the other end of the cord a lamb is bound, held by a protruding hook. The cries of the lamb attract the Crocodile, which, in its attempt to carry off the bait, is taken by the hook. Still another method for the destruction of these repulsive-looking creatures has been adopted on one or two occasions by our countrymen in India. A dead animal is procured, in its abdomen is placed a loaded shell, to which is attached a wire made fast to an electric battery; when the bait has been seized and carried to the bottom, the shell is exploded, which invariably maims or kills the Crocodile. The _Gavials_, or Indian Crocodiles, have long narrow cylindrical muzzles, slightly inflated at the extremity; the teeth are almost the same, both in number and shape, on each jaw, the two first and the fourth of the lower jaw pass into notches or indentations in the upper jaw, and not into holes, as in Crocodiles; the hind legs are dentated and palmated, like those of African Crocodiles. The Gavials are chiefly remarkable for their long head, its type being the _Gavial of the Ganges_, or _Gavial longirostre_. It is of a deep watery green colour, having on the upper part numerous irregular brown spots; in the young, the back and limbs are transversely banded with black; the lower part is of a pale whitish yellow; the jaws are marked with brown, the claws are of a clear horn colour. This species is not so carnivorous as the others, and is consequently less dreaded. The Gavial of the Ganges, _G. Gangeticus_, is supposed to be the largest of the existing Saurians; its length, as given by Duméril, is seventeen feet four inches. CHAPTER IV. CHELONIANS, OR SHIELDED REPTILES. ["The body," as described by Dr. Gray, "is covered with square imbedded plates, generally forming a dorsal and ventral shield united by their margins, leaving only the head, neck, limbs, and tail free, and (in some species, as the Box-Tortoises, _Cinasternon_, shut up by movable closely-fitting doors) only covered with a scaly skin; the upper shield formed of the ribs united together and adherent to the dorsal vertebræ by a toothed suture, and surrounded by a series of bones forming the edge of the shields; the lower shield, or sternum, formed of four pairs and a central anterior bone; the jaws toothless, covered with a horny bill, rarely hid by fleshy lips; eyelids distinct; drum of the ear visible; legs short and thick; tail conical." "The natural dwelling chamber of the Chelonia consists chiefly," says Professor Owen, "and in the marine species (_Chelone_) and Mud Turtles (_Trionyx_) solely, of the floor and the roof; side-walls of variable extent are added to the fresh-water species (_Emydians_) and Land Tortoises (_Testudinians_). The whole consists of 'osseous plates,' with superincumbent horny plates, or 'scutes,' except in the Soft or Mud Turtles (_Trionyx_ and _Sphargis_), in both of which these are wanting."--("Circle of the Sciences.") These animals, to which a portable stronghold is thus given in compensation for inferior powers of locomotion and defence, are recognisable at a glance from the singular armour with which Nature has provided them. A double shield envelopes all parts of their bodies, only permitting the head, neck, legs, and tail to pass through it: moreover, all these organs can be hidden within this double cuirass by means of a retractile power possessed by the animal. This double armour consists of a _carapace_, or back-piece, and _plastron_, or breast-plate, composed of a series of small bones or plates closely united together; the first resulting from the union of the sides and dorsal vertebræ, the plastron, or lower buckler, being only a highly-developed sternum. These organs are merely portions of the skeleton, which, in place of being lodged in the depths of the soft parts, has become the superficies, which is only covered by a thin, dry skin. This numerous and highly-interesting order of Reptiles, called Chelonia, from +chelônê+, a Tortoise, are also called _Testudinata_, from _testudo_, the Latin name for a Tortoise, from the double shield in which the bodies of all, whether terrestrial, fresh-water, or marine Tortoises, are enclosed. The skeleton of the Tortoise is, perhaps, the most extraordinary structure with which we are acquainted. This oddly-organised animal when first seen strikes the beholder with astonishment. The carapace and plastron, with their connecting plates, form a sort of protecting box, in which the animal lives, its head and tail excepted. In the land Turtles the head and feet, which are comparatively senseless, can be withdrawn within the protecting armour. The ribs and sternum are both placed quite on the exterior of the body, so as to form a broad dorsal shield on the upper surface, and an equally strong ventral plate; between these, the limbs and the head can be more or less completely retracted. Nevertheless, the modifications in the arrangement of the elements by which these changes are accomplished are of the simplest nature. In the common Tortoise, _Emys Europæus_, the vertebræ of the neck and tail being connected together in the ordinary manner, the neck and caudal region of the spine present their usual flexibility, but the dorsal vertebræ are strangely distorted, the upper arch being disproportionately developed, while the bodies remain almost in a rudimentary state; the spinous processes of these vertebræ are flattened and converted into broad osseous plates, which form a longitudinal series along the centre of the back, and connected together by means of sutures. The ribs are changed into broad flat bones firmly united by sutures to each other, and also to the lateral margins of the spinous processes of the vertebræ, so that they form together a single broad plate; the heads of the ribs are feebly developed, and the intervals between them and the bodies of the vertebræ filled up with ligament. The margin of the shield thus formed by the dorsal ribs is further enlarged by a third set of flat bones fixed by sutures around the whole circumference of the carapace. The plastron, or ventral plate, is made up of nine pieces, of which eight are arranged in pairs; but the ninth, which is always placed between the four pieces composing the two anterior pairs, is single, and occupies the mesial line. The bones of the shoulder and hip are placed within the thorax, and articulated to the sides of the vertebral column. Of this vertebral column in these extraordinary animals, Professor Owen remarks that the manifold modifications of the framework which render it a portable abode, appear to have been given as a compensation for inferior powers of locomotion, and the absence of offensive weapons. But with all its modifications, the same number of pieces are found in the bony skeleton as in other ordinary vertebratæ, the form and volume of many of these pieces being alone changed. The skin which covers the body of these animals sometimes preserves its softness, being altogether devoid of scales; but in nearly all the species it is covered with horny scales of great consistency. Upon the plastron and carapace these scales form large plates, the arrangements and appearances of which vary in different species, some of them being often remarkably beautiful. The material which bears the name of Tortoise-shell forms an important article of commerce. * * * * * Aristotle mentions three groups of Tortoises; namely, +chelôêchersaia+, or Land Tortoises; +thalattia+, or Sea Tortoises; and +Eôhus+, or Fresh-water Tortoises. Cuvier divides them into five sub-genera:--1, Land Tortoises, _Testudo_ (Brogniart); 2, Fresh-water Tortoises, _Emydes_ (Brogniart); 3, Marine Tortoises, _Chelque_ (Cuvier); 4, Chelydes, _Testudo fimbriata_; 5, Soft Tortoises, _Trionyx_ (Geoffrey)--in which he is followed by Dr. Gray in the British Museum Catalogue, who makes them the third order of Reptiles in his arrangement as follows:-- I. TESTUDINIDÆ. Testudo, Chersina, Kinixys, Pyxis. II. EMYDIDÆ. Geoemyda, Emys, Cyclemys, Malaclemys, Cistudo, Kinosternon, Chelydra, Platysternum. III. CHELYDIDÆ. Sternotherus, Pelomedusa, Hydraspis, Chelymys, Phrynops, Chelodina, Hydromedusa, Chelys, Peltocephalus, Padocnemis. IV. TRIONYCIDÆ. Trionyx, Emyda. V. CHELONIADÆ. Sphargis, Chelonia, Caretta, Casuana. In the valuable "Erpétologie" of Messrs. Duméril and Bibron, the Chelonians are divided into--1, Land Tortoises, _Chersites_; 2, Marsh Tortoises, _Elodites_; 3, River Tortoises, _Potamites_; 4, Sea Tortoises, or Turtles, _Thalassites_. This arrangement being the most simple, is adopted as best adapted to our purpose.] LAND TORTOISES. Terrestrial Tortoises are distinguished by their short, oval, and convex bodies, covered by carapace and plastron; four feet, and the absence of teeth; short, stumpy, unshapely legs; nearly equal toes, armed with claws, united by a thick skin, so as to form a clumsy foot, the periphery of which forms a sort of hoof, which seems adapted for the land. In this group the carapace is very convex, its height sometimes exceeding its breadth; it forms a solid, generally an immovable, arch, under which the animal can completely conceal its feet and tail. This _buckler_ is covered with large horny plates or scales. Land Tortoises have been known from the earliest times, representations of them being found on numerous monuments of antiquity, the product of ancient art. Moreover, ancient writers tell us that the carapace of the Tortoise contributed its substance to the formation of the first lyre; it was consequently sacred to Mercury as the deity of music and inventor of that instrument. The Land Tortoises are divided into four genera, which Duméril and Bibron again divide into three sub-genera and thirty species. The most interesting species, however, to which we must limit our remarks are--the Marginate Tortoise, _Testudo marginato_; the Moorish Tortoise, _Testudo Mauritianica_; the Greek Tortoise, _Testudo Græca_; and the Elephantine Tortoise, _Testudo elephantina_. [Illustration: Fig. 35.--Testudo Mauritianica.] The Margined Tortoise, which was long confounded with the Greek Tortoise, is found abundantly throughout the Morea, in Egypt, and upon the Barbary coasts. The carapace is oval in form, oblong, convex, and much dilated at the posterior margin, and nearly horizontal; the plastron is movable behind, which is its chief sub-generic character; the tail is thick, conical, and scarcely issues from the carapace. The plates of the disc are of a blackish-brown, presenting towards the centre certain spots of a beautiful yellow colour; the marginal plates are habitually ornamented with two triangular spots, one yellow, the other black. The underpart of the body is of a dirty yellow, with one large triangular black spot upon six or eight of the sternal scales. This Tortoise is of medium size. The Moorish Tortoise, _Testudo Mauritianica_, is commonly found in the neighbourhood of Algiers, and along the coast of Morocco, whence those are sent which are sold in the Paris markets. When shooting in Morocco, scarcely a day would pass without the setters or pointers finding numbers of them, to which they would stand with as much staunchness as game. The scent they emit is so powerful as to be easily detected by a human being. The carapace of this species is also convex; the sternum is also movable behind: it is generally olive-coloured. The plates of the disc are marked with blackish spots, and sometimes with a buckle of the same colour, which covers their circumference on the front and sides. The plates of the plastron, the ground of which is olive, have each a large black spot in the centre. This species is rather smaller than the Marginate Tortoise. The Greek Tortoise, _Testudo Græca_, is of small dimensions, scarcely exceeding twelve inches in length. They inhabit Greece, Italy, some of the Mediterranean isles, and the south of France, from whence it seems to have been transplanted into Italy. They feed upon herbs, roots, slugs, and lob-worms. Like all their race, they sleep during the winter, passing this season in holes which they excavate in the soil sometimes more than thirty inches deep. As the month of May approaches they issue from their retreat, resorting to some sheltered sandy place, where they bask themselves in the sun's rays. Towards the month of June the females lay from twelve to fourteen white spherical eggs, as large as a small walnut; they dispose these eggs in a hole exposed to the sun; but covered over with earth. Thus the operation of hatching is performed. The carapace of this species is oval and very much arched; their marginal plates are twenty-five in number; the plastron, which is almost as long as the carapace, is separated into two great portions by a longitudinal line; the plates of the carapace are spotted with black and greenish yellow, forming a large marbled pattern; the centre of the disc is besides relieved by a small, irregular, blackish, central spot. These three species are held in high estimation on account of their flesh, which gives an agreeable taste to soup. The Elephantine Tortoise, _Testudo elephantina_, the length of which is more than three feet, inhabits most of the islands situated in the Mozambique Channel--namely, between the eastern coast of Africa and the Isle of Madagascar. The Museum of Natural History at Paris had specimens of this Tortoise which lived more than twelve months, and which weighed about six hundred pounds. Their flesh is extremely delicate, and much sought after. In some other Terrestrial Tortoises, from which the genus _Pyxis_ has been formed, the anterior portion of the plastron is movable; and when the head and feet are drawn in, the animal can fasten itself against the sides of the carapace like a door in its case. In some Terrestrial Tortoises, which have been formed into particular genera, the carapace is flexible, and can lower itself behind like the plastron; these are _Kinixys_. Lastly, there are others which, for legs, have only four unguiculated toes: such as the _Homopodes_. MARSH TORTOISES. Marsh Tortoises, _Elodites_, occupy a place between Terrestrial Tortoises and those which are essentially aquatic. They have the carapace more or less depressed, oval, and broader behind; their feet have distinct flexible toes supplied with hooked claws, of which the phalanges are united at the base by means of an elastic skin, which enables them to separate one from the other, at the same time preserving their strength and assisting them to grasp a much larger surface. Thus they can walk upon the ground, swim on the surface of deep waters, and climb up the banks of lakes or other tranquil waters, which are their habitual dwelling-places. These Tortoises are generally of small size; being carnivorous, they feed upon small living animals. As they exhale a nauseous odour they are not used as an article of food; and further, as their carapace is neither thick enough nor beautiful enough to be manufactured as tortoise-shell, they are consequently little sought after. There are a hundred species of Elodians, or Marsh Tortoises, known, which are spread over all parts of the globe, but principally in warm and temperate regions. Such are the _Cistudo_, _Emydes_, and _Trionyx_. The Elodians have none of the sluggishness of the Land Tortoises; they swim with facility, and on land they walk with considerable rapidity. Their eggs are white, and nearly spherical, with a calcareous shell, and these are deposited in a hollow dug in the soil or sand, like the Land Tortoises, the place chosen being generally situated on the banks of some secluded stream; the number of eggs increasing as the animal approaches maturity. The Elodians are divided into _Cryptoderes_ and _Pleuroderes_: the former distinguished from the latter by the retractile power they possess of concealing their cylindrical neck, with its sheath of loose skin, under the middle of the carapace; the head, whose width is nearly equal to its height at the occiput; the eyes always lateral, and their orbit so large that the diameter of the cavity nearly equals a fourth of the whole cranium; and the jaws, which are strong, sometimes trenchant, in others are dentated on the edge. In the larger number of species the anterior extremity of the upper beak is notched with a strong tooth on each side, producing the appearance of a beak closely resembling that of birds of prey. [Illustration: Fig. 36.--Mud Tortoise (_Cistudo Europæa_).] The Mud Tortoises, _Cistudo_, sometimes called the Yellow Tortoise (Fig. 36) are very abundant in Europe. They are found in Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and in the southern provinces of France; also in Hungary, Germany, and as far north as Prussia. They inhabit lakes, marshes, and ponds, at the bottom of which they bury themselves in the mud. Occasionally they come to the surface of the water, and remain there for hours. They live principally upon insects, mollusks, aquatic worms, and small fishes. Although the flesh of the Mud Tortoise is far from being palatable, it is nevertheless eaten in countries where they are common. [Illustration: Fig. 37.--Emydes Caspica.] [Illustration: Fig. 38.--Chelys matamata.] The _Emydes_ are divided into four considerable groups, namely, the European group, of which Fig. 37, _E. Caspica_, is typical; the American group, containing twelve or fourteen species; the African _Emys_; and the Oriental group of twelve species. The _Pleuroderes_ have the neck retractile on one side of the carapace, without their having the power of drawing it between their fore feet, and under the buckler and plastron, like the _Cryptoderes_. _Chelys matamata_ (Fig. 38) belongs to this division. This species lives in stagnant water, and is altogether remarkable for its singular appearance--for its depressed, wide, and triangular nostrils, prolonged into a proboscis; its wide gape, rounded jaws, and the cutaneous appendages to the chin. This is sometimes called the Bearded Tortoise. POTAMIANS, OR RIVER TORTOISES. The River Tortoises live constantly in the water, only coming to land occasionally; they swim with much ease below and on the surface. The carapace is very broad and flat; the toes united up to the claws by broad flexible membranes. These membranes change the feet into true paddles, which perform the office of oars. They seem to attain a considerable size, one kept by Pennant for three months weighing twenty pounds, its buckler not reckoned; the neck measuring twenty inches in length. The upper parts of their bodies vary in tint from brown to grey, with irregularly marbled, dotted, or ocellated spots; the underpart is a pale white, rosy, or purple tint. Sinuous brown, black, or yellow lines are symmetrically disposed on the right and left, principally on the neck and on the limbs. During the night, when they think themselves safe, the River Tortoises seek repose on the rocks and islets, or on timber floating in the rivers, from which they plunge into the water on the slightest noise. These Tortoises, which accommodate themselves so perfectly to the medium that they inhabit, are continually at war with the fishes, reptiles, mollusks, and other denizens of the rivers. They are voracious and active, and are relentless enemies to the young of fishes, and especially of Crocodiles. The carapace of the River Tortoise, _Trionyx_, is soft, covered with a flexible cartilaginous skin resting on a greatly-depressed osseous disk; its upper surface is covered with shrivelled sinuosities. As they are destitute of scales these Tortoises are said to be soft; their flesh is much esteemed, and they are angled for with hook and line, baited with small fishes or living worms and mollusks, or with dead bait, to which the sportsman gives motion and apparent life, for they are said never to approach dead prey. When they seize their victim, or defend themselves, they dart out their head and long neck with great rapidity, biting sharply with their trenchant beak, and holding on till they have bitten out the piece. From this peculiarity they are commonly known in the United States as the Snapping Turtle. Persons wading have been known to lose toes from their bite. [Illustration: Fig. 39.--Trionyx Ægyptiacus.] M. Lesueur states that towards the beginning of May the females of _Gymnopus spinifera_, belonging to this division, seek out sunny sandy spots on the river's bank for the deposit of their eggs; they are not deterred from choosing steeps of ten or fifteen feet for this purpose. Their eggs are spherical, and more fragile than those of the Marsh Tortoise. They deposit from fifty to sixty at a time. None of this group are found in Europe. The fresh-water lakes and rivers of the warmer regions, such as the Nile and the Niger, in Africa, the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the Amazon rivers, in America, the Euphrates and the Ganges, in Asia, are its habitats. Among other remarkable species in the group we here represent _Trionyx Ægyptiacus_, Fig. 39, supposed to be the +Emys+ of Aristotle. No modern naturalist has done more to illustrate the habits of the Fresh-water Turtle than Mr. Bates, in his highly interesting work, "The Naturalist on the Amazon." "The great Fresh-water Turtle (probably _Platemys æfipes_) of the Amazon or Solimoens grows on the upper river," he says, "to an immense size, a full-grown one measuring nearly three feet in length, by two in breadth, and is a load for the strongest Indian. Every house (in Ega) has a little pond called a corral, or pen in the back-yard, to hold a stock of these animals through the season of dearth--the wet months. Those who have a number of Indians in their employ send them out for weeks, when the waters are low, to collect a stock, and those who have not purchase their supply--this is attended with some difficulty however, as they are rarely offered for sale. The price of Turtles, like that of other articles of food, has risen greatly since the introduction of steam-vessels. Thus, when I arrived, in 1850, a middle-sized one could be bought for ninepence, but when I left, in 1859, they were with difficulty obtained for eight or nine shillings each. The abundance of Turtles varies with the amount of diurnal subsidence of the waters. When the river sinks less than the average, they are scarce; but when high waters have prevailed, they can be caught in abundance, their haunts being less restricted, and appropriate breeding-places more numerous. "The flesh is very tender, palatable, and wholesome; but it is very cloying, and every one ends sooner or later by becoming thoroughly surfeited. I became so sick of Turtle in the course of two years that I could not bear the smell of it, although nothing else was to be had; consequently I suffered from actual hunger." One of the most amusing sketches in Mr. Bates' book is a journey he made on the Solimoens, during which he visited the praias, or sand-islands, the Turtle-pools in the forests, and the by-streams and lakes of the great river. His companion was Cardozo, who was a sort of official superintendent of the diggers for Turtles' eggs on the sand-banks of Shimuni, the island lying nearest to Ega. There are four or five of these Royal Praias, as they are called, in the district, each having its commandant, whose business is to see that every inhabitant has an equal chance in the egg-field. "The pregnant Turtles descend from the interior pools of the main river in July and August, before the outlets dry up, and seek their favourite sand-island in countless swarms; for it is only a few praias that are selected by them out of the great number existing. When hatched, the young animals remain in the pools throughout the dry season; for these breeding-places of the Turtle then lie from twenty to thirty feet above the level of the river, and are accessible only by cutting a path through the dense forest." On the 26th of September Mr. Bates left Ega with his companion, who was about to visit the sentinels placed to mark when and where the Turtles laid their eggs. Their conveyance was a stoutly-built canoe, or _igareté_, arranged for two paddlers, with an arched covering in the stern, under which three persons could sleep pretty comfortably. The swift current of the Solimoens carried them rapidly to the large wooded island of Baria, which divides the river into two broad channels. Shimuni lies in the middle of the north-easterly passage. They were quickly paddled across, reaching it an hour before sunset. The island is about three miles long and half a mile broad. The forest which covers it rises to an immense uniform height, presenting all round a compact and impervious front, the uniformity being interrupted here and there by a singular tree, called Mulatto wood, whose polished dark-green trunk is seen conspicuously through the mass of vegetation. The sand-bank lies at the upper end of the island, and extends several miles, presenting an irregular surface of ridges and hollows. At the further shore to the north-east, where no forest line shuts out the view, the white, rolling, sandy plain stretches away to the horizon; to the south-west a channel, about a mile in breadth, separates Baria from Shimuni. Arrived at this island, Mr. Bates proceeds to describe with great minuteness the operations of the Turtles, as well as those of the sentinels placed to watch them. "We found two sentinels," he says, "lodged in a corner of the praia, where it commences at the foot of the towering forest west of the island, having built themselves a little rancho with poles and palm-leaves. Great precautions are obliged to be taken to avoid disturbing the vigilant Turtles, which, previous to crawling ashore to lay, assemble in great shoals off the sand-bank. The men during this time take care not to show themselves, and they warn off any fisherman who attempts to pass near the place; for the passage of a boat, or the sight of a man, or a fire on the sand-bank, would prevent their laying their eggs that night, and if repeated, they would forsake the praia for some quieter place." After a night spent under a temporary shed rapidly constructed for himself and companion, Mr. Bates rose from his hammock shivering with cold. "Cardoza and the men were already watching the Turtles on a stage erected on a tall tree fifty feet high; from this watch-tower they are enabled to ascertain the place and date of successive deposits of eggs, and thus guide the commandant in fixing the time for his general invitation to the Ega people. The Turtles lay their eggs during the night, leaving the water in vast crowds when all around is quiet, when they crawl to the central and highest part of the praia. The hours between midnight and dawn are those when the Turtles excavate, with their broad, webbed paws, deep holes in the fine sand, the animal in each case making a pit about three feet deep; in this pit it lays its eggs, about a hundred and twenty in number, covering them over with sand; then a second deposit is placed on the top of the first, and so on until the pit is full." This goes on for about fourteen days. "When all have done, the area, or _taboliero_, over which they have been digging is only distinguished from the rest of the praia by signs of the sand having been a little disturbed. "On rising I went to join my friends," he continues, "and few recollections of my Amazonian rambles are more vivid and agreeable than that of my walk over the white sea of sand on this cool morning. The sky was cloudless; the just-risen sun was hid behind the dense woods on Shimuni, but the long line of forest to the west on Baria, with its plumy decorations of palms, was lighted up with his yellow horizontal rays. A faint chorus of singing-birds reached the ears from across the water, and flocks of Gulls and Plovers were calling plaintively over the swelling banks of the praia. Tracks of stray Turtles were visible on the smooth white surface, two of which had been caught, for stragglers from the main body are a lawful prize. "On arriving at the edge of the forest I mounted the sentinels' stage just in time to see the Turtles retreating to the water on the opposite side of the sand-bank. The sight was well worth the trouble of ascending. They were about a mile off, but the surface of the sand was blackened with the multitudes which were waddling towards the river; the margin of the praia was rather steep, and they all seemed to tumble head first down the declivity into the water." On the 2nd of October the same party left Ega on a second excursion, the object of Cardoza being this time to search certain pools in the forest for young Turtles. The exact situation of these hidden sheets of water are known to few. The morning was cloudy and cool, and a fresh wind blew down the river; they had to struggle, therefore, against wind and current. The boat was tossed about and shipped a good deal of water. Their destination was a point of land twenty miles below Shimuni. The coast-line was nearly straight for many miles, and the bank averaged about thirty feet above the then level of the river; at the top rose an unbroken hedge of forest. No one could have divined that pools of water existed on that elevated land. A path was cut through the forest by our party with their hunting-knives to the pool, half a mile distant; short poles were cut and laid across the path, over which three light canoes were rolled, after being dragged up the bank. A large net, seventy yards in length, was then disembarked and carried to the place. Netting, however, the older Indians considered unsportsmanlike; and, on reaching the pool, they commenced shooting the Turtles with bows and arrows from light stages erected on the shores. "The pool covered an area of about four acres, and was closely hemmed in by the forest, which, in picturesque variety and grouping, often exceeded almost anything I had seen. The margins for some distance were swampy, and covered with large tufts of fine grass called _matupá_. These tufts were in many places overrun with ferns, and exterior to them was a crowded row of arborescent shrubs growing to a height of fifteen or twenty feet, forming a green palisade. Around the whole stood the taller forest trees--palmate-leaved _Cecropiæ_; slender Assai palms thirty feet high, with their thin feathery heads crowning their gently-curving, smooth stems; and, as a background to these airy forms, lay the voluminous masses of ordinary forest trees, with garlands, festoons, and streamers of leafy parasites hanging from their branches." The pool which was hemmed in by this gorgeous scenery was nowhere more than five feet deep, and of that one foot was a fine soft mud. Cardoza and the author spent an hour paddling about admiring the skill displayed by the Indians in shooting Turtles. They did not wait for the animals to come to the surface to breathe, but watched for the slightest movements in the water which revealed their presence underneath; that instant an arrow flew from the bow of the nearest man, which never failed to pierce the shell of the submerged animal, and by mid-day about a score of full-grown Turtles had been shot. The net was now spread at one extremity of the oval-shaped pool, its side resting on the bottom, while the floats buoyed the other side up on the surface, the cords being held by two Indians. The rest of the party now spread themselves round the pool, beating the water with long poles, in order to drive the Turtles towards the centre. When they neared the net, the men moved more quickly, beating and shouting with great vigour. The ends of the net were now seized with vigorous hands, and dragged suddenly forward, bringing them at the same time together, so as to enclose all within a circle. Every man then leapt into the enclosure, the boats were brought up, and the captured Turtles were thrown in. In this manner about eighty were secured in twenty minutes. Among these were several male Turtles, or _capetaris_, as they are called by the natives. They are much less numerous than the females, much smaller, and more circular in shape; their flesh is considered unwholesome. On the 17th of October, the day announced for the _taboliero_, or egg-digging, Mr. Bates made a last excursion in Senhor Cardoza's company. Egg-collecting occupied four days. On the morning of the 17th about four hundred persons were assembled on the sand-bank; each family had erected a rude temporary shed of poles and palm-leaves, to protect themselves from sun and rain. Large copper kettles to prepare the oil, and hundreds of red earthenware jars, were scattered about on the sands. The commandant commenced by taking down the names of all masters of households, with the number of persons each intended to employ in digging; he then exacted from each a fine equal to fourpence a head towards defraying the expense of the sentinels, when the whole were allowed to go to the _taboliero_. It was exhausted by the end of the second day, when each household had erected large mounds of eggs beside their temporary hut. THALASSIANS, OR SEA TORTOISES. _Cheloniadæ_, Gray; _Carettoidæ_, Fitzing; _Halychelones_, Kelgen; _Oiocopodæ_, Wagler. The Turtles or Sea Tortoises are distinguished from all others by a comparatively flat carapace, long members, the extremities of which terminate in broad paddles, the anterior much longer than the posterior ones; the toes, though formed of distinct pieces, can only act together, thus constituting true oars, admirably arranged for swimming. Their carapace, besides being flat, is indented and elongated in front, and contracted behind, being disposed in such a manner that the head and feet can be completely hidden. Marine Tortoises are the largest of their species: they swim and dive with great facility, and can remain long under water. The external orifice of the nasal canal is furnished with a sort of valve, which the animal raises when it is in the air and closes when under water; but it rarely leaves its liquid element except in the breeding season, when nature prompts it to seek the shore to lay its eggs. Some of the species, however, seek the shore in the night, when they frequent the banks of desert and solitary isles, where they browse on marine plants. Although they walk with difficulty, and even with pain, in quiet seas they may be seen floating like a boat, in absolute immobility, and asleep on the surface of the water. With their horny jaws, which are hard and trenchant as the beak of a bird of prey, some of them feed upon sea-weed and algæ, while others feed on living animals, such as crustaceans, zoophytes, and mollusks. We have seen how regularly and systematically the Land Tortoises proceed in depositing their eggs--nor is less precaution taken by the Sea Tortoise. The females, accompanied by the males, traverse several hundreds of miles of sea in order to deposit their eggs in some favoured locality. Other females resort, year after year, almost to a day, to the sandy shore of some desert isle, where they drag themselves ashore during the night, sufficiently inland to be safe from the tide. In some such spot, using their hind feet by way of a shovel, they excavate holes about thirty inches deep. Here they lay frequently a hundred eggs, covering them up afterwards with the fine sand, levelling the surface, and then returning to sea, leaving the eggs to be hatched by the solar rays. The eggs are round, slightly depressed at both ends, and furnished with a coriaceous shell. From the high temperature communicated to the sand-bank, they are hatched in about fifteen days. The females seem to have two or three layings in the season, at intervals of two or three weeks. When the young Turtles are hatched, they are feeble, white, and about the size of frogs, and their instincts lead them at once to the sea. Under the fostering care of their mother, those which have escaped the birds of prey on their way to the sea, and the fishes lying in wait for them, rapidly develop, and attain, under favourable circumstances, an enormous size,--some of the _Sphargis_, or Soft Turtles, having been known to weigh from fifteen to sixteen hundred pounds,--while others, whose carapaces measured more than fifteen feet in circumference and seven feet in length, exceeded eighteen hundred pounds. Marine Tortoises are met with in herds more or less numerous in all seas, principally towards the torrid zone in the tropical regions, on the shores of the Antilles, in Cuba, Jamaica, St. Domingo, the Gulf of Mexico, and in the Indian Ocean. Those occasionally found by navigators in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean seem to be wanderers separated from some travelling bands. [Illustration: Fig. 40.--Green Turtle (_Chelonia Mydas_).] Of all reptiles, the Sea Tortoise is the most useful to man. In countries where they are common, and where they attain an enormous size, their flesh is the most healthy and nourishing food, and their carapace serves as a canoe in which the natives paddle along the shores. They even roof their huts with them; they convert them into drinking-troughs for their cattle and into baths for their children. According to Strabo and Pliny, the ancient inhabitants of the shores of the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea converted the enormous carapaces of the Tortoise which frequented their shores into coverings for their houses, and boats for paddling along the coast. The fat of many species, when fresh, is used as a substitute for oil and butter. When the musk-like odour of this fatty substance, as in _Chelonia caouana_ and _C. caretta_, becomes too repulsive for food, it is employed in embrocations, in tanning leather, or in lamps. The eggs of nearly all the Turtles are sought after for their flavour. Finally, the carapace of several species constitutes a valuable material much employed in the arts, and known as tortoise-shell. This material is sought after in consequence of its hardness and the fine polish of which it is susceptible, and also for the facility with which it is worked. It has a strong resemblance to horn, but is easily distinguished from it. Though, like horn, it is formed of parallel fibres, it seems to be rather the result of exudation, consisting of a kind of solidified mucus. Its texture is homogeneous; it can be cut and polished with precision and beauty; in short, under the influence of a gentle heat, it is softened and can be modelled into any fashion, according to the taste of the moulder; after becoming cool it retains the desired shape. [Illustration: Fig. 41.--Capturing Turtles.] While most of the Tortoises are highly useful to man, both for food and other purposes, perhaps the most interesting are the Green Turtles (_Tortues franches_ of French authors), _Chelonia caouana_ and _Caretta_. From these man draws the greatest advantage from their superior size, and from the thickness of their shells. The Green Turtle (_Chelonia Mydas_, Fig. 40) is so called from the reflected green of its carapace. It abounds in the Southern Atlantic Ocean, where it keeps habitually far from the shore, except in the breeding seasons, when it makes long voyages in order to deposit its eggs, giving a preference for that purpose to Ascension Island and St. Vincent. It rests on the surface of the open sea, and as it sleeps heavily, it is easily taken by a cord with a running knot, which is carefully slipped round its neck as the boat containing the captors silently glides past. It is even said to be a practice with the Malay fishermen to dive beneath them, and attaching a cord to the foot of a sleeping Turtle, thus take it alive. Many other modes are employed for capturing them. In the regions frequented by them in the breeding season, they are followed by their track on the sands, and their retreat cut off, when met with, by forming a circle round them, when they are thrown on their backs; hand-spikes sometimes being necessary to accomplish this from their great size. In this position they are helpless, and must remain until wanted, so that their enemies have time to pursue their sport elsewhere, as represented in Fig. 41. The next day they are collected or destroyed at leisure. In 1802 the crew of a French ship surprised a female Turtle on the Island of Lobos. The men had infinite trouble in making good its capture and throwing it on its back, for it was strong enough to drag them all towards the sea. It was at last mastered. Its head was as large as that of an infant, and its beak four times the size of a paroquet. It weighed two hundred and sixty pounds, and had in its body three hundred and forty-seven eggs. Turtles are also taken in nets, in the meshes of which their beaks and flippers get entangled; thus prevented from coming to the surface for air, they die of asphyxia. Others harpoon them on the open sea when they come to the surface to breathe. The harpoon is attached to a cord, by which the animal is soon brought to the surface and drawn into the boat. But the commonest mode of capture is approaching them in a boat as they float asleep on the surface--this must be done silently. When within reach, a back flipper is laid hold of by one of the crew, and by a sudden twist the Turtle is thrown on its back, when becoming helpless for the moment, it is dragged on board. [Illustration: Fig. 42.--Hawk's-bill Turtle (_Chelonia caretta_).] A very curious mode of fishing for Turtle is pursued by means of small fish, a species of Echeneis or Remora. These small fish are provided with an oval plate on the head, which consists of a score of parallel plates, forming two series, furnished on their outer edge with an oval disk, soft and fleshy at its circumference; in the middle of this plate is a complicated apparatus of bony pieces dispersed across the surface, which can be moved on their axis by particular muscles, their free edges being furnished with small hooks, which are all raised at once like the points of a wool-card. The fishermen keep many of these fishes in buckets of water. When they see a sleeping Turtle they approach it, and throw one of these suck-fish into the sea. The fish dives under the Turtle, and fixes itself inextricably to it by means of their cephalic disk. As the fish is attached to a long cord by means of a ring in its tail, the fish is drawn on board along with its victim. This is line fishing of a new kind, in which the hook is living, and pursues its prey in the bosom of the deep. The Green Turtle, whose flesh is celebrated for its delicacy and excellence of its fat, is that from which Turtle soup is made. Turtle soup is only of recent invention, the first Turtle having been brought to London by Admiral Anson in 1752. It was long a costly dish, and even now, although the introduction of steam and other adjuncts to navigation has greatly modified the expense, its price is about ten shillings per pound weight. [Illustration: Fig. 43.--Loggerhead Turtle (_Chelonia caouana_).] Much of the tortoise-shell of commerce comes from the Green Turtle, but by far the finest specimens are produced by the Imbricated or Hawk's-bill Turtle, _Chelonia caretta_ (Fig. 42). In this species the plates of the disk are imbricated, or lapping over each other, and thirteen in number. The muzzle is long and compressed; the jaws with straight edges, without dentation, curving slightly towards each other at their extremities, with two nails on each fin. It rarely attains the size or weight of the Green Turtle. The Hawk's-bill Turtle is met with in the Indian Ocean, and also on the American shores. It feeds on marine plants, on mollusks, and small fishes, and is chiefly sought after for its shell, which produces the finest tortoise-shell known; while its flesh is rendered unpalatable from its musky flavour. On the other hand, its eggs are excellent when fresh, and eagerly sought after. In order to prepare the shell, it is softened by means of boiling after being torn from the animal's back. It is then flattened by being passed through a press, previous to being polished. In this condition it is ready for all sorts of ornamental work. The Loggerhead Turtle, or _C. caouana_ (Fig. 43), like the Green Turtle, has its scales placed side by side. Its colour is brownish or deep maroon. It is found incidentally on the French and English coasts, and abounds in the Atlantic and Mediterranean seas. Its length is about four feet; its weight, from three to four hundred pounds. It is very voracious, and feeds principally on mollusks. Its shell is much valued, but its flesh is indifferent, and its fat altogether uneatable; however, it is used in some localities to make lamp-oil. [Illustration: Fig. 44.--Leather-back or Corded Tortoise (_Spargis coriacea_).] The Leather-back or Corded Tortoise, _Spargis coriacea_, differs from every other genus, its body being enveloped in a coriaceous hide; tuberculous in the young, perfectly smooth in adults. The feet are without claws. Seven longitudinal grooves extend from the neck to the tail, which remind one of the seven chords of the ancient lyre. Only one species of _Sphargis_ is known (_S. coriacea_, Fig. 44). This species is found in the Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean, and is, with the Hawk's-bill Tortoise, the only species found on the British coast. Its body is a light brown, with the lines of the carapace fawn-colour; its members black, edged with yellow. It attains the length of six to eight feet, and a breadth of about one-fifth of the length: it sometimes attains the weight of fourteen to sixteen hundred pounds. Its flesh is said to be unwholesome, and, on being eaten, to produce severe vomiting and purging. BIRDS. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. Birds are the spoilt children of nature--the favourites of creation. Their brilliant plumage often assumes the most resplendent colours. They have the happy privilege of moving in space--now fluttering through the air, hunting the insect which flits from flower to flower; now soaring high aloft, and swooping upon the victim it has marked for its prey; now cleaving the atmosphere on rapid wing, and performing journeys of vast extent with great rapidity. Mankind have a profound sympathy with these little winged beings, which charm at once by the elegance of their form, the melody of their song, and the graceful impetuosity of their movements. Anatomically speaking, birds are connected with the _Mammifera_ by their internal structure. Their skeleton essentially resembles that of the Mammals, the bones being nearly the same, only modified slightly for the purposes of flight. In birds there is a double circulation. The heart consists of two moieties, or lobes, known as the auricle and ventricle. It is conical in form, and occupies the anterior part of the thorax, its apex passing between the lobes of the liver; but there is little perceptible distinction between auricles and ventricles. Their blood is richer in globules than that of the Mammalia, being more thoroughly permeated by air; the respiratory function is also more energetic, from the same cause--in fact, they consume a larger quantity of oxygen, and produce a proportionately greater degree of heat; for while their lungs are small, and placed in the upper part of the thorax only, where they are confined on each side to a cavity, bounded above by the ribs, and below by an imperfect diaphragm, they are perforated by tubes, which communicate with membranous cells, distributed over the thoracic and abdominal cavities, between the muscles, and beneath the skin,--often in all parts of the body. What distinguishes the bird, in fact, is not the wing; for certain of the Mammalia, as the Bat, and even some fishes, as the Gusard and Exocoetus, can traverse the air by expanding their wings. In birds the diaphragm which arrests the air in the Mammalia is scarcely perceptible, so the external air penetrates into every part of the body by the respiratory tubes, which ramify the whole cellular tissue, the interior of the bones, and even the feathers, and between the muscles. Their bodies, dilated by the air inhaled, lose a proportionate amount of weight; balloon-like, they float in the air, and, from their peculiar forms, they can swim, so to speak, in any direction in the gaseous element. [Illustration: Fig. 45.--Skeleton of the Swan.] Wings alone, then, would fail to support the bird in space. The position renders a double system of breathing necessary. Vital heat in animals is always in proportion to their respiration, for the oxygen of the air, which penetrates every cell and cavity of their bones, feathers, and body, warming and giving increased activity to their circulation, and specific lightness to their bodies, from its rich organisation enables birds to live in the coldest atmospheric regions. In Fig. 46 the respiratory organs of a Pigeon are represented. The trachea, or windpipe, is composed of many bony rings, varying in different species. In the Falcons it is slightly flattened, and tapers in a small degree; but in many genera it presents dilatations and contractions, and in others it is variously curved, two slender muscles, which run along its sides towards the sternum, serving to contract it. In many of the song-birds several pairs of small muscles are attached to the lower larynx where the tube bifurcates, by which they are enabled to control this organ, which is the producer of their note. [Illustration: Fig. 46.] [Illustration: Fig. 47.] The trachea carries the air to the lungs in a Pigeon, and separates into two branches in the breast, where it abuts on the _aërial sacs_, and on the two lungs (Fig. 47). The air carried by the windpipe acts upon the blood through the thin substance of the cells which constitute the pulmonary tissue, in which it traverses in an infinity of minute vessels, whose thin walls are permeable by the gas. The lungs are small, and placed in the upper part of the thorax, where they are confined on each side by a cavity bounded above by the ribs and below by an imperfect diaphragm; but they are perforated by tubes which communicate with membranous cells distributed over the thoracic and abdominal cavities, between the muscles, beneath the skin, and in all parts of the body--the air even penetrating many of the bones when the species are peculiarly aërial in their habits. The external form of birds is modified so as to be subservient to aërial progression. The vertebral column, or spine, along the centre of which runs the spinal cord, is divided into three regions--the cervical, dorsal, and sacral regions--terminating in the caudal extremities, the number of vertebræ, or pieces, varying much in different genera. The body consists of the dorsal, sacral, and caudal parts of the column; laterally, of the ribs and pelvis; and beneath, of the sternum and the soft parts contained in it. Its anterior part, containing heart, lungs, and liver, is named the _thorax_; the posterior, the _pelvis_. The _sternum_, with the clavicles and scapulæ, is perhaps the most curiously modified part of the skeleton of birds. The sternum, then, is a large expanded plate extended over the whole anterior part of the thorax, and even covering more or less what may be considered the abdomen. It varies greatly in different genera; but in all it is more or less four-sided, and convex externally, forming the basis for the powerful muscles by which the wings are moved. These wings serve as arms by which the bird guides itself, ascending or descending according to the impulse given them. "That the anterior form of birds is modified so as to be subservient to the aërial progression for which these animals are intended," says McGillivray, "is obvious and intelligible. Their bodies are oval, with the more powerful muscles placed on the breast, so that, when the horizontal position is assumed, the centre of gravity comes between the wings, and is kept near the lower part by the weight of the pectoral muscles. The length and flexibility of the neck enable the bird to make the necessary changes in the centre of gravity, while the solidity of the dorsal spine gives advantage to the action of the muscles. The head is terminated by a pointed bill, which aids in cleaving the air; the feet, when short, are drawn up and concealed under the feathers; when long, they are stretched out beneath or behind the tail, which is more or less expanded, and helps to support the body in the air, as well as, by acting in the manner of a rudder, to change its direction, or, by being expanded, to break its descent." [Illustration: Fig. 48.] [Illustration: Fig. 49.] [Illustration: Fig. 50.] The wings of birds are acute or obtuse. The more angular the wing of birds--that is to say, the longer the feathers on the edge of the wing--the more rapidly does it propel itself through the air. The tail consists of a number of feathers, to which are attached a series of small muscles, one for each vertebra, which are capable of depressing and elevating the tail in various degrees; while a series of connections, whose fibres invest the base of the quills, curve round the edge of the tail. Their action is to spread out the tail-feathers, and incline them to the right or left; thus enabling it to perform the part of a helm or rudder as it cleaves the atmosphere. Besides flight, birds possess other means of locomotion. They are formed for walking or for swimming as well as for flying, according as their habits are aërial, terrestrial, or aquatic. Their general form, though possessing all the characteristics of the class, is modified and adapted to the kind of life they are intended to lead. Where the skin of a bird is covered with feathers, it is observed that the true skin, or derma, is thin and transparent; while the cuticle is thicker, and even covered with scales, in those parts where feathers are absent. Before addressing ourselves to the physiological functions of birds, a few words descriptive of their feathers, beaks, and claws will not be out of place. The covering of birds is known by the general name of _plumage_. It is composed of many individual _feathers_. The feathers are horny productions, consisting of a hollow tube or barrel, and a stem rising from it. Chemically, this covering is of the same material as the hair on Mammals and the scales on reptiles and fishes, differing only in its mechanical structure. Besides the more conspicuous feathers, most birds have an underneath covering of smaller ones known as down-feathers. A feather of the ordinary kind consists of the _tube_, or barrel, by which it is attached to the skin, varying in length according to the species; the _stem_, or _shaft_, composed internally of a soft, compact, but elastic substance of a whitish colour, and in its buoyancy not unlike cork; the _web_, which is a lateral prolongation of the external coating of the shaft, and which assumes the form of a thin linear membrane springing from it at an angle more or less acute in different species: this is the _barb_. From the upper edge of each barb two sets of minute filaments proceed at an angle similar to that of the barb itself in respect to the shaft. These smaller filaments are the _barbules_, by means of which the barbs are retained in opposition--not by the barbules of one barb interlocking with those of another in the manner of dovetailing, but by the anterior series of one barb overlapping and hooking into the recurvate formation of the barb next to it (Figs. 51, 52). The barbules themselves frequently throw out filaments in the same manner, which are called _barbicels_, whose object is apparently the same--namely, that of connecting and retaining the barbules in position. These may be observed, by the aid of a small magnifying glass, in the quills of the Golden Eagle, _Aquila chrysaëtus_. [Illustration: Fig. 51.] [Illustration: Fig. 52.] [Illustration: Fig. 53.] [Illustration: Fig. 54.] [Illustration: Fig. 55.] Feathers, then, consist of three parts--the tube, the shaft, and the webs; the webs being the barbs furnished with barbules, sometimes barbicels. They are convex above, and are thus enabled to resist flexion or fracture better from beneath than from any other direction. They are also elastic; and this property, together with their curvature, tends to keep them closer together. In the feathers of a large portion of birds there is a plumiform formation, or small feather or plumule. This plumule is conspicuous in gallinaceous birds--for instance, the Pheasants (Fig. 53); it springs from the fore part of the tube, just at the commencement of the shafts; it gradually narrows, and is continued in the form of a very delicate, thread-like fibre; from its side proceed two series of barbs, and from the barbs two series of barbules, extremely fine, entirely disunited, and very loose. This plumule seldom exists among aquatic birds, but in gallinaceous fowls it attains the length of two-thirds of the feather, and in the Emu and Cassowary it equals it in length. Feathers may be divided into those specially employed as the means of locomotion and those intended to protect the bird from extreme cold. The former are much stronger, more compact, and more elongated than the others. The row of feathers bordering the wing behind is known as the _alar quills_, or wing-quills, and those terminating the extremity of the tail, as _caudal quills_. From the head, backwards to the tail, the feathers increase in strength and size; those on the face, or round the base of the bill, being smallest, the tail-coverts longest. Immediately covering the base of the wing-quills are a row of feathers on both surfaces of the wing; these are the quill-coverts. The most brilliant feathers are found in birds of warm climates, and the more tropical the climate the more dazzling and brilliant is the plumage. In many species the brilliant plumage is confined to the males, while that of the females is dark and sombre. In other cases it is the same in both sexes. The young of some species attain the adult appearance after the first moult; others take several years to acquire their full splendour. Birds cast their feathers at least once a year, in order to put on a fresh dress. This is called moulting--a change which usually occurs in the autumn, but sometimes both in spring and autumn. During the moulting season birds are dull, retiring, and silent; but when they emerge from this state they proudly display their lively colours, which now rival the gayest flowers that surround them. Among the gallinaceous birds, and especially among the aquatic species, there exist over the coccyx certain receptacles from which is distilled the oily substance with which they lubricate their plumage. These receptacles are known as the uropygial glands. On the lower surface is a layer of cellular tissue containing a similar fluid, which seems to be connected with the growth of the feathers. [Illustration: Fig. 56.] [Illustration: Fig. 57.] [Illustration: Fig. 58.] [Illustration: Fig. 59.] [Illustration: Fig. 60.] The feet of birds are as varied in different species as are their wings. In birds of prey the claws are powerful and hooked. In some the foot is flat and the claw straight and adapted for walking (Figs. 56, 57, 58). The great toe is generally the strongest, but this is not an absolute law: a projection which is found on the leg of some birds, and is designated a spur, is a formidable weapon in some species (Figs. 59, 60). Some birds walk by bringing their feet forward alternately; others by a simultaneous motion, or a succession of leaps. Some run with great velocity, while others walk with great difficulty, and that only on a flat surface. Many have their toes joined by thin membranes, which act as paddles by which they propel themselves through the water. The beak, or bill, of birds is composed of two bony pieces, called mandibles, surrounded by a horny substance, differing both in form and thickness according to the habits of the species. In the genus FALCO the bill is shorter than the head; the upper mandible is furnished at the base with a bare coloured skin, of a peculiar dense texture, called the cere; its outline slightly convex as far as the edge of the cere (Fig. 61), then curved so as to form about the third of a circle, and evidently destined, in connection with its formidable claws, to tear its prey. [Illustration: Fig. 61.] [Illustration: Fig. 62.] [Illustration: Fig. 63.] In the TOUCANS RAMPHASTIDÆ the bill is half a foot long, hollow within, thin, and nearly transparent; and the mandibles are so disposed as to combine, with their great bulk, strength and lightness, and assisting by their digestive power to assimilate both animal and vegetable food (Fig. 62). In the PELICANIDÆ, as in the Common Cormorant, _Phalacrocorax carbo_, the bill is long, straight, and compound; the upper mandible curved towards the point, the lower compressed; the base inserted in a small membrane which extends under the throat. In the back part of the head is an additional bone (Fig. 63, _a_), attached in such a manner to the occiput as to admit of great expansion, which permits of its swallowing plaice and other flat fish of considerable size. The CRANE, _Grus cinerea_ (Fig. 64), has the bill rather longer than the head, strong, straight, compressed, and pointed at the extremity; the sides of the mandible deeply channelled with nostrils, and closed backwards by a thin membrane. [Illustration: Fig. 64.] In the Goose, genus _Anser_ (Fig. 65), we find the bill short, not longer than the head, conical, covered at the base with a cerous skin, with under mandible smaller than the upper. In the Sparrows, _Passerina_ (Fig. 66), the bill is strong and conical, the upper mandible slightly curved, the lower compressed and smaller than the upper; nostrils lateral, basal, round, and partly concealed by the short feathers at the base of the mandibles. In the Goatsuckers, _Caprimulgus_ (Fig. 67), the bill is remarkably small and weak, the sides inflexed and sometimes gaping. [Illustration: Fig. 65.] [Illustration: Fig. 66.] [Illustration: Fig. 67.] The tongue, like the bill, however, is only an accessory to the digestive apparatus; for while the beak serves the purpose of prehension and trituration, the tongue assists in deglutition or swallowing. Digestion is so active in some birds, that they get fat in an excessively short space of time. The Ortolan Bunting, _Emberiza hortulana_, and some others, are fattened for the table in five or six days. In the swelling under the throat, called the crop, _a_ (Fig. 68), or first stomach, which is largely developed in some of the granivorous or grain-eating birds, the food remains for a time, where it undergoes certain modifications which facilitate digestion; thence it passes into the succenteric ventricle, or second stomach, _b_ (Fig. 68),--there it imbibes the necessary amount of gastric juice; being finally transformed into _chyme_ in the gizzard, _c_ (Fig. 68), or third stomach, which is possessed of great muscular power, being capable of acting upon the most solid bodies, triturating even the flints and gravel which the gallinaceous birds swallow to aid their digestion. [Illustration: Fig. 68.] It is a curious fact that a grain of seed, introduced into the stomach, may be digested without alteration, and ejected where it will germinate, if it meets with no obstacle to its vegetation. In this manner trees are frequently found in regions where their species appear to have been previously unknown. _Chyle_, which is a milky fluid formed from the junction of chyme and bile, is received by the small intestine, where the bile also flows from the liver and the saliva from the pancreas. The urinary apparatus consists of the kidneys, two in number, thick and irregular, and distinct one from the other, abutting on the intestine, which terminates in a species of pouch, or _cloaca_, through which evacuation, alternately of urine, excrement, and eggs, takes place. The sense of touch, of smell, of taste, and hearing are only slightly developed in birds. Some have spoken of great delicacy of scent in birds of prey, which are observed to assemble in great numbers on fields of battle and other places where human carcasses are exposed. But the opinions of naturalists, such as Audubon and Levaillant, seem to prove that these animals were attracted rather by the sight than smell. The organ of sight is, indeed, more highly developed in birds than in any other class of animals. The volume of the eye itself is large compared with the head. It includes an addition which seems to be confined to birds. This is a black membrane, with many folds, very rich in blood-vessels, and situated at the bottom of the ocular globe, and advancing towards the crystalline. Anatomy has failed to explain the use of this, but it is supposed that by advancing or withdrawing it, it gives to birds additional power of vision. Other parts of the eye, such as the choroïds, the thin membrane which covers the posterior part of the eye, the iris, the retina, present nothing remarkable. The white of the eye is surrounded by an osseous or cartilaginous matter, evidently placed there for protection of this delicate and useful organ. [Illustration: Fig. 69.] Besides the ordinary upper and lower pupils, birds possess a third. This consists of an extensive transparent membrane, disposed vertically, which covers the eye like a piece of network, protecting it from the effects of a blaze of light. It is this pupil, or nictating membrane, placed at the internal angle of the eye, between the orb and the external pupil, which the animal uses at will, which permits the Eagle to gaze at the sun, and prevents the nocturnal birds of prey from being dazzled when exposed to daylight. The perfection of the sight of birds seems to be proved from the Vulture, so distant from his prey as to appear a mere speck in the heavens, without deviation flying directly to it; or the Swallow, which perceives, while on rapid wing, the smallest insect on which it feeds. According to Spallanzani, the Swift has sight so piercing, that it can see only five lines in diameter at the distance of five hundred feet. Birds, of all animal creation, can traverse distances with the greatest rapidity. The fleetest among the Mammifera cannot run over five or six leagues in an hour. Certain birds easily traverse their twenty leagues in the same interval of time. In less than three minutes we lose sight of a large bird, such as a Kite or an Eagle, whose body is more than a yard from wing to wing. It is assumed, from these facts, that these birds traverse more than fifteen hundred yards each minute, or more than fifty miles in an hour. A Falcon of Henri II. strayed from Fontainebleau in pursuit of a Bustard; it was taken the next day at Malta. Another Falcon, sent from the Canaries to the Duke de Lermes, in Spain, returned from Andalusia to the Peak of Teneriffe in six hours--the flight representing a distance of two hundred and fifty leagues. In short, the whole organisation gives to a bird that remarkable lightness which contributes so much to its velocity. Not to speak of the feathers with which it is covered, its bones are hollow and form large cells, called _aërial sacs_, which it is able to fill with air at will, and its sternum is furnished with a bony frame or breast-bone, formed somewhat like the keel of a ship, into which the pectoral muscles are inserted--which, besides being largely developed, in birds of flight possess remarkable contractile properties. The vocal apparatus in birds, represented in Figs. 70 and 71, is very complicated, and differs from the human larynx and trachea. It consists of a kind of osseous chamber; which, however, is only a swelling in the arterial trachea at the point where it bifurcates and enters the breast to form the bronchial tube. It is this formation, called the lower larynx, which constitutes the organ of song. Five pairs of muscles, attached to the walls of this chamber, stretch or relax the vocal chord, by which means they enlarge or diminish the cavity of the larynx. Whoever has watched any song-bird singing must have noted the swelling and contracting of its throat as it poured out its melody, modifying, in a thousand ways, the tension of the vocal chords and of the larynx, and producing those marvellous modulations whose perfection must always be a subject of astonishment and admiration. [Illustration: Fig. 70.] [Illustration: Fig. 71.] The song of birds must be the expression of some sentiment; they surely sing as much for their own pleasure as to charm those who listen to them. While they fill the woods with their melodious accents they direct their looks on all sides, as if proud of their talents, and desirous of gathering the tribute of admiration to which they feel themselves entitled. Their song varies with the season, but it is in the early spring their efforts are the most successful, and we are most disposed to admire the beauty and harmony of their voices. Can anything be more delicious than the warbling of the Linnet, the piping of the Goldfinch, slowly swelling from their leafy bower, or the melodious cadence of the Nightingale, as it breaks the silence of the woodland during the serene nights of leafy June? Our landscape would be sad and mute indeed without these graceful inhabitants of the air, which give so much animation to country life and solitary rambles. In the silence of night, when all nature sleeps and life seems suspended, all at once certain notes of harmony rise from under the dense foliage, as if to protest against the universal silence. It is sometimes a plaintive cry, prolonged into a stifled sigh, now a continuous warbling, now a lively song, gay and melodious, which the whole forest re-echoes to. When the darkness of night gives place to the first dawn of day--when the soft gleam of Aurora has appeared on the horizon, all is transformed, all is vivified on the new-born earth, lately asleep and apparently deserted. The larger birds rise higher and higher in the air, till they are lost in the clouds. The small birds hop from branch to branch with joyous gambols, communicating a movement of happiness and content over all nature. What a wonderful variety of music issues from them--what dazzling brilliancy and variety deck their plumage--what a charm pervades the whole scene, enlivened by these living flowers flitting about in intense enjoyment, hovering, traversing, and embellishing the air! Be it a Titmouse, which seems to spend its life suspended from the branch of a tree; or the Fly Catcher, on the other hand, always perched; the Lark, performing its graceful circles in the air as it rises higher and higher, pouring forth its melodious song more vigorously with each circle described; the Thrush, which runs along the grassy path, watching for its prey, or the House Sparrow chirping from the straw-built roof, or the Robin warbling from some leafless bower--how completely the little winged wanderers decorate the landscape and improve the picture with their innocent gambols! Assuredly birds have a language which they alone comprehend. When danger threatens them, a particular cry is uttered by one, and immediately all of the same species hide themselves until their fears are dispelled and confidence restored. When the presence of a bird of prey is announced by the plaintive cry of the Thrush, all the feathered race of the neighbourhood are hushed into silence. Birds of prey with carnivorous instincts live in the most solitary places. The Eagle lives alone with his mate in some unapproachable aerie, his nest placed on the side of some steeply-scarped mountain, or perhaps hidden in the depth of some inaccessible ravine, whence they sally forth to visit some distant region in search of prey. It is very difficult for us to appreciate the degree of intelligence exhibited by birds. In the Mammifers, whose organisation approaches nearer to that of man, we are enabled partially to comprehend their joys and griefs; but in the case of birds we are reduced to conjecture in order to arrive at an estimate of their sensations. To explain this profound mystery a word has been invented which satisfies easy minds: we call the sentiment which leads birds to perform many admirable actions which are related of them, _instinct_. The tenderness of the mother for her young--a tenderness so full of delicacy and foresight--is, we say, only the result of _instinct_. It is agreed on all hands, however, that this instinct singularly resembles the intelligence called reason, and, in the opinion of many, is nothing else. Reproduction in birds occurs at intervals regulated by nature, and they are distinguished, above all other creatures, for the fidelity of their affections. It is frequently a matter of observation that a male attaches itself to a female, and they henceforth live together till the death of one or both; and many affecting scenes are described where death has overtaken one of the affectionate pair. When the breeding season approaches, the habits of the female are modified; she abandons her former freedom, and, having laid her eggs, she passes her whole time in incubation, defying hunger and all other dangers, apparently well instructed in the fact that the equal and prolonged heat communicated by their contact with her body is necessary to hatch them. During the period of incubation the male, in most instances, watches the female, and supplies her with food; afterwards the little ones are waited on by both the parent birds with the tenderest care until they finally attain the use of their wings. The solicitude of birds for their young is first manifested in the choice of the locality for the nest, and in the care with which this cradle of their progeny is constructed. But all this disappears when the young no longer require the maternal protection. [Illustration: Fig. 72.] [Illustration: Fig. 73.] [Illustration: Fig. 74.] [Illustration: Fig. 75.] In spring, when the birds have paired, they set themselves to work at once to collect the necessary materials for their nest. Each carries its blade of grass or stem of moss. Large birds content themselves with a coarser structure--chips of wood, or branches of trees interlaced with twigs, lined with hair and other soft materials, are fashioned into the necessary shape. But the smaller species really display great art in framing their miniature dwelling, which they furnish inside with wool, blades of grass, or down, the male and female labouring in the common work. Their effort is to make a soft, warm, and solid bed on which to deposit the coming eggs. The mother-bird has recourse to all sorts of cunning devices in order to conceal her nest from prying eyes, choosing for this purpose the heart of a leafy bush, the forked limb, the concealed crack or hollow in the trunk of a tree, the chimneys of a house, crevices in a wall or under a roof. Curiously enough, the nests of the same species are always fashioned in precisely the same manner. The Kinglet, or Wren (Fig. 72), builds its nest under a bank, generally near some brook; it is neatly formed of moss, nearly covered with leaves, and lined with small feathers, hair, and wool. In this nest the smallest of our native birds lays six delicate little white eggs, marked with small pink spots. The Humming-birds (Fig. 73), which flit about in tropical woods, build their nests of grass, lined with feathers. The House Sparrow (Fig. 74) builds its nest under the eave of some house; while the Hedge Sparrow (Fig. 74) chooses the fork of a hawthorn-tree in which to construct its children's home. The Magpie, more ambitious, constructs, in the topmost fork of some tall ash, or poplar, or elm, its nest of branches interlaced with twigs, and lined with fine grass, hair, and other soft materials (Fig. 75). It is a large and consequently a conspicuous fabric, elliptical in form, composed first of rough boughs, on which is laid a quantity of mud, and then a layer of twigs, the whole lined with fibrous roots and other soft material. The Goldfinch builds its nest on trees; it is composed of grass, moss, and lichens, and lined with the down of various plants and such other soft material as comes in its way, elaborately interwoven with wool and hair (Fig. 76). [Illustration: Fig. 76.] [Illustration: Fig. 77.] The Owl, _Strix flammea_, chooses her nest in some obscure nook of an old tower, the steeple of a church, a dovecot, or the hollow of an aged tree (Fig. 77). It is composed of twigs and straws loosely arranged. Some birds form into a sort of coarse tissue the fibres of which they construct their nest, which has procured them the name of Weaver Birds. The nest of _Fondia erythrops_ occupies the centre of a bundle of reeds growing in shallow water, in which various grasses are roughly interwoven in the form of a cupola. The Black-headed Synalaxis, _S. melanops_ (Bonaparte), constructs a more delicate fabric, but remarkable for its strength. It builds its nest with grasses, interlacing them in a firm and inextricable web; the form is globular, and the entrance is a small hole in one of its sides. The Orioles and Cassiques of the New World cannot be passed without noticing their wonderful skill in nest construction. The nest of the Baltimore Oriole forms a perfect family pouch, which it suspends from the upper branches of a shrub or tree. The nest of _Cassicus hæmorrhous_ (Cuvier) consists of dry grasses woven into long sacks, gradually increasing in size towards the bottom, with an elongated slit in the side; this is so constructed as to exclude rain from the nest. These wonderful structures are sometimes two yards in length; and when these birds are numerous in the country, the nests, as they hang suspended from the branches of trees, give a singularly novel aspect to the landscape. Not less curious is the nest of the Tailor Bird, _Orthotonia_ (Fig. 78), which is formed of a large leaf, the two sides of which the bird has contrived to sew together; in the interior is placed the nest. Miraculous indeed is the produce of these little workers. The wonder is how the birds contrive to enter a nest on the wing when the opening seems scarcely so large as the bird's body, and yet it enters without disturbing a fibre. The hut of some savage races is left constantly open, their intelligence not suggesting a protecting door. The Spiders are more ingenious. They contrive to close the entrance to their dwellings, while the door is left habitually open; some birds adopt analogous precautions. In M. Jeudon's book on the Birds of India, he reports a curious arrangement of a species of Homrain: when the female of this bird begins to lay, the male encloses her in their nest by shutting up the door with a thick mud wall, leaving only a small opening by which the female can breathe and receive her food from the male bird's bill; for this severe husband is not forgetful of his duties, but every few minutes conveys some morsel to the enclosed prisoner. [Illustration: Fig. 78.] [Illustration: Fig. 79.] Sonnerat, in his "Voyage to India," speaks of a Cape Tit, the nest of which is in the form of a bottle, and composed of cotton. While the female hatches the eggs, the male, like a true sentinel, maintains a strict watch on a specially-formed resting-place, built on one of the sides. Finally, for ingenious construction, instigated by affection for its progeny, there is nothing to compare to the work of the Republican (Fig. 79). This little bird of the Cape, which is about the size of a Sparrow, which it much resembles, lives in numerous families, that unite in forming immense colonies. Their dwellings have the appearance of a circular framework surrounding the trunk of some large tree, as represented beneath. Levaillant counted as many as three hundred cells, which indicate that it is inhabited by six hundred birds. These nests are so heavy that Levaillant was compelled to employ a cart with many men in transporting one of their colonies. At a distance they resemble great roofs attached to the trunks or branches of trees, on which hundreds of birds sport and enjoy themselves. Further, the Oriole suspends its basket-like nest by a twig at the extremity of a flexible branch, placing it thus beyond the reach of any prowling four-footed ravisher. The Magpie selects the topmost fork of the loftiest trees. Again, the nest of the esculent Eastern Swallow, the one so much sought after by gourmands, hangs from those cliffs washed by the sea, and is constructed of a _fucus_, or marine plant, of the genus _Gelidium_, which gelatinous substance, cemented by the saliva of the bird, forms a sort of paste of most delicate flavour. When this nest is built, and the walls properly cemented, and the home of the little brood prepared, the eggs are laid and the process of hatching commences. Eggs are generally numerous in inverse proportion to the size of the bird. The Eagle lays two, for instance, while the Titmouse (_Parus_) lays from twelve to eighteen. The eggs laid, the female must now submit to the long and painful labour of incubation. While the male lies in wait in the neighbouring bush to defend his young brood against any enemy which may present itself, giving battle to much larger animals if they venture to attack his nest, the female only quits her charge for necessary food, and her place is often occupied during her absence by her mate. Enemies that lie in wait are numerous. Among them may be enumerated birds of prey, small quadrupeds, reptiles which treacherously insinuate themselves into the nest, and perhaps more unfeeling than all, children with destructive instincts. If nothing occurs to disturb the repose of the pair, the male, perched upon a neighbouring branch, pours out a song expressive of his felicity. The little ones are finally hatched. Helpless and incapable, without feathers and with closed eyes, they are utterly dependent on the parent birds, by which they are fed until the time when they are covered with feathers. They now begin to try their wings, and find their own food. The mother directs their first efforts, uttering a peculiar cry to attract them when she discovers a favourite morsel; defending them courageously, and, with a total abnegation of self, meeting the most formidable enemies; sometimes going so far for their protection as to offer herself a victim. How pitiful are the cries of a Swallow whose nest is built under the roof of a house on fire! Fearlessly she rushes on the flames, flying to the assistance of her young, as if she would rescue them or perish under the fatal roof. Or mark the unhappy Partridge which the sportsman has surprised on the nest. She hesitates not to offer herself a sacrifice, throwing herself almost under the intruder's feet, in order to attract his attention from her progeny. When the young are strong enough to take wing, they abandon the family tie, and soon lose themselves in the great world of nature, forgetful of their parents' unselfish care. The ingratitude of their first-born does not, however, discourage the forsaken couple. With the returning season they renew their labours, exhibit the same solicitude, the same affection, to meet with the same return. Nature is an unfailing source--an eternal focus of tenderness and love. Most families of birds are migratory; that is, they abandon their summer quarters and undertake long journeys at certain seasons. These migrations occur with the greatest regularity. By their departure from temperate or cold climates they prognosticate the approach of winter, as their return heralds spring. Among the ancient Greeks, as we learn from a passage of Aristophanes on birds, the arrival of the CRANE pointed out the time of sowing; the arrival of the KITE the sheep-shearing season; and the arrival of the SWALLOW in Greece was the date for putting off summer clothing. The impulse which causes birds to depart is an instinctive desire to find climatic conditions appropriate to their wants of life. At the approach of winter they desert the regions of the north in search of southern countries with a warmer climate, while others migrate northwards to escape the heat. Nevertheless, all birds are not migratory; many species remain during their whole lives in the locality where they were hatched, straying but little distance from their birth-place. The majority of those which migrate perform their journeys annually and with great regularity; a few irregularly and accidentally; that is, they are caused by necessity, or by atmospheric influences, to change their residence; and it is no unusual sight on such occasions to see numerous flocks of birds assembling under the leadership of a chief, and taking their flight in perfect order, traversing seas, and passing from one continent to another, with astonishing rapidity. On the 22nd of September, 1771, White, of Selborne, witnessed the flight of a flock of Swallows which had rendezvoused the night before in a neighbour's walnut-tree. "At dawn of what was a very foggy day, they arose all together in infinite numbers, occasioning such a rustling from the strokes of their wings against the hazy atmosphere that the sound might be heard at a considerable distance." In the Old World, choosing a time when the winds are favourable, most migratory birds direct their flight towards the south-west in the autumn, and the north-east in spring. In America the migratory birds take a south-east direction in autumn, and the reverse in spring. These aërial travellers instinctively direct their flight to the same regions--often to the same district; and there are good grounds to believe that the same pair frequently find their way year after year to the same nest. The duration of the life of birds in a state of nature is one of those subjects on which little is known. Some ancient authors--Hesiod and Pliny, for example--give to the Crow nine times the length of life allotted to man, and to the Raven three times that period; in other words, the Carrion Crow, according to these authors, attains to seven hundred and twenty years, and the Raven two hundred and forty. The Swan, on the same authority, lives two hundred years. This longevity is more than doubtful. Paroquets, however, are known to have reached more than a hundred. Goldfinches, Chaffinches, and Nightingales unquestionably, even in the confinement of a cage, have lived four-and-twenty years. A Heron, Girardin tells us, lived fifty-two years, which was testified by the ring which he bore on one of his legs, and even then he lost his life by an accident, while in full vigour. A couple of Storks, moreover, have been known to nestle in the same place for more than forty years. All that we can affirm is that birds live much longer than the Mammalia. We can easily fix a circumscribed geographical boundary to any species of Mammalia. They may be limited to a country, or even a district. Can we impose a like distribution on birds? At first sight this seems difficult: their powerful organs of locomotion permit of their travelling rapidly; and, moreover, their nature, essentially mobile, and their wandering humour, lead them to continual change; and then their organisation adapts them for great extremes of temperature--circumstances which would lead us to consider them quite cosmopolite. Nevertheless, many species reside habitually in countries of very limited range. A Sovereign Hand has traced on the surface of the globe limits that cannot be passed. How such small creatures are able to perform such distant journeys, pausing only at far-severed resting-places for necessaries, has always been a matter of surprise. They pass on without an instant's sleep, however long and fatiguing the route. How can the Quail, for instance, with its short wing and plump body, traverse the Mediterranean twice in the year? Hasselquist tells us that small short-winged birds frequently came on board his ship in squally weather, all the way from the Channel to the Levant; and Prince Charles Bonaparte was agreeably surprised by the visit of a party of Swallows to the ship _Delaware_, in which he was a passenger, when five hundred miles from the coast of Portugal, and four hundred from Africa. Audubon relates a similar occurrence; and numerous instances are recorded in which these fatigued travellers have taken shelter in the first fisherman's boat they met, sometimes so weak as to be hardly able to move a wing. It is therefore a fact truly inexplicable, in spite of every hypothesis, more or less reasonable, which has been advanced by naturalists in explanation. Men have little influence over birds, and have, therefore, few opportunities of studying their habits in a state of nature. Some few species may be retained in captivity, and some observers have been able to obtain their entire confidence while in that condition; but, except two or three species, it has not been possible to reduce them to a state of domestication. Our knowledge of the habits and manners of the feathered race is, therefore, entirely dependent on chance observation. The Humming-bird is confined to certain portions of America. The Nightingale, if a visitor to Scotland, is only found in Berwick and Dumfriesshire in fine seasons, while it is constantly seen in Sweden, a country much colder and much more northerly. The Toucans, so brilliant in plumage, are only found in tropical South America. The Swallow, so rapid on the wing, clearing its twenty leagues an hour when it leaves us for its southern winter quarters, never deviates from the route which seems to have been traced for it by a Sovereign Master. It may, then, be stated that the great zones of the earth differ as much in birds as in the Mammifers found in them. We find in climatic regions birds, or groups of birds, of perfectly distinct species, and which are rarely found beyond that particular zone. Glancing at the various countries forming a region, particular types of birds are easily recognised. Africa, for instance, alone possesses the Great Ostrich, while only a small species exists in America--the Rhea; the Emu represents the genus in Australia. Africa has species brilliant as the most precious stones. To America belong exclusively the Humming-birds, so remarkable for the brilliancy of their plumage. Again, if Africa is the country of the Vulture, to America belongs the Condor. Nevertheless, the acclimatisation of birds is by no means beyond our power. Experience proves that by carrying a bird far from its native country, and placing it in conditions approaching those to which it has been accustomed, it will live and multiply--acclimate itself, in short, to its new home. Europe possesses no ornithological type peculiar to it. It is only in Africa and America that we find those rich varieties of form and colour which characterise the feathered race. The Island of Madagascar is the land which possesses the greatest number of ornithological types--simply, perhaps, because that island abounds in species whose rudimentary wings do not permit of their wandering away. Whatever the cause, however, the species found there are not obtained elsewhere. Here we find the unique Dodo, a form of animal which became extinct in Europe in the last century. There is a wonderful charm of companionship in birds--they give animation to the scene, skipping from bush to bush, or skimming the surface of land and water. They please the eye by their graceful shape and plumage, and they charm our ears by their ceaseless warblings. Even in this sense we lie under a debt of gratitude to these graceful inhabitants of the air. But this is far from being the limit of the benefits we derive from them. The birds of the poultry-yards furnish our most delicate food; their eggs form a considerable branch of trade, and are indispensable in the kitchen; and what would become of our country gentleman should our game birds ever become extinct?--an event by no means improbable, seeing that, in the year of grace 1868, the head-dress of every votary of fashion was decorated with the wing of a bird--not confining the demand to Birds of Paradise, Ostrich, Pheasant, and other feathers of brilliant plumage whose value was a protection, but extending to the harmless sea-fowl, which were destroyed by thousands only for the sake of their feathers. Birds are useful to man by their feeding on the insects, larvæ, and caterpillars which infest cultivated crops. Without their aid, agriculture would become impossible. In former times it was a favourite doctrine with the agriculturist that the _Passerina_ were the real destroyers of his crops, and a war of extermination was declared against them; but the observations of more enlightened persons have demonstrated that the chief food of most of these consists of insects, and the havoc among them has consequently been stayed; still much ignorance, and its concomitant, cruelty, exist on this point. Elsewhere, those interested soon discovered that the destruction of small birds led to formidable increase in the numbers of voracious insects--that these lively and joyous creatures, which float in the air and twitter on the bough, are sent us more for good than evil, and that if some of them make the crops pay a tax, they repay it tenfold by keeping down the excess of more destructive ravagers. While the smaller birds have proved essentially beneficial to man, some of the larger birds exhibit similar tendencies. The Wading Bird clears the earth of serpents and other unclean and venomous animals. The Vultures and Storks throw themselves in flocks on corrupt carrion, and divest the soil of all putrefying objects: thus, in concert with insects, birds are the scavengers of the earth, lending their aid to make it a fit residence for man; in fact, are constituted by nature guardians of the public health. In former days Falconry afforded a stately and picturesque sport to the great, in which lords and noble dames assisted. This pastime still exists in some parts of England and some portions of the East, especially in Persia, where the Falcon is trained to chase the Gazelle and small ruminants; while in China and Japan the Cormorant and Pelican are taught to fish the rivers for their masters. From very ancient times, the Carrier Pigeon was the bearer of messages now transmitted along the electric wires with lightning speed. Nor do these benefits comprise all the claims of birds to the gratitude of man. In tropical America the Agami, _Trophia crepitans_, or Trumpet Bird of Guiana, is domesticated, and so docile in its habits, that it is employed to watch the flocks, which it does with the fidelity and intelligence of a Dog. "The Agami," says M. Monocour, "is not only tamed easily, but becomes attached to its benefactor with all the fondness and fidelity of a Dog. When bred in the house, it loads the master with caresses, and follows all his motions, but is easily offended." It is bold and obstinate, and will attack Cats and Dogs, fighting a tough battle with one of the latter, however considerable his size. In Cayenne the denizens of the poultry-yard are confided to its care; it leads them to their pasture, prevents them from straying to a dangerous distance, and brings them home in the evening, just as a trained shepherd's Dog will do the flocks committed to his care, and it manifests its delight by cries of joy when its master vouchsafes a caress in return for its faithful service. The Kamichi, which belongs, like the Agami, to the same order, possesses similar characteristic intelligence. Like the former, it is sociable and susceptible of education, and becomes a useful auxiliary to the inhabitants of South America. After these brief remarks on the organisation and habits of birds, we proceed to describe the more remarkable species, arranged according to a simple and comprehensive order of classification, placing before the reader the various orders of the class AVES, in the ascending scale which has been adopted in our previous works. AVES--BIRDS. Warm-blooded, vertebrated, biped animals. _Pectoral limbs_, fore-arms or wings organised for flight; feathery _integument_; red blood; _respiration_ and _circulation_ double; _lungs_ fixed and perforated. I. NATATORES, OR PALMIPEDES. Swimming birds, having the toes united by a membrane; legs placed behind the equilibrium; the body covered with a thick coat of down beneath the feathers. They include the following orders and families:-- I. _Brevipennes_, Ostriches, Cassowaries, the Penguins, Auks, Guillemots, and Grebes. II. _Longipennes_, including the Terns, Gulls, Mews, Petrel, and Albatross. III. _Totipalmates_, the Pelicans, Gannets, Cormorants, Frigate Bird, Tropic Bird. IV. _Lamellirostres_, the Ducks, Geese, Swans, Flamingos. II. GRALLATORES. Wading birds, having the legs long and naked from the tibia downwards. I. _Macrodactyli_, Crakes, Coots, Rails, Screamers. II. _Cultrirostres_, Boatbills, Cranes, Herons, Ibis, Storks, Spoonbills. III. _Longirostres_, Avocets, Snipes, Ruffs, Turnstones, Sandpipers, Godwit, Curlews, Gambets. IV. _Pressirostres_, Oyster Catchers, Thicknee Plovers, Lapwings, Bustards, Coursers. III. RASORES. Scratching birds. Feet with strong, obtuse, scratching claws; mandible vaulted; nostrils pierced at the base, covered by a cartilaginous scale. I. _Gallinaceæ_ (Polygamous), Pea-fowl, Partridge, Pheasant, Quail, Grouse, Pentados, Turkey, Curassow. II. _Columbaceæ_ (Monogamous), Pigeons, Gouravinago. IV. CANTORES. Singing birds. Legs short and slender, three toes before and one behind. In this order, according to Professor Owen, the brain attains its greatest proportionate size, and the organs of the voice their greatest complexity. I. _Dentirostres_, Shrikes, Wrens, Wagtails, Thrushes, Warblers, Manakins. II. _Conirostres_, Birds of Paradise, Crows, Tits, Starlings, Buntings, Larks, Finches, Grosbeaks. III. _Tenuirostres_, Nuthatch, Creeper, Sunboard. IV. _Fissirostres_, Swallows, Martins. V. VOLITORES. Birds moving solely by flight. Skeleton light and buoyant; head large; keel deep (entire on the Humming-bird); wings powerful, in some long and pointed; legs small and weak. The order includes-- I. _Cypselidæ_, Swifts. II. _Trochilidæ_, Humming-birds. III. _Caprimulgidæ_, Night-jar. IV. _Trogonidæ_, Trogons. V. _Prionitidæ_, Momots or Motmots. VI. _Meropidæ_, Bee-eaters. VII. _Galbulidæ_, Jacmar. VIII. _Coraciadæ_, Rollers. IX. _Capitonidæ_, Puff-bird. X. _Alcedinidæ_, King-fishers. XI. _Bucerotidæ_, Hornbills. VI. SCANSORES. Climbing birds, with opposing toes in pairs, two behind and two before. The order includes-- I. _Ramphastidæ_, Toucans. II. _Bucconidæ_, Barbets. III. _Cuculidæ_, Cuckoos. IV. _Picidæ_, Woodpeckers. V. _Musophagidæ_, Plantain-eaters. VI. _Coliidæ_, Colys. VII. _Psittacidæ_, Parrots. VII. RAPTORES. Rapacious birds, with strong, curved, pointed, and sharp-edged beak; legs short and robust, three toes before and one behind, armed with strong, crooked talons. The order includes-- I. _Nocturnes_, Owls. II. _Diurnes_, Eagles, Vultures, Hawks. CHAPTER I. THE NATATORES, OR SWIMMING BIRDS. The Natatores are obviously devoted, by their organisation, to an aquatic life. Their constant haunts are found on the great rivers and lakes, or on the coast. They are chiefly characterised by the form of their feet. The toes are united by marginal membranes in the Coots and Water-rails, or in others by the extension of webs between and uniting the toes, of a soft membrane slightly lobed; hence the name of _Palmipedes_, or web-footed, usually applied to them. These broad palmate feet, acting at the end of a long lever, strike the water with great force when fully expanded, being favoured by their backward position. When the bird recovers its stroke, the toes are relaxed in their forward movement, preparatory to another effort; thus progression through the water is obtained. Some of the swimming birds in their flight are feeble and slow; others are incapable of even rising from the water, being only furnished with rudimentary wings. Again, there are species which possess extraordinary powers of traversing the air, their well-developed wings enabling them to pass through space with wonderful rapidity. The Albatross is met with on the high seas at a vast distance from the shore. Others, as the Petrels, seem to revel in storms and tempests, mingling their wild cry with that of the storm-tossed waves. The sailors, who look anxiously to windward at the dark horizon, where the clouds are surcharged with torrents of rain ready to burst on the ship, are assured of the approaching tempest by the circling flight of the white-winged Albatross, as it is seen through the obscure and threatening mist. The whole order of Natatores swim and dive without saturation, their plumage being anointed by an oily liquid furnished by certain glands in their skin, which renders them impervious to moisture. This immunity from the effect of water is further assisted by the disposition and structure of their feathers, which, being smooth and three-cornered, with the barbules closely interlaced, cause the water to glide off their polished surface; while the down beneath the feathers of which we have spoken protects their bodies from the cold, maintaining their natural heat, and enabling them to resist the cold of the most rigorous winter. The Natatores are numerous both in species and individuals, having their habitat in all countries. According to Prince Charles Bonaparte, one of the most eminent of European naturalists, those which frequent the sea-shore alone constitute one-fourteenth part of all the birds on the globe, and the number of species he reckons at nine thousand four hundred. They feed on vegetables, insects, mollusks, and fishes. They seek the coast in the breeding season, where they build their nests on the sand, or in nooks and crannies of the rocks, or on the margin of lakes and rivers. In the spring the sea-birds assemble in large flocks, pair off, and proceed to deposit their eggs in nests constructed generally without skill, but always lined or carpeted with a fine down, which forms a soft warm bed for the embryo progeny. Certain localities are frequented by preference, which are occupied by innumerable flocks in the breeding season, all of which seem to live together in perfect harmony. Some of the families of the Natatores are valuable additions to the poultry-yard. Ducks and Geese furnish delicate and nourishing food for man; the Swan is gracefully ornamental on our lakes and ponds. The down of all the aquatic birds is of immense value to the commerce of northern countries. The eggs are good to eat, and in many countries the inhabitants consume them in great quantities. Nor does their usefulness end here. _Guano_, so eagerly sought for by the farmer, is the excrement of aquatic fowls--the accumulation of ages, until, in the South Pacific Ocean, it has formed whole islands, some of them being covered with this valuable agricultural assistant to the depth of ninety or a hundred yards. Nor is this so marvellous, if it is considered that twenty-five or thirty thousand sea-birds sleep in these islets night after night, and that each of them will yield half a pound of guano daily. Our lands receive valuable assistance to fertility from this unrivalled material, which owes its power to the ammoniacal salts, phosphate of lime, and fragments of feathers of which it is composed. The order of Natatores, or Palmipedes, consists of four families:--1. _Brevipennes_, or Divers; 2. _Longipennes_, or Skimmers; 3. _Totipalmates_, or _Pelicanidæ_; 4. _Lamellirostres_, including Geese, Ducks, Swans, and Flamingos. THE DIVERS (_Brevipennes_). Penguins, _Aptenodytes_; Auks, _Alca_; Grebes and Divers, _Colymbus_; Guillemots, _Uria_. The birds which constitute this family of the Natatores are characterised by wings so thin and short as to be totally useless for the purposes of ærial locomotion. They are also called _Brachypteres_, from the Greek compound +brachys+, short, and +ptera+, winged. These are all habitual divers and indefatigable swimmers, using their wings as fish do their fins. To raise these after making the down-stroke requires a considerably greater effort than a bird of flight makes in raising its wings in the air, for which reason the second pectoral muscle in this and other diving birds has an unusually large development to give further strength. Their plumage is smooth and silky, and impervious to water from its oily nature. They live chiefly on the sea, coming ashore in the breeding season. The Divers, _Colymbus_, are distinguished from other Brachypteres by their beak being longer than the head, straight, robust, and nearly cylindrical, slightly compressed on the sides, acute, the upper mandible longer than the lower; their toes, in place of being each furnished with marginal membranes, have the three united by a single membrane; their feet being placed far backward and on the same perpendicular line with the tibia--an arrangement very unfavourable for walking, compelling the birds to take a vertical position, rendering their movements on land both painful and difficult. They are, however, intrepid swimmers, and they dive with such alertness that it requires a quick eye and hand to shoot them. They are inhabitants of northern seas; there they build their nests in some solitary islet or desert promontory, where they lay two eggs, oblong in shape, and more or less shaded of an Isabella white. Fish, particularly the herring, form their principal food; crustaceans and marine vegetables are also eaten by them. Their flesh is tough and leathery, and tastes disagreeable. In the winter they migrate to temperate countries, where they frequent the rivers and lakes, returning to the northern regions when the ice has broken up. There are three species described: the Great Northern Diver, _Colymbus glacialis_; the Arctic Diver; and the Imber Diver. But there is considerable doubt on this subject, the young of _C. glacialis_ of the first and second year being so unlike the parent birds as to have been long supposed a distinct species. THE GREAT NORTHERN DIVER (_Colymbus glacialis_). ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Northern Diver: Montagu, Selby. Speckled Diver, Ember Goose: Gunner. Ring-necked Loon. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Colymbus glacialis_: Linn., Adult, Latham, Jenyns, Brien. _Colymbus Immer_: Young, Linn., Latham. FRENCH SYNONYM.--_Plongeon Imbrim_: Temminck. [Illustration: Fig. 80.--Great Northern Divers (_Colymbus glacialis_).] The Great Northern Diver is among the mass of those birds which seek their food on the bosom of the great deep. It is not numerous in British waters, and can scarcely be called gregarious, although adults sometimes, and the young more frequently, form small parties of two to five. A wanderer on the ocean, it not only frequents the margins of the sea, fishing in the bays and estuaries, but it is also met with many miles from the shore. Narrow channels, firths, coves, sea-locks, and sandy bays are, however, its favourite resorts; there it floats, the body deeply immersed in the water. But though deep in the water, it moves on steadily and majestically; it overtakes and shoots ahead of all its more buoyant congeners. But let us watch the actions of a pair of these children of the ocean, and listen while Mr. McGillivray describes one of those picturesque scenes in which he delights. "It is now the end of spring, when the returning warmth gives an increase of animation to the wandering tribes of the winged inhabitants of the ocean air; but the Loon makes comparatively little use of his wings, and his great bulk and robust frame would be ill adapted for the hovering flight of the Gulls and Petrels. There he comes, followed by his mate, advancing with marvellous speed. They have rounded the point, and now stop for a moment to cast a searching glance along the shore, lest an enemy should be lurking there. Forward they start--the smooth water rippling gently against their sides. Small effort they seem to make, and yet powerful must be the stroke of the oars which impel masses so large at so rapid a rate. Now and again they dip their bills into the water; then the head and neck. One glides gently under the surface, without plunge or flutter, and in a few seconds it appears with a fish in his bill, which, with upstretched head and neck, it swallows. The other having also dived, appears with a fish, larger, and less easily managed. She beats it about in her bill, plashing the water, and seems unable to adapt it to the capacity of her gullet; but at length, after much striving, she masters it, and continues her search. Backwards and forwards, over the clear sand of the shallow bay, they glide in their quiet way, and now they have both dived with their heads towards us. One rises close to the sea-weed, and so near to us, that we might almost count the spots on his back. The other, in emerging, has perceived us, and somehow communicates the discovery to her mate. They swim about for a short while with erected necks, then sink into the water, their heads disappearing last; and when we see them again, they are three hundred yards distant, standing out to sea, with half-submerged bodies." "If shot at and not wounded," continues this most picturesque of writers on Natural History, "it never flies off, but dips into the water and rises at a great distance, and unless shot dead, there is little chance of procuring it, for its tenacity of life is great, and its speed far exceeds that of a four-oared boat." The great American naturalist, Audubon, has left a most interesting account of this bird in his "Ornithological Biography." After describing the various Transatlantic localities in which he has studied its economy, he describes its nest. "One that I saw," he says, "after the young had left it, on Lake Cayuga, was almost afloat, and rudely attached to the rushes, more than forty yards from the land, though its base was laid on the bottom, the water being only eight or nine inches deep. Others I examined in Labrador were placed on dry land, several yards from the water, and raised to the height of nearly a foot above the decayed moss on which they rested. The nest, however placed, is bulky, and formed of withered grasses and herbaceous plants found in the neighbourhood. The true nest, which is from a foot to fifteen inches in diameter, is raised to the height of seven or eight inches. Of the many nests I have examined, more contained three than two eggs, and I am confident that the former number most frequently occurs." Of this handsome bird Sir John Richardson remarks, contrary to the generally-received notion, that it is seldom seen either in the Arctic Sea or Hudson's Bay, but that it abounds in all the inland lakes. It is rarely found on land, being ill fitted for walking, but admirably adapted to aquatic habits, swimming with great swiftness and for considerable distances under water; and when it does come up, seldom exposing more than its neck. It flies heavily, but rather swiftly, and in a circle round those who have disturbed it in its haunts; its loud and melancholy cry resembling the howling of the Wolf, or the distant scream of a man in distress. When the Loon calls frequently, it is supposed to portend a storm. In the bad weather preceding the advent of winter on the smaller northern American lakes, previous to migration, their wild, weird note is so unnatural, that both the Indians and settlers ascribe to it supernatural powers. The Imbrine Diver, _L'Imbrim_ of Buffon, is also a fine bird of blackish plumage shaded with white, the belly and a ring round the neck being also white. The head is of a changeable black and green colour. When it has young, in place of diving under water, as its ordinary habit is when threatened, it boldly attacks its enemies with its beak. Its skin serves the Greenlanders as clothing. It inhabits the Arctic seas of both hemispheres, is abundant about the Hebrides, in Norway, in Sweden, and even on the coast of Scotland. Its appearance on the French coast is very irregular, and only after great storms. The Arctic Diver, _C. arcticus_, has the beak and throat black; summit of the head ashy grey; the breast and the sides of the neck white, with black spots; the back and rump black; the coverts of the wings with white spots, and all the lower parts pure white. The bird, though rare in England and France, is very common in the North of Europe. It is found on the lakes of Siberia, of Iceland, in Greenland and Hudson's Bay, and sometimes in the Orkney Islands. The women of Lapland make bonnets with its skin dressed without removing the feathers; but in Norway it is considered an act of impiety to destroy it, as the different cries which it utters are said to prognosticate fine weather or rain. THE BLACK-THROATED DIVER (_Colymbus arcticus_). ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Black-throated Loon, Black-throated Diver: Montagu, Selby. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Colymbus arcticus_: Linn., Latham, Temminck, Jenyns, Yarrell, Bonaparte. FRENCH SYNONYMS.--_Plongeon Lumme_: Temminck. _Plongeon Arctique_: Cuvier. Smaller and more slender than the Great Northern Diver, this species retains many of its characteristic habits. It floats deep in the water, and when alarmed swims at surprising speed, with outstretched neck and rapid beat of the wings, and little more than its head above the surface. It flies high and in a direct course with great rapidity. Mr. Selby describes an ineffectual pursuit of a pair on Loch Shin, in Sutherlandshire, which was long persevered in. In this case submersion frequently took place, which continued for nearly two minutes at a time, and they generally reappeared at nearly a quarter of a mile distant from the spot at which they went down. In no instance did he ever see them attempt to escape by taking wing. "I may observe," says this acute ornithologist, "that a visible track from the water to the nest was made by the female, whose progress on land is effected by shuffling along upon her belly, propelled from behind by her legs." When swimming, they are in the constant habit of dipping their bill in the water with a graceful motion of the head and neck. The eggs, of which there are two, sometimes three in the same nest, are of a very elongated oval form, three inches in length, two inches in their greatest girth, and of a brownish olive sprinkled with black or dark-brown spots, and are larger at one end than at the other. THE RED-THROATED DIVER (_Colymbus septentrionalis_). ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Red-throated Loon, Red-throated Diver: Montagu, Selby, Yarrell. Speckled Diver: Montagu. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_C. septentrionalis_: Linn., Latham, Jenyns, Bonaparte, Temminck. _C. borealis_, _Siviatus_, and _stellatus_: Latham. FRENCH SYNONYMS.--_Plongeon Col Marin, ou à Gorge Rouge_: Temminck. The Red-throated Diver is smaller than either of the preceding, the plumage is dense and firm, the wings of moderate length, the tail rounded and firm. From the beginning of October to the middle of May these birds are constantly found on our northern coasts, and on the rivers and estuaries with which they abound. When on a long journey, they keep at a great height, moving rapidly in a direct course with outstretched wings. On these occasions they exceed the speed of most of their congeners. With their long outstretched necks and snow-white breasts, from their comparatively short wings, they present a curious and novel sight. When swimming they are extremely vigilant, and permit nothing to approach them. On the appearance of a boat they glide as it were out of sight under the water, without noise or flutter, and thence pursue their way with great rapidity, using wings as well as feet to propel themselves. THE PENGUINS (_Aptenodytes_) Belong exclusively to cold countries. They rarely quit the vicinity of land, yet only take to the shore in the breeding season, or when driven by squalls and storms from their favourite element. On shore they are compelled to sit erect. They carry the head very high and the neck stretched out, while their short winglets are advanced like two diminutive arms. When they sit perched in flocks on some lofty projecting rock they might be mistaken at a distance for a line of soldiers. [Illustration: Fig. 81.--Penguin (_Aptenodytes_).] At certain periods of the year the Penguins assemble on the beach as if they preconcertedly met for deliberation. These assemblies last for a day or two, and are conducted with an obvious degree of solemnity. When the meeting results in a decision, they proceed to work with great activity. Upon a ledge of rock, sufficiently level and of the necessary size, they trace a square with one of its sides parallel and overlooking the edge of the water, which is left open for the egress of the colony. Then with their beaks they proceed to collect all the stones in the neighbourhood, which they heap up outside the lines marked out, to serve them as a wall, to shelter them from the prevailing winds. During the night these openings are guarded by sentinels. They afterwards divide the enclosure into smaller squares, each large enough to receive a certain number of nests, with a passage between each square. No architect could arrange the plan in a more regular manner. What is most singular is that the Albatross, a bird essentially aërial, and adapted for flight, associates at this period with these half fish, half birds, the Penguins; so that the nest of an Albatross may be seen next the nest of a Penguin, and the whole colony, so differently constituted, appear to live on the best terms of intimacy. Each keeps to its own nest, and if by chance there is a complaint, it is that some Penguin (probably the king Penguin, for he is generally the greatest thief) has robbed the nest of his neighbour, the Albatross. Other sea-birds come to partake of the hospitality of the little republic. With the permission of the masters of the coterie they build their nests in the vacancies that occur in the squares. The female Penguin lays but one egg, which she only abandons until hatched for a few instants, the male taking her place while she seeks her food. The Penguins are so numerous in the Antarctic seas that a hundred thousand eggs have been collected by the crew of one vessel. The Manchots (Fig. 82) have been described by most of the French naturalists as a distinct species, but there is little doubt of their being only a variety of the Aptenodytes. They abound in the southern seas. Their short, stunted wings, which quite incapacitate them from flying, are reduced to a flat and very short stump, totally destitute of feathers, being covered with a soft down, having something of the appearance of hair, which might be taken for scales. Like the Penguin, the Manchots are excellent swimmers and incomparable divers, and their coating of down is so dense that it even resists a bullet; it is consequently difficult to shoot them. Everything about these birds indicates their adaptation to an aquatic life. Their feet are placed at the extremity of the body--an arrangement that renders them awkward and heavy when ashore; where, in short, they only come to lay and hatch their eggs. They begin to assemble in great numbers at the commencement of October. Their nests are a very simple construction; for they content themselves with digging in the sand a hole deep enough to contain two eggs--but more often one than two. [Illustration: Fig. 82.--The Manchot (_A. Patachonica_).] In spite of the limited number of eggs, the quantity of these birds found in the south of Patagonia is something prodigious. When sailors land in these high latitudes they take or kill as many as they choose. Sir John Narborough says, speaking of those at the Falkland Islands, that "when the sailors walked among the feathered population to provide themselves with eggs, they were regarded with sidelong glances." In many places the shores were covered with these birds, and three hundred have been taken within an hour; for generally they make no effort to escape, but stand quietly by while their companions are being knocked down with sticks. In another islet, in the Straits of Magellan, Captain Drake's crew killed more than three thousand in one day. These facts are not exaggerated. This island, when visited by these navigators, was, so to speak, virgin; and the birds had succeeded each other from generation to generation in incalculable numbers, hitherto free from molestation. The Penguins have no fear of man. Mr. Darwin pleasantly relates his encounter with one of these birds on the Falkland Islands. "One day," he says, "having placed myself between a Penguin (_A. demersa_) and the water, I was much amused by the action of the bird. It was a brave bird, and, till reaching the sea, it regularly fought and drove me backwards. Nothing less than heavy blows would have stopped him. Every inch gained he kept firmly, standing close before me firm, erect, and determined, all the time rolling his head from side to side in a very odd manner, as if the powers of vision only lay in the anterior and basal part of each eye." This bird, Mr. Darwin states, is called the Jackass Penguin, from this habit, when on shore, of throwing its head backwards, and of making a loud strange noise very like the braying of an ass. They defend themselves vigorously with their beaks when an attempt is made to lay hands upon them; and when pursued, they will pretend to retreat, and return immediately, throwing themselves upon their assailant. "At other times they will look at you askance," says Pernetty, "the head inclined first on one side, then on the other, as if they were mocking you." They hold themselves upright on their feet, the body erect, in a perpendicular line with the head. In this attitude they might be taken for a party of choristers with white surplices and black gowns. Their cry strikingly resembles the braying of an ass. Navigators passing these islands of the southern seas might suppose that they were densely inhabited, for the loud roaring voices of these birds produce a noise equal to that of a crowd on a fête day. The flesh is most unpalatable, but it is frequently the only resource of ships' crews who find themselves short of provisions in these inhospitable regions. As to the eggs of most of the Palmipedes, they are said to be excellent. THE GREBES. The Grebes (_Podiceps_) have the head small, the neck somewhat elongated, the legs attached to the abdomen, the tail rudimentary, the tarsi compressed, the anterior toes united at their base by a membrane slightly lobed in its contracted extent. These birds live principally on the sea, but they inhabit fresh water by preference, feeding on small fishes, worms, mollusks, insects, and the products of aquatic vegetation. While they dive and swim admirably, they also fly with vigorous wing when pursued; but they rarely ascend into the air unless they are alarmed, or under migrating impulse, which disperses them among the interior lakes in the autumn, and compels them to select a favourable breeding-place in the spring. The nest of the Grebe is usually placed in a tuft of rushes, on the edge of the water. It is composed exteriorly of large grassy plants roughly interlaced, and the interior is lined with soft broken grasses delicately arranged. The eggs vary from three to seven. On shore they cannot walk at all, but creep, so to speak; for they must hold themselves nearly upright, supported on the croup, the toes and the tarsi being extended laterally. But ungraceful as they are on shore, so much greater is their elegance on the water. They are covered with a close warm down--so close and so lustrous, that muffs of a silvery white are made of the down-covered skins of their breast, which are impervious to water. M. Noury, Director of the Museum of Natural History at Elboeuf, who has carefully studied the habits of the Grebes, relates of the Castanean Grebe, _P. cornutus_, that its nest is a perfect raft, which floats upon the surface of our ponds and lakes. It is a mass of thick stems of aquatic herbs closely woven together; and as these materials contain a considerable quantity of air in their numerous cells, and from disengaging various gases besides in decomposing, these aëriform supporters render the nest lighter than the water. In this improvised ship, and upon this humid bed, the female Grebe silently sits upon and hatches her progeny. But if anything unforeseen disturbs her security, this wild bird plunges one foot into the water, which she employs as an oar to transport her dwelling from the threatened danger. Grebes are inhabitants of the Old and New Continents. Among the European species may be noticed the Crested Grebe (_Podiceps cristatus_), Fig. 83, about the size of a Duck, ornamented with a double black crest; the Horned Grebe (_P. cornutus_), provided with two long tufts of feathers, in form somewhat resembling a horn; the Eared Grebe (_P. auritus_), distinguished by its beak, the base of which is depressed, while the point is raised upwards. Among the American species may be mentioned _P. Carolinensis_ and _P. rubricollis_, killed at the Great Slave Lake, along with _P. cristatus_ and _P. cornutus_. _P. Chilensis_ and _P. Americanus_ are natives of the warmer parts of America, of St. Thomas, St. Domingo, and the Philippines. THE CRESTED GREBE. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Greater Crested Grebe: Jenyns. Crested Grebe: Montagu, Selby. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Colymbus cristatus_: Linn., Yarrell. _C. urinatur_: Young, Linn. _Podiceps cristatus_: Latham, Jenyns, Bonaparte, Selby. FRENCH SYNONYM.--_Grèbe huppé_: Temminck. [Illustration: Fig. 83.--The Crested Grebe (_Podiceps cristatus_).] The Crested Grebe is found along our coasts, and in their estuaries, in limited numbers; but in the splendid lakes of the North American fur-countries, according to Dr. Richardson, this species is very abundant. Mr. Audubon says that it returns to the United States from its northern wanderings about the beginning of September, and proceeds south as far as Mexico, a few stragglers only remaining on the lower part of the Ohio, Mississippi, and the neighbouring lakes. "They pass swiftly through the air," says this enthusiastic naturalist, "at the height of about a hundred yards, in flocks of from seven and eight to fifty or more, proceeding in a loose body, and propelling themselves by continual flappings, their necks and feet stretched out to their full extent. When about to alight on the water, they glide swiftly downward, with their wings half closed, producing a sound not unlike that of a Hawk swooping upon its prey. At this moment their velocity is so great that, on alighting, they glide forward on the surface of the water for twenty or thirty yards, leaving a deep furrow in their wake. They are exceedingly quick-sighted, and frequently elude, by diving, the shot which is aimed at them." [Illustration: Fig. 84.--Guillemots (_Uria Troile_).] The Guillemots (_Uria_), Fig. 84, have the beak long, straight, convex above, somewhat angular below, a little curved and hollowed at the extremity of each mandible; the legs are short, compressed, and placed well behind the body; the three anterior toes are united by the same membrane; the claws recurved and pointed; no hind toe; the wings are straight, and the tail short. These birds, when placed on the ground, raise themselves with great difficulty, owing to the conformation of their legs. They only come ashore when driven there for shelter by the storm, or for breeding. For the latter purpose they choose some precipitous coast where the rocks project in ledges, from which they can throw themselves into the sea if they are disturbed. Boldly-scarped cliffs, which rise perpendicularly from the waves, are consequently their favourite breeding-places. There it is necessary to seek them. Unfortunately, the demand for the wings and down of the Guillemots has reached a point which is not unlikely to lead to their extermination. One London dealer, we are told, has given an order at Ailsa Craig, on the Clyde, for a thousand sea-birds weekly; and the tacksman of the rock is so intent on supplying the demand, that he spreads his nets while the birds are sitting on the newly-hatched young, which are thus left in thousands to perish from being deprived of a mother's fostering care. Among the Guillemots, the female lays only one large egg. They feed on fishes, insects, and crustacea. They principally inhabit northern regions, visiting our shores and other temperate climates when the ice has invaded their summer home. In their migratory journeys they must trust to their wings--which, however, as already observed, are very short. They are consequently not possessed of long powers of flight, and skim the surface of the water, rarely rising much above the surface. Their progress, however, is sharp and rapid, but of short duration. The Guillemots during winter are frequently seen in immense numbers on Rock-all Bank and on the banks of Newfoundland. So little are they alarmed at the approach of a vessel, that should they be directly in her track, they will only dive to save themselves. These banks are several hundred miles from land. The whole race of aquatic birds of which we have spoken, whether Divers, Penguins, Grebes, or Guillemots, are, in these northern regions, a valuable resource, where vegetation almost entirely ceases. The poor people whose lot compels them to live there obtain in their feathers, skin, oil, and eggs, clothing, food, and light during their long and gloomy winter. But to obtain what they truly consider a blessing from heaven, they have to surmount innumerable difficulties, the birds often building their nests in islets almost unapproachable, or on rocks rising perpendicularly out of the water. Slung upon seats hung from the summits of these crags, the courageous islanders suspend themselves, in the breeding season, to gather and make, so to speak, a harvest of the sea-fowls' eggs. Some of these men walk along the rocky coast, furnished with a conical net attached to the end of a pole, which enables them to secure the birds flying around them, much in the same manner as boys catch butterflies in the meadows. But chasing these graceful swimmers at the foot of their rocky retreat is mere trifling; the dramatic and dangerous incidents occur at the summit of the steep, giant cliffs. The intrepid inhabitants of the Feroë Islands, which are situated to the north of Scotland, between Norway and Iceland, in the Atlantic Ocean, proceed as follows in the search after eggs. The fowler begins operations by swarming, as schoolboys call it, up a pole, which carries him to the first projecting ledge of the rocks. This point attained, he throws a knotted rope to his companions, who soon join him on the aërial cliffs. The same manoeuvre is performed, stage by stage, until they reach the summit. But this is nothing; he has now to visit the recesses in which the nests are to be found. [Illustration: Fig. 85.--Catching Birds and gathering Eggs in the Feroë Islands.] Upon the edge of the rock a beam is run out horizontally; to this beam a two-inch rope, which is not less than nine hundred feet in length, is attached. To the end of this immense line a plank is tied, upon which the fowler seats himself. This man holds in his hand a light cord for the purpose of signalling to his companions above. The fowler, thus seated, descends from cliff to cliff, and from rock to rock; he visits every nook and cranny in search of plunder, making an ample harvest of eggs and birds, either taking them by hand, or striking them with the end of his line. The product of his perilous expedition he places in a sort of haversack, which he carries slung from the shoulder. When he wishes to change his place, he gives a preconcerted signal with his cord, imparting an oscillating motion to it in the direction of that part of the rock he wishes to visit. When the harvest is deemed sufficient--when the day's sport is concluded--his companions are notified, and the fowler is hoisted to the summit of the cliff. How incredible is the address, and how great the courage, required to induce a man to let himself be suspended by a slender cord over a precipice some hundreds of feet in height, and how hazardous, how frightful the peril! The cord might be cut by chafing against the sharp rock. What risks he runs on changing his place! It has sometimes happened to those above to hear one loud heart-rending shriek--the cry of despair. The men who hold the rope lean forward--they see nothing--they hear only the great voice of the sea, which drowns all other sounds as it breaks against the island. They hasten to draw up the cord--alas! its reduced weight too plainly tells what has happened! The fowler has been seized with vertigo; or, probably, he has overreached himself and lost his equilibrium on the slippery stones, and the wave which roars at the base of this wall of rock has closed over him. It is such accidents as these which induce the inhabitant of the Feroë Islands, when he leaves his house on such an expedition, to bid farewell to his family. Fatal catastrophes, however, are not very frequent. Men who live in those climates which nature seems to have, as it were, disinherited, become accustomed to struggle with the elements, and almost always to triumph over the dangers which surround them. They go to demand from the abyss food for their wives and children, and the idea animates and sustains their courage. THE COMMON GUILLEMOT (_Uria Troile_). ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Lesser Guillemot: Montagu. Foolish Guillemot: Montagu, Selby, Willock, Linn. Marrot, Scout, Sea-Hen, Scuttock: Local. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Uria Troile_: McGillivray, Latham, Jenyns, Bonaparte. _Colymbus Troile_: Latham. FRENCH SYNONYM.--_Guillemot à capuchon_. Individuals of this species are to be found dispersed over all our seas, in small parties or singly, during the interval between the breeding seasons. In estuaries, bays, and narrows, where herrings or other fry are abundant, they congregate in vast numbers, along with Auks, Red-throated Divers, and Gulls of various species. About the end of April great quantities may be seen flying in strings along the coast towards their favourite haunts, which are the precipitous cliffs of Flamborough Head, the Farn Islands, St. Abb's Head, and other well-known spots on the English and Scottish sea-board. No preparation is made for the reception of the eggs, which are deposited in hollows of the rocks and ledges of the cliffs, each female laying a single one, although a great number are often seen so closely packed together as to be possibly covered by one bird. Where the cliffs are lofty and other birds breed with them, the Guillemot occupies a zone above the Kittiwake and below the Razor-bill. "It is interesting," writes McGillivray, with the enthusiasm of one who has tried it, "to visit one of the great breeding-places, to row along the foot of the cliffs in a boat, or to stand on a near promontory, and see the multitudes perched on the rocks, or flying out to sea or returning; or to look out from the summit upon the groups in sight; or startle from their stations a whole flock by letting down a large stone; or to descend by some crevice, clinging with fingers and unshod feet to the little narrow ledges, and creep in among the eggs; or to be let down, dangling on a rope, half trembling between fear and excitement." CHAPTER II. DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS. Willoughby distributes the Palmipedes into such as have the back toe, and those in which it is absent; the former, again, into such as have the four toes webbed together, and such as have the back toe separated from the others. These latter he again subdivides into narrow-billed and broad-billed; the former having their bills either hooked at the end or straight and sharp-pointed. The hook-billed have them either even or toothed on the sides. Those which have them straight or sharp-pointed are either short-winged and divers--such as Doukers and Loons--or long-winged, such as Gulls. The broad-billed are divided into Ducks and Geese. The Ducks are either Sea or Pond Ducks. "The Ducks," he adds, "have shorter necks and larger feet, in proportion to their bodies, than Geese. Howbeit, the biggest in this kind do equal, if not exceed, the least in that. They have shorter legs than Geese, and situated more backward, so that they go waddling; a broader and flatter back, and so a more compressed body; and, lastly, a broader and flatter bill. Their tongue is pectinated, or toothed, on each side, which is common with them and the Geese." "The Ducks are of two sorts, either wild or tame. The wild, again, are of two sorts:--1, Sea Ducks, which feed mostwhat in salt waters, dive much in feeding, have a broader bill (especially the upper one), and bending forward to work on the stem; a large hind toe, and then, likely for a rudder, a long train, not sharp-pointed. 2, Pond Ducks, which haunt plashes, have a straight and narrower bill, a very little hind toe, a sharp-pointed train, a white belly, speckled feathers, black, with glittering green on the middle wing, with a white transverse ring on either side." According to Mr. Yarrell, the first division of Ducks comprises the Wild Duck, Shieldrake, Muscovy Duck, Gadwall, Shoveller, Pintail, Widgeon, Bimaculated Duck, Garganey, and Teals, all of which exhibit length of neck, wings reaching to the end of the tail, tarsi somewhat round, hind toe free or without pendent lobe. They generally frequent fresh water, but pass much of their time on land, feeding on aquatic plants, insects, worms, and sometimes fish. The second division includes the Red Crested Duck, Poachard, Ferruginous Duck, Scaup, Tufted Duck, Harlequin Duck, Long-tailed Duck, and Golden Eye; while between the two divisions he places, as possessing some of the characters of each, the Eider Duck, King Duck, Velvet Duck, and Scoter. McGillivray accepts this arrangement, with some slight variations, remarking that the differences as to habits, as well as structure, are quite obvious; and he gives us a graphic description of the three types. "High in air," he says, "advancing on gently-arched and outspread wings, that winnow a passage for them over the far-spreading sea, is seen advancing from the north a flock of large birds, that are observed, as they draw nearer, to be arranged in lines ever undulating and changing figure; while their clear cries seem to express their joy at having escaped the dangers of their long passage over the waste of waters. Now they descend, mingle their ranks, wheel in dislocated bands, unite, sweep along, and, clamorous in their joy, at length alight on the open pasture. Having rested awhile and plumed themselves, they begin to move about in search of food, walking sedately and with decurrent necks, stretching their strong bills to the ground, from which they wrench the roots of the grasses, and pluck the herbage. Prudent, however, as they well need be in an unexplored tract, and careful of their safety, they neither scatter about at random nor leave themselves subject to surprise. Should a suspicious object present itself, one of them presently erects himself and emits a warning cry, on hearing which they all rise together, raise their necks to their full stretch, and carefully inspect the ground. Should the danger be imminent, they run a few paces forward, spread out their large wings, ascend into the air, and betake themselves to some distant place." These are of the first division, or _Cribatores_, as Mr. McGillivray calls them--more useful to man than the other aquatic birds, many of them not only affording him savoury food, but feathers, quills, and down; while some have become domesticated, and rival the Gallinaceous Fowls in utility: these are the Ducks and Geese of the poultry-yards and commons. These web-footed birds, the _Lamellirostræ_ of Cuvier, are distinguished from all others by their laminated bills, which are thick, have a covering of soft skin, also small teeth placed along the edge. The tongue is fleshy, broad, and dentated on the edge. They are aquatic, and principally inhabit fresh-water lakes and rivers. Their wings being short, and living chiefly on the water, they are badly qualified for a sustained flight. Their food is mostly vegetable. Numerous flocks of Ducks, of various species, frequent the sea-shores and the rivers of all parts of the world. No family of birds seems more profusely distributed over the world of waters, and some of them are remarkable for the brilliant colouring of their plumage. On land, the waddling gait of Ducks is anything but graceful, but in the water their appearance is alert and elegant. Look at them as they glide lightly over the surface of the stream, or mark them as they plunge into its bosom with a splash, either to bathe themselves or seek their food! All their movements here are executed with graceful ease, and it is easy to see that they are in their natural element. They love to paddle in the mud, where they often find a sufficient supply of food to satisfy their voracity. But no description of animal matter comes amiss to them, whether water-insects, worms, slugs, snails, small frogs, bread, fresh or tainted meat, fish, living or dead. They are such gluttons, that we have seen two of them fighting and disputing for more than an hour over the skin of an eel, or some other garbage, which one of them had partly swallowed, whilst his antagonist was dragging at the other end. To this division of the Anatidæ belongs the Mallard, or Wild Duck, which may be considered typical of the others, and which is generally supposed to be the ancestor of the Domestic Duck. THE COMMON DUCK, OR MALLARD. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Mallard: McGillivray, Jenyns. Common Wild Duck: Montagu, Selby. LATIN SYNONYM.--_Anas boschas_: Linn., Latham, Jenyns, Bonaparte, Temminck. FRENCH SYNONYM.--_Canard sauvage_: Temminck. [Illustration: Fig. 86.--Wild Ducks (_Anas boschas_).] The plumage of the Wild Duck is dense and elastic. The head, throat, and upper part of the neck of the male are adorned with hues of a bright emerald green, shot with violet; its breast is of a purplish brown; its back is ashy brown, sprinkled with greyish-white zigzag bars; the four feathers in the middle of the tail, curling up at the end in a semicircle, are of a blackish hue with a green reflection; its length is about twenty-four inches; length of wing, thirty-five inches. The female, which is always smaller than her mate, does not possess the bright colours which adorn the Drake. Her plumage is brown and russet grey. Individuals sometimes, though seldom, vary. Sir William Jardine states that he has seen Drakes having the upper parts of a bluish grey, decreasing in depth of colouring down the breast; and Mr. Yarrell mentions two instances in which females of this species have assumed, to a considerable extent, the appearance and plumage of the Mallard, even to the curling feathers of the tail. On the other hand, the male plumage, according to Mr. Waterton, undergoes a singular alteration. About the end of May the breast and back of the Drake begin to change colour; in a few days the curled feathers of the tail drop out, and grey feathers begin to appear in the lovely green plumage round the eyes; and, by the 23rd of June, scarcely one green feather remains. By the 6th of July all the green feathers have disappeared, and the male has assumed the female garb, but darker in colour. In August this new plumage begins to drop off, and by the middle of October the Drake again reappears in all the rich magnificence of its former dress. The Wild Duck (Fig. 86) forms the original stock from which our Domestic Ducks have sprung. Their favourite resorts are to be found in those hyperborean regions whose rigorous climate renders it uninhabitable by man. The rivers of Lapland, Greenland, and Siberia are sometimes literally covered with them; and, in the month of May, their nests are there found in quantities which the imagination can scarcely picture. At the first approach of frost their earliest harbingers begin to appear among us, and about the middle of October these travelling bands arrive in increasing numbers. Wild Ducks have a powerful, sustained, and rapid flight. With one stroke of the wing they raise themselves either from the land or water, and mount perpendicularly above the summits of the loftiest trees, when they take a more horizontal course, maintaining themselves at a great height, and making long journeys without rest. Triangular columns of them may sometimes be seen directing their unerring course towards their destination, the rustling of their wings being heard at considerable distances. The leading bird, which directs the course of the band, and which is thus exposed to the first resistance of the wind, from being foremost to cleave the air, soon becomes fatigued, when it falls back into the second rank, its place in the van being immediately taken by another (Fig. 87). Wild Ducks are extremely suspicious in their nature. When they want to settle down on any spot, or to go from one pool to another, they sweep round in concentric curves, descending and ascending again and again, until they have made a complete survey of their intended halting-place. The margins of fresh-water lakes, pools, and marshes are the principal localities frequented by the Wild Duck, so long as the frosts of winter do not prevent their obtaining the water-insects and aquatic weeds on which they feed. But when the frost has congealed the stagnant waters, they take themselves off into more temperate climates, invariably following the course of the rivers and running streams. When they return northward after the great thaw--that is, about the end of February--they keep in pairs, and disperse themselves in search of breeding-places among the rushes, reeds, and sedge-grasses, constructing a bulky nest of weeds, which is simply placed on the ground, and generally near to water. [Illustration: Fig. 87.--Flight of Wild Ducks.] Much elegance is not to be looked for in the nest of the Wild Duck. A favourite situation is a thickly-growing tuft of sedge, and they content themselves with plucking off a few of the blades, the ends of which they bend down so as to form a foundation, the surface being covered with a soft layer of down. Their nests are occasionally found at some distance from the water, amidst heath or broom, or even in the fork of a tree, the female having been known to take possession of a Magpie's or Crow's nest which had been abandoned. The Duck lays from five to ten eggs, and sometimes more; their colour varies, but is generally a dull greenish white. The female sits alone, and only leaves the nest to seek her food. When leaving her nest, she covers it up carefully with any rubbish at hand; on her return, the cunning creature alights a considerable distance from it, and glides through the grass, looking in every direction to see that she is not watched; if discovered, she will even feign lameness to induce pursuit, so that she may draw off intruders. Incubation lasts about a month. The young ones are then hatched, all generally bursting the egg on the same day. They are covered with a close yellow down, and are quite alert when they leave the shell; and their mother soon leads them down to the water, encouraging them by her example to enter it. They do not return to the nest. At night their mother covers them under her wings, and at first feeds them with the small flies that come within her reach. The ducklings, although they soon learn to swim, are unable to fly till after the expiration of three months; after that lapse of time wing-feathers are developed sufficiently to enable them to take flight. But they are always alert and active on the water, diving and remaining under it for many minutes with nothing but the bill above the surface. When danger approaches, the mother utters a peculiar cry, and the young ones immediately conceal themselves. In a ditch full of water, Mr. McGillivray once came upon a whole brood of half-grown ducklings which disappeared in a moment; and although he searched everywhere for them, he did not succeed in finding a single one. When the Duck perceives the great Black-backed Gull, the ruthless enemy of her race, she beats the water with her wings as if to attract the attention of the aggressor. On his approach she darts at him with so much vigour that she compels him to retire, shamefully beaten. Audubon relates a remarkable instance of maternal affection in this bird. The American naturalist had found in the woods a female of this species at the head of her young brood. As he approached, he noticed that her feathers became erect, and that she hissed with a threatening gesture, after the manner of Geese. In the meantime, the ducklings made off in all directions. His Dog, which was perfectly trained, brought the little creatures to him, one by one, without doing them the least injury. But in all his proceedings he was watched by the mother, who kept passing and repassing in front of him, as if to distract his attention. When the ducklings were all safe in the game-bag, in which they struggled and cried out, the mother came with a sad and troubled air, and placed herself close to the sportsman, as if unable to suppress her despair. Audubon, seeing her grovelling almost under his feet, was filled with pity, and restored her little family before leaving the spot. "When I turned round to watch her," adds the naturalist, "I really fancied I could detect an expression of gratitude in her eyes; and I experienced at that moment one of the most vivid sensations of pleasure I have ever enjoyed." Whilst the mother is devoting herself to the education of her brood, the father pays but little attention to his progeny. Jaded and thin, he lives a solitary and quiescent life, more sad and wild than ever. He has, in fact, to submit to a most sudden course of moulting. The female also loses her plumage after the young ones are hatched. They neither of them regain their more brilliant dress until the end of autumn. [Illustration: Fig. 88.--Shooting over Decoy Ducks.] There are numerous instances proving that Wild Ducks are susceptible of attachment to man, and it is certain that they can be easily tamed. They also breed readily with the Domestic Duck; and the crossed birds thus produced are said to have an excellent flavour, and to fatten with facility. Mr. St. John, in his "Wild Sports in the Highlands," remarks that he has frequently caught and brought home young Wild Ducks. "If confined in a yard with tame birds for a week or two, they strike up a companionship which keeps them from wandering when set at liberty. Some years ago I brought home three, two of which turned out to be Drakes. I sent away my tame Ducks, and the next season I had a large family of half-bred and wholly Wild Ducks, as the tame and wild bred together quite freely. The Wild Ducks which have been caught turned out the tamest of all,--throwing off all shyness, they follow their feeder, and will eat corn out of the hand of any one they know; while the half-bred birds are inclined to take wing and fly away for the purpose of making their nests at a distance." [Illustration: Fig. 89.--Open Duck-shooting.] The flesh of the Wild Duck is much esteemed. But they are birds which are very difficult to approach, in consequence of their suspicious nature; and in order to get even a long shot at them, it is necessary to have recourse to stratagem. Even when successful in your aim, the shot often fails to penetrate, owing to the thick layers of their downy covering. Various artifices, therefore, are employed to lure them, all of which require some cleverness. They are shot from a watching-place, being seduced to its neighbourhood by employing Domestic Ducks which act as decoys (Fig. 88). They are also shot from huts on the edge of the water. Sometimes they are attracted by means of lights, or by imitating their call. Many are taken in nets, in decoy-weirs, and in snares; they are sometimes even taken by means of baited fish-hooks, and many other strange contrivances. The ordinary open Duck-shooting, as represented in Fig. 89, is far from being so productive as some of the former methods, but it is much more attractive. No sport is more uncertain, but occasionally none is more fruitful, or more full of unexpected successes. Duck-shooting from a hut, as represented in Fig. 90, is the method most practised. The sportsmen are hidden in a small hut placed on the edge of some lake or river, or it may be erected in the middle of the water on a heap of stones. Here they lie in wait for the birds in order to get a close shot at them. They generally use fowling-pieces of great length and large calibre, called Duck-guns. Shooting from Duck punts is also practised all round the coast, and on the larger lakes, ponds, and estuaries. On the Saône, the gunners, accompanied by a boatman, take their places in a long, light, narrow, pointed boat, or punt, called a _fourquette_. The two men, lying down in the bottom of the boat, are hidden by faggots placed in front of them, the muzzle of the duck-gun protruding through the faggots. Thus floating down the river among the Ducks, they get an opportunity of shooting them without being perceived. Sportsmen in France sometimes employ a very odd artifice to baffle the suspicious instinct of these birds: a man disguises himself as a cow by means of an outline of the animal roughly made of common cardboard. Under favour of this disguise he gets near the Wild Ducks without exciting their fears, if only aware how to make good use of his device; that is, if he describes gentle and graceful curves, so as to advance gradually without alarming the timid Palmipedes. But this sport, though productive enough when skilfully managed, is not unattended with danger. A sportsman, who had dressed himself up in this disguise, happened inadvertently to find his way among a herd of cattle, which, detecting the imposture, immediately ran at him and chased him about the meadow. He thought himself fortunate in escaping with the loss of his disguise, which he abandoned to the fury of his horned assailants. [Illustration: Fig. 90.--Duck-shooting from a Hut.] Large numbers of Ducks are taken by means of nets and various snares, which want of space prevents us from here enumerating. The Domestic Duck, _Anas domestica_, is a descendant of the Wild Duck, or, as some think, of the Shoveller. The first tame Duck, the ancestor of a family since so prodigiously multiplied, probably proceeded from an egg which had been taken from some reedy marsh, and hatched under a Hen. The Duck, however, has been reduced to a state of domesticity from a very remote period, and has been of incalculable utility to mankind, filling in our poultry-yards no unworthy place. Ducks' eggs are a wholesome and agreeable article of food, and the flesh of the bird itself is most savoury. Epicures highly prized, and rightly so, the _pâtés de foie de canard_ of Toulouse, Strasbourg, Nérac, and Amiens (we arrange them here in their order of merit, not according to Baron Brisse's _dictum_, but following our own poor gastronomic capabilities). Their feathers, although not so valuable as those of the Goose, are articles of considerable importance in commerce. Ducks produce large profits to those who rear them. They are by no means choice in their food. Nothing comes amiss to their palate; the corn scattered about the yard which is disdained by other fowls, and the meanest remnants of the leavings of the table and kitchen, they do not reject. All that they require as an essential is to have a little water within reach in which they can paddle at will. Ducks' eggs are often put under a Hen to be hatched. When seeking her food, the Hen sometimes leads her little flock to the edge of water, and gives them a glimpse of its dangers. But the ducklings, impelled by instinct, rush into the element they are most partial to. The poor mother, anxious for the fate of the young giddy-pates, which she loves as her own offspring, utters cries of terror. She would resolutely throw herself into the stream, and perhaps get drowned, were she not soothed by seeing them swimming about, happy and active. This shows her that in them she cannot recognise her own flesh and blood. There are several favourite varieties of the Domestic Duck, but those of Normandy and Picardy, in France, and the Aylesbury Ducks in England, are the most profitable. Every nation rears Ducks; but the Chinese undeniably most excel in this art. For hatching them the Celestials have recourse to artificial heat. They also possess some superb varieties, which have been recently imported into Europe, and are at the present time the glory of our ornamental waters. Magnificent pairs of Chinese Ducks, of which the Mandarin is the most beautiful, may be admired in the Jardin d'Acclimatation at Paris, at the Zoological Gardens of the Regent's Park, and also in the artificial waters in the parks and gardens of our principal cities. The Common Wild Duck, which we have described, is the type of the order of Ducks; but there are about seventy other species. The most remarkable are the Widgeon, the Poachard, the Shoveller, the Shieldrake, the Eider Duck, the Teal, the Black Diver, and the Merganser. THE GOLDEN-EYED GARROT. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Golden-eyed Garrot: McGillivray, Yarrell, Montagu, Jenyns, Selby. Golden-eyed Duck, Gewdy Duck, Pied Widgeon, Whistler. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Anas clangula_: Linn., Latham, Temminck. _Anas glaucion_: Bonaparte, Linn., Young, Yarrell, Latham. _Clangula vulgaris_: Selby. _Clangula chrysophthalmus_: Jenyns. The Golden-eyed Garrot, _Anas clangula_, is sometimes called the Golden-eyed Duck, on account of the brightness of the iris of its eye. In some provinces it has received the nickname of the Harlequin Duck, because its plumage, at a little distance off, looks as if it was composed of black and white feathers only. This variegated appearance, which occurs only in the males, makes a fine show on the dark pools and lakes of the north Highlands and Hebrides, where the scenery in winter is excessively dismal. When undisturbed, they float lightly on the surface; but if alarmed, they are said to sink themselves deeper in the water, diving rapidly, and swimming with great velocity. They fly also swiftly in a direct manner, their small, stiff, and sharp-pointed wings producing a whistling sound, which is heard in calm weather at a considerable distance.[24] They rise easily from the water, striking it with their feet and wings for several yards; but under alarm, or when there is a breeze rippling the surface, they can ascend at once. During winter they are met with in all parts of the country, from Shetland and Orkney on the one side, and from the Lewis Islands on the other, to the southern extremity of England. In Ireland, also, they are constant winter visitors; but they do not seem to breed with us, betaking themselves to the Arctic regions in spring, and returning in October. They are essentially lake Ducks; but they are also found on the open coasts and estuaries. Their flesh is dark-coloured and unsavoury, it requiring all the art of the cook to conceal its natural fishy flavour. [24] From the noise made by their wings they are in some localities called Whistlers. They are generally plentiful in our markets, where the young and females go under the comprehensive name of Widgeons. The Golden-eyed Garrot flies low and rapidly. In the month of November it reaches France in small flocks, to remain till the spring. Then it returns to its native country--Sweden, Norway, or Lapland. As it is not a shy bird, the sportsmen on the sea-coasts of Picardy, Normandy, and the Landes kill large quantities of them. THE POACHARD. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Red-headed Poachard: McGillivray. Poachard Montagu. Common Poachard: Jenyns. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Anas ferina_: Linn., Latham, Temminck. _Aythya ferina_: Bonaparte, McGillivray. _Fuligula ferina_: Selby, Jenyns. FRENCH SYNONYM.--_Canard melouin_: Temminck. The Poachard nearly resembles the American Canvas-back Duck, but is unlike any British species in form. Its body (of the male) is large, full, depressed, and elliptical in form; its neck long and thick; the head large, oblong, compressed, and rounded above. The plumage is dense, soft, and glossy. The feathers on the fore part of the head are small and stiff; on the remainder of the head and neck soft, silky, and blended. The wings are short, curved, narrow, and pointed. The bill black to a little beyond the nostrils, the intermediate space light greyish blue. The head, and half the neck all round, are of a fine brownish-orange tint. The Poachard (Fig. 91) is, next to that of the Common Wild Duck, the variety which is most plentiful on our waters. It is almost as large as the latter; it makes its nest in the rushes round pools or lakes, and feeds upon the roots of grasses and aquatic plants, also on worms, mollusks, and small fish. They are plentiful in the eastern counties south of the Humber, and in the fen counties; and it occurs in America, where, as Dr. Richardson states, it breeds in all parts of the fur countries, from the fiftieth parallel to their most northerly limits. Audubon found it abundant in winter about New Orleans, in East Florida, and in Chesapeake Bay. "Although they dive much and to a great depth in our bays and estuaries, yet, when in the shallow ponds of the interior, they prefer dabbling in the mud along the shores, much in the manner of the Mallard." [Illustration: Fig. 91.--Poachard (_Anas ferina_).] This bird reaches France in little flocks of twenty to forty in the month of October. It can easily be caught in nets. THE SHOVELLER. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Blue-winged Shoveller: McGillivray. Common Shoveller: Selby, Jenyns. Shoveller: Montagu. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Anas clypeata_: Linn., Latham, Jenyns, Temminck. _Rhynchaspis_: Bonaparte, McGillivray. FRENCH SYNONYMS.--_Canard Souchet_: Temminck. _Rouge de Rivière_: Figuier. The Shoveller (Fig. 92) is very common on the Seine and the Marne, where it is called _Rouge de Rivière_. It is smaller than the Common Wild Duck, and has a very long bill, with the upper mandible of a semi-cylindrical shape, dilated at its extremity, somewhat in the form of a small spoon. This bird is really charming in the brilliancy of its plumage. Its head and neck are of a bright green, and its wings are variegated with streaks of a brilliant pale blue, green, white, and black. It is called "red" because its plumage underneath is of a brownish-red hue. In the month of February it abandons the icy regions of the north, to visit the more southern lakes and rivers of France and Germany. With us it is only a straggler, although in former days, when our system of drainage was less perfect, it was a more frequent visitor. In France considerable numbers of the Shovellers remain and breed. It dwells in marshes, on lakes and large rivers, being seldom found near the sea-coast; feeding occasionally on vegetable substances, but chiefly on fresh-water mollusks, worms, and insects, for grubbing up which, and separating them from the sand and mud, its bill is evidently well adapted. [Illustration: Fig. 92.--The Shoveller (_Anas clypeata_).] The Shoveller is met with in various parts of Europe, as well as in Asia, Africa, and America, where it is found widely dispersed. The nest is constructed on the borders of rushy lakes, and they lay from eight to twelve eggs. When first hatched, the young ones are excessively ugly, their beaks being almost as large as their bodies. The flesh of the Shoveller is tender and delicate, and preserves its pink colour even after it is cooked. THE SHIELDRAKE. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Burrow Shielduck: McGillivray. Shieldrake: Montagu, Selby, Jenyns. Popular names: Skeldrake, Skelgoose, Skieling Goose, Burrow Duck, St. George's Duck, Stockannet. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Anas tadorna_: Linn., Latham, Temminck. _Tadorna vulpanser_: Selby, Bonaparte, McGillivray. FRENCH SYNONYM.--_Canard Tadorne._ This very beautiful bird is a permanent resident in the British Islands, although it is only met sparingly along our coasts. It resorts in spring and summer to the sandy bays on the west coast of England and Scotland, from the Land's End to the Shetland Islands. In autumn and winter it is found on the eastern coast both of Scotland and England, where many individuals remain to breed. It is generally found in the neighbourhood of sandy, marshy land and moist meadows near the sea. It walks with a quickish step, and has a swift flight, something like the Mallard, and with a more rapid beat of the wings than the Goose. [Illustration: Fig. 93.--The Shieldrake (_Anas tadorna_).] The Shieldrake (Fig. 93) is the most remarkable of all the Duck tribe, not only from its size, but from its beauty, and the elegant variations of its plumage. It is larger and stands higher on its legs than the Common Wild Duck. The plumage is full, soft, and blended; the feathers of the head and upper neck are small and silky. The colours are very brilliant, being of a glossy blackish green on the head and neck, with purplish reflections in some lights; a broad band or ring of white is found on the neck, and lower another of orange-red encircles the fore part of the body. The rest of the under parts are white, with a band of glossy black on the breast and belly; the back white, variegated with black, white, russet, and green. The Shieldrake abounds on the coasts of the Baltic and North Sea; it is also found in America, and on the southern coasts of France, as well as on the edge of the Northern Ocean. The nest is usually placed in some indentation in the sand, the female frequently choosing a Rabbit's hole, which is often situated in sand-banks. The poor Rabbit, thus turned out of its burrow, never ventures to return to it again. THE EIDER DUCK. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Eider Duck: Montagu. Common Eider: Selby. White-backed Eider: McGillivray. Popular names: St. Cuthbert's Duck, Dunter Goose. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Anas mollissima_: Linn., Latham, Temminck. _Somateria mollissima_: Jenyns, Bonaparte, McGillivray, Selby. The Eider Duck, though remarkable for beauty of plumage, is nevertheless a very clumsy bird. In form it is bulky, depressed, and elliptical, with large, oblong, and compressed head. The plumage is dense and fine; the head-feathers are short, tufted, and rounded, and, blending with the terminal filaments, disunited; the wings diminutive, concave, narrow, and pointed, the tips of which extend to the base of the tail, which is short, round, and slightly decurvated. The Eider Duck is the northern bird which supplies the soft, light, and warm material which is so well known under the name of "eider-down." Its plumage is whitish, but the upper part of the head, its belly, and its tail are black; the side of the head, the throat, and the neck are white, but the hair-like feathers on the back part of the cheeks and nape are of a delicate pale green; the lower part of the neck is cream-coloured. The black parts from their glossiness are conspicuous, while the white look soiled; the head and back are also shaded with a green tint. The Eider Duck is found in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, occurring in diminished numbers in the latter. In the Outer Hebrides it has many breeding-places, and some nests occur on the Bass Rock, and on the Farn Islands, off the coast of Northumberland, where the eggs have been found in the month of June. The nest is made in some hollow in the turf, and is composed of sea-weed and dried grass, mixed with such marine plants as _Plantago maritima_ and _Coronopsis_. The eggs, which vary in number, are of a longish oval shape, smooth and glossy, and of a pale greenish grey. When they have been laid, the female is said to pluck the down from her breast and cover them over with it. This down, when shaken out, will occupy a space of nine or ten inches. This peculiar quality of the down, however, caused by its elastic character, belongs to all the Anatidæ, and probably not less so to the Anserinæ. The principal home of the Eider Duck is on the bleak and frozen sea-coasts of Northern Europe, and its food, which is obtained by diving, is the bivalve mollusca; also crustacea, fishes, and fish-spawn, together with aquatic worms. It makes its nest on rocks washed by the sea. Sometimes two female birds lay in the same nest, which then contains from nine to ten eggs, for each of them lays from four to six. The nest is roughly built with sea-weed, but it is lined inside with a thick layer of the bird's own down. "The Eider Ducks," as we learn from Willoughby, "build themselves nests on the rocks, and lay good store of very savoury and well-tasted eggs; for the getting of which the neighbouring people let themselves down by ropes dangerously enough, and with the same labour gather the feathers, or eider-dun, our people call them, which are very soft and fit to stuff beds and quilts; for in a small quantity they dilate themselves much, being very springy, and warm the body above any others. These birds are wont at set times to moult their feathers, enriching the fowlers with this desirable merchandise." "When its young are hatched," adds the English naturalist, "it takes them out to sea, and never looks at land till next breeding-time, nor is seen anywhere about our coasts." There seems to be some considerable difference between the down taken from the dead bird and that which the female plucks from her breast. The lightness and elasticity of the latter are such that two or three pounds of it squeezed into a ball which may be held in the hand will expand so as to fill a quilt large enough to cover a bed. When the female prepares her nest, she lines it as above mentioned; when she has laid her four or six eggs, which are about three inches in length and two in breadth, she strips herself a second time; should this down be abstracted, as it generally is, and she is unable to supply more, the male submits himself to the same plucking process, his contribution being known by its paler colour. The haunts of a bird yielding so valuable an article are carefully watched, and proprietors do everything in their power to attract them to their land; and in Scotland and Norway the districts resorted to by the Eider Ducks are strictly preserved, everything likely to disturb them being carefully guarded against. Pennant thus records a visit he paid to one of their breeding-places in the Farn Islands on the 15th of July, 1769:--"I found the Ducks sitting," he writes, "and I took some of the nests, the base of which was formed of sea-plants and covered with the down. After separating it carefully from the plants it weighed only three-quarters of an ounce, yet was so elastic that it filled a greater space than the crown of the largest hat. These birds are not numerous on the isles, and it was observed that the Drakes kept on the side most remote from the sitting-places. The Ducks continue on the nest till you come almost to them, and when they rise, they are very slow fliers. The eggs are of a pale olive colour, large, glossy, and smooth; they are from three to four, warmly bedded in down." Sir George Mackenzie, in his "Travels in Iceland," says that "the boat in its approach to Vidöe passed multitudes of Eider Ducks, which hardly moved out of the way; and between the landing-place and the governor's house it required some caution to avoid treading on the nests, while the Drakes were walking about even more familiar than common Ducks. The Ducks were sitting on their nests all round the house, on the garden wall, on the roof, in the inside of the house, and on the chapel." The locality where the Eiders make their nests is always difficult of access. Nevertheless, the inhabitants of Iceland, Lapland, and the coasts of the North Sea invariably secure them. The harvest which is derived from these birds is the source of a considerable revenue, eider-down being, in fact, a very large article of commerce. The rocks where the Eider Ducks lay their eggs are private property, and are handed down in families just as if they were the most valuable possessions. THE COMMON TEAL. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Common Teal: Montagu, Selby. Green-winged Teal. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Anas crecca_: Linn., Latham, Flemming, Temminck, Jenyns. _Querquedula crecca_: Bonaparte, Selby, McGillivray. FRENCH SYNONYM.--_Canard Sarcelle._ [Illustration: Fig. 94.--Common Teal (_Anas crecca_).] This is the smallest of the Duck kind known in the British Isles. It is a remarkably beautiful bird, and in colouring as well as in form closely resembles the Mallard, but is much smaller. It frequents marshy places and the margins of lakes and rivers, seldom betaking itself to estuaries or the sea-coast until frost sets in. It walks with ease, swims with great dexterity, flies rapidly, and is in all respects remarkable for its activity. It rises from the water or the land at once, and shoots away with great rapidity, so that the marksman who would bring it down must be very expert with his gun. It breeds in the long reedy grasses on the margin of lakes, or on upland moors and marshes. Its nest is a mass of decayed vegetable matter lined with down and feathers, in which it lays ten or twelve eggs, about an inch and three-quarters in length and an inch and a quarter in breadth. North of the Tay they are found occasionally all the year round, returning, according to Mr. St. John, year after year to breed, if left undisturbed in the process of incubation. "If we compare," says Mr. McGillivray, "the Common Teal (_Anas crecca_, Linn.), with the Garganey (_Anas circia_), the Gadwall (_Anas strepira_), and the Pintail Duck (_Anas acuta_), we find slight differences in the form of the bill, in the elongated lamella of the upper mandible, in the length of the neck and tail; but they are all so intimately connected that, unless each species can be converted into a genus, there can be no reason for separating them." He classes them accordingly under the general name of Teal. This bird makes its appearance in France in spring and autumn. It breeds in all the temperate climates of Europe, and pushes on towards the south as the winter advances. Of the Teals there seem to be three, probably four, species, which in our climate may be divided into three--namely, the Common Teal, _Anas crecca_; the Summer Teal, _Anas circia_; and the Little Teal, or Black Diver, _Anas nigra_. According to Columella, in his work "De Re Rustica," the Romans succeeded in domesticating the Teal; but the bird has reverted to an entirely wild state, which is much to be regretted, for it would have formed a valuable addition to the poultry-yard, the flesh of the Teal being held in great estimation. The group of Ducks usually denominated Teal, Mr. Swainson has formed into the sub-genus _Boschas_, in which he also includes the Mallard, or Wild Duck. "As this is the most numerous group," says this writer, "so it exhibits a greater diversity of form among the species. They are all, however, characterised by a bill longer than the head, whose breadth is equal throughout; sometimes indeed a little dilated, but never contracted at the tip, while the laminæ of the upper mandible are entirely concealed by the margin of the bill." "The beautiful _Anas formosa_, which is essentially a Teal, differs," says a writer in the "Penny Cyclopædia," "in the greater length of the tail, thus connecting it more closely with the Pintail and other long-tailed species; while the bill, which is depressed in form in the Mallard as well as in the Common Duck, is convex, with projecting laminæ, in the Teal. Such is the case with the Blue-winged Teal of North America, in which the laminæ of the upper bill project nearly as much as in the Gadwall, while the upper mandible exhibits that sinuosity at the base which is seen in no other Duck except the Shoveller." Mr. Selby says of the Common Teal: "I am inclined to think that our indigenous breeds seldom quit the immediate neighbourhood of the places in which they are bred, as I have repeatedly observed them to haunt the same district from the time of their being hatched till they separated and paired on the approach of the following spring. The Teal breeds in the long rushy herbage about the edges of lakes, or on the boggy parts of upland moors." Very few of them are found, according to Mr. McGillivray, in the south of Scotland during the summer months. In winter, one of his correspondents informs him, it unites in large flocks, the Drakes having then a whistle like the Plover; but it has not been heard to use this call during the breeding season. The boldness of the female in defence of her young is very affecting. Mr. St. John describes an instance which occurred in Ross-shire. He was riding along when an old Teal, with eight newly-hatched young ones, crossed the road. The youngsters could not climb the bank, and all squatted flat down while he passed. He dismounted, and carried all the young ones a little distance down the road to a ditch, the old bird fluttering about all the time, and frequently coming within reach of his whip. The part of the road where he found them passed through a thick fir-wood covered with rank heather, and it was a great puzzle to him how such little things, scarcely bigger than a mouse, could have struggled through it. Next day he saw them all enjoying themselves in a pond a little distance off, where a brood of Teal appeared every year. Teal are less timid than the Wild Duck, and the sportsman, therefore, has not the same difficulty in getting within shot of them. They breed in great numbers in some of the Highland lochs, and Mr. St. John says that in August he has seen perfect clouds of them rise from some calm, glassy lake at the report of a gun. THE VELVET DUCK. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Velvet Duck: Montagu. Velvet Scoter: Selby, Jenyns, McGillivray. Black Duck, White-winged Black Duck, Black Diver, Double Scoter. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Anas fusca_: Linn., Latham, Temminck. _Oidemia fusca_: Selby, Jenyns, Bonaparte, McGillivray. _Anas nigra_: French writers. FRENCH SYNONYM.--_Canard Macreuse_: Temminck. The Scoters (_Oidemia_, Flemming) have the bill broad, with dilated margins, and coarse lamelliform teeth; a swelling above the nostrils, dividing them into two equal parts, both large and elevated. The Velvet Duck is the largest of the Scoters, and is distinguishable by the white band upon its wing, much-depressed body, thick neck, and large, oblong, and compressed head. They make their appearance in our bays and estuaries towards the end of autumn, and depart about the middle of April. In the evening they fly out to sea in flocks of fifteen or twenty when the weather is favourable, returning to the shore in the morning. They fly low, but with considerable speed, moving their wings quickly; and on arriving at a suitable place, they relax a little and alight on their hinder end, the body being kept oblique. On settling, they commence forthwith to feed. THE BLACK SCOTER. ENGLISH SYNONYM.--Black Scoter: Selby, Jenyns, McGillivray. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Anas nigra_: Linn., Latham, Temminck. _Oidemia nigra_: Flemming, Selby, Jenyns, Bonaparte, McGillivray. The Black Scoter arrives on our shores about the middle of autumn in considerable flocks, and is seen on all our western coast during winter, but is still more abundant on the French coast. It closely resembles the American Scoter, of which it is probably a variety. The Black Scoter (_Oidemia nigra_) is almost as large as the Common Wild Duck, but is shorter and more thickly made. Its plumage is entirely black; when young it is greyish. The Black Scoter passes its life on the surface of the water, and never ventures on the land except when driven by stress of weather, or for the purpose of making its nest in the marshes. It flutters rather than flies over the surface of the sea, and makes no use of its wings, except to escape some danger, or to transport itself from one point to another with more rapidity. Its legs, in flying, hang down, and constantly graze the surface of the water; it always appears as if it regretted to leave its favourite element. When on land, these birds walk slowly and ungracefully; but in the water they are never wearied. Like the Petrel, they have the singular faculty of being able to run about on the waves. They are natives of both the Old and New World. About the month of October, driven by the north and north-west winds, they come down from the northerly countries of Europe, and visit our Atlantic coasts and the Mediterranean. [Illustration: Fig. 95.--Black Scoter (_Oidemia nigra_).] The Black Scoter delights in the salt-water pools adjacent to the sea, and the sheltered creeks on the coast, in which they find a refuge against storms. In these places they become the objects of the terribly destructive sport of which we are about to speak. Two or three times during the winter, large placards exhibited in certain towns of the department of Hérault--at Montpellier, Cette, Agde, &c.--announce that large flocks of these birds (called _foulques_ in the country) having settled down on some adjacent lake, a day's sport will be had with them on a given date. The day is turned into a real fête by the sportsmen, and an extraordinary concourse of people are brought together. Every one starts in the middle of the night, some in carriages, some in carts, and the most humble among them on donkeys or on foot. At daybreak they reach the margin of the lake. When arrived there, they embark in boats, each provided with a rower. At a given signal the whole flotilla puts off from the shore, and advances slowly towards that part of the lake in which the Ducks are to be found. These unusual preparations are a cause of astonishment to the birds, which utter gentle cries of terror as they crowd together. The boats, however, hem them in on all sides, gradually contracting their circle so as to shut the birds up in an enclosed space. The Black Scoters, seeing the enemy advancing upon them, in their anxiety take to diving and plunging about. But, before long, being closely pressed, they spread their wings and take flight over the heads of their enemies. This is the signal for the commencement of the first volley. There is now no cessation in the resounding reports of the guns; for usually no less than five hundred sportsmen meet on the surface of a not very extensive lake, such as those of Mauguio or Palavas. The massacre lasts for some hours; in fact, these unfortunate birds, incapable of flying very far, are pursued from place to place by the pitiless boats, which are soon, like the bark of the venerable Charon, laden with the dead. When no birds remain on the lake, the boats return to the shore, rowing along the banks to hunt out the wounded. Three thousand of these birds will sometimes fall before the murderous guns in the space of a few hours. Almost as a matter of course, quarrels often arise among the sportsmen. The cause of dispute may be some bird which has been shot at from several boats at the same moment. These disturbances, which usually begin with shouts and abuse, from the warmth of the southern blood sometimes terminate fatally. In this sport tumult reaches its utmost pitch, and it is as productive of danger as of pleasure. Sometimes a boat capsizes, owing to the excessive eagerness of the rowers; sometimes a sportsman is wounded by an awkward neighbour, or two or three men fall into the water in trying to reach their prey. Such are the exciting scenes that I have often witnessed in my youth; they were the supreme delight of the boys of Clapas (Montpellier). The same sport is practised at Hyères, in the Var, and on the lake of Berre, near Marseilles. On the coasts of Picardy, where the Black Scoter abounds during winter, very destructive means are used for their capture. Nets are stretched horizontally in the water, above the banks of shell-fish which the sea has left uncovered at its reflux, and on which these birds feed. When they dive to seize their prey they become entangled in the meshes of the net, from which they cannot escape. The Black Scoter is also the object of individual sport when it does not arrive in these immense flocks. It is then shot from a boat like other water-fowl. The Black Scoter makes but a poor figure on aristocratic tables. Its flesh, which is by no means tender, retains a very decided marshy flavour. In former times it was much sought after, but not exactly for its culinary qualities. The reason this bird was shown such preference was because people were permitted to eat it in Lent in place of fish. The singular notions on which the Church of Rome founded this toleration--a toleration, however, which still exists in full force even at the present day--is as follows. The councils of the twelfth century permitted both the clergy and laity to eat Black Scoters during Lent because it was a generally-accepted idea, founded on the writings of Aristotle, that these birds were not produced from an egg, but had a vegetable origin. The learned of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, seeing large flocks of these birds suddenly appear, while nothing was known whence they came, indulged in all kinds of conjectures to explain this mysterious fact. They attributed to them origins which were marvellous; one conjecturing that the feathery appearance in the ciliated tentacles of certain mollusks which inhabit the barnacle shell changed into Black Scoters; others imagined that these birds proceeded from the wood of rotten fir-trees which had been long floating about in the sea, or even from the fungi and marine mosses which cling to the _débris_ of wrecked ships; others, again, went so far as to assert that the north of Scotland, and especially the Orkney Isles, produced a tree the fruit of which, falling into the sea, developed into the bird which was called _Anser arboreus_, in order to commemorate its origin: this bird they imagined was the Black Scoter. The naturalists who gave expression to these transcendental views might certainly boast that they had Aristotle on their side; for this distinguished philosopher believed in the spontaneous generation of various kinds of animals. He asserted, for instance, that rats sprung from decayed vegetables, and that bees proceeded from the carcass of an ox. Who, for instance, is unacquainted with the fine episode of the fourth book of Virgil's Georgics, where this poetic fiction is related in beautiful verse? As a matter of fact, however, Pope Innocent III., better instructed than Aristotle in this department of natural history, passed sentence on all these tales by forbidding its use during Lent; but no one, either in the monasteries, the castles, or the taverns, has ever looked at this interdict of the sovereign pontiff in a serious point of view. This controverted question, however, met with an unexpected solution. Gerard Veer, a Dutch navigator, in one of his voyages to the north of Europe, found some eggs of the Velvet Duck. Being ignorant of their nature, he brought them home, put them under a hen, and, when they were hatched, the produce exactly resembled the birds which were asserted by the ancients to proceed from the decay of vegetable matter. Gerard Veer made the announcement that these birds bred in Greenland, thus affording a complete explanation of the absence of their eggs in southern countries. This discovery of the Dutch navigator met with no favourable reception. The custom of eating the Velvet Duck in Lent had been long established; the Church allowed it, and every one was satisfied. Gerard Veer was sent back to his galliot, and all kinds of reasons were found for satisfying the consciences and stomachs of the faithful, which had been justly alarmed. There was, however, no deficiency in the arguments brought forward. It was asserted that the feathers of the Velvet Duck were of quite a different nature from those of other birds; that their blood was _cold_, and that it did not coagulate when shed; that their fat, like that of fishes, had the property of never hardening. The analogy between the Velvet Duck and the fishes being thus clearly established, the permission of the councils remained in full force. Finally, as the writers of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance were but indifferent naturalists, and had very vaguely described the Velvet Duck, the same mode of reproduction was ascribed to several other marsh-birds. As a matter of course, the same toleration in Lent was extended to them. The faithful were thus in the habit of indulging in various other birds, such as the Brent and Bernicle Geese. The opposing claims of devotion and appetite being thus harmlessly satisfied, no one cared to object to a supposition which gave such general satisfaction. We must add that this confusion of names still exists, for on the sea-coast several varieties of the Duck genus still go by the name of the privileged bird. There are five principal varieties of this species. The most remarkable are the Velvet Duck (_Oidemia fusca_), the Common Black Scoter (_O. nigra_), and the Great-billed Black Diver (_O. perspicellata_). THE GREAT-BILLED SCOTER. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Surf Scoters: Selby, McGillivray, Jenyns. Surf Duck, Black Duck: Pennant. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Anas perspicellata_: Linn., Latham, Temminck. _Oidemia perspicellata_: Selby, Jenyns, Temminck, McGillivray. FRENCH SYNONYMS.--_Macreuse à large bec_, _Canard marchand_. The Great-billed Scoter is a rare bird in this country, the only positive evidence of its occurrence being a female, shot in the Firth of Forth, mentioned by Mr. Gould, and a recently-shot specimen sent to Mr. Bartlett for preservation, and from which Mr. Yarrell derived his description. It is, however, stated by Audubon as being abundant in winter on the eastern coast of America, as far south as the mouth of the Mississippi. In Labrador he found a female on its nest in a marsh; the nest was snugly placed amidst the tall blades of a bunch of grass, and was raised fully four inches above the roots. It was composed of withered and rotten weeds, the former being circularly arranged over the latter, producing a well-rounded cavity, six inches in diameter, and two and a half deep; the border of the inner cup being lined with down from the birds after the manner of the Eider Duck. In it lay five eggs, the smallest he had ever seen in a Duck's nest. They are equally rounded at both ends, about two inches and a half long, and an inch and five-eighths in their greatest breadth; the shell perfectly smooth, and of a uniform yellow colour. The plumage of the bird is soft, dense, and glossy; the feathers of the head and neck blended and velvety; the wings short, narrow, and pointed; the upper mandible orange red, the protuberance on each side yellowish grey; at the base is a large square patch of black, margined with orange red, with a patch of greyish white in front. * * * * * Intimately allied to the Ducks in many respects, and to the Divers and Cormorants in others, are the Mergansers, a very distinct family, characterised by a large, elongated, and depressed body; long and slender neck; oblong, compressed head, narrowing anteriorly; bill straight, narrow, and slender, sub-cylindrical outwards, wide at the base, and abruptly hooked at the tip; margins of both mandibles serrated; the teeth directed backwards. THE GOOSANDER. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Goosander: Montagu, Selby, Jenyns. Dun Diver: Montagu. Buff-breasted Goosander: McGillivray. Greater Goosander, Saw-bill, Jacksaw. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Mergus merganser_: Linn., Latham, Temminck, Selby, Jenyns. _Mergus castor_: Linn., Latham. _Merganser castor_: Bonaparte, McGillivray. FRENCH SYNONYMS.--_Bieune_ of the old French. _Grand Harle_: Temminck. The Merganser (_Mergus_, from _mergere_, to submerge) is sometimes separated from the Ducks. Prince Charles Bonaparte includes in it two sub-genera, the Smew (_Mergus_) and the Merganser of Leach. The Merganser is distinguished by its slender and almost cylindrical bill, armed on the edges with points turning backwards, somewhat resembling the teeth of a saw; yet, in its general appearance, plumage, and habits, this bird bears much resemblance to the Ducks. The Mergansers very rarely come on land; they are exclusively aquatic, and frequent rivers, lakes, and pools, preferring them to estuaries; but they may be seen in summer fishing in the sea-lochs of Scotland. The Latins gave them the name of _Mergus_ in consequence of their habit of swimming with the body submerged--the head only appearing above the surface of the water. These birds feed on fish, of which they destroy an immense number. They also commit serious depredations on the spawning beds. They are able to accumulate a large quantity of air in the trachea, and can therefore remain some time under water without breathing. They take advantage of this for diving to the bottom to seek their prey, and they will often travel to a considerable distance before they appear again on the surface. The activity they display in pursuit of their prey is very great; for, in order to accelerate their speed in swimming, they make use of their wings as well as of their feet. The Merganser is in the habit of swallowing fish head first; consequently, it often happens that the remainder of the body of their prey is too bulky to be easily gorged; they are, however, very far from wishing to get rid of this temporary inconvenience, but wait till it becomes gradually absorbed. Sometimes the digestion of the fish's head has already commenced in the bird's stomach whilst the tail is still projecting from its bill. The flight of the Merganser is rapid and prolonged, without reaching any great elevation. Their gait on land is awkward and tottering. They generally inhabit temperate regions during the winter, and in spring return to the high latitudes of both hemispheres, which are their breeding-places. They lay from eight to fourteen whitish-coloured eggs, either on the shore between two large stones, or in thickets of grass on the edge of lakes and rivers: occasionally a hollow in a tree is selected; but it is invariably near water. Their nest is composed of dry grass, sedges, fibrous roots, and other similar materials, with a lining of down plucked from the breast. The Merganser is a regular visitor, in winter, to our coasts and inland lakes. It breeds in North Uist and others of the Outer Hebrides. Its flesh is unedible except when young. THE SMEW. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Smew: Montagu, Selby, Jenyns. Pied Smew: McGillivray. White Nun: Selby. Pied Diver, Vane Widgeon. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Mergus albellus_: Linn., Latham, Jenyns, Bonaparte, McGillivray. _Mergus minutus_: Young, Linn., Latham. FRENCH SYNONYMS.--_Harle Piette_: Temminck. _Harle Huppé_: Buffon. Like its congeners, the Smew is a native of the northern regions of both continents, retiring southward as the winter approaches, and spreading in great numbers over Germany, France, and Italy in October and November, and returning northward in April. North of the Humber it is a rare bird. Montagu says it is plentiful on the south coast, but that it is not known to breed with us. It is of elegant form, smaller than the Merganser, being only fifteen inches in length. The plumage of the head is full, soft, and blended; the upper part of the head and nape elongated, forming a gradually narrowing crest; the wings short, rather narrow, slightly convex, and pointed--when closed reaching to within an inch and a half from the end of the tail. The male bird, at maturity, has a great spot of greenish black on each side of the bill, and a longitudinal one on the occiput. The tufted crest, neck, scapulars, small coverts of the wing, and all the lower parts are pure white; the upper part of the back, the two crescents under the sides of the breast, and the edges of the scapulars are deep black; the tail is ash-coloured; sides and thighs are varied with ash-coloured zigzags; bill, tarsi, and toes are bluish ash; webs black, and the iris brown. In habit the Smew greatly resembles the Goosanders. [Illustration: Fig. 96.--The Smew (_Mergus albellus_).] * * * * * The Goose (_Anser_) forms a special genus among the Palmipedes. It is a bird which is often spoken of with contempt, though very improperly, for few birds are able to afford mankind the amount of service rendered by the despised Goose. THE WILD GOOSE. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Grey Lag Goose: Montagu, Selby. Wild Goose: Jenyns. Marsh Goose, Grey Lag, Grey Goose, Fen Goose. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Anas anser_: Linn., Latham. _Anser ferus_: Temminck, Jenyns, McGillivray. _Anser palustris_: Selby. _Anser cinereus_: Bonaparte. FRENCH SYNONYM.--_Oie Cendrée_: Temminck. The Wild Goose, though by no means elegant in form, has none of the awkwardness of the Domestic Goose, which is generally supposed to be descended from it. The body of _Anser ferus_ is large and full; the neck long, at its upper part slender; the head proportionately small, ovate, oblong, and rather compressed; the feathers of the head are small, short, rounded and blended, of a greyish brown; those of the upper part of the neck small and oblong, and arranged in ridges with deep intervening grooves, gradually getting paler until it fades into greyish white; the wings are long, reaching nearly to the end of the tail, the feathers of the fore part of the back and wings close, broad, and abrupt; the prevailing colour a bluish grey. The Geese in many respects resemble the Ducks and Swans, but they are less aquatic in their habits, keeping at a distance from large bodies of water, and frequenting, by preference, moist meadows and marshes, where they find herbage and various kinds of seeds, on which they principally feed. They swim very little, and seldom dive. They make their nests on the ground, and lay from six to eight eggs, which are hatched in rather more than one month. The young ones walk about and find their own food almost as soon as they are hatched. Geese, especially the male birds, moult twice a year--in June and November. The noise made by a flock of Geese seeking their food can be heard at a great distance. Their call, which is repeated at regular intervals, somewhat resembles the sound of a trumpet or clarion, and is accompanied by a continuous muttering noise in shorter notes. The hissing common to both Geese and Ducks is produced by two membranes placed in juxtaposition at the lower part of the trachea. These two membranes are situated side by side in the two bony and elongated openings of the internal larynx, from which the two principal bronchia have their origin. A close examination of this organ in the Goose is supposed to have contributed to the invention of certain wind instruments, such as the flute, bassoon, bagpipes, clarionet, and even the organ. When attacked, the Goose makes a hissing noise similar to that of some serpents. Endeavours have been made to express this sound by the three Latin words _strepit_, _gratitat_, _stridet_. The slightest noise wakes them up, when they at once give the signal of alarm, which immediately warns the whole flock of approaching danger. Thus, some authors have maintained that the Goose is more vigilant than the Dog; and in proof of this, instance the story of the Geese of the Capitol, whose wakefulness saved the Romans from an attempted assault on the part of the Gauls. The Roman people were grateful enough to award an annual sum for the maintenance of a certain number of Geese in the Capitol; and on the anniversary of the day when their services had been so valuable, they were in the habit of whipping the Dogs in front of the building, as a retrospective punishment for their culpable carelessness. [Illustration: Fig. 97.--Wild Goose (_Anser ferus_).] The Gauls, on the other hand, never pardoned the Goose for having baffled their attack. Frenchmen, even in the present day, possibly the descendants of the proud companions of Brennus, or of the conquerors of Northern Italy, appear still to inherit this ancestral hatred. At some of the French village fêtes they are in the habit of hanging up Geese by the feet in order to cut through their necks with a sword, or to beat them to death by hurling stones and sticks at their heads. At every blow the poor creature must suffer dreadful agony, but it is left in its pain until it dies a lingering death. It is then borne away in triumph by the conqueror, and its mutilated carcass afterwards appears at his table to be devoured by him and his companions. Happily, the Assemblée Nationale has now forbidden this brutal and sanguinary amusement as being dishonourable to a civilised nation. It is difficult to say why the Goose should have been considered, from the earliest ages, as the symbol of stupidity. Their sight is sharp and piercing, and they enjoy a remarkable delicacy of hearing. Their sense of smell, moreover, may be compared to that of the Crow. Their watchfulness seems never at fault. When they either sleep or eat, one of their number is placed as a sentinel. With neck stretched out and head in the air, it scrutinises the distant horizon in every direction, ready, at the slightest alarm, to give a signal of danger to the rest of the flock. The flight of Wild Geese indicates no slight degree of intelligence. They place themselves in two slanting lines, forming a < shaped angle, or sometimes in a single line, if the flock is not very numerous. This arrangement allows each bird to follow the main body with the least possible amount of resistance, and at the same time to keep its rank. When the individual which leads the flight begins to be fatigued, it takes its place in the rear, each bird in its turn leading the flock. These birds are too numerous to travel in large flocks; it would appear, therefore, as if they fixed upon some points where they separate in order to distribute themselves over various countries. In Europe Wild Geese come principally from Asia. On their arrival here, the flocks disperse themselves over different districts. In our land they make their appearance towards the beginning of winter, and depart towards the end of April. Formerly they are said to have been abundant, and to have been even permanently resident; now they are rare, and are seldom known to breed with us. On their arrival they resort to open pastures and cultivated fields, feeding on the roots of aquatic grasses, young corn, clover, and other green herbage. On an alarm being given by the sentinel on watch, they all erect their necks, run forward, and, uttering their loud, grating cry, spring into the air, departing with a heavy, measured, and lofty flight. According to Temminck, "the Wild Goose inhabits the seas, coasts, and marshes of eastern countries, seldom advancing northward beyond the fifty-third degree; it is abundant in Germany and in Central Europe; occasionally, in its migrations, it halts in small numbers in Holland." Those which visit France are the harbingers of the frost; and when they make an early appearance, it is well known that the winter will be a severe one. Although they live little in the water, Wild Geese repair every evening to the ponds and rivers in their neighbourhoods to pass the night; so that the Wild Goose only takes to the water when the Wild Duck is leaving it. These birds are very difficult to shoot in consequence of their lofty flight, from which they only descend when they see the water on which they are to pass the night. Even then their excessive caution renders nearly useless all the stratagems of the sportsman. The attempt is sometimes made to take them in the evening with nets, the wild ones being attracted by means of tame Geese, which are trained to act as decoys. The Ostiacs, on the banks of the Obi, in Siberia, pile up the snow, and, with the addition of branches, construct small huts. Near these they place some stuffed birds in the water; the Wild Geese dart on these and peck them to pieces. While thus busily occupied, they can easily be shot or taken with nets. But the most curious and difficult mode of capturing them is that followed by the adventurous inhabitants of St. Kilda, a little islet on the west coast of Scotland. Wild Geese of several species make their nests there in large flocks at the foot of the sea-washed rocks which surround the island. It is very doubtful if the Wild Goose, _Anser ferus_, is found among these. Both for strength and economy, the inhabitants use a cord made of thongs of twisted cow-hide covered with sheep-skin. With a rope of this description, two men climb to the top of a cliff; there they fasten themselves to either end of the cord; then one lets himself down over the face of the cliff, and the other clings to the rugged points above. The first man fills a sack with the eggs, and suspends by their claws as many goslings as he can hang to various parts of his person. When he has made his collection, his companion hoists him up by main force, twisting the cord round his own body after the manner of a windlass. This aërial and dangerous sport is very productive. A cow-hide rope forms a large portion of the dowry of a St. Kilda girl, and very often it is the sole dependence of a household. The hardy sportsmen have so much coolness and nerve, that accidents very rarely happen. The Bean Goose (_Anas segetum_) of most authors differs from the preceding in being somewhat smaller, and having the bill more slender, although not much shorter; the hind part of the back is also dark brown. In its habits it closely resembles the Wild Goose, for which it has probably been frequently mistaken. Vast flocks of this species frequent the northern waters, such as Montrose Bay, the mouth of the Findhorn, and especially the inland waters of Ross and Sutherland--thirty or forty pairs having their nests annually on Lake Laighal. The Domestic or Common Goose (_Anser sylvestris_) has been made the source of great utility and profit. It appears to be the civilised offspring of the Wild Goose, to which it bears the same proportions as other tame animals bear to their prototypes. Mr. Yarrell was of opinion that the White-fronted Goose (_Anser albifrons_) has concurred, with the _Anser ferus_, in producing our domestic race. In our poultry-yards the Domestic Goose begins, in the month of March, to lay from eight to twelve eggs. When they remain on the nest longer than usual, they are about to "sit." Incubation lasts for a month. No birds are more easily reared than goslings; they issue from the shell full of life, and covered with a delicate down. It is, however, necessary to keep them shut up for the first few days; if the weather permits, they may soon be released. Their first food is a paste formed of barley roughly ground, mixed with bran, moistened, and boiled in milk, with the addition of a few chopped-up lettuce leaves. When at large, it is necessary to keep them carefully from hemlock and other poisonous plants. Our ancestors, the Celts, the Gauls, and the Franks, reared a large number of these birds, and carried on a considerable trade in them, especially with Italy. Pliny, in his "Natural History," relates that he has seen immense droves of Geese, which were making their way towards Rome from different districts of Gaul, but especially from the country of the Morini (now forming the departments of the Nord and Pas-de-Calais). The conductors of these feathered flocks were in the habit of placing the tired ones in front, so that, being pushed forward by the whole column behind them, they were forced to move on in spite of themselves. In the present day, numerous flocks of Geese are driven in the same manner into Spain from the French departments of Lot, Dordogne, Lot-et-Garonne, Gers, Tarn, &c. The Goose, in its coarse and somewhat democratic condition, was good enough food for the Romans of the republic; but at a later period, when the people became more refined in their tastes, they invented a barbarous method of fattening it. By depriving them of water, movement, and light, an extraordinary development of the liver was produced, which gave them a particularly savoury flavour. This invention--the triumph of modern gastronomy--dates as far back as the days of Augustus and Varro; indeed, two persons of consular dignity disputed the honour of being its originator. In order to fatten Geese in this way, an abundant supply of food is administered, at the same time depriving them of light and exercise. This food consists of balls made up of maize and wheat, with which the poor creatures are crammed three times a day. In some countries they force whole grains of maize down their throats. At the end of about four or five weeks the fattening process is perfect. This is at all events considered to be the case when the wretched Palmipede exhibits signs of suffocation. This is certainly a cruel method of feeding; nevertheless, it is only by this plan that the delicious fat and plump livers so much appreciated by epicures can be obtained. The liver undergoes an alteration which in the end must prove fatal to the bird; in fact, it assumes enormous development; and the epicures, who hold it in such high favour, regard as a dainty this diseased liver! The introduction of the Turkey has led to the culture of the Goose being more neglected in Europe; nevertheless, the latter bird is a source of prosperity at the present day in many parts of France, and in many a rural district in England. In ancient times there was no entertainment or family festival without the traditional Goose smoking on the board. In England the Goose is still considered a festival bird. A custom intimately associated with their national history still dictates that every true Englishman should partake of Goose on Michaelmas Day. The flesh, and especially the fat of the Goose, keeps perfectly when salted down. In parts of the world, in this state it is much employed for culinary purposes. The enormous succulent livers which are found in these precious birds after their forcible fattening are used to make the delicious Strasbourg pies. Those of Nérac, as well as those of Toulouse, are made more of Ducks' livers, for the latter birds can be fattened in very nearly the same way as the Goose. The down and feathers of Geese are objects of considerable trade. Before the invention of steel pens, the only implement that was used for writing was the quill plucked from the wing of the Goose. Great care was necessary in _dressing_ them. This was done by passing the barrel of the quill through hot ashes, or plunging it into boiling water, with other clarifying processes. From under the neck, the wings, and the breast of the birds, the down is taken. This operation takes place every two months, from March until autumn. Geese are certainly not so stupid as they are usually said to be. The following facts will perhaps enable us to appreciate the moral qualities which distinguish them:-- In Scotland a Goose became so attached to its master, that it followed him about everywhere, just like a dog. One day this gentleman, after mixing with the crowd which was moving about the town he resided in, went into a barber's shop to get shaved. The faithful bird had followed him, and waited at the door until his master came out, in order to attend him in his subsequent movements, and then accompanied him back to his home. This intelligent creature could recognise its master's voice, although clothed in any disguise. In Germany a Gander was in the habit of leading an old blind woman to church every Sunday. It guided her by the skirt of her dress, always conducting her to the seat in the church which she usually occupied. Afterwards it returned into the churchyard to browse upon the grass. When the service was over, it waited, just like a faithful dog, to take charge of its mistress. One day, when the minister called upon her and found her from home, he expressed his astonishment that the poor blind woman should venture out alone. "Ah, sir," replied her daughter, "we have no fears about her--the Gander is with her." Our blind people would make their fortune if they could replace their traditional dog by a guide of this novel kind. The _Bernicle_, or Tree Geese, are so called from a foolish tradition of the Middle Ages of their being produced from the barnacle shell which attaches itself to ships' bottoms and timber floating in the sea. They differ from the true Geese in having the head smaller, the bill shorter and more conical, the breast-feathers much larger, and in the predominance of black in their plumage, bills, and feet. The plumage is full, very soft, and close. There are several species of _Bernicla_, which some recent writers have formed into a genus under that somewhat inappropriate name, the best-known species being the White-faced or Bernicle Goose, _Anser leucopsis_, Temminck, and the Black-faced or Brent Goose, _Anser bernicla_, of the same author. THE WHITE-FRONTED BERNICLE GOOSE. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Bernicle Goose: Selby, Montagu. White-faced Bernicle Goose: McGillivray. Common Bernicle: Jenyns. Clukis: Selby. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Anas bernicla_: Linn. _Anas erythropus_: Latham. _Anser leucopsis_: Temminck, Jenyns. _Anser bernicla_: Selby. _Bernicla leucopsis_: Bonaparte, McGillivray. FRENCH SYNONYM.--_Oie bernache._ In its winter plumage this is a beautiful Goose, much smaller than those just described, but with a full body, long neck, and a small, oblong, and compressed head, with soft glossy plumage well blended on the head, neck, and breast. It occurs in considerable flocks in the Outer Hebrides, where it arrives in October, and remains till April. A large flock of these birds sitting lightly on the water, advancing with elevated necks, presents a very beautiful spectacle. Nor are they less handsome on the wing as they shoot through the air, now arranged in long undulating ranks, at one time extending in the direct line of their flight, at another flying obliquely, or at right angles to it, and again mingling altogether under some unexplained impulse. Their voice, as it proceeds from a large flock at some distance off, is clear and shrill, producing a pleasant harmony. The Brent Goose, or Black-faced Bernicle, is much smaller than the _Anser leucopsis_, and easily distinguished from it by the face and head being entirely black. They seem to have visited our shores in great numbers in former years. In the years 1739-40 these birds were so abundant on the French coast that the people rose _en masse_ to destroy them, and so numerous on the Kentish coast that many were taken in a starving condition. Mr. McGillivray met with large flocks of them in Cromarty Bay, Beauley Firth, and Montrose Basin. Mr. Selby observed them as constant visitors on the shallow waters between Holy Island and the mainland, and other parts of the coast. [Illustration: Fig. 98.--White-fronted Bernicle Goose (_Anser erythropus_).] THE SWAN (_Cygnus_). The Swan, which belongs to the family of Lamellirostral Palmipedes, has been an object of admiration in all ages for its noble and elegant proportions, the graceful curvature of its neck, its small and shapely oval head, its beak so prominent at the base, the gracefully-swelling rotundity of its body, its plumage so abundant in down, and its colour of purest white of the species with which we are most familiar, and is the finest and largest of all our aquatic birds. On the water it is a picture of elegant ease; it swims apparently without effort, and with great rapidity; on the wing it rises to a great height, but on shore its walk is slow and cumbersome. It is found in Europe, Asia, and America; and in Australia the Black Swan, for ages the _rara avis_ of the poets, is very abundant. In the wild state it lives on the lakes, rivers, and sea-coasts of both hemispheres, feeding on such seeds, leaves, roots, water-insects, frogs, and worms as come in its way. In its domestic state it is the charm and ornament of our lakes and rivers; but, except in some few instances, it is only kept for show, being jealous and cruel in disposition, and incapable of being tamed. [Illustration: Fig. 99.--Swans (_Cygnus olor_).] The ancients thought the voice of the Swan musical and harmonious, and its gracefully-rounded form and stately neck inspired many poets, who have described it as the bird of gods and goddesses. The poetical imagination of the Greeks, in short, associated their most agreeable ideas with its name. It was one of their pleasing fictions that in dying and breathing out its last sigh, the Swan celebrated its death by a melodious song; or, as Eloy Johanneau has it-- "Le Cygne, à la fin de la vie, Fait entendre un touchant accord, Et d'une voix affaiblie Chante lui-même en mort." Buffon himself has drawn the portraiture of this bird in words more poetical than true:--"The Swan," he says, "reigns over the water by every claim which can constitute an empire of peace, grandeur, majesty, and kindness.... He lives more in the character of a friend than a monarch amid the numerous tribes of aquatic birds, all of which seem willingly to place themselves under his rule." The great naturalist certainly allowed himself to be led away by his enthusiasm, and perhaps by his classic recollections; for the Swan, although elegant and majestic in form, and graceful in its movements on the water, is clumsy and awkward when on land; it is, besides, spiteful and quarrelsome. It attacks every animal, and even man. The Swans in the gardens of the Luxembourg at Paris had taken an aversion to all the keepers, and whenever they saw one, they all came out of the water in order to pick a quarrel with him. The principal strength of the Swan does not lie in its beak, but in its wings--a most effective offensive weapon, of which it takes every advantage. In spite of its bad qualities, however, the Swan is the most ornamental of all our aquatic birds. Its beak is flesh colour, edged with black, and its plumage white as snow. Its song, or rather its cry, is indeed far from being harmonious. It is a dull and harsh sibilation, not at all agreeable to listen to. Some of the poets, however, have not believed the fable which attributes to these birds a sonorous and melodious voice. Virgil perfectly well knew how hoarse the note of the Swan really was-- "Dant sonitum rauci per stagna loquacia cycni." Lucretius also says-- "Parvus cycni canor." THE WHOOPING SWAN. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Whistling Swan: Montagu, Selby, Jenyns. Whooping Swan: McGillivray. Wild Swan: Hooper, Elk. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Anas cygnus ferus_: Linn. _Anas cygnus_: Latham, Temminck. _Cygnus ferus_: Selby, Jenyns. _Cygnus musicus_: Bonaparte, McGillivray. FRENCH SYNONYMS.--_Cygne à bec jaune_: Temminck. _Cygne sauvage_ of authors. This is, in all probability, the Swan so celebrated among the ancients. It is found in the northern regions of Europe and Asia; residing in summer within the Arctic circle, and migrating southwards and visiting Holland, France, and the British Islands in winter, although occasionally breeding in the north of Scotland. Southward, it extends to Barbary and Egypt; eastward, it wanders as far as Japan. The note of the Wild Swan is a sort of whoop, uttered several times in succession--a hoarse, hard, and rather discordant cry--and this has given it the name we have adopted; for it is difficult to imagine the grounds on which the Prince of Canino gave it the name of _Cygnus musicus_. The peculiar organic distinction of the Swan is the great length of the neck, consisting of twenty-three vertebræ, and the cavity in the sternum for the reception of the trachea, which is admirably described by Mr. Yarrell as descending the passage between the two branches of the forked bone called the merrythought to a level with the keel of the breast-bone, which is double, and receives the tube of the trachea between its two sides, which here turns upon itself after traversing the whole length of the keel, and passes upwards and forwards, and again backwards, till it ends in the vertical bone where the two bronchial tubes go off, one to each lobe of the lungs. This is the apparatus through which the cry is produced, which is variously described as a whistle, a whoop, or a song, according to the fancy of the writer. They fly at a great height when on a migratory journey, and in a wedge-like figure, uttering this note as they proceed, and when heard at a distance it is not unmusical. Mr. McGillivray listened to a flock of Wild Swans coming in from the Atlantic after a gale: their clear, loud, and trumpet-like cries delighted him as they sped their way in lengthened files; but they were too far off for him to decide whether or not they were of this species. From six to eight eggs, of a greenish white, the female lays, and the incubation lasts about six weeks. The cygnets are at first covered with a grey down, and do not put on their adult plumage until the third year. Swans care but little for concealing their broods, as they feel confident of their power to protect them against every enemy. They will fight even with the Eagle itself, harassing it with beak and wings, until the marauder is glad to make a more or less honourable retreat. In the protection of their young they display extraordinary courage. On one occasion a female Swan was sitting on the bank of a river, when she perceived a fox swimming towards her from the opposite bank. Thinking that she would be better able to defend herself in her natural element, she took to the water and went to meet the enemy which was threatening her brood. She soon reached him, and, springing upon him with much fury, gave him such a violent blow with her wing that the fox was disabled, and consequently drowned. The male Swan is equally with the female attentive to the young brood, and watches them with a rare devotion. He carries them about on his back, takes them under his wings to warm them, and never abandons them while they are still young. It is a beautiful sight to see him gliding over the water at the head of his young flock, looking far ahead with an inquisitive eye, and prepared to sweep away any opposing obstacle; whilst the mother keeps some distance behind, ready to protect the rear. How much, too, are they to be admired as they sail majestically over the surface of some solitary lake! If you hide yourself behind the thick reeds so that they have no suspicion of your presence, you may see these noble birds bending their necks into the most graceful curves, plunging their heads into the water, catching it up in their bills, and scattering it behind them, the drops falling round their bodies in glittering rain; or when, beating the water with powerful wing, stirring up a foamy wave, you may behold them all on a sudden, they will briskly spring up and glide majestically over the surface of the water, cleaving it before them with their graceful bodies as the ploughman opens a furrow in the ground with his ploughshare. Sometimes, however, these elegant birds engage in terrible combats with one another, which often lead to the death of one of the contestants. The Domestic Swan, a more civilised and well-informed bird, does not push matters quite so far; but Wild Swans, which live in the regions of the North--in the lakes of Iceland and Lapland--hold sanguinary tournaments in honour of their fair ones. A combat between two Swans is a duel to the death, in which both adversaries display not only unequalled strength and fury, but also considerable skill and perseverance. The strife will sometimes last several days, and does not terminate until one of the foes has succeeded in twisting his neck round that of his enemy, and has been able to hold him down under water long enough to drown him. But let us turn from this warlike spectacle and admire the Swan at the moment when, impelled by the stimulus of love, it displays all the graces with which nature has endowed it. Their long and supple necks entwine with one another like garlands of snow, their plumage swells up with gentle undulations, and they display all the splendour of their beauty. The Swan is certainly conscious of its good looks and grace, for it is constantly busying itself either in cleansing or polishing its feathers. Besides, it unites the useful and the ornamental, by extirpating the weeds which stagnate at the bottom, and by thus transforming what would be a nasty pool into a clear sheet of water. These birds do not afford good sport with the gun, being unapproachable. In Iceland and Kamtschatka, Swan-hunting takes place during the season of moulting, because the birds are then unable to fly. Dogs trained to this sport chase and run them down; the birds, being soon worn out with fatigue, are easily killed with sticks. The Russians have another mode of killing Swans. When the snows melt, they allure them by means of stuffed Geese and Ducks. The Swans dart furiously on these decoys. The sportsmen, hidden in a hut constructed of branches of trees and heaps of snow, at short range easily shoot them. The flesh of the Swan is very indifferent in flavour. Our fore-fathers ate it, but merely from ostentation, for it was only served up on the tables of the greatest nobles. At the present day, the city of Norwich has a preserve for Swans, which are only eaten at the municipal feasts, or sent as presents to distinguished individuals. In these cases, the birds being young and tenderly fed, are by no means, if properly cooked, a dish to be despised. The inhabitants of the frozen regions of the extreme north, even with their imperfect system of _cuisine_, do not entirely disdain it; but the cause for this is apparently something analogous to the philosophical saying, "as there are no thrushes, we eat blackbirds." [Illustration: Fig. 100.--Black Swans (_Cygnus atratus_).] The river Thames is remarkable for the number of Swans which live on it. The greater quantity of them belong to the Queen; the others chiefly to the Vintners' and Dyers' Companies of the City of London; but we never heard that these feast their guests on the noble birds. Deputations from the companies make an annual visit to their preserves, called Swan-hopping, or capering--that is, catching the cygnets, and marking them in the presence of the royal swanherd with the distinguishing brand of the society to whom the parent bird belonged. * * * * * Two species of Swans were recognised by Linnæus; but later naturalists, and notably the Prince of Canino, record four species known in Europe--namely, _Cygnus olor_, _C. immutabilis_, _C. musicus_, and _C. Bewickii_--besides the American species, namely, _C. americanus_ and _C. buccinator_. There is another species, peculiar to Australia, which is entirely black: efforts have been made successfully to naturalise it in Europe. THE BLACK SWAN (_Cygnus atratus_). SYNONYMS.--_Anas Plutonia_: Shaw. _Chenopis_: Wagler. We here give a representation (Fig. 100) of the Black Swan of Australia. This bird, which has now become so common in our ornamental waters, in some respects resembles the White species; it is all black, except a few of the secondary feathers, which are white. In a state of nature, the Black Swans are generally seen in flocks of eight or nine floating on lakes. When disturbed, they fly in single file, and are so shy that it is very difficult to get within gunshot when in captivity. Their note is less harsh than that of the Whooping Swan. THE FRIGATE BIRD (_Fregata_, Ray). ENGLISH SYNONYM.--Man-of-war Bird: Sloane. LATIN SYNONYM.--_Tachypetes_: Vieillot. The Frigate Bird is principally characterised by a strong, robust, trenchant bill, longer than the head, with mandibles hooked at the point; nostrils linear; orbits naked; throat dilatable; the front of the neck bare of feathers; wings very long and narrow, first two feathers longest; tail lengthy and forked; feet short; toes united by a membrane deeply notched. The Frigate Bird spreads its wings to the extent of three yards; its power of flight is, therefore, very great. It inhabits the tropical seas of both the Old and New World, and navigators assure us that they have met with it two or three hundred leagues from any shore. When a hurricane arises they mount up far above the storm, and remain in these empyrean regions until it is again fine weather. In consequence of their immense expansion of wing, they can sustain themselves in the air for days together without taking or requiring rest. Their sight is so piercing that, at a distance far beyond that which would render them invisible to us, they can perceive the flights of _Exocoeti_, or Flying Fish. From their elevated situation, they dart down upon their winged prey, which has relinquished its native element; and, keeping their neck and feet in a horizontal position, and thus grazing the waves, they grasp their victim, which little expected to meet with an enemy in the element which it sought for safety. It is no unusual thing for it to rob the Gannet of the fish which it has just caught: the unfortunate bird thus acts as purveyor to this sea-robber. The Frigate Bird is of such a combative temperament, and has such an unbounded confidence in its strength, that it is not afraid to defy even man. It has been known to dash at a sailor, and to snatch at the fish which he held in his hand. M. de Kerhoënt, a French navigator, relates that, during a residence at the Island of Ascension, a perfect cloud of Frigate Birds surrounded his crew. They hovered about, a few feet above the coppers of the open-air kitchen, in order to carry off the meat, without being intimidated in the least by the presence of his followers. Some of them approached so near that M. de Kerhoënt knocked down one of the impudent intruders with a blow of his stick. When these birds have thoroughly feasted on fish, or any other of the marine creatures which constitute their food, they take flight landwards, and proceed to perch upon a tree, in order to digest their food in peace. They assemble in large flocks on the islands where they are accustomed to breed. In the month of May they begin to repair their old, or construct new nests. They pluck off small dry branches with their beaks, and with these pieces of stick crossed and recrossed a foundation is formed. These nests are suspended from trees which hang over the water, or are placed on rocks in desert islands, overhanging the sea; in them they lay two or three eggs, said to be of a carnation colour dotted with crimson. These birds are common in the Brazils, in the Island of Ascension, at Timor, the Ladrone Islands, and the Moluccas: in fact, they are to be found in most tropical countries. Navigators, struck with the lightness of their flight and their slender shape, have given them the name they bear, thus comparing them with the fleetest and most elegant of men-of-war. Sir Hans Sloane, who saw numbers of them at Jamaica, describes them under the name of Man-of-War Birds. "They fly," he says, "like Kites, look black, are very large-winged in proportion to their size, and they fight with Sea Gulls for their prey." They are eminently raptorial. Ray speaks of their eagle eye, vulturine claws, and cat-like gliding movements, their immense extent of wing, and their dashing swoop. * * * * * The Palmipede we are about to notice received from Linnæus the mythological name of Phaeton, in allusion to the son of Apollo and Clymene, who is said to have made an audacious attempt to drive the chariot of the Sun. PELICANS. The _Pelicanidæ_, which Mr. Gray makes his sixth and last family of Palmipedes, includes Cuvier's Totipalmes, or birds having the hind-toe united to the others by a single membrane. This extensive family comprehends the Tropic Birds (_Phaeton_), the Anhingas (_Plotus_), the Boobies (_Sula_), the Cormorants (_Phalacrocorax_), and the Pelicans (_Pelicanus_). The group comprehends those birds which have the base of the bill denuded of feathers, the nostrils mere slots, in which the opening is scarcely perceptible; the skin of the throat more or less capable of distension; the tongue small. Some of the group are large and heavy birds, but they are all gifted with powerful wings; they are, at the same time, good swimmers. THE TROPIC BIRD (_Phaeton_). SYNONYMS.--_Lepturus_: Moehr. _Tropicoliphus_: Leach. Tropic Bird: Sloane, Catesby, and others. These birds are well known to navigators as the harbingers which foretell the approach to the Tropics. They are distinguished by two long, slender tail-feathers, whence their French name of Paille-en-Queue. They are gifted with great length of wing, which, with their feeble feet, proclaims them formed especially for flight. They are accordingly swift and untiring on the wing, heedlessly going far out to sea; forming, as Lesson remarks, a well-defined and purely geographical group, their homes being in rocky islands, to which they usually return every night. Nevertheless, he frequently met with them in sea-tracks far from any land, possibly they having been swept, by the sudden squalls and hurricanes so frequent in equatorial seas, beyond their natural limits. [Illustration: Fig. 101.--Tropic Bird (_Phaeton æthereus_, Linn.).] The Common Tropic Bird, _Phaeton æthereus_, seems to confine itself, according to this writer, to the Atlantic Ocean, stopping on the confines of the Indian Ocean; the other species, _Phaeton Phoenicurus_, seeming to belong further eastward, both meeting in nearly equal numbers at the Mauritius and other islands of the same group. Their flight is described as calm, quiet, and composed of frequent strokes of the wing, interrupted by sudden falls. The bird is about the size of a Partridge, with red bill and markings under the lower mandible; in general appearance it resembles the Gulls, but has longer and more powerful wings; the legs and feet are vermilion red, the latter webbed; the tail has two long, narrow feathers. One of their breeding-places is the Bermudas, where the high rocks which surround the island are a protection from the attacks of the fowler. _P. Phoenicurus_ is a larger bird, being thirteen inches from the bill to the root of the tail; the long tail-feathers being red of the deepest hue. The appearance of this bird announces, as we have said, that the navigators have entered the torrid zone, as this bird rarely goes beyond the limits of this region. It sometimes, however, pushes out to sea to a distance of a hundred leagues. When they are fatigued, aided by their large webbed feet, they rest upon the waves. Like many other ocean birds, their peculiar organisation prevents them settling from choice on the ground. They are, therefore, compelled to skim continually over the water, in which they feed upon the fish and mollusks, which form their principal food. When they are on the shore, the immense spread of their wings induces them to choose some elevated spot for a perch, such as the top of a tree or the summit of a rock. Worn out by fatigue, if they settle on the water, they are forced to wait until they are lifted up on the crest of a wave before they can again take flight. Their mode of flying is rather curious, for they communicate to their wings a kind of quivering motion, as if overcome by exhaustion. These birds seek some remote and solitary islet for the purpose of breeding. They build their nests in holes in lofty trees, or in the clefts of rocks, but always in some position difficult of access. They lay two or three eggs. The young ones, when just hatched, owing to their dazzling-coloured down, bear a considerable resemblance to powder-puffs. There are three species of the Phaeton--the Red-tailed Phaeton (_Phaeton Phoenicurus_), with white plumage, shaded with a light rose-coloured tint, having the two long feathers of the tail of a red hue. It inhabits the seas of India and Africa, Madagascar, the Isle of France, and the Pacific Ocean. The White-tailed Phaeton (_Phaeton æthereus_), with white plumage, with the two long feathers in the tail white. It is a native of the Atlantic Ocean. The Yellow-beaked Phaeton (_Phaeton flavirostris_) is distinguished by the colour of its beak. It is a native of the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius. THE DARTER (_Anhinga_). SYNONYMS.--_Plotus_: Linn., Klein, Scopoli. _Anhinga_: Brisson, Temminck. _Darter_ of English and American writers. [Illustration: Fig. 102.--Darter (_Anhinga_, Levaillant).] The Darter (Fig. 102) has a straight and pointed bill, with indentations at the point, turned in a backward direction. Its head is slender and cylindrical, and forms the termination of a slim and excessively long neck, which gives it much the resemblance of a serpent grafted on a bird. In all its movements this neck is the counterpart of the reptile, and imitates its undulations; therefore, in the United States it has received the name of the "Serpent-Bird." They are untiring swimmers and excellent divers. When any danger threatens them, they dive completely under water, and do not reappear until they have found some tufts of reeds in which to hide, even should the distance be as much as one thousand feet from the spot where it disappeared. These birds are of a wild and suspicious nature, confining themselves to solitary places. They perch upon trees which grow by the sides of a pool or river, in order to dart upon any unfortunate fish which comes within their reach, which they seize with extraordinary address, swallowing it whole if not too large. If they cannot manage this, they carry it to a rock, where they dismember it with their beak and claws. The Anhinga builds its nest on the topmost branches of trees, constructing it of dried twigs and reeds, and lining it inside with a thick layer of down. Only two species of the Anhinga are known: the _Anhinga (Plotus) Levaillantii_, a native of Africa, the plumage of which is black from the breast to the tail; and the Black-bellied Darter (_Plotus melanogaster_), an American species. Levaillant, in his usual lively manner, relates that he was induced to visit a rich proprietor in the Canton of the Twenty-four Rivers by a tempting description he received of two extraordinary birds which haunted the vicinity. They frequented a particular tree, and baffled him more than once by their skill; but at length he got within shot, and killed both of them right and left. He describes them as diving for fish. When they caught a small one it was swallowed; when a large one, it was carried to a rock or the trunk of a tree, when the bird, fixing it beneath its feet, picked it to pieces with its bill. Though the water is its favourite element, it is on trees and rocks, he tells us, that it establishes its nest and brings up its young, taking care to place the nest so that the young may be precipitated into the water as soon as they are able to swim, or when the safety of the family requires it. THE GANNET (_Sula_). SYNONYMS.--Solan Goose, Booby; _Fou de Bassan_ of the French. The Gannet is a massively-made bird, not of graceful shape; it is larger than a Duck, and has white plumage. They have obtained the name of "Booby" from the supposed stupidity which, rightly or wrongly, is attributed to them; for if a man finds one of these birds standing in his way, the creature offers no resistance, but will allow itself to be killed rather than abandon its position. The Frigate Bird, with audacious rapacity, when it observes the Gannet catch a fish, swoops down upon it and compels it to disgorge its prey. Their somewhat imperfect organisation explains this habit of non-resistance. The shortness of their legs and the excessive length of their wings prevent them escaping from their enemies when on shore, nor have they sufficient power of flight to avoid them in the air. But when they are aloft they soar wonderfully, with their necks stretched out, the tail expanded, and the wings almost motionless. Although they are strong on the wing, they do not venture very far from shore, consequently they are never met with more than twenty leagues at sea. Their appearance, therefore, is considered by the mariner as an indication of the proximity of land. In their flight they frequently skim over the surface of the sea, catching such fish as swim near the top. The skin of their throat is so readily distended that they can swallow their prey whole. The Gannet is also an excellent diver, for it is able to remain more than a minute under water when in pursuit of a favourite prey. [Illustration: Fig. 103.--Gannet (_Sula Bassan_).] These birds are found in every part of the globe, giving the preference, however, to tropical countries; still they are plentiful in the Hebrides, in Norway, Scotland, and are even found as far north as Kamtschatka and the Gulf of Bothnia, according to Acerbi. But when residents of high latitudes, they migrate southward on the approach of cold weather. In the winter season they frequent the coast of Cornwall, and are found, in fact, in every part of the British and Irish Channel, generally keeping out at sea. They are constant attendants on the large quantities of herrings and pilchards that frequent our coast late in autumn. This bird takes its prey by darting down on it with great velocity; yet it does not appear to dive--swimming, it floats upon the water with the buoyancy of a gull, not submerged, as is the case with the Shag and Cormorant. Three species of them are known: the Solan Goose, or Gannet (_Sula Bassan_), which is very common on the Bass Rock, a small islet in the Firth of Forth, and on the northern islands--this is the only European species; the Common Gannet (_Sula dactylatra_), vulgarly called "Mouche de Velours"--this is smaller than the preceding, and is found in the Island of Ascension; the Brown Gannet (_Sula fusca_), which inhabits South America. THE CORMORANT (_Phalacrocorax_). ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Cormorant: Willoughby, Albin, Montagu. Great Cormorant: Bewick, Yarrell. Crested Cormorant: Bewick. Cormorant: Shaw, Latham, Lewin, Walcot, Pultney. Provincial: Great Black Cormorant, Cole Goose, Skart, Green Cormorant, Norie. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Carbo carboranus_: Meyer. _Pelicanus carbo_: Linn., Latham, Gwellin. _Corvus aquaticus_: Ray, Willoughby. _Phalacrocorax_: Brisson, Temminck, Cuvier, Bonaparte. _Halicus_: Illiger. _Hydrocorax_: Vieillot. The Cormorant is distinguished by a bill straight and compressed, the upper mandible curving downwards, and forming a hook at the termination; lower mandible inserted in a small membrane extending under the throat; feet strong, short; toes three before and one behind, united by a membrane; nail of the middle toe serrated; wings moderate, the first quill longer than the second, the whole being blackish; the upper part of the back and wings ashy brown, or bronzed in the middle, bordered by a large band of glossy greenish black. The Common Cormorant (Fig. 104) has a massive and rather awkward body, feet short and drawn back to the abdomen, the head flattened and small, the guttural pouch very small. Their bulk varies, according to the species, from the size of a Goose to that of a Teal. On the south coast of England they are large birds, Pennant having weighed one which exceeded seven pounds, and measured three feet four inches. Their blackish plumage has given the idea of some resemblance existing between them and the Crow; hence their name, "Cormorant," from _Corvus vorans_, which signifies a voracious Crow. [Illustration: Fig. 104.--Cormorant (_Phalacrocorax carbo_, Gould).] These birds have a wide geographical distribution, being found in all parts of the globe, and always on the sea-coast or at the mouths of rivers. They are excellent swimmers and clever divers, pursuing with extraordinary rapidity the fish on which they feed. The Cormorant swallows its prey head first; and if it happens to catch it by the wrong end, it will throw it up in the air, and seize it again in its bill as it descends in the proper position. When it has caught an eel, a good half-hour sometimes elapses before it can succeed in swallowing it. It may be seen making the most violent efforts to swallow its prey; and just at the moment when one would think that the slippery morsel was successfully absorbed, the fish suddenly reappears again from the depths of its living sepulchre, still straggling to escape; the Cormorant re-swallows it again; the eel still resists, and increases its efforts to escape; worn out at last by its prolonged and useless efforts, the victim is finally compelled to resign itself to its fate. The appetite of the Cormorant is insatiable. The havoc which it commits in rivers is very great, for one day's consumption frequently amounts to six or eight pounds of fish: these it pursues principally under water, for it is an expert diver, and most successful in its search for its prey. In consequence of the skill displayed by the Cormorant in fishing, and the ease with which it is tamed, it is reared in a semi-domestic state in certain parts of Eastern Asia. The Chinese and Japanese are the nations who best know how to utilise the habits of these birds. When thus used a ring is placed round their necks to prevent them swallowing their prey, before turning them loose in waters which abound with the finny tribes. The Cormorants, trained to obey their master's voice, and balked in their attempts to swallow by the ring round the neck, bring to their owner all fish they capture. Sir George Stanton, in his embassy to China, having reached Len-tze, famed for its breed of these birds, found them to be a species somewhat resembling the Common Cormorant, described by Dr. Shaw as a Brown Cormorant with white throat, the body whitish beneath, spotted with brown; the tail rounded; irides blue, and bill yellow; which he named _Phalacrocorax sinensis_. "On a large lake," Sir George says, "close to this part of the canal, and to the eastward of it, are thousands of small boats and rafts built entirely for this species of fishery. On each boat or raft are ten or a dozen birds, which, at a signal from the owner, plunge into the water; and it is astonishing to see the enormous size of fish with which they return. They appeared to be so well trained that it did not require either ring or cord round their necks to prevent them swallowing their prey, except when they received the permission of their master to do so, as an encouragement for their labours." The dexterity with which the Cormorant seizes its prey is such that if a dead fish is thrown into the water from a distance, the bird will dive immediately, pursuing its course in a direct line to the spot, never failing to secure it, even before it reaches to the bottom. On shore the Cormorant is a dull, heavy bird, and it is only in the water, and especially while fishing, that it appears to advantage. It floats so low in the water, and swims and dives so quickly, that it seldom fails to capture its prey. Now on the surface, next moment below, onward it plunges as if making an attack; then rising suddenly in some unexpected spot after a lengthened dive, it is certain to have the unfortunate fish in its bill. Another peculiarity which belongs to this species is common with many other aquatic birds--that of violently beating the water with its wings without moving from the spot, followed by a vigorous shaking of the whole body, with the feathers ruffled, and, at the same time, covering itself with water. After repeating this several times with small intervals of rest, it will retire to an elevated place on shore, where it will remain with outspread wings until dry. The flight of these birds is rapid and lasting; but they are as heavy and awkward when on land as they are nimble and active in the water. Their nature being unsuspicious and trustful, they can be easily approached, particularly when resting after their fishing exertions. The Cormorant is widely diffused both in the Old and New World. It is a migratory bird, but is seen on our coast at all seasons. It breeds among rocks on the coast, selecting crags and inaccessible places, which sometimes are covered with their nests: these are composed of sticks and sea-weed, in which the female deposits her eggs, generally three in number, and which are of a whitish colour, weighing about two ounces. In Egypt four species of Cormorants are known. The Great Cormorant (_Carbo cormoranus_) is the size of a Goose; this species is often domesticated, and is frequently met with in France. THE GREEN CORMORANT, OR SHAG. ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Green Cormorant: McGillivray, Morris, Selby. Shag: Montagu, Willoughby, McGillivray, Latham, Flemming. Crested Cormorant: Morris. Crested Shag: Montagu, Selby, Jenyns. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Pelicanus graculus_: Linn., Latham, Montagu, Bewick. _Phalacrocorax graculus_: Cuvier, Brisson, Rennies, Montagu, McGillivray, Stephens, Flemming. _Phalacrocorax cristatus_: Meyer, Temminck. FRENCH SYNONYMS.--_Cormoran Larcup_: Temminck. _Petit Cormoran_, or _Nigaud_: Buffon. _Cormoran Nigaud_: Figuier. LOCAL SYNONYMS.--Black Cormorant, Crested Cormorant, Shag, Scart, Scarer, Green Scout, and the Booby Cormorant. This species is in weight about four pounds; the bill is dusky, and about four inches in length; a bare yellow skin is situated along the sides of the mouth and chin, the latter speckled with black. The whole bird appears black at a little distance, but on nearer examination, the head, neck, breast, and rump are of a glossy green. The feathers of the upper part of the back, scapulars, and wing coverts are pointed, and beautifully glossed with purple, violet, and green, each feather being edged with a velvety black; the under part of the body is less glossed with green; the legs are dusky black; middle claw serrated. The female weighs over three pounds; the upper part of her body is dark, not so densely glossed as in the male; but the margin of the feathers of the scapulars and wing coverts is black, the under part dusky, with a mixture of grey. Such is Colonel Montagu's description of a pair shot from the nest, but they vary in plumage and colour. In habit the Shag is strictly a salt-water bird, never visiting fresh water, breeding on our rocky coasts, where it builds a nest of stick and sea-weed. They resort to the maritime caves of the Hebrides in such vast numbers that they literally cover the sea to a considerable extent when on their passage from the caves of Liuir and Toehead to their fishing-grounds in the sound. Mr. McGillivray has counted a hundred and five in one flock. This picture Mr. McGillivray makes the text for one of his most delightful descriptions:-- "There is a large cave," he says, "on the west coast of Harris, celebrated for the number of Shags which reside on it, and so lofty that a boat can enter it to a considerable distance with lowering the masts. When we appear off the mouth of the cave a considerable number appear conspicuously perched on the little shelving rocks and projections, their dusky figures strongly relieved by the whitened surface of the rocks. Some of them fly overhead as we approach, but more drop into the water like a stone. On looking down we see them rapidly winding their way under the boat, swimming with outspread wings, and not at all in the manner represented by some writers, who say that it propels itself entirely under water by the feet and tail. Glancing aloft, we see many Black Guillemots in the clefts; and above them is the eyrie of the White-tailed Eagle. But our business is with the Shags, which are now seen writhing their long necks as they gaze upon us. Presently a shot is fired, and another; the dead birds drop on the water, the living plunge headlong into it, many advance on the wing, but, being frightened by the upraised oars, dart into the water. "Advancing a little, we find that many still remain on the rocks; of these we shoot some more. Presently some of those which had escaped return, and perch; and we continue shooting until we have obtained as many as we desire. After all the uproar we have created, several still remain standing near their nests, loath to quit them. Although most of the nests are out of reach, some are accessible. We find them generally bulky, sometimes very scanty, formed of fuci, twigs, heath, and grass rudely put together, made flat, or with a shallow cavity, containing two, frequently three, sometimes four eggs, never more." This bird has black plumage, as we have seen, is smaller than the one preceding, and inhabits the Arctic and Antarctic regions. A bird nearly resembling this (_Phalacrocorax Desmarestii_) is described by Temminck and figured by Gould, a species which has been observed in Corsica, and is of a blackish green. Montagu satisfied himself that the Crested Cormorant was only a seasonal variety of the Common Cormorant; and probably others of the species described, if carefully examined, would prove to be the same. McGillivray is of opinion, however, if Mr. Gould's figure is correct, the species must be distinct. PELICANIDÆ. A comprehensive group of aquatic birds presenting a uniformity of structure quite apparent in the skeleton, and especially in the digestive organs, of which the Pelican is the type. They are mostly birds of large size, but of slender, elongated body, long neck, and head generally of moderate size. The bill is long, sometimes slender, at other times rather stout and straight; the upper mandible with the ridge separated by grooves, and terminated in a narrow, decurved, and pointed nail, or claw; the lower mandible elastic and extensible. The plumage is soft and blending, on the back and wings compact and imbricated; wings long, tail of moderate length and narrow. The habits of the group vary considerably. Cormorants pursue their prey much in the same manner as Mergansers and Loons; the Anhingas are strictly territorial; the Pelicans combine the habits of both. The Gannets fly about in quest of food, plunging upon it from on high. The Frigate Birds range over the seas with unrivalled power of flight, and the Tropic Birds resemble in progression the Terns. The family comprises-- 1. Pelicans. 2. Cormorants. 3. Gannets. 4. Phaetons. 5. Anhingas. The Pelican (Fig. 105) has the bill long, straight, rather broad, and very much depressed; upper mandible flattened, terminating in a hooked tip much bent and compressed; lower mandible formed of two bony branches united at the point, from which a membranous naked skin is suspended, forming a purse, which can be distended into a voluminous bag. The Pelicans are large, heavy aquatic birds, with great extent of wing, and are excellent swimmers; their haunts are estuaries, the sea-coast, and the banks of rivers, lakes, and marshes. In its habitat, whenever a fish betrays its presence by leaping or flashing its glittering scales in the sun, the Pelican will be seen sailing towards it. This bird has an appetite so insatiable, and a stomach so capacious, that, in one day's fishing, it devours as much fish as would satisfy six men. The Egyptians have nicknamed it the "River Camel," because it can imbibe at once more than twenty pints of water. Certainly it only makes two meals a day; but, oh! what meals they are! [Illustration: Fig. 105.--The Crested Pelican (_P. onocrotalus_, var. _Orientalis_, Linn.).] Pelicans often travel in considerable flocks, visiting the mouths of rivers or favourite retreats on the sea-coast. When they have made choice of a suitable place, they arrange themselves in a wide circle, and begin to beat the water with extended wing, so as to drive the fish before them, gradually diminishing the circle as they approach the shore or some inlet on the coast. In this manner they get all the fish together into a small space, when the common feast begins. After gorging themselves they retire to the shore, where the processes of digestion follow. Some rest with the neck over the back; others busily dress and smooth their plumage, waiting patiently until returning appetite invites all to fresh exertions. When thus quiescent, occasionally one of these birds empties his well-lined pouch, and spreads in front of him all the fish that it contains, in order to feed upon them at leisure. This guttural pouch, which plays so important a part in the Pelican's life, is composed of two skins, the outer one being a prolongation of the skin of the neck; the inner one is contiguous to the coating of the oesophagus. The tongue is small: a delicate gizzard forms one large sac with the other stomachs. In spite of its great size, the Pelican flies easily and to considerable distances. It is no diver, but will occasionally dash down on fish from a considerable height, and with such velocity that it becomes submerged; but its buoyancy instantly brings it to the surface again. It perches on trees, but seems to prefer rocks. When it builds a nest, it is generally formed of coarse reedy grass, lined with softer material, placed in the cleft of dry rocks near the water. Here the female deposits two, three, four, sometimes five white eggs, but most frequently only two. They are occasionally satisfied with placing their eggs in an indentation in the ground which they have roughly lined with blades of grass. After an incubation lasting from forty to forty-five days, the young ones, covered with a greyish down, are hatched. The female feeds them: she presses the hooked red point of the mandible against her breast, which causes her to disgorge the fish it contains into the bills of the young ones, the male performing the same operation on himself for the benefit of his partner. This is probably the fact that has given origin to the absurd fable that the female Pelican is in the habit of piercing her breast in order to nourish her young with her maternal blood. The young birds are easily tamed. It is even asserted that they are susceptible of education, and that, like the young Cormorants, they can be taught to fish for their masters. The Pelican is more common in tropical regions than in temperate climates. They are very numerous in Africa, Siam, Madagascar, the Sunda Isles, the Philippines, Manilla, and in the Western Hemisphere they abound from the Antilles to the northern temperate part of the South American continent. The true Pelicans are large birds with powerful wings, and are excellent swimmers. The pouch has extraordinary elasticity, and is capable of containing a number of fish either for its own consumption or the nourishment of its young. It haunts the neighbourhood of rivers and lakes and the sea-coast, being rarely seen more than twenty leagues from the land. Levaillant describes one of those wonderful ornithological scenes which only occur in uninhabited regions. At the entrance of Saldanha Bay, on the south-west coast of Africa, after wading through the surf and clambering up the rocks, "all of a sudden there arose from the surface of the Island of Dassen-Eyland an impenetrable cloud, which formed, at the distance of forty feet above our heads, an immense canopy, composed of birds of almost every kind of water-fowl--Cormorants, Sea Gulls, Sea Swallows, Pelicans, and I believe the whole winged tribes of this part of Africa were here assembled. Their voices, harsh and discordant, formed a noise so unmusical that I was every moment compelled to cover my head in order to relieve my ears. The alarm we created was so much the more general, inasmuch as the birds disturbed were chiefly sitting females. They had nests, eggs, and young to defend." In this scene the Pelican, from its peculiar appearance, was of course a prominent object. The best-known species are--1, the White Pelican; 2, the Crested Pelican; 3, the Brown Pelican; and 4, the Spectacled Pelican. THE WHITE PELICAN. ENGLISH SYNONYM.--White Pelican. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Pelicanus onocrotalus_: Linn., Temminck, Selby. _P. minor_: Ruppell. FRENCH SYNONYM.--_Pélican Blanc_: Temminck. The White Pelican (_Pelicanus onocrotalus_) is as large as a Swan. Its bill is about fifteen inches in length. Its plumage is white, with a slightly rosy tint, which is brightest in the breeding season; the pinnaries and spurious wings are black; the crest and a few feathers on the neck yellowish. This species received from the ancients the name of _Onocrotalus_, because they fancied that they discovered a resemblance in its cry to the braying of an ass. It is very common on the lakes and rivers of Hungary and Southern Russia, as well as on the banks of the Danube. If it is seen in France, it is purely accidental, as it is a rare visitor. A wild rocky shore, where it can look down on the sea, is the favourite haunt of the Pelican; but it is not uncommon for it to perch on trees. The nest is formed of coarse reedy grass, with a lining of finer quality; it is generally made on the ground, and is about eighteen inches in diameter, in which it lays four, sometimes five, white eggs, but more frequently two, slightly oblong, and alike at both ends. Fish forms its principal food, which it captures chiefly in shallow inlets; for it is no diver, although on the wing it dashes upon a fish occasionally from a great height, and that with such velocity that it submerges itself, but its buoyancy brings it immediately to the surface. Occasionally it flies very high, but it generally just poises itself over the water. Notwithstanding its webbed feet, it often perches on trees--a habit which Sonnerat describes as peculiar to the female in the evening, after having fed and protected her young during the day. THE CRESTED PELICAN. SYNONYMS.--_Pelicanus crispus_: Bonaparte, Temminck, Bruck. Pelican: English authors. _P. onocrotalus_ (var. _Orientalis_): Linn, Pallas, Dalmatian. _Riesen-pelikan_: German authors. The Crested Pelican, in common with the White Pelican, inhabits the south-east of Europe and Africa, and is also found in Hungary, Dalmatia, Greece, the Crimea, and the Ionian Islands, as well as in Algeria, and, according to some authors, it is frequently met with in China. It has white plumage, with the exception that the ends of the feathers of the back and wings are black. The feathers of the head and upper part of the neck are twisted up so as to form a tolerably large tuft or crest: hence the name it bears. Its habitat is principally the marshes round the Black Sea, and the isles adjacent to the mouth of the Danube. Of their habits, travellers in these regions give very interesting descriptions. Count Mükle states that they are plentiful on the lakes of Missolonghi, and in the marshy grounds near Thermopylæ. In situations incredibly difficult of access, especially on floating islands, scarcely over the water-line, they place their nests thickly together, supported among reeds and rushes. The vicinity of these congregated nests is rendered indescribably offensive by the foul fish they have dropped about, and the disagreeable white dung with which all the neighbourhood is covered. "Time was," says Mr. W. H. Simpson, "and that not so long ago, when _Pelicanus crispus_ lived in hundreds all the year round, from the rocky promontory of Kourtzalari, hard by the mouth of the Acheloüs, on the western extremity of the lagoon, near the island of Ætolico, up the northern arm, and on the east along the great mud flats which mark the limits of the present delta of Phidaris. Nowadays, however, a solitary individual may be seen fishing here and there throughout the vicinity; the remnant have betaken themselves to the islands which divide the Gulf of Procopanisto from that of Ætolico. Here, towards the end of February last, the community constituted a group of seven nests--a sad falling off from the year 1838, when thirty-four nests were grouped upon a neighbouring islet. As we approached the spot in a boat the Pelicans left their nests, and taking to the water, sailed away like a fleet of stately ships, leaving their preconcerted nursery in possession of the invader. The boat grounded in two or three feet of mud, and when the party had floundered through this, the seven nests were found to be empty. A fisherman had plundered them that morning, taking from each nest one egg, which we afterwards recovered. The nests were constructed in a great measure of the old reed palings used by the natives for enclosing fish, mixed with such pieces of the vegetation of the islet as were suitable for the purpose. The seven nests were contiguous, and disposed in the shape of an irregular cross, the navel of the cross, which was the tallest nest, being about thirty inches high, the two next in line being about two feet, and the two forming the arms being a few inches lower, the two extremes at either end being about fourteen inches from the ground.... The eggs are chalky, like others of the Pelicanidæ, very rough in texture, and some of them streaked with blood."--("Ibis," vii. p. 395.) THE BROWN PELICAN (_P. fuscus_). The Brown Pelican is an American species, smaller than the preceding, and is described at some length by Nuttall. It has the head and the neck variegated with white and ash-colour; all the rest of the plumage of a brownish grey, with whitish marks on the back; the pouch is of an ashy blue, striped with a reddish hue. It is found in the Larger Antilles, on the coasts of Peru, in Bengal, and in South Carolina. THE SPECTACLED PELICAN (_Pelicanus conspicillatus_). The Spectacled Pelican, which is only found in southern climates, is thus named from the naked skin which surrounds the eye, reminding one of spectacles by its more or less circular form. Its plumage, like that of its congeners, is white. CHAPTER III. THE LARIDÆ. "Notwithstanding the dissimilarity of the bill," says Mr. Vigors (_Linn. Trans._, vol. xiv.), "the Sterna and Rhynchops most intimately accord in habits and external characters. The Gull-billed Tern of Colonel Montagu conducts us from these genera to the groups which compose the Linnæan genus _Larus_--now divided into two genera, _Lestris_ and _Larus_. From this group we are led to the genera _Diomedeæ_ and _Haladroma_, by the absence of the hind toe, by means of the species _Larus tridactylus_ (Latham), where, though the hind toe is not absolutely different, as might be inferred from its name, there appears but the rudiment of one. The last-mentioned genus, _Haladroma_, originally belonged to _Procellaria_, and was separated from it by its tridactyle foot. Even in this character, however, it forms a connection from _Larus_ to the groups that compose the genuine _Procellaria_, all of which are distinguished by the singular peculiarity of having no true hind toe, but only a nail adhering to the tarsus in its place. We thus arrive at the Petrels, separated into groups of the _Procellaria_ (Anet), _Pachyptila_ (Ilf.), _Puffucus_ (Ray)." THE LONGIPENNES (_Cuvier_). The _Grands Voiliers_, or Long-winged Birds, are thus named from their powerful and enduring faculty of flight. Mariners meet with them everywhere, and easily recognise them by their long and pointed wings, forked tails, and short legs. In this order the back toe is unconnected with the others, or is wanting, and the membrane which unites the others much notched; their bills are sharp and pointed, and without indentations. They pass their lives at a great distance from land, and do not approach the shore except for breeding purposes. To this sub-order belong the Sea Swallows (_Sterna_), Scissors-bills or Skimmers (_Rynchops_), the Sea Gulls (_Laridæ_), the Labbes (_Stercoraria_), the Petrels (_Procellaria_), Albatross (_Diomedea_). THE TERN (_Sterna hirundo_, Linn.). ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Common Tern: Selby, McGillivray, Morris. Greater Tern: Montagu, Bewick, Pennant. Local names: Sea Swallow, Gull Teaser, Tarney, Tarrock, Kippock, Scraye. LATIN SYNONYMS.--_Sterna hirundo_: Pennant, Montagu, Bewick, Flemming, Selby, Jenyns, Gould, Yarrell, Latham. _Sterna major_: Brisson. _Hirundo marina_: Ray, Willoughby. There are six species of Sterna, properly so called, described by British naturalists; and six others, according to McGillivray, nearly resembling them in form, colour, and habit. The true Sterna has the bill straight, slender, compressed, and tapering; it is about the length of the head, with the edge sharp, and the tip elongated and pointed; the upper mandible armate; legs short, slender; anterior toes small; membrane emarginate; wings long and pointed; tail forked. These birds are remarkable for their buoyant, graceful, easy flight, and the soft, loose texture of their plumage. Their prevailing colours are a pale bluish grey or black, and white. The Tern, or Sea Swallow, as it is commonly called, on account of its long pointed wings and forked tail, appears to be, like the Swallow properly so called, a perfect disregarder of rest. They may be seen soaring in the air at a very great height, and then suddenly darting down upon their prey, which their piercing sight has enabled them to descry in the water. Often, too, they may be noticed skimming over the surface of the waves with astonishing rapidity, and seizing in their flight any fish which is imprudent enough to show itself. Their flight over the sea seems incessant, and it is rarely they are seen swimming. When they need rest, they seek some solitary, isolated rock in the ocean. They congregate in flocks more or less numerous, and they manifest so much attachment for individuals of their own species, that, when one of them is wounded by the sportsman's gun, the others surround it, full of grief and sympathy, nor will they leave it until all hope of saving its life is at an end. These birds in their flight give utterance to shrill and piercing calls, which, when produced by numbers together, cause a deafening uproar in the sky. These calls are raised with increased power when they are about to undertake some longer flight than usual. But the time, above all others, when their noise is most discordant and shrill is the breeding season. "On going up to one of their breeding-places," says McGillivray, "which may always be discovered from a distance, as some of the birds will be seen hovering over it, one is sure to be met by several of them, which hasten to remonstrate with the intruder by harsh cries and threatened blows. As you draw nearer, more of them leave their nests; and at length they are all on the wing, wheeling and bounding--now high and now low--at times coming quite close, and increasing their cries, which resemble the syllables 'cree-cree-cree-ae.'" [Illustration: Fig. 106.--The Tern (_Sterna hirundo_, Linn.).] Like the Land Swallows, these sea-birds arrive on our coasts in the spring. They disperse themselves over our lakes and large ponds, where they feed on any animal substances they meet with--either fresh or putrefied--fish, mollusks, or insects. Montagu says they are found in great abundance on the Sussex and Kentish coasts, particularly about Winchelsea, and in the Romney marshes towards Dungeness. Mr. Selby found them breeding in the Solway and in the Firth of Clyde. McGillivray met with them in great numbers in South Uist and Long Island; and his correspondents, Messrs. Bailie and Heddle, noted their annual arrival in the Orkneys in May. "They arrive in straggling flocks in the beginning of May," says McGillivray, "and soon betake themselves to their breeding-places, which are sandy tracts, gravelly or pebbly ridges, rocky ground, sometimes low, shelving rocks on the sea-shore; their nests being bits of grass or fragments of sea-weed, placed in a mere depression. In stormy weather they fly little, but shelter themselves by resting on the shore. They go to roost very late in the evening; long after sunset, they are still engaged in seeking their sustenance." Terns always assemble in flocks on the sea-coast, on the margins of lakes, in marshes, or wooded spots near the mouths of rivers, at their breeding-time. Their nests are placed so near to one another, that the hens sitting actually come in contact. They lay their eggs, to the number of two or three, which hatch in twenty days. These eggs are esteemed as a very delicate viand: in the United States a considerable trade is carried on in them. The Sea Swallow is found in all the regions both of the Old and New World, Australia, and the islands of the Pacific. The Tern (_Sterna hirundo_) is very common in France, on the shores of the Atlantic, and in the Mediterranean. THE LITTLE TERN (_Sterna minuta_, Linn.). ENGLISH SYNONYMS.--Lesser Tern: Montagu, Selby. Lesser Sea Swallow, Little Tern: McGillivray, Flemming. LATIN SYNONYM.--_Sterna minuta_: Latham, Flemming, Selby, McGillivray, Morris, Jenyns, Temminck. FRENCH SYNONYMS.--_La Sterne Petite_: Figuier. _La Petite Hirondelle de Mer_: Temminck. This smallest of the Terns has many habits in common with the _Sterna hirundo_. "In the elegance of its buoyant flight," says McGillivray, "as it skims over the water or shoots along its way to and from its breeding-place, the tiny creature is an object of admiration to every lover of nature. You may see a pair coming up from a distance, flying at the height of a few yards over the waves, their long wings winnowing the air and impelling them on by starts as they wind their way in undulating and graceful movements. Suddenly their flight is arrested over a large pool left on the sands by the retreating tide. With quick beats of their wings they hover almost stationary over the water, with downward-pointed bills, intently searching for their prey beneath. One drops with upraised wings, dips for a moment, and rises with a small fish in its bill; the other is equally successful. Onward they proceed, now and then emitting their shrill cry. Far ahead is seen a flock engaged in picking up their prey, and onward the stragglers speed to join their kindred." The Little Tern has the bill slightly longer than the head, and, like the Common Tern, slender, nearly straight, much compressed, tapering, and acute; the eyes and feet small; plumage soft and blended; wings long, narrow, and pointed; tail long and deeply forked; upper part of the head and nape black; neck, back, and wings light greyish blue; hind part of the back and tail white; length to the end of the tail about ten inches; wings twenty-one inches. This species reaches our shores in the beginning of May, and settles along the whole eastern and southern coast, from the Land's End to the Orkneys, but is rare on the west coast. The Firth of Forth, the sands of Barry, near Dundee, a place at the mouth of the Don, and another at the Ythan, are noted as their haunts, as are the sands of Strathbeg Loch, and the sands between Burghead and the mouth of the Findhorn. It is also abundant on the sea-coasts of Holland and France, where it feeds on fish-spawn and small winged insects. The Noddy (_Sterna stolida_), which frequents rivers and the borders of lakes, especially marshes, makes its nest among the reeds and water-lily leaves: this is the species most plentiful in America. The Silver-winged Tern (_Sterna leucoptera_) inhabits the bays and gulfs of the Mediterranean, and is only an accidental visitor to the north of France. The Arctic Tern (_Sterna arctica_) is a native of the Arctic Circle, and regularly visits the sea-coast of the north of France. We may also mention the Whiskered or Marsh Tern (_Sterna leucupareia_), the Gull-billed Tern (_Sterna anglica_), the Roseate Tern (_Sterna Dougalli_), the Sandwich Tern (_Sterna cautiaca_), and the Tschegruna, or Caspian Tern (_Sterna caspica_), all of which either breed upon the British coast, or are frequent visitors there, although they rarely reach France. THE SCISSORS-BILLS, OR SEA SKIMMERS (_Rynchops_, Linn.). [Illustration: Fig. 107.--The Black Scissors-bill (_Rynchops nigra_).] The Scissors-bills have received their name from the conformation of their beaks, which are flattened laterally into two laminæ fitting one on the other, forming two mandibles compressed into cutting blades, the upper being one-third shorter than the lower. In order to pick up the shrimps and small fishes on which they feed, these birds are obliged to skim the surface of the water, dipping the lower mandible of their bill, the upper mandible being kept open and clear of the water till aquatic insects or other small fry have entered into the lower portion of it.[25] The singular form of their bills is also of service to them in opening such bivalve shell-fish as come in their way. They frequently watch these mollusks, and when they notice that the shell of the latter is slightly open, they plunge the lower mandible of their long bill into it; they then break the ligament of the shell by beating it against the rock. The tenement being thus destroyed, there is no obstacle to their devouring the inhabitant. [25] Catesby says: "These birds frequent near the sea-coasts of Carolina. They fly close to the surface of the water, from which they seem to receive somewhat of food." The only remarkable species of this bird is the Black Scissors-bill (_Rynchops nigra_), frequently called the Cut-water. It is about the size of a Pigeon; its prevailing colour is white, top of the head and shoulders black, with a white band on the wings. These birds are very numerous in the West Indian seas. They fly with a slow motion, and, like the Gulls and other sea-birds, they occasionally form such dense flocks that the sky is actually darkened for the space of a league. GULLS AND ALLIED SPECIES. Gulls and their congeners include the well-known shore-birds generally called Gulls, more especially the Skuas (_Lestris_), Gulls (_Larus_), and Mews (_Gavia_). They are characterised by a light body, more or less compact; neck of moderate length; head ovate; bill shorter than the head, straight, compressed; convex ridge on upper mandible, nasal groove long; lower mandible with the angle long and narrow; mouth moderate; tongue fleshy; eyes small; legs generally short; tibia bare; tarsus short, compressed; hind toe small; middle toe longest; fore toe moderate in length and slender; connecting membrane full, margins only concave; claws generally small, arcuate, acute, and more or less compressed. These birds inhabit the sea-shore, along which they wander in search of food; the larger species preying on fish, crustacea and mollusca, and the carcasses of cetacea and other marine mammalia cast up by the sea. They all pursue shoals of fish in the open sea, often to great distances from land. Their plumage is full, soft, close, elastic, and well blended on the back and wings; wings long, broad, and pointed; the tail, of twelve feathers, rounded and forked. The Sea Mews (_Gavia_) are connected with the Terns, yet still have some characteristics of the Gulls. However, they are of smaller size than the latter, have more slender forms, and their feet and bills are comparatively feebler. We shall describe the Mews and Gulls under one head, as they have the same generic characteristics, the only difference between them being that of size. The name of Gull applies to those species which are at least as large as Ducks; that of Mew to those which are smaller. The Gull (_Larus_) and the Mew are found in every country, on every coast, out at sea, and sometimes even on fresh waters, lakes, and rivers. These birds literally swarm on some coasts, where they devour every kind of food they meet with. Fish, either fresh or stale; flesh, either fresh or decomposed; worms; shell-fish--all are alike acceptable. If these birds happen to notice the carcass of any animal, either floating on the sea or cast up on the shore, it soon becomes their prey, and is speedily devoured by these "Sea Vultures," as Buffon calls them. Should one of them discover the remains of a dead whale, or other large oceanic mammalia, it apprises the rest of the flock, and immediately they all pour down upon their booty, uttering the most discordant cries. They gorge themselves up to their very throats; but their stomachs soon digest the rapidly-decomposing animal diet. They may also be observed in search of other prey, skimming over the surface of the water, their keen eyes anxiously scanning far and near for their most favourite food, young fish. During the breeding season they visit islands where they are sure to find thousands of eggs as well as young birds. In spite of the piteous shrieks of the parents and the plaintive cries of the young, the whole colony is sacrificed to their gluttony; the eggs are sucked, and the scarcely-hatched young ones are devoured. But, as they are always cowards, whenever these sea-vagabonds notice the approach of a bird more warlike than themselves, although, perhaps, much smaller, their only endeavour is to hide themselves, or depart with all the celerity which their long wings can give them. The mere sight of a Labbe (_Stercoraria_) is quite sufficient to make them disgorge their food. These birds, which are essentially water scavengers, are frequently very much in want of food, especially during stormy weather. Nature in her goodness, however, has well enabled them to endure hunger. Sea Gulls and Sea Mews are found everywhere, but they are most numerous on the flat and low sea-shores of the North, where the dead bodies of whales and other large fish furnish them with abundant food. They prefer building their nests on desert islands in the Polar seas, where they are safe from man's intrusion. They lay two or three eggs in a hole scratched in the sand, or in the cleft of a rock. These birds are easily tamed, and soon take to domestic habits; but their flesh, which is hard and tough as leather, is unfit for human food. In order to render them eatable in cases of emergency, the sailors, after having skinned them, hang them up by their feet, and leave them exposed to the evening dew for two or three nights. By this means a little of the disagreeable smell passed by their carcass is got rid of. [Illustration: Fig. 108.--Large White-winged Gull (_Larus glaucus_, Yarrell).] The most remarkable species of the Sea Gull are the following:-- The Large White-winged Gull, _Larus glaucus_ (Fig. 108), is all white except its back, which is of a light bluish grey. It is most frequently found towards the east of Europe, and is rare on the Atlantic coasts. The Great Black-backed Gull, _Larus marinus_ (Fig. 109), is of a pure white, with a black back. It is very common in northern regions, and habitually visits the shores of the Atlantic to the north of France. The Herring Gull (_Larus argentatus_, Yarrell), is white, with a blue back. It is seen throughout the year on the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The only species of Sea Mew which it is necessary for us to describe are:-- The White Sea Mew, or Senator (_Larus eburneus_),[26] which is found but incidentally in the temperate regions of Europe. It is very common in Greenland and Baffin's Bay. Its plumage is entirely white, tinted with pink underneath; it has black feet and a bluish bill. [26] Ivory Gull of Yarrell. The Brown-masked Sea Mew (_Larus capistratus_)[27] has the top of its head and throat of a light brown colour; the inside of the wings are light grey; the rest of its body is white; and its bill and tarsi are of a reddish-brown colour. This species is common in England. [27] The Masked Gull of Yarrell. [Illustration: Fig. 109.--Great Black-backed Gull (_Larus marinus_, Yarrell).] The Laughing Sea Mew (_Larus ridibundus_)[28] has its head black; its neck, tail, and lower parts of a white hue. Its back and wings are bluish grey, and its beak and feet vermilion red. This is the species most easily tamed. It is called the Laughing Sea Mew on account of its cry. It is widely spread all over Europe, and builds its nest on the coast at the mouths of rivers. It is only a visitor in France and Germany, but in Holland it is found a permanent resident. [28] Black-headed Gull of Yarrell. The Grey Sea Mew, _Larus canus_ (Fig. 110), is commonly called the Sea Pigeon. Its plumage is of a beautiful white colour with the exception of a grey back. When tempests threaten, this species disperses in flocks over the inland districts. It is common in summer in the regions of the Arctic Circle; in autumn and winter it is found on the sea-coasts of temperate and southern Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 110.--Grey Sea Mews (_Larus canus_, Yarrell).] [Illustration: Fig. 111.--The Common Skua (_Lestris cataractes_, Yarrell).] The Skua, Labbe, or Dung-bird (_Stercoraria_, Vieillot), Fig. 111, is remarkable for its stout bill, which is nearly cylindrical, and covered with a membrane from the base as far as the nostrils; the upper mandible is convex, hooked, and armed at the extremity with a crooked point, which almost appears as if it was supplementary. These birds principally frequent the sea-shore, but at the time of storms they venture further inland. They fly very rapidly, even against the strongest wind. They pursue the Sea Mews and the Terns most inveterately, and sometimes even Boobies and Cormorants, their only aim being to deprive these birds of the prey they have caught; for the Sea Mews and the Terns are their purveyors. Incessantly do they pursue, harass, and beat these species until they have forced them to disgorge and drop their booty: before the fish falls into the sea it is caught by the active persecutors. This singular habit has given rise to the belief that Skuas feed upon the excrement of the Sea Mew, and to this they owe their name of Dung-birds. In some countries, as the Shetland Islands, these birds are held in veneration. The care and protection of the sheep are almost entirely intrusted to them, owing to their possessing an inveterate hatred against Eagles; for as soon as the monarch of the air appears in view, three or four of them combine together to give him battle. They never attack him in front, but harass him pitilessly until his strength is so reduced that they can completely conquer him, or at least force him to retreat. In recompense for these services, the inhabitants are in the habit of throwing to the Skuas the refuse of their fisheries. These birds almost always live in solitude, so that they may be more readily able to procure their food, which consists of fish, mollusks, eggs, young sea-birds, and small mammals. They inhabit the Arctic regions of Europe and America, and make their nests in the heather; they lay from two to four eggs, which are sat upon by the male and female birds alternately. They are courageous enough to defend their young brood against any kind of animal, and even against man. There are four European species: the Parasite Skua (_Lestris parasiticus_), which inhabits Greenland, Newfoundland, and Spitzbergen, and visits tolerably often our Atlantic coasts; Richardson's Skua (_Lestris Richardsonii_), which is very plentiful in Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and North America; the Pomerine Skua (_Lestris pomarinus_), which is very common in Newfoundland, Iceland, and the Feroë Islands; the Common Skua (_Lestris cataractes_), commonly called the Brown Stoëland. The PETRELS (_Procellaria_, Linn.) are characterised by a gibbous beak, the extremity of which is hooked, and seems made all in one piece, and as if jointed on to the rest of the upper mandible. These birds never dive, and rarely swim; but in their rapid flight they skim over the waves, and actually appear to walk upon the waters. To this habit they owe the name of Petrel, which simply means "Little Peter," in allusion to the miracle of St. Peter, who walked upon the restless waters of the Lake of Genesareth. The family of the Petrels contains several species of very different appearance. They traverse immense distances in their powerful and rapid flight, although they nearly always keep close to the water. They never draw near to the coast except to build their nests, for which purpose they select a little crevice in some steep rock, in which they deposit a large white egg. While sitting upon it, they keep up a low and continual noise, like that of a spinning-wheel. [Illustration: Fig. 112.--The Blue Petrel (_Procellaria cærulea_, Gmelin).] In general, Petrels are not of a very engaging aspect; but they are an invaluable resource to the poor people who inhabit the islands in the frigid seas, who do not object to eat the flesh of these birds, although they principally value them for their warm down and the oil which can be extracted from their stomachs. The quantity of oil which these birds contain is so large that it is used as an article of diet. In the Feroë Islands candles are made from this oleaginous matter. Often, indeed, the islanders make the bird itself serve as a candle to illuminate their gloomy vigils. This is performed by passing a wick through the body of the bird when just killed. These birds appear to love the tempest; they run over the roughest waves, and seem as if they were enjoying themselves as they pass up and down the declivities of the mountains of foam. When the storm is too violent for them, they take refuge upon the nearest rocks, or even on the yards of a passing ship. Sailors, who are confessedly simple and superstitious, take these birds for evil spirits, birds of the devil, harbingers of storms, and so forth, simply because they more frequently see them during a storm. Their black plumage tends to confirm the sailor in his superstition. When the vessels sent to the whale fishery have passed the Shetland Islands, and entered the northern seas, which are almost always very rough, the Petrels are seen flying about amidst the eddies of foam which are formed by the movement of the ship. They keep in attendance until something is thrown overboard, for they are extremely voracious, and especially fond of fat, particularly that of the whale. When the fishermen begin to cut up a whale, the Petrels flock together to the number of several thousands. They are not afraid to approach within reach, so that they may be taken or killed with a blow from a boat-hook. Their plumage is so close, that shot fired at them, except at close range, will not penetrate. Petrels walk on land with much difficulty. When they require rest in the open sea, with their heads placed under their wings, they sleep on the water, allowing themselves to be borne about at the mercy of the wind. The most remarkable species are--the Giant Petrel (_Procellaria gigantea_), commonly called the Bone-breaker, which inhabits the tract of ocean between Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope; the Chequered Petrel (_P. capensis_), commonly called the Chequered Pintado, which is a native of the southern seas; the Fulmar Petrel (_P. glacialis_), which inhabits the Arctic seas; the Stormy Petrel (_P. pelagica_), commonly called the Storm-bird, which frequents the seas of Europe, and after a hurricane appears on the northern coasts of France; the Forster or Blue Petrel (_P. Forsteri_ or _cærulea_), Fig. 112, commonly called the Blue Petrel, which inhabits the Antarctic seas. Under the name of Puffins those species of Petrels are included which have bills as long, and sometimes longer, than their heads, and their nostrils in two distinct tubes. Among these are the Grey Puffin (_Puffinus cinereus_), which is very common in the Mediterranean, and builds its nest in Corsica; the English Puffin (_Puffinus anglorum_), which inhabits the northern regions of our hemisphere; the Brown Puffin (_Procellaria æquinoctialis_), which inhabits the Southern Ocean, and is frequently met with at the Cape. [Illustration: Fig. 113.--The Common Albatross (_Diomedea exulans_, Linn.).] The ALBATROSS[29] is the largest and most bulky of all the birds which fly over the surface of the sea. It belongs principally to the southern hemisphere. The sailors know it under the names of Cape Sheep and Man-of-war, which they give it on account of its enormous size. Its extended wings measure as much as five mètres across.[30] Its plumage is generally white, with the exception of a dark back. Courage is not measured by size. This rule holds good in these birds, for, notwithstanding their wonderful strength and their large, strong, sharp, and hooked bills, they exhibit the most unaccountable cowardice. Even a poor weak Sea Mew will attack an Albatross, and endeavour to tear its stomach open. The pusillanimous Albatross can find no better means of getting rid of his enemy than by plunging into the water. Although they are most gluttonous in taste, they prefer to fly away rather than contend for their food. This consists of small marine animals, mollusks, mucilaginous zoophytes, and the eggs and spawn of fish. They will even swallow large fish without tearing them to pieces. When they are completely gorged, and the fish which they have seized is too large to swallow whole, they may be seen with part of it hanging outside their bill, until the first half of their prey is digested. The same is done, as is well known, by several kinds of Serpents. When thus embarrassed, the Albatross has only one mode of escape if it happens to be pursued; namely, by disgorging the food with which its stomach is overloaded. [29] From the Portuguese word _Alcatraz_, applied by the early navigators of that From the Portuguese word _Alcatraz_, applied by the early navigators of that nation to Cormorants and large sea-birds.--ED. [30] The weight of this bird much varies. A specimen in the Leverian Museum measured thirteen feet from the tip of one wing to the tip of the other. One shot off the Cape of Good Hope was said to be seventeen and a half feet.--ED. Gifted as they are with an extraordinary power of flight, these birds venture out to enormous distances from all land, more especially in stormy weather. They seem to delight in the warring of the elements. When overcome with fatigue, they take repose on the surface of the sea, placing their heads under their wings. When in this position they are very easy to capture: in order to do this, the sailors have only to approach silently, and knock them down with a boat-hook or spear them with a harpoon. Navigators have found opportunities of observing these birds in the Polar regions, where there is no night during half the year. They see the same flocks hovering around their vessel during many successive days without exhibiting the least signs of fatigue, or the slightest relaxation in their strength. The peculiarity in their mode of flight is that, whether they are ascending or descending, they seem to glide, for they flap their wings but seldom. To follow in the wake of some passing ship, probably because the agitation of the waves brings to the surface the small fry of marine animals which are their principal food, appears to delight them. They also pounce upon anything that falls overboard, even though it should be a man. On one occasion a sailor fell into the sea from a French vessel, and could not be immediately rescued because there was no boat in a fit state to be lowered. Before such could take place, a flock of Albatrosses which followed in the ship's wake pounced upon the unfortunate man, and commenced to peck his head and arms. Being unable to buffet both with the sea and the enemies which surrounded him, the man perished under the very eyes of his comrades. The Albatrosses and Petrels may be said to be the Vultures of the ocean. They may also be said to be its scavengers, for they cleanse the sea of all the putrefied animal substances which float on its surface. At the breeding season, which varies according to the hemisphere inhabited by them, the Albatrosses arrive at their favourite haunts, generally in an exhausted state; but, however thin they may be, they soon grow fat upon the abundant supplies of food which they find in the vicinity. In the end of September, to build their nests, they go in immense numbers to the island of Tristan d'Acunha, in the South Atlantic Ocean. Their nests, which are about three feet in height, are formed of mud. Their flesh is very hard, and can only be rendered eatable by laying it in salt for a long time, and afterwards boiling it, flavouring it with some piquant sauce. Nevertheless sailors, as well as the inhabitants of the desolate southern regions, use it, but only in the absence of better food. The most remarkable species are--the Common Albatross (_Diomedea exulans_), which frequents the seas washing the south of Africa; the Black-browed Albatross (_D. melanophrys_), which also inhabits the seas round the Cape of Good Hope; the Brown Albatross (_D. fuliginosa_); the Yellow and Black-beaked Albatross (_D. chlororinches_), which, like the preceding species, inhabits the seas of the South Pole.[31] [31] Captain Cook mentions a variety frequently captured by the inhabitants of Kamtschatka and the Kurile Islands. CHAPTER IV. GRALLATORES, OR WADING BIRDS. The most striking characteristic of the Waders consists in the nakedness and length of their tarsi, which sometimes attain to really extraordinary dimensions: some of these birds look as if they were mounted on stilts. This peculiarity of conformation is, however, well adapted to their modes of life. They inhabit, for the most part, river-banks, lakes, and marshes, in which they find their sustenance; consequently, they are fearless of water and ooze. The Agami, the Bustard, and the Ostrich, as well as the Emu and other _Struthionidæ_, which are placed by naturalists with this family, are not aquatic; they inhabit the interior of the country, and are either herbivorous or granivorous. The bills of these birds assume very various forms. They are generally long; but, according to the species, they may be thick or slender, tapering or flat, blunt or pointed, strong or weak; and in some kinds, such as the Flamingo, the Spoonbill, and the Boatbill, they really defy all description. The neck is always slender, and in perfect harmony with the length of the legs. Almost all the Waders are birds powerful on the wing, and twice a year most of them undertake long journeys, which they perform in large flocks, like as do Ducks, Geese, and Swans. There are, however, exceptions to this rule. Some of them--the Bustard, for instance--move through the air with difficulty, although their inferiority in this respect does not reach to complete inability; others, as the _Brevipennæ_, are absolutely unable to fly at all: their wings being altogether rudimentary, are only useful for accelerating their pace in running, and thus assisted they are remarkably swift. The nature of their food varies with the form and strength of the bill and the locality they inhabit; it consists generally of fish, small batrachia, mollusks, worms, and insects; sometimes of small mammalia and reptiles, and more rarely of grasses and seeds. This kind of sustenance must be wonderfully fitted to develop the savoury qualities of their flesh, for it is among this class that we find our most delicious specimens of "game." The mere mention of the Woodcock, Snipe, Plover, Pewit, and Bustard is sufficient to establish their claim upon the epicure. Some kinds, which are utterly devoid of any culinary properties, are furnished with a plumage to which ladies owe some of their most brilliant adornments. The Ostrich and Marabout feathers, and those of the Heron, are keenly appreciated by many fair ones, whose beauty the feathers are supposed to greatly enhance. In short, this order of birds possesses two important qualities--worthily ministering to the taste of the most fastidious palate, and handsomely decorating with its gorgeous plumage our fashionable and wealthy belles. Gormandising and coquetry alike find satisfaction, and derive from these birds some of their most agreeable sensations. If they had the additional gift of melody they might lay claim to perfection; however, such is not the case, as their notes are shrill and discordant. The Waders are monogamous or polygamous according to their species; but their history furnishes us with some touching instances of conjugal attachment. They make their nests either on trees, buildings, or the surface of the earth; sometimes even in the middle of the water, among the reeds, sedges, and other aquatic plants. In general, they evince but little care in the construction of their progenies' birth-place. In most cases they are contented to collect together a variety of substances without much discrimination; sometimes they merely scratch a hole in the ground, in which they deposit their eggs without any further care. The Waders are usually divided into six great families, which are again divisible into many genera. Following Cuvier's classification, with some slight modification, we propose arranging the group as follows:--I. _Palmidactyles_, II. _Macrodactyles_, III. _Longirostræ_, IV. _Cultrirostræ_, V. _Pressirostræ_, and VI. _Brevipennæ_. THE PALMIDACTYLES Have the anterior toes united by a wide membrane; the hind toe is absent, or is very small; the legs are very long and smooth; from their webbed feet they may appear to belong to the _Palmipedes_, but the arrangement of their toes is altogether different, and constitutes them most strikingly characteristic of the order of Waders. [Illustration: Fig. 114.--The American Flamingo (_P. ruber_, Wilson).] The FLAMINGO is one of the most curious of the tribe of Waders. The most fanciful imagination would fail in picturing to itself anything more odd than the conformation of this bird. Extremely long legs, supporting quite a small body; a neck corresponding in length with the legs; a bill rather long than otherwise, sharply curved and broken, as it were, in the middle, contrived probably to discourage those who are tempted to describe it; wings of a middling size, and a short tail--such are the distinctive features of this remarkable-looking bird. The long legs terminate in equally long feet, with three toes in front hind toe articulated high up the tarsus, and very short; anterior toes united by a deeply-indented membrane. Add to this a plumage of a splendid rose-colour, warming into a bright red on the back and wings, and we have an object calculated to excite both wonder and admiration. Ancient writers, struck with the vivid colouring of its wings, gave the Flamingo the designation of _Phoenicopterus_ (fiery-winged): this term was popularised in France by the word _Flambant_, or _Flamant_: hence the name by which the bird is universally known. Flamingo inhabit the margins of lakes and ponds, more rarely the sea-shore, or the banks of rivers. They feed on worms, mollusks, and the spawn of fishes, which they capture by the following stratagem: they place their long neck and head in such a position that the upper mandible of their bill is the lowest; then, by stirring the mud about in every direction, they easily succeed in disturbing the small fish which have settled in it, and afterwards in capturing them. They also use their feet for working the ooze and uncovering the fry and spawn to which they are partial. They love company, and live in flocks, which are subject to strict discipline. When they are fishing they draw themselves up into long, straight, and regular files, placing a sentinel, whose office it is to give a signal of alarm on the approach of danger. If any cause for uneasiness should arise, the scout-bird gives a piercing cry, not unlike the note of a trumpet, and the whole flock immediately take wing in perfect order. Flamingo are very shy and timid birds, and shun all attempts of man to approach them; the vicinity of animals, however, they disregard. Any one who is acquainted with this fact can take advantage of it so as to effect slaughter of these beautiful creatures by dressing himself up in the skin of a horse or an ox. Thus disguised, the sportsman may get close to them and shoot them down at his ease. So long as their enemy is invisible they remain immovable, the noise of the gun only stupefying them, so that they refuse to leave, although their companions are dropping down dead around them. Some authors have asserted that the Flamingo makes use of its long neck as a third leg, walking with its head resting on the ground like a foot. The fact that has doubtless given rise to this supposition is the position of the neck, necessitated by its peculiar method of seeking food. We are told, it is true, about a Flamingo reared in captivity which, being accidentally deprived of one of its limbs, found out a remedy for its infirmity by walking on one leg and helping itself along by means of its bill, using the latter as a crutch; the master of the bird, noticing this, fitted it with a wooden leg, which it used with the greatest success. But this story, which applies very well to a domesticated bird which was maimed, and consequently under peculiar conditions, in no way invalidates our former observations. The Flamingo makes itself a nest which is as original as its own personal appearance. It consists of a truncated cone, about twenty inches in height, and formed of mud dried in the sun. At the summit of this little hillock it hollows out a shallow cavity, in which the female lays two eggs, rather elongated in shape and of a dead white colour. When she is incubating them she sits astride on this novel description of throne, with her legs hanging down on each side. The young ones run about very soon after they are hatched, but it is some time before they are able to fly--not, indeed, until they are clothed with their full plumage. At two years old they assume the more brilliant colours of the adult bird. The Flamingo is found in all the warm and temperate regions of the globe. On certain islands off the American continent they exist in such numbers, that navigators have given them the name of the Flamingo Islands. In the Old World they are found spread over a region below the fortieth degree of latitude, principally in Egypt and the Nile tributaries: during the summer they seek a cooler climate, and they are then seen in numerous flocks on the southern coasts of France. The height of these magnificent birds reaches to about five feet; when they are flying, in the peculiar formation common to most aquatic birds, with the neck stretched out and the legs sticking out behind, they look, in the clear sky, like gigantic triangles of fire. The spectacle they then present is at once beautiful and wonderful. The ancients greedily sought after the flesh of the Flamingo, which they regarded as the most choice food. The tongue especially was thought to be an exquisite dainty, and the Emperor Heliogabalus appreciated it so highly that a body of troops was exclusively employed in slaughtering Phoenicopteri to satisfy his gastronomical tastes. At the present day we no longer eat the bird; to modern palates its flesh is disagreeable in flavour, and it retains a marshy smell which is far from being pleasant. With regard to the tongue, the Egyptians, it is said, are content with extracting an oil from it, which is used to flavour some descriptions of viands. We must add, in order to complete our account of the Flamingo, that it is covered with down like a Swan, which is employed for the same purposes, and that its thigh-bone is used in some countries in the manufacture of flutes. [Illustration: Fig. 115. Avocet (_Recurvirostra avocetta_).] The AVOCET (Fig. 115) is characterised by a very long and slender bill, flexible, and curved upwards; this latter peculiarity has procured for it the name of _Recurvirostra_ (curved beak). It uses this strange implement to rake up the sand and mud to a pretty good depth, in order to catch the worms, small mollusks, and fish-spawn which constitute its chief food. Its long legs enable it to travel in safety over swamps and lagoons; it also swims with great ease. It may often be seen looking for its food in the very centre of lakes and ponds. The Avocet stands about twenty inches in height, although its body is but little bigger than that of a Pigeon. It is a pretty bird, of slender make; its plumage is black on the head and back, and white underneath. It is to be met with on both the Continents; the European species is common in Holland and on the French coast. It is wild and shy in its nature, and very difficult of approach. It is clever in avoiding snares set for it by the fowler, and ingenious in escaping--either by flight or swimming--its pursuers. The nest of the Avocet is a very simple structure, generally made by placing a few blades of grass in a hole in the sand. Here it lays two or three eggs, of which it is frequently robbed; for, like those of the Plover and others, its congeners, they are regarded as great delicacies by the gourmand. The flesh, however, is not considered very tempting. [Illustration: Fig. 116.--Stilt Bird (_Charadrius himantopus_).] The STILT BIRDS obtain their name from the excessive length of their legs, which are also so slender and flexible that they can be bent considerably without breaking. Their feet are not so completely webbed as the species we have just mentioned: the two membranes which unite the toes are unequal in size. The bill is long, slender, and sharp, like that of the Avocet, but straight; the wings are long and pointed; the tail small. They are about the size of the Avocet, and sometimes attain the height of six-and-twenty inches. They possess considerable powers of flight, but walk with difficulty; on the other hand, they are much at home on mud or in marshes and swamps, in which they bore with their long beaks for insects, larvæ, and small mollusks--dainties to which they are very partial. They are dull, shy birds, leading a solitary life, except at the breeding season. At that period they assemble in great numbers, build their nests in the marshes, on little hillocks, close to one another, grass being the principal material employed. They lay four greenish-coloured eggs, with ash-coloured spots. The male bird watches while the females are sitting; and at the slightest alarm he raises a cry which startles the flock. The whole colony may then be seen on the wing, waiting for the danger to pass before settling down. Stilt Birds are uncommon in Western Europe; they are principally to be met with in the Russian and Hungarian marshes. During the summer they occasionally visit the shores of the Mediterranean, but they are seldom seen on those of the Atlantic. By sportsmen they are little thought of. MACRODACTYLES. The birds forming the family of _Macrodactyles_ (long-toed) are remarkable for the extreme length of their toes, which are entirely separate, or but slightly webbed; they are thus enabled to walk on the weeds growing on the surface of the water. In most instances the shortness of their wings limits their powers of flight. This order includes the Water Hens (_Gallinula_), the Taleves, or Sultana Hens, the Rails (_Rallus_), the Coots (_Fulica_), the Glareolæ, and the Kamichis. The chief characteristics of the WATER HEN are a short and strong bill, thick at the base and sharp at the end, with a prolongation of it extending up the forehead; four well-spread toes, furnished with sharp claws--the three front toes united by a small and cloven membrane. They are plentiful in some parts of the globe, their favourite haunts being marshy places and the banks of lakes or rivers, where they feed on worms, insects, mollusks, and the smaller fish. They are lively, graceful, and ornamental birds. During the day they love to lie hid among the reeds, shaded from the sun's rays by the large leaves of the water-lily. They emerge from their hiding-places at evening and morning in search of food. Although incapable of either fast flight or rising to great elevations, the Water Hen shows considerable address in escaping from the sportsman's gun. When pressed very closely, they take to the water, in which they are expert swimmers and divers: under the water they go, to reappear on the surface many yards away, where they only show themselves above for a moment to breathe, avoiding flight until every cause of fear is removed. In some countries they remain throughout the year; in others, on the contrary, they are migratory. When the latter is the case, they travel sometimes on foot, sometimes by swimming, and sometimes on the wing; following the same route, however, year after year, and always returning with constancy to the spot where they made their first nest. The eggs are seven or eight in number. During incubation the male and female occupy the nest alternately. Should any intruder alarm them, they never fail, before leaving the nest, to cover up their cherished treasures with grass or other material, so as to keep them warm and hidden from the voracity of their watchful enemy, the Crow. Immediately after the young are hatched they leave the nest to follow their mother, and are very soon able to supply their own wants. Their only covering at first is a scanty and coarse down; but they run rapidly, and seem almost instinctively to swim and dive and conceal themselves at the slightest appearance of danger. Young Water Hens, however, are exposed to accident from the flooding of streams, and consequent submersion of the nests; and it is probably by way of compensation for this that nature has made them so prolific, for frequently they rear three broods per annum. The Common Water Hen (Fig. 117) is a native of Europe; it is found in France, England, Italy, Germany, and Holland. The Slate-coloured Water Hen is a native of Java. [Illustration: Fig. 117.--Common Water Hen (_Gallinula chloropus_, Sw.).] [Illustration: Fig. 118.--Sultana Fowl (_Pollo sultana_, Sw.).] The Purple Water Hen (_Porphyrio hyacinthus_, Temminck), or Sultana Fowl (Fig. 118), is peculiarly characteristic of Macrodactyles, and might be defined as an exaggeration of the Water Hen. Its bill is thicker and more robust, the frontal plate on the forehead is more extended, the toes are longer, but its habits are very nearly the same. It is, however, less exclusively aquatic, and its favourite food is the seeds of the cereals and aquatic plants, and fruits: it occasionally, however, feeds on mollusks and small fishes. When eating, it stands on one foot, and uses the other as a hand in order to convey the food to its beak. The body of this magnificent bird is of an indigo-blue colour, the beak and feet being rose-colour. The ancients, who were acquainted with it, and were accustomed to rear it in a domesticated state, gave it the name of _Porphyrio_ (purple coloured) on account of its colour. If it could be acclimatised, it would be a valuable addition to our ornamental grounds. There are several species of the Sultana Fowl, differing more or less from one another. They inhabit the warmer regions of the Old World. The Purple Water Hen is found in Greece, Asia Minor, Africa, and the South of Europe; generally, it is about the size of the ordinary Domestic Fowl. [Illustration: Fig. 119.--Land Rail (_Rallus crex_, Linn.).] RAILS (_Rallus_) are characterised by a slender, tapering, slightly-arched beak, longer than the head; elongated tarsi, terminating in slender toes, much compressed and completely separate, and not marginate; wings middle-sized; tail short. Their habits bear a strong resemblance to those of the Water Hen. Like the latter, they are timid, and hide themselves all day in the rushes, underwood, or grass of the marshes and meadows they inhabit. They make use of the holes hollowed out by water-rats, in which they take refuge when hard pressed. Little thickets bordering brooks and small rivers are localities to which they are peculiarly partial, inasmuch as they assist ready concealment from their enemies. Their flight is slow and heavy, and is generally directed in a straight line, but little elevated above the ground. Running, however, is the means they usually adopt for escaping their pursuers, and by their numberless turns and windings they often succeed. But in some cases their efforts are of such a feeble character that dogs catch them without difficulty, and even the sportsman has been known to capture one with his hands. Rails are solitary, differing in this from the majority of migratory birds, which generally assemble in flocks previous to undertaking long journeys. The nest is roughly constructed among the reeds and flags of some quiet pond or river bank. The females lay from six to eight eggs. The young ones run as soon as they are hatched, and grow very rapidly. Their favourite food is worms, insects, and shrimps, but they do not reject wild corn and other seeds. Their flesh is considered delicate, and is certainly superior to that of the Water Hen: in the autumn it acquires an exquisite flavour in the estimation of French gourmands. Rails are very common in France. The species most abundant there is the Land Rail, which is thus named from its habits being more terrestrial than aquatic; besides, it gives a very decided preference for fields, copses, heaths, and meadows. It is vulgarly called the "King of the Quails," probably from frequenting the same localities. They do not acquire their most perfect condition till the end of summer; this, therefore, is the proper time to kill them. Twenty species of Rails are enumerated, which are spread over the various countries of the globe. However, the characteristic features of all are nearly alike. The COOT (_Fulica_) has a bill of moderate size, stout, tapering, much depressed, with a well-developed frontal plate; the toes are slender, and edged with a broad, scalloped membrane. Their plumage is glossy, soft, full, and blended, and impervious to water. Coots are essentially aquatic, frequenting lakes, pools, and marshes, and sometimes the shores of estuaries, bays, and gulfs. Like the Water Hen and the Rail, their life is almost nocturnal. During the daytime they hide themselves amid the reeds and flags, from which they do not emerge until the evening, when hunger forces them to seek their food. This consists of worms, small fishes, and the young shoots of aquatic plants. Coots but rarely visit the dry fields, where they move about with great difficulty; on the other hand, they swim and dive with graceful ease. Their flight is somewhat less feeble than that of the Rails; still it is far from strong. [Illustration: Fig. 120.--The Bald Coot (_Fulica atra_, Sw.).] Coots herd together in flocks; they make their nests on the reeds in the water, and lay from eight to fourteen eggs. The young ones take to the water as soon as they are hatched, but they often fall a prey to the Marsh Harrier. It sometimes happens that the whole brood is destroyed in this way: when such is the case the female lays a second batch of eggs, which she hides in the most retired spot, less accessible to the enemies of her race. The Coot is found in every country in Europe, in North America, in Asia, and in Africa. Its flesh, which is white and delicate in appearance, is usually very fat, but has a disagreeable taste and marsh-like odour. Three species are known, only one of which is found in this country--namely, the Bald Coot (_Fulica atra_), the _Foulque macroule_ of French naturalists, very common in the north of France, and all quarters of the Old and New World; the Crested Coot (_F. cristata_), a native of Madagascar, but sometimes a visitor to the South of Europe, and differing very little from the Common Coot, but distinguished from it by the red and prominent bony protuberances at the top of the frontal plate; and the Blue Coot, which is described as an inhabitant of Portugal. [Illustration: Fig. 121.--Collared Glareola (_Hirundo pratincola_, Linn.).] The GLAREOLA, or SEA PARTRIDGE (_Glareola perdix_), has the bill short and curved, the tarsi long and slender, the middle toe joined to the outer by a small membrane, the wings long and pointed, the tail forked. They live in flocks on the banks of the Danube, the Volga, and on the shores of the Black and Caspian Seas. They feed on worms, water-insects, and especially locusts, which they catch on the wing. The JACANAS or PARRÆ are characterised by a straight and middle-sized bill; legs armed with pointed spurs; toes furnished with long and sharp-pointed claws, and a back toe longer even than the front ones. These birds inhabit Asia, Africa, and South America. In Brazil they are called "Surgeon-birds," from the resemblance the claw on their back toe bears to a lancet. They frequent swamps, lagoons, and the margins of pools. They walk on the wide-spreading leaves of tropical aquatic plants with perfect ease, although they swim very imperfectly: some naturalists, indeed, declare that they cannot swim at all, and they are probably justified in this opinion by the appearance of the bird, which seems to have few characteristics of an aquatic species. Their flight is rapid, but not very high. [Illustration: Fig. 122.--Jacana (_Parra africana_, Sw.).] The Jacanas live in pairs. They are exceedingly numerous, and perfectly fearless of man. They are restless and quarrelsome in their nature, frequently engaging in conflict with other birds, when they make good use of their spurs. They will defend their offspring with daring courage even against man himself, and will sacrifice their lives without hesitation in their defence. The male and the female evince the tenderest mutual attachment; once united, they part no more during life. They make their nest in a clump of flags or other aquatic plants, in which the female lays four or five eggs, on which she sits during the night only, the high temperature produced by a tropical sun supplying the necessary warmth. As soon as hatched the young ones leave the nest, and are able to follow their parents about. [Illustration: Fig. 123.--Horned Screamer or Kamichi (_Palamedea cornuta_, Sw.).] The Common Jacana is black, with neck and shoulders of a reddish brown, and green wing-feathers. [Illustration: Fig. 124.--Faithful Kamichi (_Palamedea cristata_, Sw.).] In the KAMICHI, or HORNED SCREAMER (_Palamedea cornuta_), the beak is shorter than the head, slightly compressed, and bent at the point; the wings are wide-spreading, and provided with strong spurs on the shoulders; the toes are separated, and furnished with long, stout, and pointed claws. Their plumage is of a blackish hue. Their size is about that of a Turkey. They are South American birds. Their favourite haunts are moist, marshy localities, inundated savannahs, or the oozy banks of shallow streams. Although they do not swim, they venture on the water in search of aquatic plants and their seeds. Some naturalists, founding their belief on the presence of spurs with which this bird is provided, assert that it attacks small reptiles and destroys them. This is now acknowledged to be an error. These birds live isolated, in pairs; they are mild and peaceful in their nature, for the breeding season is the only time when they seem at all disposed to use their weapons. At this period the cocks engage in deadly conflict to gain possession of some favourite mate. The union once formed, it is indissoluble, and only terminates with the death of one of them. It is even asserted that the survivor exhibits signs of great affliction, lingering for days near the spot where cruel fate had severed him by death from the loved one. The Palamedea has many points of resemblance to the Gallinaceous order: its comparatively short and thick tarsi, its general make and gait, its habits of life and inoffensive nature, all remind us of the above-named tribe. There is, therefore, no reason for surprise in the fact that man has succeeded in domesticating them, and even in turning them into useful assistants. The Horned Kamichi is thus named on account of having on its head a horn-like tuft, which is straight, thin, and movable, about three inches long. The Chaja, or Faithful Kamichi, has, instead of the horn, a crest of feathers arranged in a circle on the back of its head. This species is susceptible of education. It is easily tamed, and becomes very friendly with man, proving itself an active, intelligent, and devoted servant. It becomes at once the companion and protector of the other denizens of the poultry-yard--so much so, that in Brazil and Paraguay, where it is known solely as the Chaja, the inhabitants have no hesitation in confiding to its charge the care of their flocks of poultry. The Chaja accompanies them into the fields in the morning, and at nightfall conducts them back to their roosting-places. Should any bird of prey come near, the guardian spreads out its broad wings, darts upon the intruder, and soon makes him feel what a love of justice can do when aided by four stout spurs. LONGIROSTRES (_Cuvier_). The birds composing this family are characterised by a long and flexible bill, which is fitted for little else except boring in mud and soft ground. They are indifferently shore or marsh birds. Among them are comprised the Sandpipers, Turnstones, Ruffs, Knots, Godwits, Woodcocks, Snipes, Curlews, and Ibis. The SANDPIPERS have a long, straight, thin bill, flexible at the base, but firmer towards the point; the tarsi are slender and elongated; the wings very pointed; the feet half webbed, the back toe short, and touching the ground with the point only. They live in small flocks on the banks of rivers and on the sea-coast. Some species frequent marshy localities, others dry and sandy districts. Their food is chiefly worms, insects, fish-spawn, and sometimes even small fry and crustacea. Their habits are peaceable, and their movements easy and graceful. They may be noticed on the strands and banks of our rivers, incessantly on the move, running, swimming, and diving, all of which they perform with equal ease. They are gifted with a keen sight, for not even the smallest insect in its vicinity can escape its vision. The moment one of them descries a prey, the whole flock vie with each other to obtain possession of it. The Sandpipers are natives of the northern parts of the Old and New World; they visit France twice a year--in spring and autumn. They breed in the North, and lay from three to five eggs. The extreme delicacy of their flesh causes them to be much sought after by epicures; they are, therefore, captured in every possible way. Extinction will probably be the result. To gratify the tastes of the gourmand and the bloodthirsty instincts of the poacher, the lovers of nature are, forsooth, to be deprived of one of the most innocent and beautiful families of birds. [Illustration: Fig. 125.--Redshank (_Totanus stagnatui_, Temm.).] In France seven species of Sandpipers are known, varying in size from that of the Sparrow to that of the Thrush. They are as follows:--the Brown Sandpiper, called also the Harlequin Sandpiper (_Totanus fuscus_), the Greenshank (_Totanus glottis_), the Redshank (_Totanus caledris_), Fig. 125; the Pond Sandpiper; the Wood Sandpiper (_Totanus glareola_), the Green Sandpiper (_Totanus achropus_), the Common Sandpiper (_Totanus hypoleucos_). The last kind is the smallest, and also the most prized. [Illustration: Fig. 126.--Turnstone (_Cinclus interpres_, G. R. Gray).] The TURNSTONES (_Strepsila_) inhabit the sea-coasts of both continents. A single known species alone has been traced over most parts of Europe, the Cape of Good Hope, and various parts of Asia, Australia, and North America. It owes its name to the peculiar method it adopts to find its food. This habit consists of lifting up the pebbles and shingles which lie spread over its domain, the sea-shore, in order to discover the worms, crustacea, and insects concealed underneath. For this purpose it is provided with a bill of medium length, tapering, pointed, and hard, which it uses adroitly as a lever. It lives a solitary life, and does not even congregate with its own species for the purpose of migration, but travels alone. Only in the North, whither it repairs to breed, does it manifest any approach to sociability. The female lays three or four rather large eggs of an ashy-grey colour; these are deposited in the bottom of a hole dug in the sand on the shore. The young ones are very precocious, for even on leaving the shell they run about with their parents to seek their sustenance. [Illustration: Fig. 127--Duel between Ruffs (_Machetes pugnax_, Temm.).] The only species of this genus, the Ringed Turnstone, _Strepsila interpres_ (Fig. 126), is a bird of passage in France and England. Its flesh is not without relish, but by no means equal to that of the Plover. The RUFF (_Machetes pugnax_, Temminck) commends itself to the attention of the observer by the sudden metamorphosis which seems to revolutionise its entire nature, in the early days of May, at the first dawning of that charming month when all nature appears to expand and array itself in every kind of splendour, the better to render homage to the Creator. At this season the plumage of the Ruff, which has hitherto been grave and almost sombre, undergoes a most brilliant transformation. It would strike the observer as if the agitation of love had the effect of totally changing its plumage from one altogether devoid of display to the most brilliant costume imaginable, for its neck is now wreathed with a glittering collar, which extends by degrees over shoulders and breast. On the top of its head, to the right and left, two graceful plumes come forth, which vastly improve its looks, and contribute in no small degree to the impressiveness of its demeanour. Brilliant hues of yellow, white, and black, arranged in a hundred ever-varying shades, combine to improve their plumage, making them most attractive to look at. This physical transformation produces a change in the temper of the bird. Puffed up with pride, and elated at his own personal magnificence, our hero suddenly finds himself subject to the most warlike feelings. But what is this object which catches his sight? It is another Ruff--a rival. Without hesitation he rushes immediately to meet the stranger, who, nothing loath, charges in return at the top of his speed. With stretched-out beak and crest erect, the two adversaries impetuously close. A furious duel takes place, carried on in the sight of the feebler sex, who pass their opinion on the blows which are given and received, praise or blame them, and, by a cry at judicious movements, reanimate the failing ardour of the gallant combatants. Fierce blows with the beak follow one another in quick succession, blood soon flows, and the arena is reddened around them, until at last the two weary champions roll over in the dust, and lie side by side completely exhausted. During two or three months these duels are of frequent occurrence, and cannot fail to leave numerous gaps in the ranks of the species. [Illustration: Fig. 128.--Ruffs in their nuptial plumage.] In the beginning of August their rich vestments gradually disappear, and the warlike fever as rapidly abates. The Ruff now becomes a commonplace bird of peaceful habits, with no other occupation but that of searching for worms and insects on the shores of the ocean. Then is the time when they fall under the sportsman's gun and into the snares of the bird-catcher. The Ruff soon gets accustomed to living in captivity. In England, where they were formerly very numerous, and in Holland, where they are probably so still, Ruffs are reared and fattened for the table. They must, however, be kept in the dark during the breeding season, to prevent them from giving way to their turbulent tempers, which blaze out on the slightest excitement under the influence of light. These birds inhabit the northern and temperate countries of Europe and Asia: in France they are common enough on the north and north-west coast of the Channel. In spring they fix their abode in moist and marshy meadows, where they lay their eggs, four or five in number, of a greenish-grey hue, speckled with small brown spots. In the autumn they spread themselves along the sea-shore. Their size nearly equals that of the largest of the Sandpipers. The KNOT (_Tringa_, Linn.) has a bill as long as the head; the toes divided, the back toe short; the wings pointed; a shape rather heavy and thick-set. They frequent the sea-shore and salt marshes, and, except by accident, never venture far inland. They are natives of the Arctic Polar Circle, and visit our coasts in the spring and autumn. They lay their eggs, four or five in number, in their northern retreats. The Sanderlings (_Caledris_) and the Curlews (_Numenius_, Latham) are species closely allied to the Knots, but differing in their habits and physical characteristics. They visit all the coasts of Europe in small flocks, incessantly on the move. Even an abundance of food does not suffice to keep them very long in the same locality: motion seems the law of their existence. The WOODCOCK (_Scolopax rusticola_) has a very long, straight, and slender bill; the head flattened; the tarsi short; and the legs covered with feathers. They live in the woods, and do not frequent the sea-shore or river-banks. They differ from the Snipes in having the body fuller, the tibiæ feathered at the joint, the tarsi shorter, the wings broader, and the bill firmer (Fig. 129). They are also larger in size. In points they differ from most of the Grallæ; but, taken as a whole, it has been thought right to place them among this order. [Illustration: Fig. 129.--Common Woodcock (_Scolopax rusticola_, Temm.).] The Woodcock inhabits, during the summer, the lofty, wooded mountain-ranges of Central and Northern Europe. Driven away by the severe cold, they descend into the plains, and reach France and England about the month of November. They are shy, timid birds, and conceal themselves all day long in the depths of the most retired woods, busying themselves in turning over the leaves with their bills to catch worms and grubs, which form their food. The brightness of daylight prevents their seeing clearly, and they do not possess full power of their visual faculties until evening, when they emerge from their retreats, and seek their sustenance in the cultivated fields, damp meadows, or in the vicinity of springs. Woodcocks do not all migrate, but remain throughout the year in the neighbourhood of springs which the most bitter cold cannot freeze. Solitary during the greater part of the year, they pair in spring; building their nest on the ground with grass and roots, placing it close to the trunk of some tree (the Scotch fir by preference, it is said), or in a holly-bush. The female lays four or five oval eggs, rather larger than those of a Pigeon. The young ones run about as soon as they are hatched: the parent birds guard them with careful solicitude, and manifest on all occasions the greatest love of their offspring. If any danger threatens, the old birds catch up their young, holding them under their necks by means of their beaks, and afterwards transferring them to a place of safety. [Illustration: Fig. 130.--Woodcocks (White and Isabelle-coloured).] These birds seem always to feel an affection for places they have once frequented, and love to return to them; the following fact, at least, would lead one to think so. A gamekeeper, having snared a Woodcock, gave it its liberty after fastening a copper ring to its leg. The following year he perfectly recognised, by the help of this mark, the Woodcock which had formerly been his captive; it had again visited its old haunts. During ten months of the year the Woodcock is mute; when the early leaves begin to bud it utters a feeble cry--_pitt-pitt-corr!_--to attract a mate. The plumage of the Woodcock is remarkable for the harmony of its shades; it is a happy mixture of brown, russet, grey, black, and white. It is not an unusual thing to meet with Woodcocks entirely of the latter; they are the _albinos_ of their kind. Others are arrayed in an Isabelle-coloured plumage (Fig. 130); but white, with grey or brown mottlings, are their principal peculiarities of plumage. The Woodcock is very clean in its habits: nothing prevents it pluming and dressing its feathers twice a day. At morning and evening they can be seen bending their course in rapid flight towards rivulets or springs to bore for insects, quench their thirst, and arrange their toilette. This bird is found in almost all the departments in France, but principally in l'Ain and l'Isère. We need hardly say that they are sought after with an eagerness that no obstacle seems to discourage. One can scarcely imagine the pitch of enthusiasm some of our sportsmen possess for pursuit of the Woodcock. They will walk for ten or twelve hours in the mud, leave shreds of their garments hanging on every bush and bramble they pass, exercise all their ingenuity in manoeuvring and cunning, and, as a recompense for all these exertions, not discouraged, perhaps find "the bird flown." This is a short compendium of the results often enjoyed in seeking this woodland denizen. The chief difficulty in pursuing these birds is, first, to find them, and then to make them flush. Hidden motionless and mute in the thickest bushes, they emit but very little scent to catch the nose of the dog, which ranges about in every direction, disheartened with such laborious and often unprofitable work. After a long trial of patience and perseverance, scratched and torn by thorns and briers, the slightest taint on the air tells the secret--the dog draws. As soon as the sportsman sees or knows that his dog is "pointing" at the game, he advances quietly, and judging as well as he can of the locality of the bird, places himself in the best position for firing when it flushes (Fig. 131). If he misses his aim, all he has to do is to follow up, for it is likely enough to drop again only a short distance off. Still the labour to force the game to take wing a second time is not less arduous than heretofore. Both man and dog are often put on the wrong scent by the turns, twists, and circuits of their tracks, and all the other tricks of concealment with which this bird is familiar. If at last the Woodcock succumbs, it will not be till it has thoroughly fatigued its persecutors. [Illustration: Fig. 131.--Woodcock-shooting.] In Brittany, some years ago, Woodcocks were so common that the inhabitants were in the habit of catching them with nets in the following singular way:--Two men went out together at night, one carrying a lantern, the other a small net fastened at the end of a long stick. They proceeded to those parts of the woods where deer had been grazing, which places are always favourite haunts of the Woodcocks on account of their finding worms and insects among their droppings. The rays of light from the lantern were suddenly thrown on the birds while feeding; the latter, dazzled with the brilliancy, allowed themselves to be entangled in the meshes of the net before they thought of flight. A similar method to the above is practised by the negroes on the Southern plantations of the United States, with this difference--instead of a net, only a club is used for their destruction. Often the slaughter of a successful night amounts to hundreds. The American Woodcock is scarcely as large as the European bird, nor is their colour the same. The Woodcock constitutes a delicious article of food from its exquisite flavour and piquancy: it in consequence holds the highest rank among game in the eyes of the epicure. The SNIPE much resembles the Woodcock, but is smaller, with longer tarsi. It is also different in its habits. It haunts marshes and fens, feeding on grubs, and sometimes even on aquatic plants. It travels during the night as well as in the day, generally preferring stormy, damp weather for performing its migrations. The Snipe is found in all latitudes in every part of the globe. Some remain the year round in France and Ireland. They make their nests among reeds in muddy, boggy places, difficult of access to both man and beast, in which they lay four or five eggs. The young ones leave the nest as soon as they are hatched, and are fed by their parents for some time, the want of solidity in their bills not permitting them to bore for their own food. [Illustration: Fig. 132.--1. Jack Snipe. 2. Common Snipe (_Scolopax gallinula_, _Scolopax gallinago_, Linn.).] The Snipe does not live so solitary a life as the Woodcock; it is occasionally seen in wisps or flocks. When flushed they utter a shrill cry, which is easily recognised. They visit us in autumn, coming from the marshes of Poland and Hungary, whither they return again in the spring. The most common species are the Common Snipe (_Scolopax gallinago_, Fig. 132, 2), the Great Snipe (_S. major_), the Jack Snipe (_S. gallinula_, Fig. 132, 1), Sabine Snipe (_S. Sabini_), and the American variety (_S. Wilsonii_). The Common Snipe is no bigger than a Thrush, and has a bill longer in proportion than the Woodcock. It has on the head two longitudinal black stripes; the neck and shoulders are blackish, and the breast white. It is persecuted by some of the small birds of prey, such as the Merlin, the Hobby, and the Kestrel. But, among all its enemies, man is most to be dreaded; he looks upon it as nearly equal to the Woodcock, and for this reason pursues it with the greatest perseverance. It is true that the sportsman pays dearly enough for the pleasure of killing this favourite game; for Snipe-shooting is not only more fatiguing than pursuit of the Woodcock, but is occasionally dangerous. Has not the Snipe-shooter the horrible prospect of rheumatism saddling itself upon him at an age when most persons are still vigorous, to say nothing of the falls he is almost sure to meet with on the perfidious surface of the bogs and marshes traversed, which might perchance even bury him in their muddy depths? Certainly this thought ought to cause reflection; but as rheumatism generally makes its appearance late in life, we seldom worry ourselves about it when young. Besides the drawback of rheumatism, Snipe-shooting is accompanied by innumerable difficulties. Immediately on the bird rising it makes two or three sudden twists, which often baffle even the best shots: proficiency can only be attained by long experience, aided by considerable rapidity and steadiness of hand and eye. The Great Snipe is about a third larger than that of which we have just been speaking. The Jack or Deaf Snipe is thus named because it fails to notice the approach of the sportsman, and gets up literally under his feet. This is the smallest of the European species. Wilson's Snipe (_Scolopax Wilsonii_) is a native of America. In size it is the same as our Common Snipe. On the prairies of the Western continent it is found in immense numbers. It is, strictly speaking, migratory. The male and female differ slightly in plumage and size, the former having a white breast, while the latter has a brown one. As a table delicacy they cannot be surpassed. The GODWIT (_Limosa_), Fig. 133, is a beautiful bird, of slender make, with long legs. It is larger than the Woodcock, with a longer beak, this being twice the length of its head, and slender and tapering towards the point, which is rather depressed, and slightly curved upwards. These birds inhabit the North of Europe, and in the autumn regularly visit France, and the English coast from Cornwall to the north-east extremity of Scotland. They make their nests in meadows near the sea, among the grass and rushes, and lay four eggs, very large in proportion to the size of the bird. Their flesh is much esteemed, and, with the exception of that of the Woodcock and Snipe, is undeniably the best among the group of Waders that frequent our coast. [Illustration: Fig. 133.--Godwits (_Limosa melanura_, Temm.).] The male Godwit is always smaller than the female. Two species of this bird are known--the Black-tailed Godwit (_Limosa ægocephala_), and the Barred-tailed Godwit (_Limosa rufa_). The CURLEW (_Numenius_), Fig. 134, is remarkable for the immoderate length of its bill, which is slender, curved, and round from end to end. Its wings are medium-sized, and tail short. Its plumage is a mixture of grey, russet, brown, and white. It derives its name from the plaintive, melancholy cry which it utters when it takes flight. These birds frequent the sea-coast and the vicinity of marshes, feeding on worms, water-insects, and small mollusks. They plunge their bills into the ground, to a small portion of which they communicate a vibratory movement; the worms, disturbed in their subterranean dwellings, come up to the surface, and are immediately swallowed. The gait of the Curlews, generally speaking, is grave and measured; but if any one disturbs them previous to taking wing, they begin running with astonishing rapidity. They are capable of a prolonged flight, but do not generally venture far into the interior of the country; it is on the coast they are always most abundant. They live together in numerous flocks, except during their breeding-time, when they isolate themselves in order to build their nests in some dry place among the grass. The female lays four or five eggs. The young ones run about to seek their food as soon as they leave the shell, and receive no attentions from their parents. [Illustration: Fig. 134.--Curlew (_Numenius arquatus_, Gould).] The Curlew is of a wild and timid nature. Nevertheless, in Senegal, they have been domesticated; to no great advantage, it is true, as their flesh always retains a very marshy flavour. Curlews abound all over the globe. They are very common in France, where they arrive in the month of April, leaving again in August, although sometimes they pass the winter on the coast. Of their sojourn in the British Islands the same may be said. A beautiful variety of the Curlew is found in America. In shooting them the great difficulty is to get within range. The sportsman, if well secreted, may occasionally succeed in obtaining a shot at Curlews by imitating their call. The IBIS has a long bill, curved in the direction of the ground, almost square at its base, and rounded towards the termination; the head and neck are bare. It has four toes; the three front ones are united at the base by a membrane; the whole length of the back toe rests upon the ground. These birds are inhabitants of the warm regions of Africa, Asia, and America; only one species, the Green Ibis, being found in Europe. They are to be met with in companies of seven or eight together, in moist and marshy grounds, and on the banks of large rivers, where they catch the worms, water-insects, and small mollusks which form the principal part of their food. They also crop young and tender aquatic plants. Their nature being mild and peaceable, they do not keep shifting about with that petulance which characterises some of the Grallæ, but have been observed to remain for hours in the same place engaged in digging into the mud which conceals their small prey. Like nearly all the other birds of this order, they migrate every year, and undertake long journeys from one continent to another. They are monogamous, each pair swearing, as it were, eternal fidelity to one another, and death alone can sever the bonds fortified by affection and habit. They usually build their nests on lofty trees, but sometimes on the ground; the female lays two or three whitish eggs, which hatch in from twenty-five to thirty days. There are eighteen to twenty species of the Ibis, of which three only merit our attention. These are the Sacred Ibis, the Green Ibis, and the Scarlet Ibis. The Sacred Ibis (_Ibis religiosa_) is about the size of a Fowl. Its plumage is white, with black at the extremity of the wings and on the rump. It has enjoyed celebrity from ancient times, on account of the veneration of which it was the object by the Egyptians. They set it up in their temples as a divinity, and allowed it to multiply in their cities to such an extent that, if we can believe Herodotus and Strabo, it actually impeded the traffic. Whoever killed an Ibis, even by accident, at once became the victim of a mad crowd, who stoned him pitilessly; and the dead bird was embalmed with the greatest care, and then placed in earthen pots hermetically sealed, which were ranged in special catacombs. A large number of mummies of the Ibis have been found in the _nécropoles_ of Thebes and Memphis, and several specimens of them are to be seen in the Museum of Natural History at Paris. [Illustration: Fig. 135.--Sacred Ibis (_Ibis religiosa_, Cuv.).] The Egyptian worship of the Ibis is a certain and incontestable fact. Less certain, however, is the origin of these honours. Herodotus has given an explanation, obscure enough, it is true, but which, however, was adopted by his successors, and for a long time accepted by our _savants_. "The Arabians assure us," says Herodotus, "that the great veneration which the Egyptians render to the Ibis is caused by the gratitude which they feel towards them for ridding the country of _winged serpents_." According to tradition, these "winged serpents" came into Egypt from Arabia at the commencement of spring. They always followed the same route, and invariably passed through a certain defile, where the Ibis waited for them and destroyed them. Herodotus adds that, having gone to Arabia to obtain some certain information about these "winged serpents," he saw, lying on the ground near the city of Buto, "an immense quantity of bones and vertebræ unmistakably those of the winged plagues." Since the time of Herodotus, a great many authors, probably on his authority, have reproduced this fable, and enriched it with variations more or less fanciful. Cicero, Pomponius Mela, Solinus, Ammianus, and Ælian have mentioned it. According to the last writer, the Ibis inspired the serpents with so much dread, that the very sight of its plumage was sufficient to drive them away, and a mere touch killed them at once, or at least stupefied them. Let it suffice that all these naturalists admit that the Egyptians venerated the Ibis for the service which it rendered by destroying numbers of venomous serpents. In the narrative of Herodotus, as we have seen, the expression "winged serpents" is used for venomous ones. The translation is rather a free one, it must be confessed. Moreover, it is the opinion of M. Bourlet, who has written a memoir on the subject, that by the term "winged serpents" Herodotus intended to describe locusts, innumerable swarms of which were wont to traverse Egypt and the adjacent countries, destroying everything as they pass. This explanation appears to us better than the former, for it is a fact that the Ibis cannot attack serpents, its bill being too weak for such a purpose. Having quoted M. Bourlet's opinion, we may as well give that of Savigny, the naturalist, whose studies on the subject have been published in the "Histoire Mythologique de l'Ibis." "Between aridity and contagion, the two scourges which in all ages have been so dreaded by the Egyptians," says the author, "it was soon perceived that when a district was rendered fertile and healthy by pure and fresh water, it was immediately frequented by the Ibis, so that the presence of the one always indicated that of the other, just as if the two were inseparable; they therefore believed that the two had a simultaneous existence, and fancied some supernatural and secret relations existed between them. This idea, being so intimately connected with the phenomena on which their existence depended--I mean the periodical overflowing of their river--was the first motive for their veneration of the Ibis, and became the basis of the homage which ultimately developed into the worship of the bird." Thus, according to Savigny, the Ibis was venerated by the Egyptians only because it announced to them the annual overflowing of the Nile. This explanation is now generally accepted. This bird, whose attachment to Egypt was formerly so great that, according to Ælian, it suffered itself to die of hunger when it left the country, strange to say, now is scarcely ever seen there. The cause of this probably is, that the modern Egyptians, treading under foot the ancient faith of their fathers, kill and eat the Ibis as they would any other fowl, without remembering its former rank of divinity. Being deprived of the ancient protection which rendered Egypt so dear to it, the Ibis has almost deserted the ungrateful land of the Pharaohs. Still it occasionally pays brief visits to the Delta at the time of the rise of the Nile; but it soon takes flight into the wilds of Abyssinia, forgotten and unregretted. It is also found in Senegal and at the Cape of Good Hope. The Green Ibis (_I. falcinellus_), called by Herodotus the Black Ibis, has black plumage, variegated with green on the upper part. It inhabits the north of Africa and the south of Europe. Like the first-mentioned bird, it was held sacred by the Egyptians. The Scarlet Ibis (_I. ruber_) is indigenous to America, and is found principally in Guiana, where it associates in flocks at the mouths of the rivers. Its plumage is of a beautiful vermilion colour, tipped with black at the ends of the wings. It does not, however, wear this brilliant plumage till about two years old. The young are very readily tamed, and their flesh is tolerably well-tasted. CULTRIROSTRES. The _Cultrirostres_ (or knife-shaped bill) have a long, strong, and sharp-edged bill. They are generally provided with stout tarsi, and frequent the edges of marshes and banks of rivers. Many of them enjoy the faculty of being able to stand on one leg for hours together. This singular attitude is rendered possible by means of a curious mechanism, which was discovered by Duméril. The tibia, in its junction with the femur, presents a protuberant knot, which forcibly stiffens the ligaments of the knee, forming a kind of catch, similar to the spring of a knife. The principal species of this family are--the Spoonbill (_Platalea_), Stork (_Ciconia_), Jabiru (_Mycteria_, Linn.), Ombrette, Bec-ouvert, Drome, the Boatbills (_Cancroma_), Heron (_Ardea_), Crane (_Grus_), Agami and Caurale, and the Cariama (_Palamedea cristata_). The SPOONBILL is remarkable for the singular form of its bill, which is about four times the length of the head, straight, and flexible; the upper mandible, about an inch and a quarter broad at the base, gradually narrows to three-quarters, and again increases to two inches at the point, causing a resemblance to a spoon, from which it takes its name. It uses this bill for dipping into the mud and water, whence it extracts worms and small fish, on which it principally feeds. It also eats water-insects, which it catches by placing its bill half open on the surface of the water, permitting them thus to float on to the lower mandible. It lives in small companies, and frequents places near the sea-shore. It is easily tamed. [Illustration: Fig. 136.--Common White Spoonbill (_Platalea leucorodia_, Linn.).] There are two species of them: the White Spoonbill, which has a tuft on the back of its neck, and is found in most parts of Europe--it is, however, seldom met with in France, and then only in the south; and the Rose-coloured Spoonbill, a native of South America, the plumage of which presents the most beautiful tints. The STORK (_Ciconia_) has a long and straight bill, wide at the base, pointed, and sharp-edged; legs long and slender; tibia bare for half its length; tarsi long, compressed, reticulated; hind toe short, slightly elevated, and inserted rather high, but resting upon the ground; the tail is short. They are found in nearly all parts of the world. Some species migrate with great regularity, being admirably constructed for travelling considerable distances; for, although their bulk seems great, their weight is comparatively small, as most of their bones are hollow. In their migratory journeys they fly in continuous or angular lines, and chiefly by night. Storks live in moist and swampy places by the side of pools and rivers. They feed principally on reptiles, batrachians, and fishes; but they also devour the smaller birds and mammalia, mollusks, worms, and insects; among the latter, even bees become their victims, nor do they disdain carrion and other impurities. Their manner is slow and grave, and they are rarely seen to run. They have wonderful powers of flight: on the wing they resemble crosses, from their manner of carrying the head and neck. They have no voice, and the only noise they make is a cracking, which results from one mandible of the bill striking against the other, and which expresses either anger or love; it is sometimes very loud, and, under favourable circumstances, may be heard as much as a league away. They lay from two to four eggs, their fecundity increasing in an inverse ratio to their size. The duration of their life is from fifteen to twenty years. There are several species of Storks, the most important being the White Stork (_Ciconia alba_). It measures about forty inches in height; length to end of tail, forty-two inches; wings, extended, seventy-six inches; its plumage is white; the wings are fringed with black. This is the species best known in Europe; it is chiefly met with in Holland and Germany. In France, Alsatia is chosen as a residence by nearly all those that visit that country. It is so rarely seen in England, that there it has become almost a matter of legend. It is very common in the warm and temperate parts of Asia. Leaving France every year in the month of August in order to visit Africa, it returns in the following spring. This migration is not caused by temperature, as the Stork can bear the most bitter cold. No, it is a mere question of sustenance; for feeding, as it does, principally upon reptiles which remain in a complete state of torpor during our winters, it is naturally compelled to seek its food elsewhere. The Stork is of a mild nature, and is easily tamed. As it destroys a host of noxious creatures, it has become a useful helper to man, who is not ungrateful, for he has in all ages given it succour and protection. In ancient Egypt it was venerated on the same score as the Ibis; in Thessaly there was a law which condemned to death any one killing these birds. Even at the present day the Germans and Dutch esteem it a happy omen when the Stork chooses their house as its home. They go so far as to furnish it with the means of doing this, by placing on the roof a box or a large wheel; this forms the framework of the nest, which the bird then finishes according to its fancy with reeds, grass, and feathers. When the Stork has attached itself to a place, and is kindly treated, it sometimes loses the habit of migrating. It cannot, however, quite get rid of a certain agitation when the season for departure comes: occasions have been known where it yielded to the appeals of its wild companions and to the desire for progeny (for in captivity it is always barren), and was allured away to join the band of travellers. But this separation is only temporary; the next year the truant returns to the same house, and again takes possession of its domicile with many a flapping of wings to testify its joy. It exhibits great pleasure in renewing acquaintance with the denizens of the house, and is not long in placing itself on a footing of familiarity with them. It frolics with the children, caresses the parents, plagues the dogs and the cats--in a word, manifests a gaiety and susceptibility of affection which one would hardly expect to find in a bird generally so dull and taciturn. It presents itself at the family meals, and takes its share of them. If its master tills the ground, it follows him step by step, and devours the worms which are turned up by the spade or the plough. The Stork may certainly be set up as a model for all mothers: its love for its young ones sometimes even approaches heroism. We will give two touching instances. In 1536 a fire broke out in the city of Delft, in Holland. A Stork, whose nest was placed on one of the burning buildings, made at first every effort to save its progeny. Finally, seeing its inability to assist them, it suffered itself to be burnt with its loved ones rather than abandon them. In 1820, at another fire at Kelbra, in Russia, some Storks, when threatened by the flames, succeeded in saving their nest and young ones by sprinkling them with water, which they brought in their beaks. This last fact proves to what an extent intelligence may be excited under the influence of maternal love. The Stork is not only a good mother, but she is also an excellent wife. The attachment which these birds show for each other when they are once paired has long back procured for them a high reputation for conjugal fidelity. Thus, in the Vorarlberg (Tyrol), a male Stork was known to have refused to migrate, passing several winters by the side of his mate, which, in consequence of a wound in her wing, was unable to fly. [Illustration: Fig. 137.--White Stork (_Ciconia alba_, Temm.).] We must, however, add that some lady Storks are by no means slow in consoling themselves for the loss of husbands who ought to be the subjects of eternal regret. A few tears, as a matter of form, and their grief ends! Sprungli notes the case of one widowed Stork who contracted new bonds after two days' mourning. Another gave evidence of the most guilty perversity. The lady began by betraying the confidence of him with whom she had united her destinies; his presence had evidently become insupportable to her, and she finally killed him with the help of her accomplice. These errors of the female render the high morality of the male more conspicuous. Witness the following story, related by Neander:-- A number of Storks had taken up their abode in the market-town of Tangen, in Bavaria. Perfect harmony reigned in every family, and their lives were passed in happiness and freedom. Unfortunately, a female, who had been up to that time the most correct of Storks, allowed herself to be led away by the idle gallantries of a young male; this took place in the absence of her mate, who was engaged in seeking food for his family. This guilty _liaison_ continued until one day the male, returning unexpectedly, became convinced of her infidelity. He did not, however, venture to take the law into his own hands; he was reluctant to dip his bill into the blood of her he had once loved so fondly. He arraigned her before a tribunal composed of all the birds at the time assembled for their autumnal migration. Having stated the facts, he demanded the severest judgment of the court against the accused. The ungrateful spouse was condemned to death by unanimous consent, and was immediately torn in pieces. As to the male bird, although now avenged, he departed to bury his sorrows in the recesses of some desert, and the place which once knew him afterwards knew him no more. The Storks of the Levant manifest a still greater susceptibility. The inhabitants of Smyrna, who know how far the males carry their feelings of conjugal honour, make these birds the subjects of rather a cruel amusement. They divert themselves by placing Hen's eggs in the nest of the Stork. At the sight of this unusual production the male allows a terrible suspicion to gnaw his heart. By the help of his imagination, he soon persuades himself that his mate has betrayed him; in spite of the protestations of the poor thing, he delivers her over to the other Storks, who are drawn together by his cries, and the innocent and unfortunate victim is pecked to pieces. Besides the numerous virtues that we have just stated--paternal love, conjugal fidelity, chastity, and gratitude--the ancients attributed to them (among birds) the monopoly of filial piety. They believed that these birds maintained and nourished their parents in their old age, and devoted themselves to alleviating the trials of the last years of their lives with the most tender care. Hence was derived the name of the "Pelargonian Law" (from the Greek +pelargos+, a Crane), the name given by the Greeks to the law which compelled children to maintain their parents when old age had rendered them incapable of working. This last feature in its character has not a little contributed to the universal celebrity of the Stork. The flesh of the Stork forms but a poor article of food; it is, therefore, rather difficult to see why the sportsmen in our country persist in shooting at it every time that they get a chance. The reprehensible mania which our French Nimrods possess of indiscriminately massacring everything which shows itself within reach of their guns is a disgrace to those who practise it, and an injury to the community at large. The result is that the Stork, meeting with nothing but ill-treatment in return for its loyal and useful services, is gradually retiring from France, and before long will have completely abandoned it. The Black Stork (_Ciconia nigra_) is rather smaller than the one above named; it is a native of Eastern Europe, and is rarely seen in France. It feeds almost exclusively on fish, which it catches with much skill. It is very shy, and avoids the society of man; it builds its nest in trees. The ARGALA, or MARABOUT, also called the Adjutant Bird, or Gigantic Crane, is characterised by its very strong and large bill, and the bareness of its neck, the lower part of which is provided with a pouch somewhat resembling a large sausage; but, according to Temminck, there is a notable difference between the African Marabout and the African Argala, the characteristic mark of the latter frequently hanging down a foot, while it is much shorter in the Marabout. These birds are inhabitants of India; they feed on reptiles and all kinds of filth, and this fact has been the means of securing for them the good-will of the people. In the large cities of Hindostan they are as tame as dogs, and clear the streets of every kind of rubbish which litters them. At meal-times they never fail drawing themselves up in line in front of the barracks, to eat the refuse thrown to them by the soldiers: their gluttony is so great that they will swallow enormous bones. At Calcutta and Chandernagore they are protected by the law, which inflicts a fine of ten guineas on any one killing a Marabout. [Illustration: Fig. 138.--Adjutant (_Ciconia argala_, Selby).] The long white feathers, celebrated for their delicacy and airiness, which are used in the adornment of ladies' bonnets, and known in commerce by the name of Marabout feathers, come from this bird, and grow under its wings. Consequently, in spite of their ugliness, a good many Marabouts are reared in a domestic state in order that these lovely feathers, on which our European fair ones place so much value, may be plucked from them at the proper seasons. [Illustration: Fig. 139.--The American Jabiru (_Mycteria americana_, Linn.).] There are several other species which are allied to the Storks, and are only distinguished from them by a slightly different form of the bill. We will confine ourselves to merely naming them and pointing out the localities they inhabit. They are as follows:--The Jabiru (Fig. 139), which is a native of South America; the Ombrette, which is found in Senegal; the Bec-ouvert, which inhabits India and Africa (Senegal and Caffraria); the Drome, which is met with on the shores of the Black Sea and Senegal; and finally, the Tantalus, which lives in the warm regions of both the New and Old World. [Illustration: Fig. 140.--The Common Boatbill (_Cancroma cochlearia_, Linn.).] Whoever has once set eyes on the BOATBILL or SAVACOU (Fig. 140) will never forget the bird, or confound it with any other. What, it will be asked, is there so characteristic about it? Nothing else but its bill, which certainly is the most singular implement one can well imagine. Fancy two long and wide spoons, with their hollow sides placed one against the other, the end of the upper spoon being furnished with two sharp teeth, and we shall have some idea of this extraordinary _storehouse_, as it may be called, for the proprietor can easily stuff into it provisions for a whole day. If we add to this that the Savacou possesses a beautiful black crest which hangs down behind its head, that it is about the size of a Fowl, also that it has short wings, and rests its four toes firmly on the ground, we shall then have a pretty exact portrait of our subject. This bird inhabits the savannahs of Central America, and occasionally the southern portion of the United States, frequenting the banks of rivers, where it feeds on fish, mollusks, and sometimes crabs. It makes its nest in the thick underbrush. The HERONS (_Ardea_), which form a genus of birds of the order of Cultrirostres, have the bill long, pointed, opening widely, and very strong; their legs are in part bare of feathers; toes long, and furnished with sharp claws, not excepting the back toe, the whole length of which rests upon the ground; the neck is long and slender. Further, the back of the head is adorned with a tuft of long feathers, which fall over its shoulders like a plume, whilst those in front, which are narrow and pendent, resemble a kind of beard at the bottom of the neck. These birds lead a semi-nocturnal life, and frequent the margins of lakes, marshes, and rivers, where they feed on reptiles, frogs, and fish. They are generally of a shy nature, and live in solitude in the most unfrequented portions of extensive woodlands. When they want to seek their prey, they go into the water until it reaches half-way up their legs, and with the neck doubled down over the breast, and the head buried between the shoulders, they sometimes remain for hours together immovable as statues. If any fish glides along within reach of them, they suddenly stretch out their necks, as if impelled by a spring, and, with a sharp movement of the bill, impale the unfortunate victim. When their fishing is not very productive they dig into the mud with their feet, to turn out the frogs and other reptiles that are concealed in it. If compelled by hunger, they will attack rats, wood and field mice, and if further pressed they show no repugnance to carrion. They can, however, endure abstinence for a considerable time. Most of the Herons are endowed with great powers of flight. When compelled by unusually severe weather, they occasionally migrate, the young and the old travelling separately. Nevertheless, as they can accommodate themselves to almost any temperature, some species are stationary, and they are to be met with all the year round in countries the most dissimilar. The principal species of Herons are the Ash-coloured or Common Heron (Fig. 141), the Purple Heron, the White Heron, the Bittern, the Night Heron, and the Crab-eater. Every one knows the Grey Heron (_Ardea cinerea_), at least by reputation, if only from La Fontaine's verse:-- "Heron with the long bill, fit handle of a longer neck." Its height is about forty inches, and it is found in nearly all parts of the globe. It is the most common of the French Herons, and the only one which joins its fellows during the breeding season, in order to build their nests and sit on their eggs, and rear their young in company. The place appropriated for this assemblage is generally a clump of lofty trees in the neighbourhood of some large lake or river. On the summits of these trees, or in the angles formed by the branches, the Herons build their nests, which are of very simple construction--a few boughs interwoven together with smaller twigs, and without any additions, such as moss, grass, &c., with which smaller birds love to line their dwellings. In these nests the females lay three or four eggs, and the males share with them the cares of incubation. After the eggs are hatched, the male assists in the nourishment of the young family. Frequently he disgorges into the bills of his young ones the frogs and small fry he has just swallowed; sometimes he divides among them a large fish which he brings from the adjacent lake or the more distant sea-shore. Occasionally they undertake journeys in order to insure abundance for their progeny, and their excursions often extend over a very considerable tract of country. When the young Herons are able to fly, they leave the nest and provide for their own wants. But the time for migration has arrived. About the beginning of August, and always at the same date, the colony, then amounting to five or six hundred individuals, range themselves in order and quit the heronry. The following year they return thither, and their arrival, like their departure, takes place on a regular day. It is remarked that the number of couples is always nearly the same as that of the nests, so that each couple may readily find a resting-place. The new generation must, therefore, have gone to found a fresh colony in some other locality. Heronries are becoming more and more rare. M. Toussenet states that he has met with only one in all France, that at Ecury (Marne), between Epernay and Châlons. They are not uncommon in England, where many ancient families connect the heronry with their ancestral grandeur. Lord Warwick's heronry, on the classic Avon, still maintains seventy or eighty pairs of the noble birds. The Grey Heron has enemies in the Eagle, the Falcon, and the Crows. The latter combine to steal its eggs; the former aim at the Heron itself, its flesh being much to their taste. When the Heron finds itself pursued by a bird of prey, it immediately disencumbers itself of all unnecessary ballast, and then endeavours to get the uppermost in flying; this plan is nearly its only means of safety. Occasionally it succeeds, for the Heron is able to attain immense altitudes. If it is close pressed, it makes an admirable use of its bill as a means of defence, and has been known to impale its adversary. Its usual tactics are, to wait for its enemy, lance in rest, and to allow the latter to pierce himself through, merely by his own impetuosity. If it has a chance to dart its bill into the eye of its foe, it does not neglect so good an opportunity of utilising its small endowments. This is, in fact, a private lunge, a _coup de grâce_, and many a dog, hunting among the reeds, has felt the poignancy of this offensive weapon. We must, however, allow that the Heron is not always so fortunate, and that oftener than not he becomes a prey to his eager adversaries--the Eagle and the Falcon. The magnificent powers of flight possessed by the Heron, and his clever devices in defending himself, gave rise, in days gone by, to the very special regard with which he was honoured by kings and princes, who hunted him with Falcons trained to the sport. The poor Heron was doubtless not very gratified for these marks of high esteem, and it is probable that, if he could be consulted at the present day, he would bless the happy obscurity in which he is now allowed to vegetate. "It costs too much to shine in the world," is the moral La Fontaine puts into the mouth of his Heron. Although its flavour is certainly as disagreeable as possible, the flesh of the Heron was in the old time reckoned as a "royal dish," and was only served upon the tables of the great and powerful of the earth. In order to procure this supposed delicacy more easily, the idea arose of artificially arranging a certain part of the forest so as to attract the unhappy birds into a retreat which should realise all the characteristics of the natural heronry. The birds here enjoyed all the comforts of life up to the moment when they were ruthlessly torn from them at the will and pleasure of their lord. We must add that they adopted the plan of taking from them their progeny to assist the royal treasury; for, as Pierre Belon tells us, "they were in the habit of trading largely in the young ones, which brought considerable sums of money." Francis I. caused heronries to be established at Fontainebleau, which, as connoisseurs tell us, were everything that could be wished. The Heron is quite susceptible of training when it is caught young; but it must always be little else than a bird of ornament, as the service it can render amounts to little or nothing. When adult at the time of capture it is altogether intractable, entirely refusing food, and dying at the end of a few days. The Purple Heron (_Ardea purpurea_) has the same habits as the one just spoken of, but it is a little smaller. It owes its name to the colour of the numerous spots which adorn its livery. It is rarely met with in France, but is pretty common at the mouths of the Danube and Volga, and on the margins of some of the lakes in Tartary. The White Heron (_Egretta alba_) is remarkable for its plumage, which is entirely of a pure white. Two varieties of it are known--the larger, generally called the Great Egret, is about the size of the Ashy Heron; it is common in Eastern Europe, in the North of Africa and America, and in the Malay Archipelago. The smaller kind is known by the name of the Garzette Heron, or the Little Egret, and is no bigger than a Crow; it inhabits the confines of Asia and Eastern Europe, and regularly visits the South of France. [Illustration: Fig. 141.--Common Herons (_Ardea cinerea_, Temm.).] These two species are adorned, during the breeding season, with fine and silky feathers, which spring from the shoulders, and, spreading out over the back, fall on each side of the tail in elegant plumes. These are the feathers with which European ladies are so fond of adorning themselves, and from them the birds have derived their name. Northern Africa presents us with a beautiful White Heron, about the size of a Pigeon, the functions of which are extremely interesting; it is called the Ox-keeper. In Morocco this bird is very common. It is in the habit of accompanying the oxen into the fields, and takes the task of relieving the latter from the numerous flies and insects with which they are annoyed. In France it is met with only at the mouth of the Rhône. The BITTERN (_Botaurus_) has both the neck and legs shorter than those of the Grey Heron; its plumage is of a rich reddish yellow, boldly variegated with dark markings. Districts intersected by marshes are the chief places of its resort; in these it keeps itself hidden all day long among the reeds, motionless and silent. Here, too, it makes its nest, almost on the ground, and close to the water. It does not leave its hiding-place until the evening, and then will fly up to so great a height as to be lost to view. Its call to its mate is peculiar; it resembles the bellowing of a bull, and can be heard more than half a league away. For this reason the ancients called it _Bos taurus_--whence, by corruption, comes the French _Butor_. The Bittern is a very courageous bird; it will defend itself energetically against any bird of prey, against dogs, and even man. It is found all over Europe. Four British species are described--_B. stellaris_, _B. lentiginosus_, _B. minutus_, and _B. comatus_. The CRANE (_Grus_), which forms a genus among the Cultrirostres, is characterised by a bill much longer than the head, stout, straight, tapering, compressed, and pointed, but always slightly cleft; feet long; tibia bare for a fourth of its length, covered with hexagonal scales; toes, four; back toe short, which does not reach the ground; wings long and pointed. The Cranes are essentially migratory birds, and possess wonderful requisites; for, in addition to prolonged powers of flight, they enjoy the valuable faculty of being able to endure total abstinence from food for several days--a faculty which, we may remark, is common to most of the Wader tribe, though in a less degree. There are three species described--the Ash-coloured Crane, the Crested Crane, and the Demoiselle Crane. The Ash-coloured Crane (_Grus cinerea_), Fig. 142, is a fine bird, attaining nearly five feet in height. With the exception of the neck, which is black, all the rest of its body is of a uniform ashy-grey colour. The carriage of the bird is noble and graceful, and the feathers on its rump, which rise up in undulating clusters, add much to its elegance. These Cranes are periodical visitors to France; they arrive in Europe in the month of April or May, passing the fine weather in more northern countries. Towards the middle of October, on the arrival of the first cold weather, they leave us, in order to winter in Egypt, Abyssinia, or even Southern Asia. They travel in flocks, numbering sometimes as many as three or four hundred birds; generally they arrange themselves in two lines, so as to form an isosceles triangle, or a sort of wedge with the point in front--the most convenient formation for cleaving the air with the least amount of fatigue. From time immemorial people have been fond of saying that these birds intrust the care of their guidance to a chief, who, after having led the way for a certain time, and becoming wearied, surrenders his charge to one of his companions and passes to the rear of the band, where, like a new Cincinnatus, he resumes the position of a simple citizen. The fact is, that the leader of the two files changes perhaps ten times in a minute, and the apex of the angle is occupied in succession by every Crane in the flock within a very short space of time. [Illustration: Fig. 142.--Ash-coloured Crane (_Grus cinerea_, Temm.).] Cranes almost always travel at night, and alight down on the ground during daytime to seek their sustenance. Sometimes, however, they do not stop, and continue to push on through space, giving utterance to startling cries, which probably are intended as a rallying summons to those of the band which seem tempted to linger on their journey. When they perceive a bird of prey, or have to contend against a tempest, they abandon their usual formation, and collect in a circular mass, so as better to resist the enemy. Cranes frequent large plains intersected with marshes and water-courses. They feed on fish, reptiles, frogs, mollusks, worms, insects, and even small mammals. Some kinds of grain have also attractions for them, and they may not unfrequently be seen invading the newly-sown fields to devour the seed which the farmer has just committed to the soil. When the breeding season arrives, they break up their social compact, and pair off for the purposes of reproduction and attending to the rearing of their young. Their nests are but roughly constructed, and are placed on any little piece of rising ground in the midst of the marshes; in them they lay usually two eggs, the male sharing with the female the cares of incubation. Although these birds are ordinarily so timid, and are alarmed at the least appearance of danger, yet, when they have their young ones to defend, they become really courageous. In this case they do not shrink from attacking man. The Crane ought to have been the emblem of vigilance. When the flock go to sleep, with their heads hidden under their wings, one of their number is specially charged with the duty of watching over their common safety, and of giving alarm on the approach of danger. When caught young they are easily tamed, and in a very short time will manifest considerable familiarity with their keeper. They are, therefore, a good deal sought after in some countries, both on account of their graceful shape, and also for the sake of the vigilance which they exercise round about their home. These birds were well known in ancient times; Homer, Herodotus, Aristotle, Plutarch, Ælian, Pliny, and Strabo have noticed them and their migrations. Unfortunately, not content with correct observations, they have given credence to some most ridiculous fables, invented in Greece and Egypt, the classic and fertile lands of the marvellous. Thus, according to the Egyptian story, the Cranes made an expedition to the sources of the Nile to fight against the Pygmies, who were, as Aristotle says, "a race of little men, mounted on little horses, who dwelt in caves." According to Pliny, these little men were armed with arrows, and mounted on rams; they abode in the mountains of India, and came down every spring to wage war against the Cranes, whose sole object was to exterminate the Pygmies. The Roman naturalist fancies that they succeeded in this destructive aim, for the town of Gerania, which even in his time was ruined and deserted, was formerly, he asserts, inhabited by a race of Pygmies, who were driven out by the Cranes. In the views of modern commentators, these Pygmies were nothing but monkeys, which assemble in large troops in the forests of Africa and India, and always manifest hostility to birds. The Greeks have also invented two stories about Cranes, which are certainly very ingenious, but result from the error of attributing too much importance to trifles. They say Cranes carry a pebble in their mouths when they cross Mount Taurus, so that they are compelled to keep mute; they thus avoid exciting the attention of the Eagles inhabiting those districts, which birds are much disposed to do them mischief. In the same way, the Crane which is placed as sentinel to watch over his sleeping companions is bound to stand on one leg, and carry a stone in the other claw, so that if he allows himself to be overtaken by slumber, the fall of the pebble would wake him up. It was, as we are aware, the expedient of the youthful Aristotle to hold an iron ball suspended over a metal basin in order to wake himself if he succumbed to sleep. We shall, I think, ascribe too much ingenuity to the Crane in imputing to it an action of Aristotle's. The members of this interesting feathered tribe were said to possess certain virtues. The thigh bone of a Crane imparted to him who possessed it remarkable vigour and elasticity of limb. Its brain also was a kind of love-philtre; it transformed the ugliest man into a perfect Adonis, and won for him the favour of the fair. It is, moreover, to the Crane that the Greeks are indebted for one of their favourite dances. Be it understood that we are now returning to plain matter of fact. The games and dances which Cranes indulge in amongst themselves are not mere idle stories; observers of our own day, well worthy of credit, have proved their complete authenticity. It is certainly true that these birds form groups in various fashions, advance one towards another, make a kind of salutation, adopt the strangest postures--in a word, indulge in pantomimes both burlesque and amusing. This is, we must confess, a curious element in their character, and has been made the most of by the Chinese, who are in the habit of teaching Cranes to dance according to all the rules of art. The ancients set a high value on the flesh of the Crane, which is, nevertheless, anything but good. The Greeks especially showed a great fondness for it; they used to fatten these birds after having put out their eyes or sewed up their eyelids; this cruelty being necessary, according to their idea, to cause a proper degree of plumpness. In the fine old days of hawking, the Crane, as well as the Heron, enjoyed the esteem of princes. Even in the present day, in Japan, it is reserved for the sport of the _Taïcoun_ (king), and the common people treat it with all the respect that is consequently its due. We should certainly fall short in our traditionary lore if we failed to relate the far-famed story of the Cranes of Ibycus. Ibycus of Rhegium was a lyric poet, who enjoyed some reputation in his day. On one occasion, when he was proceeding to the Olympic Games in order to contend for the poet's prize, he lost his way in a forest, and fell into the hands of two malefactors, who cruelly murdered him. Just as he was dying he cast his eyes towards heaven, and perceiving a flock of Cranes passing over, he cried out, "O ye bird-travellers, become the avengers of Ibycus!" The next day the two robbers were quietly taking a part in the Olympic contests, when the news of the murder, which arrived during the day, excited some sorrowful emotion. All of a sudden a flight of Cranes passed over the arena, uttering loud cries. "Do you see the Cranes of Ibycus?" said one of the murderers to his comrade in a humorous tone. This remark, being overheard by some persons standing by, and commented upon by a thousand lips, became the ruin of the two scoundrels. At once arrested and pressed with questions, they were compelled to confess their crime, and were immediately put to death. Thus was fulfilled the dying invocation of Ibycus. The Demoiselle Crane (_Grus virgo_) is remarkable for two beautiful clusters of white feathers, which are suspended behind its head, and for a black, pendent tuft with which nature has adorned its breast. Its size is about the same as that of the species just described, and its shape is still more elegant. It also enjoys in a higher degree the gift of the mimic art. Its slightest movements have an air of affectation and mannerism, as if it desired, at any rate, to attract the attention of the spectator; hence, in French, the name of _Demoiselle_ has been given to it. It is found in Turkey and Southern Russia, in Northern Africa, and in some parts of Asia adjacent to the latter region. [Illustration: Fig. 143.--Demoiselle Crane (_Ardea virgo_, Linn.).] The Crested Crane (_Grus pavonina_), or Royal Bird, has the top of its head adorned with a tuft of feathers, which it has the power of spreading out like a fan, so as to form quite a resplendent ornament. About the same size as the two sister-birds, it is slender and graceful. Its voice is very loud. It seeks the acquaintance of man, and readily grows familiar with him. Its chief locations are the eastern and northern coasts of Africa, and also some of the isles in the Mediterranean: according to the ancients, it was formerly common in the Balearic Islands. The Agami, or Hooping Crane (_Psophia crepitans_, Latham), has a strong and tapering bill, shorter than the head; long tarsi; and medium-sized toes, the back toe touching the ground at the extremity only. Its wings are short, and, in consequence, it flies with difficulty; but, to make up for this deficiency, it can run very swiftly. This bird is but little bigger than a domestic Fowl. It is in the habit of uttering at intervals a piercing cry, which seems as if it did not proceed from the bird itself; this cry has procured for it the name of the Trumpet Bird, and has caused some to ascribe to it the talent of ventriloquism. It makes its nest on the ground, in a hole scratched out at the root of a tree, and feeds on grasses, seeds, and small insects. Shyness is not one of its qualities, and it will submit to captivity without repugnance; it forms an attachment to its master, and solicits his caresses, just like a pet dog. The latter comparison is all the more just, as the bird renders very much the same service to man as the animal. This bird is intrusted with the care of the flocks out of doors, and in the evening brings them back to the farm, where his activity finds plenty of scope in the poultry-yard. [Illustration: Fig. 144.--Crowned Crane (_Ardea pavonina_, Linn.).] In its wild state the Agami inhabits the forests of South America. Its flesh is agreeable in flavour, and is often eaten. It is easily domesticated, and attaches itself to man, following its master about. The CAURALE (Fig. 145), which forms a genus in the order we are now considering, is a bird about the size of the Partridge, with a large and fan-like tail. Its brilliant hues have obtained for it in Guinea the name of the Little Peacock, or Sun Bird. It is very wild in its nature. [Illustration: Fig. 145.--Caurale (Figuier).] PRESSIROSTRES (COMPRESSED BILLS). The birds which belong to the order _Pressirostræ_ are characterised by a middling-sized bill--not, however, devoid of strength--and a back toe which is altogether rudimentary; indeed, in some species entirely wanting. They are mostly vermivorous; some, however, are granivorous or herbivorous. In this order a number of rather dissimilar birds have been reckoned, some of which belong decidedly to the Wader tribe, whilst others, by their general habits, are more allied to the _Gallinaceæ_. Among them are the Cariama (Fig. 146), the Oyster-catcher, the Yellow-leg, the Stone Plover, the Lapwing, the Plover, and the Bustard. The OYSTER-CATCHERS (_Hæmatopus_) are characterised by a long, pointed, and powerful bill, which they use like a pair of pincers for opening oysters, mussels, and other shell-fish left on the shore by the receding tide, with the sole purpose of devouring their contents. Few things are more interesting than to see them hovering over the retiring water, alternately advancing and retreating with the waves. As their toes are united at the base by a web or membrane, they enjoy the faculty of resting on the water, although they do not actually swim. They utilise this power in allowing themselves, every now and then, to be carried on the waves to some distance from the shore. They fly well, and can run with the greatest ease. Numerous flocks of them are found on almost every sea-coast on the globe, making the neighbourhood ring with their shrill cries. [Illustration: Fig. 146.--Cariama (_Palamedea cristata_, Gmelin).] In the breeding season they pair off; the hen birds lay from two to four eggs, either in holes carelessly scratched out on the strand or in clefts of the rocks, or sometimes in marshy meadows some distance from the shore. They assemble in considerable flocks for the purpose of migration--if this term may be held applicable to the short journeys which they annually undertake. They ought rather to be called pleasant little jaunts--inspections, as it were, of their domains; something like the circuit of his department made by a prefect, or the progress of a sovereign through his country. [Illustration: Fig. 147.--Oyster-catcher (_Hæmatopus ostralegus_, Linn.).] [Illustration: Fig. 148.--Runners (_Cursorius_, Figuier).] There are three or four species of the Oyster-catcher, only one of which is a native of Europe. The plumage of the latter is white and black, which, joined to its noisy habits, has obtained for it the nickname of the Sea Magpie. Its bill and feet are of a beautiful red colour; hence the name of _Hæmatopus_ (feet the colour of blood) was given by Linnæus to the whole genus, when the other varieties of it were yet unknown. It is found at all seasons on most of our coasts. As an article of game it is not all one could wish. The RUNNERS (_Cursorius_) have slender and pointed bills, slightly bent at the end; long tarsi; no back toe; wings much pointed; its plumage is of a dove colour, and it is about eighteen inches in height. As its name implies, it runs with surprising rapidity. It is a native of Asia and the north of Africa, and only casually makes its appearance in Europe. Nothing is known of its habits. The LAPWINGS (_Vanellus_) have the bill enlarged on the upper side, two-thirds of its length being filled up by the nasal channels; its back toe is excessively short, and wings pointed. When flying, they make a noise which is not unlike that of corn falling back on the winnowing-fan; hence their French name, _Vanneau_. These birds are essentially migratory, and come down from the high northern latitudes in large flocks at the beginning of autumn, again returning thither in spring. They frequent marshes and the margins of lakes; in fact, all moist, soft districts which abound in earth-worms, insects, slugs, &c. They may often be seen settling down on fields recently ploughed, where they can find an ample supply of worms. They are in the habit of employing a rather ingenious process to make their victims emerge from the earth. They strike the ground with their feet, and thus give the surface a slight shock, which the worm is tempted to attribute to the proximity of a mole; and consequently it hastens to the surface to escape its underground enemy, when it is immediately snapped up by the bird. The Lapwing is a model of cleanliness. After it has been feeding on the ground for two or three hours, it washes its bill and feet; it repeats these ablutions several times in the day. In this respect the most rigid Mahommedan could scarcely find fault with it. Lapwings live together in communities, except in the breeding season, when they separate into pairs, to devote themselves to hatching and rearing their young. The hen lays three or four eggs in the most simple nest that can be imagined, placed in an exposed position on any little rising ground in the marshes. These eggs are, it is said, of an exquisite flavour, and in some countries, especially Holland, a large trade is done in them. The flesh of the Lapwing is only good eating during certain months of the year. About All Saints' Day these birds acquire their finest condition, when in some parts of France they are in great demand. In the spring, as food, they are very indifferent, easily explaining why the Church has allowed them to be eaten during Lent, for at that period assuredly no food could be more _maigre_. There is an old saying which celebrates, and also exaggerates, the culinary virtues of the Lapwing and its brother bird, the Plover: "He who has never eaten either the Plover or the Lapwing does not know what game is." [Illustration: Fig. 149.--Pewit, or Crested Lapwing (_Vanellus cristatus_, Temm.).] The Lapwing might be ranked amongst the most useful auxiliaries of man; it destroys a prodigious quantity of worms, caterpillars, and noxious insects. After hearing this the reader might, perhaps, imagine that this bird has found aid and protection from mankind. Nothing of the sort; it is killed wherever and as often as possible; besides this, means are discovered to set a limit upon its multiplication by stealing away its eggs. We do not seem to perceive that this joyous, lively, and graceful bird longs to conclude a treaty of friendship with mankind. When will man make up his mind to understand his true interests? There are in Europe two species of this genus--the Crested Lapwing and the Swiss Lapwing, or Squatarole. The Crested Lapwing (_Vanellus cristatus_), Fig. 149, is about the size of a Pigeon; its belly is white, and its back black, with a metallic lustre. It is furnished with a crest, which coquettishly adorns the back of its head. It is tolerably abundant in France, but seems more especially partial to Holland. The Swiss Lapwing is distinguished from the last by a lighter-coloured plumage, and by the absence of the crest. The PLOVERS (_Pluvialis_) have a bill closely resembling that of the Lapwing, and differ from it chiefly in the latter having a back toe, which is absent altogether in the Plovers. They are, however, connected by several ties of kindred. Like the Lapwing, they live in moist places and in numerous flocks; like them, they feed on worms, which they catch much in the same way; like them, too, they make frequent ablutions; finally, they are always close neighbours, and unite in migration. But they do not follow out the resemblance with the Lapwings so far as to imitate them in behaving as good fathers of families, and in living as good citizens with one wife chosen once for all. Plovers understand life in quite another fashion; they have other aspirations and other desires; fidelity in love is not a quality which suits them, and they practise polygamy on the very largest scale. One might well fancy that a bird of such low morality would not be easily affected by the misfortunes of its fellows, and that it would be endowed with no feelings but those of utter selfishness. But nothing of the sort. If you knock down a Plover flying in company with others, you may notice the whole flock coming back to it to render the disabled one all the help they can; and if you are not too much of a novice, you will find no great difficulty in turning this circumstance to your profit by filling your game-bag. The Plover migrates from the North of Europe to Africa, and _vice versâ_; it thus visits France twice a year, in spring and autumn. It is their appearance at these usually rainy seasons which has given them the name they bear. There are five principal species--the Great Land Plover, the Dotterel, the Ringed Dotterel, the Kentish Plover, and the Golden Plover. The Great Land Plover (_Oidicnemus Bellonii_, Fleming) is about the size of a Crow; it is very uncommon, very active, and very suspicious in its nature. The only chance of shooting it is in the evening, at the moment when it comes to wash itself on the edges of lakes and rivers. Its flesh is not much valued. The Dotterel (_Pluvialis morinellus_) is a little larger than a Blackbird. It visits us in March and September, and numerous flocks of these birds frequent the vast plains of the beautiful country of France. This is the bird which persists in sacrificing itself to the sportsman's gun when its companion has fallen a victim before the murderous weapon. It also shows the simplicity of believing that drunken people must be animated with the kindest feelings towards it; so much so, that it is only requisite to exhibit the outward signs of bacchanalian excitement, and the birds will be filled with a sense of false security, so that you may approach within a few yards of them. The Dotterel has been the means of founding the reputation of the _Pâté de Chartres_: the bird's own personal experience must long ago have convinced it how heavy the burden of renown sometimes proves. They have, in fact, found themselves so much relished, that they have been tracked and hemmed in on all sides by eager pie-makers. The only chance for the poor creature is to seek safety in flight, and abandon a country where it is decidedly _too much_ loved. Without either regret or envy it must have seen that Larks and Quails have usurped its place in popular favour for filling _pâtés_. The Ringed Dotterel (_Charadrius hiaticula_), Fig. 150, is about half the size of the last bird. It is distinguished by its black collar, and also by its extraordinarily brilliant and gold-coloured eyes. In former days this bird had the credit of being able to cure the jaundice. All that was necessary was for the sick person to look fixedly at the bird's eyes, with a firm faith in the success of the experiment; under these conditions the bird was obliging enough to relieve him of his malady. This superstitious idea has departed to join all the rest of the medical opinions of the middle ages. [Illustration: Fig. 150.--Ringed Dotterel (_Charadrius hiaticula_, Selby).] [Illustration: Fig. 151.--Golden Plover (_Charadrius pluvialis_, Linn.).] The Kentish Plover (_Charadrius cantianus_, Latham) is thus named on account of its collar being divided into two parts; it is rather smaller than the last-named bird, and is found in Europe and Asia. The Golden Plover (_Pluvialis aurea_), Fig. 151, is the size of the Turtle Dove; the ground of its plumage is of a yellow colour, speckled over with brown spots. In winter it is always numerously represented in our markets: this is occasioned by the ease with which it can be either shot or netted. The PLUVIAN may be considered as belonging to the Plovers, as the difference between them is altogether insignificant. We wish to mention it on account of its very curious habits, to which we previously called attention when speaking of Reptiles. This bird is a native of Egypt and Senegal, and has concluded a friendly treaty with the Crocodiles of the Nile, which must force itself on the meditations of philosophers. The Pluvian does the Crocodile the service of picking the latter's teeth. This assistance rendered by the little bird to the terrible reptile of the Nile is really rather touching, and has somewhat the appearance of having inspired La Fontaine with his fable of the "Lion and the Mouse." The BUSTARDS (_Otis_) are allied to the _Gallinaceæ_ by their short back, their thick-set shape, and the general character of their habits; but their elongated tarsi, and their legs partly bare, give them a position among the _Grallæ_. They have short toes, and no back toe; they run with extreme rapidity, assisted by their wings. Their flight is heavy and awkward. They frequent dry and open plains, and make their nests on the ground. Their food consists of worms, insects, grasses, and even seeds; and they move about in large droves, although their range is rather restricted. The male birds being less numerous than the females, they are generally polygamous. These birds are shy and timid, and their flesh constitutes an excellent article of food. There are three species of the Bustard--the Great Bustard, the Little Bustard (Fig. 152), and the Oubara Bustard (_O. Denhami_). The Great Bustard (_Otis tarda_) is the largest of all European birds; its weight sometimes attains to sixteen kilogrammes. It is yellow on the back, with black streaks, and in front it is a greyish white. The head of the male bird is ornamented on both sides with curled feathers, which look something like moustaches, and have obtained for it the name of the Bearded Bustard. It flies with great difficulty, and will never make up its mind to take wing except in cases of absolute necessity. Its eggs, two or three in number, are laid in the corn or grass; the nest is nothing more than a hole scratched out in the earth, and with scarcely any lining on the inside. [Illustration: Fig. 152.--Little Bustard (_Otis tetrax_, Gould).] The Great Bustard was formerly very common in Champagne, but has now become extremely rare. Nevertheless, it is the only province in France in which this bird is to be met with, and we might almost say that it has completely disappeared from French soil. Innumerable troops of them are to be seen in the steppes of Tartary and Southern Russia. BREVIPENNES (SHORT-WINGED BIRDS). The birds belonging to this family are distinguished from the rest of the _Grallæ_ by such decisive characteristics that some naturalists have proposed to include them in a separate group, to be called _Cursores_, or Runners; an arrangement which has much in its favour, although the simpler arrangement of Cuvier best suits our purpose. In certain anatomical points, and especially in their habits, the Brevipennæ differ greatly from the other Grallatores. They have wings, it is true, but they are so slightly developed that they are entirely unfit for purposes of flight, and are only useful in accelerating the speed of their limbs. On the other hand, their legs are long and powerful, and capable of immense muscular effort, thus enabling them to run with extraordinary fleetness. The deduction to be drawn from these facts is, that the Brevipennes are essentially land-birds. This limitation of their habitat necessitated certain modifications in the sternum, which, instead of a prominent edge of bone in the centre, as in other birds, only presents one uniform breast-plate. Again, most of the Brevipennes are birds of large size, and, in certain circumstances, manifest remarkable vigour. This group comprehends the Ostrich (_Struthio camelus_), the American Nandou (_Rhea americanus_), the Cassowary (_Casuarius emu_), and the Apteryx. The head of the OSTRICH (_Struthio camelus_), Fig. 153, is naked and callous, with a short bill, much depressed and rounded at the point; its legs are half naked, muscular, and fleshy; the tarsi are long and rough, terminating in two toes pointing forward, one of which is shorter than the other, and has no claw; the wings are very short, and formed of soft and flexible feathers; the tail taking the form of a plume. There is but one species of the Ostrich; it is sparsely diffused over the interior of Africa, and is rarely found in Asia, except, perhaps, in Arabia. It is the largest member of the Grallatores, generally measuring six feet in height, and occasionally attaining nine feet; its weight varies from twenty to a hundred pounds. The Ostrich has been known from the most remote antiquity. It is spoken of in the sacred writings, for Moses forbade the Hebrews to eat of its flesh, as being "unclean food." The Romans, however, far from sharing the views of the Jewish legislator, considered it a great culinary luxury. In the days of the emperors they were consumed in considerable numbers, and we read that the luxurious Heliogabalus carried his magnificence so far as to cause a dish composed of the brains of six hundred Ostriches to be served at a feast: this must have cost some hundreds of thousands of francs. In former days it was a favourite dish with the tribes of Northern Africa. At the present date the Arabs content themselves with using its fat as an outward application in certain diseases, especially rheumatic affections; and they derive from it, as they say, very beneficial effects. The natives of Africa call the Ostrich "the Camel of the Desert," just as the Latins denominated it _Struthio camelus_. There is, in fact, some likeness between them. This resemblance consists in the length of the neck and legs, in the form of the toes, and in the callosities which are found on the lower stomach of both. In some of their habits they also resemble each other; the Ostrich lies down in the same way as the Camel, by first bending the knee, then leaning forward on the fleshy part of the sternum, and letting its hinder quarters sink down last of all. An entire volume might be filled with the fables recorded about the Ostrich. In the first place, according to the Arabs, it is the issue of a bird and a camel. One Arabian author states that it is aquatic in its nature, another maintains that it never drinks. They still assert that its principal food consists of stones and bits of iron. Buffon himself does not deny that it _might_ swallow red-hot iron, provided the quantity was small. Pliny and (following him) Pierre Belon, the naturalist of the Renaissance, state that when the Ostrich is pursued it fancies itself safe if it can hide its head behind a tree, caring little about the remainder of its body; and some of these absurd ideas are still deeply rooted in the minds of the public. It is certain, however, that the Ostrich is extremely voracious. Although the senses of sight and hearing are so highly developed that it is said to make out objects two leagues off, and the slightest sounds excite its ear, the senses of taste and smell are very imperfect. This is the explanation given for its readiness to swallow unedible substances. In a wild state it takes into its stomach large pebbles to increase its digestive powers; in captivity it gorges bits of wood and metal, pieces of glass, plaster, and chalk, probably with the same object. The bits of iron found in the body of one dissected by Cuvier "were not only worn away," says the great naturalist, "as they would likely be by trituration against other hard bodies, but they had been considerably reduced by some digestive juice, and presented all the evidence of actual corrosion." Herbage, insects, mollusks, small reptiles, and even small mammalia are the principal food of the Wild Ostrich; when it is in a state of domesticity even young chickens are frequently devoured by it. It endures hunger, and especially thirst, for many days--about the most useful faculty it could possess in the arid and burning deserts which it inhabits; but it is quite a mistake to suppose it never drinks, for it will travel immense distances in search of water when it has suffered a long deprivation, and will then drink it with evident pleasure. The muscular power of the Ostrich is truly surprising. If matured it can carry a man on its back, and is readily trained to be mounted like a horse, and to bear a burden. The tyrant Firmius, who reigned in Egypt in the third century, was drawn about by a team of Ostriches; even now the negroes frequently use it for riding. When it first feels the weight of its rider, the Ostrich starts at a slow trot; it, however, soon gets more animated, and stretching out its wings, takes to running with such rapidity that it seems scarcely to touch the ground. To the wild animals which range the desert it offers a successful resistance by kicking, the force of which is so great that a blow in the chest is sufficient to cause death. M. Edouard Verreaux states that he has seen a negro killed by such a blow. Man succeeds in capturing the Ostrich only by stratagem. The Arab, on his swiftest courser, would fail to get near it if he did not by his intelligence supply the deficiency in his physical powers. "The legs of an Ostrich running at full speed," says Livingstone, the traveller, "can no more be seen than the spokes in the wheel of a vehicle drawn at a gallop." According to the same author, the Ostrich can run about thirty miles in an hour--a speed and endurance much surpassing those of the swiftest horse. The Arabs, well acquainted with these facts, follow them for a day or two at a distance, without pressing too closely, yet sufficiently near to prevent them taking food during the time. When they have thus starved and wearied the birds, they pursue them at full speed, taking advantage of the fact which observation has taught them, that the Ostrich never runs in a straight line, but describes a curve of greater or less extent. Availing themselves of this habit, the horsemen follow the chord of this arc, and repeating the stratagem several times, they gradually get within reach, when, making a final dash, they rush impetuously on the harassed birds, and beat them down with their clubs, avoiding as much as possible shedding their blood, as this depreciates the value of the feathers, which are the chief inducement for their chase. Some tribes attain their object by a rather singular artifice. The hunter covers himself with an Ostrich's skin, passing his arm up the neck of the bird so as to render the movements more natural. By the aid of this disguise, if skilfully managed, Ostriches can be approached sufficiently near to kill them. The Arabs also hunt the Ostrich with dogs, which pursue it until it is completely worn out. In the breeding season, having sought and found out where the Ostriches lay their eggs, another artifice is to dig a hole within gunshot of the spot, in which a man, armed with a gun, can hide himself. The concealed enemy easily kills the male and female birds in turn as they sit on their nest. Lastly, to lie in wait for them close by water, and shoot them when they come to quench their thirst, is often successful. The Ostrich, which is an eminently sociable bird, may sometimes be seen in the desert in flocks of two or three hundred, mixed up with droves of Zebras, Quaggas, &c. They pair about the end of autumn. The nest of the Ostrich is more than three feet in diameter; it is only a hole dug in the sand, and surrounded by a kind of rampart composed of the _débris_; a trench is scratched round it outside to drain off the water. Each hen bird lays from fifteen to twenty eggs, according to circumstances. The eggs weigh from two to three pounds, and are each of them equal in contents to about twenty-five Hen's eggs. They are of a tolerable flavour, and are often a very seasonable help to travellers, one of them being more than sufficient for the breakfast of two or three persons. [Illustration: Fig. 153.--The Ostrich (_Struthio camelus_, Linn.).] Incubation usually takes six weeks, and is shared by both male and female birds: several of the latter often lay in the same nest, and live together on the best terms, under the control of one male. Levaillant remarked four females taking turns in sitting on thirty-eight eggs laid in the same nest: they sat during the night only, the burning heat of the sun during the day being sufficient to maintain the necessary degree of warmth. He also observed that a certain number of the eggs were not sat upon, but were put aside to serve as nourishment for the young ones after they were hatched. It is a strange circumstance that the cry of the Ostrich so much resembles that of the Lion when in search of his prey, that they are often confused. Dr. Livingstone says that with all his experience he has been frequently deceived, and that only the quick ear of a native can detect the difference. It was long a subject of reproach to the Ostrich that she was wanting in affection for her progeny. She was looked upon as the most striking example of the hard-hearted mother. Thus, the Hebrews accepted the Ostrich as the symbol of insensibility, because she left her eggs upon the sand, without troubling herself, as Job says, about the dangers to which they might be exposed. Jeremiah, too, laments over her that she is devoid of family affection. All these accusations are quite unfounded: as we have already seen, the Ostrich does not abandon her eggs, neither does she desert her young, although they are well covered at their birth with a thick, warm down, and can from the first run about and provide for their own wants. On the contrary, she keeps them near her until they are almost full grown, and defends them against every enemy. Mr. Cumming came suddenly one day on a dozen young Ostriches no larger than full-grown Grouse. "The mother," he says, "tried all she could to deceive us, just like a Wild Duck; first she ran away, extending her wings; then she threw herself on the ground as if she was wounded; whilst the male bird cunningly enough conducted the young ones in an opposite direction." Livingstone on several occasions met with broods of young Ostriches led by a male bird, which pretended to be lame, in order to monopolise the attention of the sportsmen. Both the male and female birds afford one another mutual assistance, as is proved by the following fact, which was related in a report addressed to the Société d'Acclimatation:--"Si-Djelloul-Ben-Hamza and his brother, Si-Mohammed-Ben-Hamza, were one day hunting Ostriches, and came upon the tracks of a family led by a male and two females. Si-Mohammed arrived first in sight of the birds, and firing, wounded one of the females. The male bird at once darted at him, and struck with its feet at the breast of his horse, which from fright threw its rider and ran away. The Ostrich then turned upon Si-Mohammed, kicked him repeatedly, and did not quit him until he had lost all consciousness, and his brother Si-Djelloul had come to his assistance." All these facts abundantly prove that the Ostrich is not so unnatural a parent as it has been thought, and at the same time give a complete denial to the accusation of stupidity which has also been made. In spite of its great strength--perhaps even on account of it--the Ostrich, when unmolested, is the most peaceable creature in the world; and owing to its inoffensive nature, it readily becomes domesticated. If captured young, it can be tamed in a very short time. General Daumas asserts that they play with the children, and frolic with the horses and dogs, &c. In the district of Sennaar they are reared as we do Fowls; they are left to wander about as they choose, and one of them attempting to escape is a thing quite unheard of. They accompany the herds to pasture, and return again to their home at meal-times. Kindness and caresses are sufficient to attach them to any one; but care must be taken never to strike them. They have but one fault, which arises from their voracity,--they are dreadful thieves, and devour everything they can steal. The Arabs, therefore, always look out when they are counting their money, otherwise the Ostriches might snatch some of the coin. In all ages the feathers of the Ostrich have been the object of considerable trade: the birds are hunted and reared in a domestic state, not so much for their flesh, grease, or eggs, as for these plumes. Each bird produces about half a pound of white feathers and three pounds of black. These delicate, wavy, and flexible ornaments, so sought after by the fair sex, are found on the Ostrich's tail and wings; they have been used from time immemorial for the adornment both of man and woman. The Roman soldiers decked their helmets with them, and the Janissaries their turbans, when they had distinguished themselves by any glorious deed. At the present day there is a large demand for them. The plumes of the male bird are more highly valued than those of the female, and all are superior when plucked from the living bird. Several Libyan nations in former days used the skin of the Ostrich for a cuirass, and even at the present time some Arabian tribes put it to the same use. The shells of Ostrich eggs, which are very hard, are also utilised; they are made into beautiful cups, which much resemble vases of ivory. The Africans annually destroy a large number of these birds; yet their race does not appear to diminish. It is a most useful creature, and too much encouragement cannot be given to the trials which have been made in Algeria and elsewhere to rear the Ostrich in flocks on an extensive scale. The NANDOU, RHEA, or AMERICAN OSTRICH (Fig. 154), bears the greatest resemblance to the Ostrich, of which it is the representative in the New World; but it is only about half the size of the African bird, and has three toes in front instead of two. The colour of its plumage is a uniform grey. The Nandou (called by the Brazilians _Nhandu-Guaçu_) inhabits the Pampas of South America, the coolest valleys in Brazil, Chili, Peru, and Magellan's Land. There these birds may be seen wandering over the open plains in flocks of about thirty, in company with herds of oxen, horses, and sheep. They browse on the grass like grazing animals, searching at the same time for various seeds. They run nearly as swiftly as the Ostrich, and are well able, by speed, to escape the pursuit of their enemies. If a river comes in their way, they do not hesitate to plunge into it, as they are excellent swimmers; indeed, so fond are they of water that they take a pleasure in washing and bathing. The Nandou lays its eggs and incubates them in the same manner as the Ostrich. They are birds of a gentle nature, and are tamed with the greatest ease, becoming very familiar in the house, visiting the various apartments, wandering about the streets, and even into the country; but they always return to their homes before sunset. [Illustration: Fig. 154.--The Nandou, or Rhea (_Struthio Rhea_, Linn.).] The flesh of the adult Nandou is by no means agreeable; that of the young, on the contrary, is tender and sweet, and forms excellent food. Its skin, when properly dressed, is used for bags, purses, &c., and their feathers serve for plumes and light dusting brooms. We owe the perfect knowledge of a second species of Rhea to Mr. Darwin, who has given a figure and ample descriptions of the bird and its habits in "The Voyage of the _Beagle_;" it has been named in consequence _Rhea Darwinii_. There is every reason for thinking that these birds might be successfully acclimated in Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 155.--Cassowary (_Struthio casuarius_, Linn.).] The CASSOWARIES form a genus of birds allied to the Ostrich, although they differ from it in some particulars--their shape is not so elegant, and their wings are even less adapted for flight; for so short are they, that they are perfectly useless even to assist in running. Their long blackish feathers are almost devoid of side fringes, which gives them a resemblance to coarse hair; their feet are provided with three toes. This bird was called the Emu by early Portuguese navigators. It is the _Struthio casuarius_ of Linnæus, the _Casuarius galeatus_ of Vieillot, and the Cassowary of British naturalists. The Cassowary has a kind of helmet on its head, produced by an enlargement of the bone of the skull, and covered with a horny substance. It is a massively-made bird, in size between the Ostrich and the Rhea, and is a native of the islands of the Indian Archipelago, the Moluccas, Java, and Sumatra. It is especially plentiful in the vast forests of the island of Ceylon. The first bird of this species which was seen in Europe was brought from Java by the Dutch in 1597. It is a stupid, quarrelsome, and gluttonous creature, feeding on plants, fruits, and sometimes small animals. Possessed of considerable strength, and being wild and fierce in nature, its anger cannot be provoked without danger; for, although its wings are short, each is furnished with five pointed spines, the middle one of which is a foot long, and which are employed with adroitness as weapons of defence. Its habitual cry consists of a low grumbling, which, when the bird is angry, is changed into a sonorous humming noise, not unlike the sound of carriage-wheels or of distant thunder. The menagerie of the Museum of Natural History at Paris was in possession of a Cassowary which devoured everything that was given it--bread, fruit, vegetables, &c., and drank seven or eight pints of water daily. In the London and the Paris Zoological Gardens there are generally several to be seen. The Cassowary runs very swiftly, and in a way quite peculiar, for it kicks up its heels at every step. They live in pairs, and during the breeding season the male bird shows a degree of violence which renders him very formidable. The female lays three or four eggs in the dust, and sits on them alone for about a month. The young birds, when first hatched, are covered with a light down, and are without the helmet, which it acquires as it approaches maturity. The wild nature of these birds renders them but little fitted for domestication: this is a fact not much to be deplored, as their flesh is of an unpleasant flavour, and in no other respect than as food could they be of any service to us. The EMU, or AUSTRALIAN CASSOWARY (_Dromiceius australis_), Fig. 156, is distinguished from the last-named bird by its larger size, and also by the absence of the helmet, the caruncles, and the pointed spines on the wings. It was formerly common in the great forests of the Eucalyptus, in Australia, but the clearings of the colonists have now driven it back beyond the Blue Mountains. Being very powerful, it offers a stout resistance to dogs, with which it is hunted. It can be tamed much more easily than the last-mentioned bird, and manifests some attachment to its master. It is an excellent and useful acquisition to man, for its flesh being of an agreeable flavour, is much esteemed. The few specimens which have been brought to Europe seem to have been readily acclimated, for they have bred. [Illustration: Fig. 156.--The Emu, or Australian Cassowary (_Dromiceius australis_, Swainson).] [Illustration: Fig. 157.--Kivi-kivi, or Apteryx (_Apteryx australis_, Gould).] KIVI-KIVI, or APTERYX (Fig. 157), so called from the Greek +apteron+, "wingless," is a singular bird, bearing but little resemblance to the other members of the class. It is no larger than a Fowl, and combines the bill of the Woodcock with the feet of the Gallinaceous tribe. The shortness of its wings, which are entirely unfit for flight, is the sole characteristic which entitles it to rank with the group in which it is placed. The plumage of the Apteryx is brown; it has no tail, and its mere stumps of wings are provided with strong and curved claws. It is a native of New Zealand, and keeps in the marshes, where it feeds on worms and grubs: being nocturnal, it does not leave its retreat until the evening. In spite of its short legs, it runs very fast, but if overtaken does not yield without an effort, using either its feet, armed as they are with long and sharp claws, or the points at the end of its wings, as weapons of defence. It builds a very rough nest among the roots of marsh-growing shrubs, and lays a single egg, excessively large in proportion to the size of the producer. The natives call the bird _Kiwi_. They used at one time to hunt them very perseveringly, as much for their flesh as for their feathers, which they used in making mats. Now they have renounced this work, the profits not compensating for the fatigue which it entailed. Day by day it is becoming more rare and difficult to procure. The Zoological Society of London has three specimens. EXTINCT BREVIPENNÆ. The order of the _Brevipennæ_ may be held to embrace some birds which have now disappeared from the surface of the globe, but which are supposed to be contemporaneous with Man. The remains which are met with in quite modern alluvium scarcely admit of any doubt in this respect. In the first rank of extinct birds we may place the Dodo (_Didus ineptus_, Linn.), Fig. 158, which was indigenous to the Mauritius and the Isle of France, where it used to be abundant, if we may believe the testimony of the companions of Vasco de Gama, who visited there in 1497. At the end of the seventeenth century some of them still existed. Former travellers have described them; and these accounts, with skeletons and an oil-painting in the British Museum, are the only items of information which we possess. The Dodo was a fat and heavy bird, and weighed not less than fifty pounds. This portly body was supported on short legs, and provided with ridiculously small wings, making it equally incapable of running and flying, dooming the bird to a rapid destruction. Lastly and principally, it had a stupid physiognomy, but little calculated to conciliate the sympathies of the observer. Its rear was decorated with three or four curly feathers, making a pretence of a tail, whilst in front it presented an enormous curved bill, which occupied nearly the whole of the head. The Dodo did not even possess the merit of being useful after its death, for its flesh was disagreeable and of a bad flavour. On the whole, there is not much reason to regret its extinction. In the island of Madagascar fossil eggs and bones were found of a bird belonging to a species probably extinct, the proportions of which must have been truly colossal. One of these eggs was equal to at least six Ostrich's eggs, and its capacity more than fifteen pints. M. Isidore Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, who gave it the name of _Epiornis_, reckoned that its height could not be less than ten or twelve feet. [Illustration: Fig. 158.--The Dodo (_Didus ineptus_, Linn.).] In 1867, M. Joly, Professor of the Faculty of Sciences at Toulouse, published some very interesting observations on the structure and probable habits of this gigantic bird. It cannot yet be asserted that this bird has altogether disappeared. The Malagashes state that, although very rare, some few representatives of it still remain. There is an ancient tradition among this people relative to a colossal bird which could knock down an ox, and then make a meal of it. This tradition, however, is deficient in anything like evidence of its correctness, for an examination of the pieces of bone found proves that the _Epiornis_ possessed neither talons to seize, nor wings with which to pursue its prey; it must, therefore, have fed chiefly upon vegetable diet. In New Zealand also some bones have been lately brought to light, which must have belonged to a species of bird allied to the Ostrich, but superior to it in size, which attained some thirteen feet in height. This bird has been designated _Dinornis_. Some of them probably still exist in that country; at all events, its disappearance must be very recent, for the bones which were discovered still contained a large proportion of gelatine. Rumour states that a Dinornis, more than thirteen feet in height, was seen by two Englishmen in one of the marshy forests; but they did not venture to approach near enough to kill it. We give this tale with all due reserve, as its authenticity does not appear to be satisfactorily established. CHAPTER V. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS. Under this name Linnæus included a large number of birds which bear considerable analogy to the Domestic Fowl, and mostly included in the Rasores of Illiger. The GALLINACEÆ are essentially land birds, seeking their food on the surface of the soil, and frequently building their nests upon it. They delight in scratching the earth, and in rolling themselves in the dust. Walking is their habitual mode of progression, as one would at once conclude from observation of their strong legs, and their short and but slightly-bent claws. Some, like the Partridge, are swift runners, having very short wings, which render their flight at once awkward and laborious. In this order of birds we do not find more than two or three migratory species. The Gallinaceæ have short arched beaks, which are generally very strong, and well adapted for crushing the husks of the seeds which, with the addition of grubs, insects, and grasses, form their principal nourishment. Their large and muscular gizzards, with thick lateral muscles, lined on the interior with a very tough coating or epithelium, are exactly fitted for digesting this kind of food. The triturating power of the Gallinaceæ is further increased by their habit of swallowing small pebbles, which facilitate the crushing of the grain. In certain species (the Domestic Fowl, Pheasant, Turkey, &c.) the males are armed above the back toe with one or more tapering spikes (a kind of very stiff spur), which they use both for attack and defence. A great many of this class have their heads adorned with crests and combs of various colours. These appendages exist occasionally in the females, but with much less development. Birds of the most brilliant plumage are to be found among the Gallinaceous tribe. The Peacock (_Pavo_), the Argus, the Lophophore, and the Pheasant may be said to bear the banner of their order with no mean degree of splendour, and may worthily stand in comparison with the most splendid of the Passerines. This richness of colour is the characteristic of the male bird, for the females are usually of a dull greyish hue. But if the Gallinaceæ captivate the sight, they are far from affording pleasure to the ear, their cries being shrill and discordant. Cruel, tyrannical, and quarrelsome are the characteristics of the majority of this race. They are polygamous, and the females lay a large number of eggs, which they sit upon, unassisted by the male. They are generally divided into flocks, consisting of one male, several females, and a number of young birds; but it is rarely that several families unite to live in common. The Gallinaceæ are of all birds the most useful to man. Certain domesticated kinds stock his poultry-yard, and supply him with eggs of an exquisite flavour; nor does their utility cease here--their flesh is a popular, wholesome, and delicate food. Those known as "game birds" are also abundant, and offer amusement to the sportsman and table delicacies for the _bon vivant_. Nearly all the Gallinaceæ were originally natives of the warm regions of Asia and America; now, such as the Domestic Fowl, the Pheasant, and the Turkey are perfectly acclimated to all temperate parts of the globe. The order of the Gallinaceæ may be divided into two great sub-orders, namely, the _Gallinaceæ proper_, to which the characteristics we have just enumerated specially belong; and the _Columbidæ_, which differ from them in certain details of organisation and habits, to be described hereafter. GALLINACEÆ PROPER Comprehend six families: the _Tetraonidæ_, the _Perdicidæ_, the _Tinamidæ_, the _Chionidæ_, the _Megapodidæ_, and the _Phasianidæ_. TETRAONIDÆ. The birds which compose this group are characterised as follows:--Tarsi completely feathered; a naked and knotty band of skin supplying the place of eyebrows; the body bulky; and the wings short. This family comprehends several species. The best known we enumerate:--The Cock of the Woods (_Tetrao urogallus_), the Black Grouse (_Tetrao tetrix_), Cock of the Plains (_Tetrao artimesia_), the Pinnated Grouse (_Tetrao Cupido_), the Ruffed Grouse (_Tetrao umbellus_), the Hazel Hen, or Gelinotte (_Bonasia europæa_), and the Ptarmigan (_Lagopus_). The COCK OF THE WOODS, or CAPERCAILZIE (_Tetrao urogallus_), inhabits the pine and birch forests of northern hilly countries. They feed indifferently upon fruits, berries, the buds of fir and birch trees, insects and grubs--nothing, in fact, comes amiss to satisfy their appetites. Their bearing, which is proud and warlike, is supported by a robust form. Their plumage is black, spotted with white, and clouded, as it were, with bluish diaphanous shades. They are polygamous, and live together in families. They readily seek shelter in the trees, both for roosting and in order to conceal themselves from their enemies. At the first breath of spring the male birds make the woods re-echo with the loud notes with which they summon the females to come to them. For an hour every morning and evening, for over a month, this practice is continued. The females retire into the thick brushwood to build their nests and lay their eggs: here they devote themselves to incubation, and afterwards to rearing their offspring--cares which devolve upon them exclusively. They deposit from eight to sixteen eggs on a bed of grasses and leaves roughly interwoven. The young birds run about as soon as hatched, and remain for several months with the mother, who on all occasions watches them with the tenderest solicitude. The flesh of the Cock of the Woods is juicy, but is esteemed more for its rarity; for the buds and leaves of the pines, which are its favourite food, give it a flavour of turpentine. In Scotland this species became extinct, but was restored by the Marquis of Breadalbane and others, who imported great numbers from Sweden. It is almost as large as a Turkey. [Illustration: Fig. 159--Black Grouse (_Tetrao tetrix_, Gray).] The BLACK GROUSE (_Tetrao tetrix_), Fig. 159, is about the size of a Pheasant, and is distinguished by its tail, which in the cock is divided into two parts, with a curling notch, composed of four lateral feathers on each side, curving outwards. The COCK OF THE PLAINS (_Tetrao artimesia_, Aud.), so called from frequenting and feeding on the sage that grows in profusion on the far-western prairies of America, is a noble bird, of handsome plumage. It is almost as large as a hen Turkey. Its numbers are rapidly diminishing. The PINNATED GROUSE (_Tetrao Cupido_, Aud.) is a native of the prairies of the North American continent; it is the same size as the last-described species, but the plumage is a light brown, occasionally ticked with white. Its call is deep and sonorous, much resembling the bellowing of a bull, and can be heard for miles in still weather. It is an excellent table bird, and affords good sport to the lovers of the gun. The Pinnated Grouse, frequently called Prairie Chicken or Hen, pair in March; they lay from twelve to fourteen eggs, and are most devoted parents. Of this species there are two strongly-marked varieties, differing in size and formation of tail. The RUFFED GROUSE (Fig. 160) is also an American bird, but differs essentially from the last mentioned in size, habits, and selection of food. The hill-sides, densely covered with evergreens or birch, are its favourite retreats; on the wing it is remarkable for its swiftness. Although not migratory, it is very erratic. [Illustration: Fig. 160.--Ruffed Grouse (_Tetrao umbellus_, Aud.).] The HAZEL GROUSE, or GELINOTTE (_Bonasia europæa_, Gray), inhabits the same description of country, and has habits very similar to the Black Grouse. Like them, it is suspicious and timid, and hides itself among the thick foliage of the green trees at the least appearance of danger. This bird flies awkwardly, but runs very swiftly. Its flesh, which is both delicate and savoury, brings a high price in the market. It is much less rare in France than the Cock of the Woods, and is frequently met with in the departments of Vosges and Ardennes. It is about the size of a Partridge, and the prevailing colour of its plumage is a reddish brown mixed with white, or variegated with grey and brown: the male has a large black patch under the throat. The PTARMIGANS have feet much like those of a hare, and thence is derived the name _Lagopus_, which signifies "hare-foot" (+lagos+, hare; +pous, podos+, foot). These birds not only have their tarsi covered with feathers, but also their toes and the soles of their feet. The icy regions of both hemispheres, and the summits of lofty mountains, are their domain. The snow is their favourite resting-place; they delight in rolling in it, and turning it over in search of food, or forming holes in which they pass the night to take shelter from the storm. [Illustration: Fig. 161.--Common Ptarmigan (_Lagopus mutus_, Gould), Summer and Winter Dress.] The colour of Ptarmigans is perfectly suited to the northern solitudes they inhabit. Their plumage is of a brilliant white, save one line of black on the head, and some tail-feathers of the same colour. This is their winter costume. In the summer, when the snow has disappeared under the scorching rays of the sun, they change their plumage, and are clothed in a habit of a greyish colour, spotted with brown and red (Fig. 161). Like the Cock of the Woods and the Hazel Hen, they are birds of social habits, and cannot bear captivity. When kept in confinement they become sickly, and soon fall into decline. Their flesh is excellent and much prized. Numbers of them are sold in the markets, and considerable quantities are sent every year to England and France from Scotland, Norway, and Lapland. The two principal species are the _Lagopus mutus_, common in the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the North of Europe and America; and the Red Grouse (_Lagopus scoticus_, Selby), which is found only in Great Britain and Ireland, where it is much prized for its beauty, delicacy of flesh, and the magnificent sport it affords when killed over dogs. The 12th of August, the first day of Grouse-shooting, is looked forward to by the disciples of the gun as anxiously as the Derby day by turfmen. PERDICIDES. The distinctive features of the birds composing this family are--a short beak, a small head, a round and massive body, bare tarsi, with spurs more or less developed, and a middling-sized back toe. The wings are sharp, pointed, or blunt, according to the species. This family comprehends the Gangas (_Pterocles_, Temm.), _Syrrhaptes_ (Ill.), Quail (_Coturnix_), Partridge (_Perdix_, Briss.), Colin (_Ortyx_, Steph.), Francolin (_Francolinus_, Briss.), and _Turnix_ (Bonap.). [Illustration: Fig. 162.--Pin-tailed Sand Grouse (_Pterocles setarius_, Gould), Male and Female.] The GANGAS, or ATTOYENS, are essentially birds of passage, and in consequence are provided with long and sharply-pointed wings; but the range of their journeys is not very great. They resemble the Plover in their power of lofty, rapid, and sustained flight, and inhabit the arid plains of Southern Europe, Asia, and Africa. The PIN-TAILED SAND GROUSE (_Pterocles setarius_), Fig. 162, annually makes its appearance in Spain and the South of France; it is common on the steppes of Southern Russia, of Tartary, Manchuria, Northern China, and in the North of Africa. Occasionally it breeds in the Pyrenees. The SYRRHAPTES, or HETEROCLITES, are characterised by the total absence of the back toe. They are closely allied to the Gangas, and, like them, have pointed wings, and are fond of travelling, but their flight is not so continuous, for in their journeys they are frequently compelled to alight. They inhabit the steppes of Tartary, and but rarely venture into Europe. The QUAIL (_Perdix coturnix_, Latham) has a small beak, a short back toe inserted rather high up, tarsi furnished with a rudimentary spur in the shape of a horny tubercle, a thick-set body, sharply-pointed middling-sized wings, and hardly any tail. There are several species of this bird, only one of which is found in Europe. The Common Quail (Fig. 163) is noted for its migrations. Every year innumerable flocks of them leave the regions of Africa, cross the Mediterranean, and, about the commencement of May, spread themselves over Europe. In the month of September they return, again accomplishing the same journey. The instinct which impels them to migrate from one country to another is so powerful that it is observed in Quails which are born in captivity. At the season of migration captive Quails become very uneasy, walk up and down their cages, and throw themselves against the bars with such force that they frequently fall back stunned, and sometimes even crush their skulls. When it is considered that the Quail is a heavy bird, with wings comparatively small, and that it must cost them great labour to migrate, it is evident that it must be undertaken under strong impulse: probably the necessity of escaping the severity of winter, or of providing for their sustenance, is not the only cause, but that there is some sort of instinctive want, equally imperative with that of hunger, under which the birds are irresistibly forced to traverse such indefinite distances. [Illustration: Fig. 163.--Quails and Young (_Tetrao coturnix_, Linn.).] The fecundity of the Quail is extraordinary: if it were otherwise the species would soon be exterminated, partly from their heavy, awkward flight, which renders them an easy prey to the sportsman's gun, but still more from the wholesale slaughter of them which takes place in certain districts at the time of migration. The Bishop of the island of Capri, situated in the Bay of Naples, receives an annual revenue of forty thousand francs (£1,600 sterling) from the duty he has imposed upon trading in Quails killed on the island, which are afterwards sold in the markets of Naples. From this he has received the name of the "Bishop of the Quails." On the shores of the Bosphorus, in the Morea, Crimea, and in some of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, Quails sometimes arrive in such dense masses that, according to a popular saying, it is only necessary to stoop in order to pick them up. They fall exhausted upon the ground, and the sky may almost be said to be _raining_ birds. The inhabitants, who have been watching for them for many days, now net them in great numbers, and, having salted them, and packed them in barrels, export them to different countries. Quails travel principally in the evening and during the night. They ascend to a tolerable height, but never fly against the wind; but, on the contrary, scud before it, and are thus carried across the Mediterranean. The south winds bring them to us, and the north winds carry them back to Africa. If overtaken by a tempest during their passage, they have not power to resist it, but fall into the waves. Thousands of them have been found drowned around the precipitous portions of the island of Malta; their strength had failed them, and, from being unable to gain sufficient elevation, they found a watery grave. They also take shelter occasionally on the decks of passing vessels. Quails principally frequent plains covered with cereals or fertile pastures. They delight in rolling in the dust, and are never known to perch. Their food consists of seeds and insects. They are not sociable birds; for the sexes do not approach one another except in the breeding season, and parent and young separate as soon as the mother's care is no longer necessary for the protection of the brood. This period soon arrives, as the little things are of rapid growth. The hen birds lay twice during the year, once in Europe and once in Africa, and each time produce from ten to fourteen eggs. [Illustration: Fig. 164.--Quail-shooting.] The Quail is a very swift runner, and frequently employs this mode of locomotion to escape pursuit. It is only in cases of imminent danger that it has recourse to flight. It flies in a straight line, keeping close to the ground, and shows itself a thorough master in the art of baffling dogs by throwing them off their scent. Hidden in the thick tufts of lucern, it often bids defiance to the novice; but its wiles are seldom successful before an experienced sportsman. This bird is not as large as the Partridge. When killed at the proper time--that is to say, when it has rested after its fatiguing journey and recovered condition--it is covered with a layer of fat which is not surpassed in richness and flavour by any other bird. Its flesh is sweet and delicate, and emits an odour grateful alike to the nose and palate. This bird ranks immediately after the Woodcock and the Snipe in the estimation of epicures. The capture of Quails was formerly performed in several ways. They were caught in a net or a trap, in which a bait was placed: they were also shot with the help of a pointer. This last method is the only one which is nowadays allowed in France; and, thanks to this restriction, the bird is now destroyed on a less extensive scale than in times past, and the species may yet be something more than a myth to future generations. The PARTRIDGE (_Perdix_) has a sharply recurvate beak, a thick-set body, blunt wings, and a short and drooping tail. The tarsi of the male bird are either provided with, or destitute of, tubercles, according to the species. Partridges live constantly on the surface of the soil, and never perch except when they are absolutely forced to do so. They have, like the Quail, the pulverulent instinct, and run with remarkable swiftness. Their flight is also very rapid, but low, and does not extend to long distances. These birds are eminently sociable, and live, during the principal part of the year, in flocks or coveys, composed of the parents and the young ones of the last brood. They are not migratory, and seem to attach themselves to certain localities, confining themselves to a limited extent of country, in which they pass their lives. They never leave this except by accident. In it they make choice of a sanctum in which to take shelter when pursued; this is called by sportsmen a "cover." Partridges are monogamous; they pair early in the year, which union does not cease until the following spring. In certain species, such as the Red Partridge, where the females are less numerous than the males, a great number of the latter remain single. As the cocks do not willingly resign themselves to single blessedness, but make many attempts to avoid it at the expense of their neighbours, this is the cause of frequent quarrels. These conflicts at last come to an end--the various pairs are firmly united; and the unsuccessful candidates for affection, who object to making up their minds to live as hermits, ultimately combine together. The attachment of the male to the female is deserving of admiration. At the time for laying, the hen bird makes a hole in the earth, which she lines with grass and leaves, and in it deposits her eggs, to the number of twelve or fifteen, and sometimes even twenty or more. The season of incubation follows after, which lasts twenty days at least. During this time the male bird watches over his companion, and guards her from danger. When the young are hatched, paternal affection is added to conjugal love, and a portion of the father's care is devoted to the young brood. He accompanies them in their wanderings; he teaches them to catch grubs, finds ants' eggs, and shows himself as skilful as the mother in guarding them from attacks of their enemies. At the appearance of the sportsman or dog the male utters a cry of alarm, which warns the young ones of their danger, and enjoins them to seek concealment. Drooping his wings in order to induce the intruder to follow him, he pretends to fly away. At the same time the female proceeds in another direction; and alighting at some distance off, she runs back to her family, reassembles them, and leads them to a place of security, where they are soon joined by the male bird. The above is one of the ingenious stratagems by which the young brood is defended from pursuit. Some weeks after they are hatched, the young Partridges are fit to fly and to provide for their own wants. As we have already said, they do not now leave their parents, but continue to live with them in the closest alliance until February or March, at which time they separate in order to pair off. At this time, also, the union of the father and mother comes to an end, and they generally form a fresh alliance. [Illustration: Fig. 165.--Shooting Grey Partridge (_Perdix cinerea_, Ray).] Partridges are of a shy and timid nature, which shows itself in many ways. Nor are their suspicious fears unjustifiable, when it is remembered how numerous are their foes, for foxes and birds of prey make continual and unsparing war upon them. The latter especially are particularly dreaded. At the mere sight of one of the Falcon tribe a Partridge will stop as though struck with stupor, and so overcome with fear as almost to be incapable of concealing itself, remaining absolutely immovable; and it is not until the dreaded enemy is gone that it regains self-control. When a bird of prey dashes at one of them unsuccessfully when in cover, no human power is able to make it abandon its retreat, and any one can then lay hands on it without difficulty. A Partridge has even been known to allow itself to be stifled with smoke in its hiding-place rather than again expose itself to the claw of the Falcon, Vulture, or Sparrow-hawk. The knowledge of these facts has suggested a very simple and effectual method of killing Partridges successfully. This consists in frightening them with the help of an artificial bird of prey, attached to the tail of a kite flown over them. While the Partridges are paralysed by fright from this deception, the sportsmen advance and make the birds flush within easy shooting distance. Notwithstanding their wild nature, Partridges are susceptible of domestication, and, with care and gentleness, they may be rendered very tame. Girardin relates that a Grey Partridge, reared by a Carthusian, became so familiar that it followed its protector about like a dog. Willoughby states that an inhabitant of the county of Sussex succeeded in taming a whole covey of Partridges, and was in the habit of driving them before him like a flock of Geese. Tournefort relates that formerly, in the Isle of Chio, flocks of Red-legged Partridges were reared which allowed themselves to be driven about in exactly the same way; and Sonini speaks of two Red-legged Partridges which an inhabitant of Aboukir had managed to tame. All these facts abundantly prove that, with a little patience, it would be possible to raise the Partridge to the dignity of a domestic farm-yard fowl. The Partridge is highly esteemed by epicures; it is also the delight of the sportsman, because it lies well to dogs. On account of its abundance, especially of the Grey variety, this may be called the "favourite game" of the French empire. Partridge-shooting, moreover, is what is generally chosen for the education of the inexperienced shot; the dog, too, by its pursuit, acquires such sagacity that renders him a valuable assistant to the disciple of St. Hubert. [Illustration: Fig. 166.--Grey Partridge and Young (_Perdix cinerea_, Ray).] Let us now take a rapid glance at the various species of the Partridge. The Grey Partridge (_Perdix cinerea_) is the most common; it is very plentiful over the whole of Central Europe, the North of France, Belgium, Holland, and Great Britain. In these countries it frequents the cultivated districts, the vast plains covered with crops, and the artificial meadows, in all of which it lives and breeds. This bird is not altogether harmless to the pursuits of agriculture, as, after seed-time, it is not satisfied with the grain left on the surface, but digs out those that are growing. It also devours the young green shoots of corn, and attacks the ears when they come to maturity. Its increase on a large scale might, therefore, produce serious mischief, which would hardly be compensated for by the services which it renders in destroying worms, insects, and grubs. The Grey Partridge furnishes a variety of smaller size, the Migratory Partridge, which is not known in England. It is remarkable for its vagrant character, and forms a singular contrast to the stay-at-home habits of the genus generally. It makes its appearance in large flocks at the most diverse seasons and in the most varied latitudes. Not migratory in the proper sense of the word, its journeys seem undertaken under the influence of some unknown cause, and are wanting in regularity and constancy. It does not always follow the same route, and its journeys are intermittent. This bird is of a very shy nature, and is frequently met with in the East (Turkey, Syria, and Egypt); it is sometimes noticed in France, where it is called the Damascus Partridge. [Illustration: Fig. 167.--Shooting Red-legged Partridges (_Perdix rubra_, Bonap.).] Contrary to the Grey Partridge, the Red-legged, and those allied to it, have the tarsi provided with tubercles. The Red-legged or Guernsey Partridge owes its name to the predominant colour of its plumage, and also to the pink shade of its beak, tarsi, and feet. Uncultivated wastes, thinly covered with heath, and undulating uplands adapted to the vine, are its favourite resorts. In France it is principally found in the south; in the northern departments it is not so plentiful as the Common Grey Partridge. It is also a native of Spain and Italy, and is very common in portions of Asia and Africa. The brush-clad mountains are its home, and in fine weather it ventures even as far as the regions of perpetual snow. It is very fond of grapes and the edible variety of snails. In some parts of France it is scarce; the Jura, the Upper and Lower Alps, the mountains of Auvergne, and the Pyrenees are the districts where it is most abundant. In Greece, Turkey, and Asia Minor it is more plentiful. Another variety, the Rock Partridge, or Gambra, which differs but little from the Red-legged Partridge, is almost unknown in France. Its habitat is Spain, Corsica, Sicily, and Calabria. The COLIN, VIRGINIAN or AMERICAN PARTRIDGE (_Ortyx virginianus_, Wilson), has a thick and convex beak, smooth tarsi, and a longer tail than the Partridge. These characteristics would hardly entitle us to make any difference as to genus, if a study of their habits had not revealed certain details which justify us in doing so. When these birds are flushed, they do not all of them fly towards the same spot, but disperse in every direction, and conceal themselves in the brushwood or trees. Under such circumstances, if one can only manage to re-find them, all may be killed in succession. They are more prolific than the Partridge, also less suspicious, and will readily enter snares set for them. These birds are in the habit of making arrangements for sleeping which are peculiar, to say the least. All the individuals of the same flock begin by placing themselves in a circle at a certain distance from each other; then they all walk backwards, converging towards a common centre, until they are close to one another, side to side: in this position they pass the night. By means of this precaution the whole flock can see in all directions, and fly away at once in case of danger, without one interfering with the other. Each bird, in fact, has a clear space in front of him, and runs no risk of being impeded by his companions when desirous of taking flight. [Illustration: Fig. 168.--Californian Colin (_Lophortyx californicus_, Bonaparte).] The Colin is also distinguished from the Partridge by its vagrant habits. In this respect it resembles the Quail, but its peregrinations are irregular, and do not embrace anything like the same extent of range. This bird is a native of North America, where it abounds. It exists in some districts of the United States to such an extent that, during one winter, in a circuit of not more than five or six leagues in extent, as many as twelve thousand head have been killed, without any apparent diminution of the species in the ensuing spring. Having been brought to England and looked after, the Virginian has bred. Similar attempts have been made in France, but with less success, owing to a want of perseverance. The Colin would be an excellent addition to our game birds, as its flesh is delicate, and it lies well before pointers or setters. The Californian Colin (Fig. 168), familiarly known as the Californian Quail, is a beautiful bird, adorned with a crest, the upper portion of which points forward. They are only found on the Pacific slopes of the Rocky Mountains. On the high grounds which form the margin of the valley of the Sacramento River they are extremely numerous. Another variety of Colin, figured by Audubon, is also a resident of California, where it is called the Solitary Partridge. FRANCOLINS are distinguished from Partridges by a stronger and more elongated bill, by a more largely developed tail, and by the existence, in the male, of one or two sharp spurs. They also differ in their habits, for they frequent wooded and marshy districts, where they subsist on berries, seeds, worms, insects, and young bulbous plants. When not feeding, they are almost constantly perched on trees, where they pass the night. These peculiarities excepted, they bear a strong resemblance to the Partridge. Their flesh is highly esteemed, the Francolin taking the first place among our game birds. [Illustration: Fig. 169.--Turnix tachydroma.] A beautiful variety of Francolin is found in the South of China. Its favourite haunt is among the dwarf palmetto on the hill-sides. It lies well to dogs, but is so quick in flushing, and so rapid in flight, that even the best shots miss them. They are quite as large as the Grey Partridge. Unfortunately, in Europe the Francolin is tending towards extinction, for its wild nature prevents it accommodating itself to a restricted range. It is found on the southern coasts of the Black Sea, in Sicily, and the island of Cyprus. There are other species inhabiting Africa and India. The COTURNIX is closely allied to the Quail; the only physical distinction between them is the absence of the back toe. It frequents sandy districts and plains covered with high grass. It runs very swiftly, and but rarely flies. Should it be compelled, however, to do so, its course is seldom more than one or two yards above the ground, and of very short duration. Dropping, it then stubbornly persists in remaining on the ground, and prefers being caught to making a fresh attempt on the wing. Its flesh is excellent. A European species, the _Turnix tachydroma_ (rapid runner), (Fig. 169), inhabits Sicily, the South of Spain, and the North of Africa. The Sunda Isles produce a species of Quail, the warlike instincts of which furnish an amusement for the barbarous tastes of the inhabitants, who regularly pit them one against the other, betting largely on the result, just as the English used to do on cock-fights. TINAMIDES. All the birds of this family belong to South America. They are the representatives of the Partridge on that continent. Their essential characteristics are--a slender and medium-sized beak; tarsi rather long, and provided with nodosities; the back toe either very short or altogether wanting--at all events, no use in walking can be made of it from its elevated position; the wings and tail short, the latter sometimes deficient. This family comprises four genera, all very closely allied to one another; these are the _Tinamus_, the _Nothures_, the _Rhyncotes_, and the _Eudromes_. We shall confine our remarks to their nature and characteristics. These birds are naturally stupid, and cannot habituate themselves to captivity. They live in small flocks, except during the breeding season. They fly heavily, always in a straight line, but are swift runners. Some species manifest such sluggishness that they will remain the entire day without moving, and will not even take the trouble to escape from their enemies. They have the habit of rolling themselves in the dust, and frequent indifferently cultivated ground, grassy meadows, or thick woods. Except in rare instances, they roost upon the ground. They are crepuscular--that is, they seek their food in the early mornings and evenings, and even by moonlight. Their selection of nutriment is frugivorous, granivorous, insectivorous, and vermivorous. They make their nests on the ground, and lay twice a year seven or eight eggs. Their flesh is good, and much sought after. _Tinamus tataupa_ (Swainson) may be taken as a representative of the order. Mr. Darwin, in his "Journal of Researches in the Countries visited by H.M.S. _Beagle_," describes this bird. CHIONIDÆ. The birds belonging to this family are characterised by a short, crooked, and stout bill, long and pointed wings, a middling-sized tail, and a merely rudimentary back toe. The size of the _Chionides_ varies between the Partridge and the Pigeon. The species of _Chionis_, _Tinochore_, and _Attagis_ are included in this family. The _Chionides_ are remarkable for their marine habits; they frequent the sea-beach, and feed on sea-weed and animal remains. They are to be found in all southern countries. The _Tinochores_ and the _Attagis_ are natives of Chili and Paraguay: their habits are not known. MEGAPODIDÆ. The distinctive features of this family are as follows: the bill straight and slender; the tarsi long and stout; the feet tetradachylous, and furnished with long and strong claws. This family comprises three genera: the _Megapodius_, _Alecthelia_, and _Talegallus_. The _Megapodii_ are but little known. All that has been ascertained is, that they inhabit marshy localities, fly but little, and run like Partridges. They lay each of their eggs in a separate hole, and leave them to be hatched by the heat of the sun. The young birds are able to dispense with maternal assistance and to provide for their own wants on leaving the shell. These birds inhabit the isles of the Pacific Ocean. The _Alectheliæ_ bear a great resemblance to the Megapodii, and are natives of the same places: their habits have not been studied as yet. The _Talegalli_, or _Tavons_, inhabit Australia and New Guinea. They live in low brushwood adjacent to the sea. These birds have a curious plan in building their nests. They scrape together a large quantity of dry leaves, of which they form a conical mound five or six feet high. On the top of this heap they make a hole, in which the female drops two or three eggs, one on the top of the other. The heat produced by fermentation, joined with the rays of the sun, gives sufficient warmth to hatch them. PHASIANIDÆ. This family is divided into several genera or tribes; namely, Pheasants, Peacocks, Pintados, Turkeys, and Alectors. The PHEASANT tribe comprises not only Pheasants proper, but also the Domestic Fowls, the Argus, Tragopans, Roulouls, &c. Their characteristics are as follows:--The head bare; bill stout; wings short and flight heavy; tail largely developed; plumage extremely brilliant, and sometimes splendid. All these birds were originally natives of Asia; some have been naturalised over nearly the whole face of the earth since time immemorial; the Pheasant, however, is not so widely spread, although its range has been much increased. The Pheasant is remarkable for the extraordinary length of its tail, the middle feathers of which in one species, Reeves's Pheasant (_Lyramaticus Reevesii_), sometimes attain a length of seven or eight feet. It is a bird of slender make, of an elegant form, and the males are adorned with brilliant plumage; but the hens wear a much more unpretending attire. The sides of the face, and round the eyes, are bare and tuberculous. The stronger sex are provided with spurs. There are many species of Pheasant, but there is no obvious difference in their habits. We shall, therefore, content ourselves with giving an account of the Common Pheasant (Fig. 170), which is the species most widely spread through Europe. The introduction of the Pheasant into Europe dates at a very early age, if it is true that it goes back to the expedition of the Argonauts, about 1300 B.C. The companions of Jason met with this bird on the banks of the Phasis, in Colchis, whence its name is derived. Struck with its beauty, they carried it back with them into Greece, whence it gradually spread over a large portion of the European continent. The Greeks, believing it to be indigenous to the banks of the Caucasian River, called it the "Bird of Phasis;" subsequently, however, it was ascertained that it also inhabited the whole of the South of Asia (China, Cochin-China, Bengal, &c.). [Illustration: Fig. 170.--Common Pheasants (_Phasianus colchicus_, Linn.).] At the present day this bird is found in France, Great Britain, Holland, Germany, and even Sweden. Pheasants prefer wooded slopes or marshy plains. Their food is of a varied character, and is composed of grain, berries, worms, insects, and snails. They are shy and timid in their nature, taking flight at the slightest indication of danger. They live in solitude up to the breeding season, when the male birds select their mates, for they are polygamous. On these occasions they engage in such desperate conflicts that the weaker bird is often killed. [Illustration: Fig. 171.--Golden Pheasants (_Phasianus pictus_, Linn.).] The hen Pheasant makes her nest on the ground, in the midst of some dense thicket, and lays from twelve to twenty eggs, which require twenty-four days to hatch. The mother does not manifest that care and solicitude for her young which are so marked in the majority of other birds; she does not even specially recognise her own progeny, for she pays equal attention to all the young of her race that surround her. We must not, however, expect to find much maternal love in a bird which does not shrink from breaking her own eggs to gratify an unnatural appetite. The Pheasant is not remarkable for its intelligence, for, in spite of its suspicious nature, it falls an easy victim to the poacher. Pheasants, although they breed in a wild state in our climate, are principally raised in vast enclosures called pheasantries, where all the necessaries to existence are provided for them. As the females are bad mothers, it is no unusual thing for their eggs to be hatched by Domestic Fowls. During the first two months of existence the young Pheasants require the greatest care, for they are predisposed to numerous maladies. Their favourite food is ants' eggs. The flesh of the mature is very savoury, but rather dry, and epicures consider that it ought not to be eaten till hung a long time, when it is said to be "high," a requisite which by analogy has extended to other game. There is one very curious peculiarity common to certain birds belonging to the family of which we have been speaking, and which is especially remarkable in the Pheasants--it is that when old females become unfruitful they assume the plumage of males. It is said that young Pheasants undergo the same change when deprived of their reproductive organs. The Golden Pheasant (_Phasianus pictus_), Fig. 171, and the Silver Pheasant (_P. nychthemerus_, Linn.), are two beautiful birds, originally from China and Japan, and now naturalised to Europe. The former, clothed in purple and gold, bears a golden-yellow tuft on its head; the black-and-white costume of the latter is not inferior in beauty to the preceding. Linnæus has named them _Nychthemerus_ (the night and the day). There are also the Ring-necked or Collared Pheasant, slightly different from the Common Pheasant, which for some years has propagated rapidly in France and England; Reeves's Pheasant (_Phasianus veneratus_, Temm.), indigenous to China, where it is rather rare, and very highly prized for the beauty of its plumage and the extraordinary length of its tail--it is said that the exportation of this bird is severely interdicted; and lastly, the beautiful Lady Amherst's Pheasant, so called because that lady brought two living specimens to Europe. "I pass thus some and of the best," as is said in _Hernani_, the French comedy. [Illustration: Fig. 172.--Pheasant-shooting.] The ARGUS (_Argus giganteus_, Temm.), Fig. 173, a bird with magnificent plumage, which inhabits the forests of Java and Sumatra, takes its place beside the Pheasants, from which it only differs in having the tarsi longer and unprovided with spurs, and by the extraordinary development of the secondary feathers of the wings in the male. The tail is large and round, and the two middle feathers are extremely long and quite straight. When paraded, as it struts round the female, spreading its wings and tail, this bird presents to the dazzled eye of the spectator two splendid bronze-coloured fans, upon which are sprinkled a profusion of ocellated markings much resembling eyes: it owes its name of Argus to these spots. In a state of quiescence the wings are folded on the sides, and attract little attention. Only in the male bird is the gorgeous display of colouring to be found. The Argus is very timid; its habits are little known. The general characteristics of the COCK (_Gallus_) are as follows:--A middling-sized, curved, and strong beak; head surmounted by a fleshy, red, and denticulated crest, the lower jaw furnished with two hanging gills, equally red and fleshy; rather long tarsi, armed with sharp spurs; short, concave, and obtuse wings; tectiform tail, arched and falling in plumes, with very developed medium feathers; brilliant plumage, with metallic reflections. This description applies exclusively to male birds. Hens, more humble in their costume, are not gifted with these exterior advantages; their plumage is generally dull and without attraction, their straight and slightly-raised tails are limited to an ordinary proportion; their crest is reduced to the most simple excrescence, and in certain species entirely disappears; lastly, their legs are without the murderous spur with which the male is armed. They are also smaller and less vociferous than the male. [Illustration: Fig. 173.--Argus (_Phasianus Argæ_, Latham).] The domestication of this family dates from ante-historic times, so that we can only raise conjectures as to the original country and species from which the numerous varieties sprang which we now find spread throughout the world. The species, however, is probably one of those now living in a wild state in the islands of the Indian Archipelago. They may perhaps constitute some of the types which have given birth to our principal domestic races, and which are separated into a number of varieties. Whatever may be the opinion adopted, we know that amongst the species indigenous to Asia are the Bankiva Cock (_Gallus Bankiva_, Linn.), which so nearly resembles our village Chanticleer as to be often confused with it;--the bird, known as Jungle-fowl by Indian sportsmen, inhabits Java, Sumatra, the Philippines, and Hindostan: it is sometimes called Sonnerat's Cock (_Gallus Sonneratii_, Latham);--the Bronzed Cock (_Gallus æneus_, Temm.), the Fork-tailed Cock (_Gallus furcatus_, Temm.), and the Giant Cock, or Kulm Cock (_Gallus giganteus_, Jardine), the largest species known. These are considered, not without reason, the founders of our most extensive races. The last mentioned lives both in a wild and domestic state in Java, Sumatra, and India proper. The Negro Cock offers a very remarkable case of contrast, for the crest, gills, epidermis, periosteum, and feathers of this species are black, but the flesh is white. The Negro Cock, very largely spread over Belgium and Germany, still lives in freedom in the Indies. All these species inhabit thick forests, and their manners are entirely unknown. Consequently, without further delay, we arrive at the description of the Domestic Cock. [Illustration: Fig. 174.--Cock, Hen, and Chickens (_Gallus_, Briss.).] The Cock is thick-set and massive, but without heaviness. His upright and bold walk denotes his pride. Without being an habitual runner, he moves with rapidity, but when driven to use his wings his incapacity reveals itself; it is with difficulty he raises himself from the ground, as if nature had destined him to live always by the side of man, attached to the earth which feeds them both. The Cock is a perfect model of a sultan; he attaches an entire seraglio to his train. His love is a curious mixture of delicate attentions and revolting brutalities. See him walking in the midst of his companions, he assumes an air at once proud and defiant. He directs his wives, protects them, watches them with restless tenderness, and if he finds a savoury morsel he unselfishly parts with it. When the time for feeding comes, he softens his voice to invite them to come and peck up the grain spread upon the ground; again, he is cruel and brutal both to Hens and chickens. Of an ardent character, the Cock cannot suffer a rival at his side; thus battles are inevitable when two Cocks inhabit the same poultry-yard. With flashing eyes, head lowered, and feathers of the neck bristled, the two adversaries observe each other for a time in silence. At last the storm breaks with violence; they precipitate themselves upon each other, and fearlessly fight with both beak and spurs till the earth is reddened with their blood. These battles, which sometimes last an hour, only cease to recommence the next day, or till one of the champions succumbs, acknowledging the supremacy of the victor, and abandoning the place. The Cock sometimes employs his courage and strength in more noble contests, for he does not fear to expose his life for the defence of the poultry-yard. Man, who knows how to utilise even the bad instincts of animals, has not failed to employ the natural combativeness of the Cock in ministering to his pleasures. In olden times the Greeks delighted in cock-fights; the Cocks of Rhodes were particularly renowned for their game qualities. It is related that Themistocles, marching against the Persians, who had invaded Greece, and seeing the troops discouraged before the battle, recalled to them the obstinacy Cocks displayed in their combats, and then added, "These animals display their courage for the single pleasure of victory; but you, soldiers! you go to fight for your gods, for the tombs of your fathers, for your children, for your freedom." These words reanimated the failing ardour of the Greek troops, and the Persians were vanquished. In memory of this event the Athenians consecrated a special day in the year to cock-fighting. The Romans borrowed this pastime from the Greeks. Even in the present day cock-fighting is still in favour in various parts of the East. In Java, Sumatra, and Manilla this amusement is carried to the length of folly. The inhabitants of these countries scarcely ever travel without a favourite Cock, which they carry under their arm. It is by no means rare to find gamblers betting not only their fortune, but even their wives or daughters, upon the strength and dexterity of a champion bird. In England the barbarous practice of cock-fighting in former days was a favourite pastime, nor is it now entirely abandoned. Henry VIII., we read, instituted rules for this then popular sport. From his example most of the English kings patronised it. Charles II. and James II. took it under their special protection. At that time cock-fighting was almost a science, which had voluminous codes, laws, and regulations, determining the circumstances of the combat, and settling the interests of betters. Now, however, it is almost exclusively confined to a few of the lower classes, the matches generally taking place on one or other of the few holidays which the hard-working mechanics have at their disposal. On these occasions the crowd gathers, the bets are arranged, which sometimes rise to considerable sums. The spectators contemplate with barbarous pleasure the result of the anticipated combat, as both adversaries, armed with artificial spurs of pointed steel, are placed in the cock-pit. When left to themselves, they attack each other furiously, using their steel spurs with great adroitness (Fig. 175). The fight only terminates by the death of one of the combatants, and the victor is exhibited in triumph to the crowd. But his triumph is of short duration; the late hero called again to do battle, the spur of a more powerful adversary strikes a vital part, and he in his turn expires in the arena. The victor upon whom formerly so much interest rested, who excited so much admiration and such enthusiastic praises, is now in turn defeated--the former favourite of Fortune is deserted by the fickle goddess. In the meantime the other birds are ceaselessly heard crowing defiance, and proclaiming their eagerness for the fray. In the poultry-yard the Game Cock is quarrelsome, and even cruel; but this may be said of poultry generally. If one of their companions is sick or wounded, they unite to put an end at once to his sufferings and life. A stranger in the yard is certain to meet with a bad reception; the others set on it in a body, and only cease hostilities at the end of several days, or in the case of the Cock, who is their lord and master, taking the new arrival under his protection. Hens feed on anything that comes in their way; this renders them valuable to country-people, for they yield a profit without occasioning more expense than that of a few handfuls of corn in the morning and evening. Grain, herbs, worms, insects, carrion, rubbish of all kinds, are alike acceptable to them. [Illustration: Fig. 175.--Fighting Cocks.] In France Hens begin to have eggs towards the month of February, and cease about the beginning of autumn, when they moult. By giving them heating food, they can be made to lay even in winter. They generally produce an egg daily--sometimes, but rarely, two. Pairing exercises no influence in this respect; that is to say, Hens have eggs without a Cock, but these are _clear_ or unfruitful, and can only be used for food. The cry of the Hen when about to lay is well known. When she has produced about twenty eggs a desire to sit is manifested: if this is permitted, twelve or fifteen eggs, placed in a basket filled with straw, are given her; when, uttering a peculiar clucking and spreading her wings, she sits upon her treasures, and covers them with so much perseverance as sometimes to forget to eat or drink, unless food is brought her. During twenty-one days the eggs are maintained at a uniform temperature of about 40° Centigrade. At the end of that time the young chickens burst their shell. The Hen fulfils the duties of a mother with incomparable devotion and tenderness; she follows her young brood step by step, calls them to her when they stray, and seeks nourishment for them, thinking little of her own wants till theirs are satisfied. Against all aggressors, with every feather bristling and angry eyes, she warns them, protects them, and defends them. If a bird of prey appears, she hastens to meet it, and assumes such a menacing attitude, that few will not immediately take to flight. The chickens develop rapidly. At the end of a month the crest of the males shows itself; at six months they have acquired the vigour necessary for reproduction; females begin to lay about the same time. At the age of three months transforming them into capons and pullets is performed--names given to those individuals which have been deprived of the sexual organs. In this condition they are fattened, and acquire a superior flavour and delicacy of flesh. Pullets and capons, in losing the generative faculty, lose also the inherent characteristics of their sex. The temper of the male becomes so mild that he has been made to perform maternal duties when a Hen has deserted her chickens to recommence laying, by plucking out feathers from his stomach, and then rubbing the part with nettles; the chickens gliding under, allay the pain which the stings have caused, and thus the bird derives pleasure from his wards, and soon attaches himself to them. The departments of Sarthe and Ain are celebrated for the pullets there raised. Hatching is sometimes performed by artificial incubation. In olden times the Egyptians had recourse to this means to increase the production of poultry. The method which was used, and which is still employed in modern Egypt, consists in placing the eggs in a furnace maintained for twenty-one days at a uniform temperature of 40° C. By this means a hundred millions of Fowls are annually produced in Egypt. Simple as this operation appears, it is not without difficulty, or the climate of Africa assists, for attempts in France have never been crowned with success. In the Sunda Islands artificial incubation is accomplished in another manner: here men are found who, for a small salary, remain for three weeks stretched out and immovable upon eggs placed in ashes. Antiquity has bequeathed to us the story of a curious incubation made at Rome by the Empress Livia. This lady being pregnant, and desiring a son, thought of hatching an egg in her bosom, and drawing a prognostic from the sex of the chicken. The operation succeeded--the egg having produced a Cock, the empress concluded that her wishes would be granted. These were realised, for she brought into the world Tiberius--rather a wicked bird, as every one knows. The TRAGOPANS (_Ceriornis_, Swainson) and the JUNGLE-FOWLS belong to India or the Indian Archipelago, and are all remarkable for the brilliancy of their plumage. The HOUPIFERES, or, as their name expresses, Tuft-bearers, strongly resemble our Domestic Fowl. The Tragopan, which Buffon calls the Horned Pheasant, looks like a cross between the Domestic Fowl and the Pheasant, but is distinguished by two small horns, which decorate the head of the male. Lastly, the Jungle-fowls live in a wild state, being as yet unknown domesticated, consequently little can be said of their habits, but they probably differ but slightly from those of the Pheasants. PINTADOS (Guinea-fowls) have remarkably small heads for their size; beak and neck short; the tail equally short and drooping; the tarsus very low, and destitute of spurs; body round; wings short and concave; on the head is a hard crest of a reddish blue, sometimes replaced in mature birds by a tuft; the wattles are fleshy, and hang under the beak. The Common Guinea-fowl (Fig. 176) has a slate-coloured plumage, covered with white spots; it is indigenous to Africa, and its introduction into Europe dates from far-distant times; it was known to the Greeks and Romans. The former made it an emblem of paternal affection. According to Greek writers, the sisters of Meleager felt such grief at the death of their brother, that Diana, to terminate their woes, changed them into Guinea-fowls. The goddess, wishing that their plumage should bear the trace of their tears, marked it with white spots. [Illustration: Fig. 176.--Guinea-fowl (_Numida cristata_, Latham).] The Romans, who highly esteemed the flesh of these birds, propagated them with the greatest care to figure at their feasts, but after the invasion of the barbarians they disappeared from Europe, and during the Middle Ages we never hear of them. The Portuguese re-discovered them in Africa on their return from the Indies, and again imported them into Europe, where they have since multiplied to a great extent. But the turbulent and quarrelsome character of these birds and their noisy and discordant cries are serious obstacles to their becoming favourites; they have also ceaseless quarrels with the Hens and Turkeys, their neighbours, and although not so strong as their antagonists, they fight them fearlessly. They have been seen to attack the young of other birds, and split their skulls with a blow of their beaks. They show great attachment to their own young, yet they occupy themselves but little with the cares of a family; consequently their progeny is generally brought up by Hens or Turkeys. Although bad nurses, their fecundity is very great, and when well fed they lay as many as a hundred eggs in a year: these are much sought after, and epicures prefer them to those of the Hen. Their flesh, though good, is not so much esteemed. There are now several species known in a wild state in Africa, and in a domestic state in Europe. They are numerous in Arabia, where they are found in the neighbourhood of marshy places, in little bands composed of a male and several females. Transported into America after the discovery of that continent, the common variety is now perfectly acclimated there, and is even to be found wild in some of the vast forests and savannahs of that country. TURKEYS are birds of large size, easily distinguished from other Gallinacean fowls by the following characteristics:--Bare heads and necks, decorated with fleshy appendages--those of the neck, which fall under the head in front of the bird, are capable of being inflated and much enlarged under the influence of love or anger; a brush of long and straight hairs hangs at the base of the neck; the tarsi are strong, and provided with slightly-developed spurs; lastly, the tail is round, of moderate length, and at the will of the bird can be expanded like a fan. The Turkey was originally imported from North America, where it still lives in a wild state; it is frequently met with in the forests which border the large western rivers of that country, such as the Mississippi, Missouri, and the Ohio, and it must be studied there to acquire a correct idea of its habits. The Domestic Turkey is not so handsome in plumage as is the Wild, but the former generally much exceeds the latter in size. The colour of the Wild Turkey is brown, mixed with blue and green, giving out a diaphanous metallic brilliancy. The full-grown male bird sometimes measures over three feet, and weighs from twenty to twenty-five pounds. The American naturalist, Audubon, speaks of having seen one which was upwards of thirty-six. The female is much smaller, and seldom exceeds ten pounds in weight: her plumage cannot vie with that of the male in splendour. Although it does not appear constructed for the purpose, the mature bird is capable of taking considerable flights, passing with ease in its wild state across such gigantic rivers as the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri, which in every direction traverse and bisect the middle portion of the great North American continent; but it, as a rule, only takes wing when all other means of locomotion are denied, for it runs with surprising rapidity, distancing the common cur dog with ease, and only abates its speed after a lengthened pursuit. It accomplishes long journeys on foot; not, however, caused by atmospheric influence, but want of sustenance in the country which it inhabits. It is generally towards the beginning of October that these migrations commence. The Turkeys then unite in troops of from ten to a hundred individuals, and go towards the regions which they have chosen for their new abode; the males form a separate drove from the females, which march at their sides, surrounded by their young families. The necessity of protecting their young from the brutality of the old cocks, who will kill them if opportunity offers, inspires the hen Turkeys with this habit. It sometimes happens that the emigrating band are stopped by a water-course, when all evince great agitation by spreading their tails, uttering frequent gobbles, and yielding themselves to extravagant demonstrations. At the end of a day or two, after having inspected the neighbourhood, they mount upon the branches of some of the highest trees, and take to the wing to traverse the obstruction. Some of the young ones always fall into the water, but they know perfectly how to swim: when all have reached the opposite bank they run hither and thither as if they were mad, and from their recklessness at this time it is very easy to approach and kill them. These birds pair in February or March, according to latitude; the females produce eggs six weeks afterwards. At this time the hen secretes herself in a place unknown to the male, as he would break the eggs. The nest is an indentation in the ground, lined with soft grasses, moss, and dry leaves, and in it are deposited her embryo progeny, which are sat upon with perseverance deserving praise. In this respect they are superior to all Gallinaceous fowls, even surpassing the Domestic Hen. When the mothers leave their eggs to seek food they are always careful to cover them with leaves, the better to screen them from the sight of the Fox, Lynx, or Crow. The incubation lasts about thirty days. As the time for hatching approaches, no power can make the mother leave her nest, no peril will cause her to desert her charge. On being hatched, the young Turkeys, under the protecting care of the old bird, are led to sequestered feeding grounds, and do not leave her till the end of several months. Wild Turkeys have many formidable enemies, the most destructive being Man, next the Lynx and the Eagle Owl; they are, therefore, very distrustful, and when on the ground secrete themselves at the least appearance of danger; but if perched upon a tree they are less guarded, and consequently can be more easily approached by the sportsman. On a misty, moonlight night American hunters take their posts under trees where Turkeys commonly perch. In this situation the game will receive several discharges without making the slightest attempt to escape, although numbers of them in succession may have been killed. It is difficult to explain this apparent apathy, especially when we know their hurry to fly before the Owl. It is doubtless owing to the want of sagacity which they manifest under these circumstances, as well as to their ludicrous aspect and eccentric attitudes, that Turkeys have gained the reputation of stupidity. This bird, however, sometimes gives proofs of intelligence, as the following fact, related by Audubon, shows. He had raised a Wild Turkey from its most tender age, which had become extremely tame, but the love of independence remained very strong in the bird, for it could not accustom itself to the pent-up life of its domestic relations. Thus it enjoyed the greatest freedom; it went and came, passing nearly all its time in the woods, only returning to the house in the evening. At length it ceased to come back, and from that moment dispensed with visiting its birth-place. Some time after, Audubon, whilst hunting, perceived a superb Wild Turkey, upon which he set his dog; but, to his great surprise, the bird did not fly, and the dog, instead of seizing it when it was overtaken, stopped and turned his head towards his master: greater still was the hunter's surprise when, having approached, he discovered his ancient pensioner. This Turkey had recognised the dog, and understood that it would do him no harm, otherwise it would have scampered off immediately. [Illustration: Fig. 177.--Wild Turkey.] Turkeys feed upon herbs, grasses, fruits, and berries of every description; they are partial to beech and other nuts; and their liking for wheat and maize is such that they frequent the neighbourhood of cultivated fields, where they make the greatest ravages. They also occasionally feed upon insects, frogs, and lizards. The large destructive grub familiarly known as the Tobacco Worm they are particularly partial to, and are consequently much encouraged by the tobacco planters. In a domestic state they are even known to have killed and eaten rats. One curious peculiarity in the history of the Turkey is its horror of red; the sight of a scarlet object throws it into the most comical fury. It is needless for us to vaunt the flesh of the Domestic Turkey; every one is agreed on this subject. We will only say that, from the testimony of many travellers and naturalists, the flesh of a Wild Turkey, killed in winter or spring, before laying, is far superior to that of the Domestic bird, those coming from Southern Indiana and Illinois being considered by Americans as the finest. The Turkey, being indigenous to America, was naturally unknown to the ancients. The precise date of its introduction into France is not recorded. According to some, it was at the end of the fifteenth century; to others, only at the commencement of the sixteenth. Anderson affirms that the first Turkeys raised and eaten in France were served at the marriage of Charles IX., in 1570. The Honduras or Ocellated Turkey (_Meleagris ocellata_, Cuvier) is one of the most beautiful Gallinaceans; its plumage is magnificent; the tail is enamelled with large blue eyes, each of which is surrounded with a circle of brilliant yellow and purple. It inhabits the country surrounding the Bay of Honduras, Southern Mexico, and all Central America. At the Regent's Park Gardens, London, is to be seen a splendid hybrid, bred between the American Wild Turkey and the Honduras species. The tribe of PEACOCKS comprehends the genera _Pavo cristatus_, Hist. Anim.; _Pavo javanicus_, Horsfield; and Lophophores. The feature which essentially distinguishes Peacocks from other Gallinaceans is the immense tail with which nature has endowed them. This tail, formed of long, large, and tufted feathers, coloured with the richest shades, is capable of being raised up like that of a Turkey. When one contemplates this magnificent appendage, in which purple and gold vie with the most varying colours of the emerald, and notices the innumerable and brilliant eyes with which it is studded--when with delight he views its lofty stature, elegant shape, noble carriage, and, above all, a slight and mobile tuft, the emblem of royalty, crowning its head--one cannot help being struck with lively admiration, and spontaneously according the palm of beauty to the privileged being which unites in itself so many marvels. The Peacock was known from the earliest time; for it is mentioned in the Bible as one of the most precious products brought from Asia by King Solomon's ships. It made its first appearance in Greece after Alexander's expedition into India. Alexander, it is said, was so astonished at the sight of this bird that he forbade it to be killed under the severest penalties. For a long time they were very rare, and fetched a high price at Athens, and the people from the neighbouring towns assembled in crowds to see them. From the Greeks they passed to the Romans; but this nation, more fond of the pleasures of the table than of spectacles, soon made them figure in their feasts. Peacocks consequently were rapidly propagated in the poultry-yards of the rich patricians; and some of the emperors, such as Vitellius and Heliogabalus, caused dishes of the heads or brains of Peacocks to be served: from this cause their price became excessive in Rome. Little by little they spread throughout the empire, and thus the Peacock has become naturalised in Europe. During several centuries its exquisite and delicate flesh was in very great favour; but the importation of the Pheasant, and later that of the Turkey, brought successful rivals for table honours. The Peacock is now bred principally to please the eye; and even when it does make its appearance at some ceremonious repast, it is intended more to gratify the eye than the palate, for the carcass is invariably decorated with the resplendent tail, spread out in fan-shape. The Domestic Peacock, which is now the pride of our gardens and parks, is indigenous to India and the isles of the Eastern Archipelago. There they still live in large troops in the depths of the forests. They are so abundant in localities, that it is said the traveller, Colonel Williamson, being delayed one day in the district of Jungleterry, counted not less than from twelve to fifteen hundred. The Peacock runs with such rapidity that it often escapes from pursuing dogs; it takes to the wing with difficulty, and flies slowly, though it can prolong its flight to a considerable distance. It feeds upon grain of all kinds, which it swallows without crushing. In the evening, to roost for the night, it perches upon the limbs of the highest trees. In a state of domesticity it retains this fancy for elevated places, and takes pleasure in mounting on the roofs of houses, upon which it struts and excites itself, scattering tiles, or tearing up the thatch, as the case may be; for the devastating instinct appears to be very strongly developed in it when opportunity offers. This bird also commits great ravages in cultivated fields. The Peacock at times utters deafening cries, which contrast unpleasantly with its dazzling plumage--one wishes for a more harmonious voice with such a magnificent body; but what animal possesses all perfections? It is polygamous. At the commencement of the spring the male displays to the females all the splendour of his plumage; he struts, spreads his tail, delights at the sight of his own figure, and receives with pleasure the admiration which his charms draw forth. His vanity knows no bounds; the adulation of his females is not sufficient for him, he must have eulogiums from man also, and before him rejoices to display all the riches of his wonderful tail. Complete master in the art of pleasing, he knows how to manage the transitions of light and shade so as to present himself to the greatest advantage; and when he has been gazed at sufficiently, by reiterated struts he marks his contentment. At the end of August his beautiful plumage falls off, not to come forth again till the spring. It is said that the Peacock is so ashamed of having lost that which was his pride, that he then shuns the sight of man. This is better explained by the fact that the time of moulting is for this, as for all other birds, a period of sickness; they consequently retire into solitude, to find there the calm and tranquillity which their critical state demands. The Wild Peahen lays from twenty to thirty eggs in a hole hollowed out in the ground. She is much less fruitful in the Domestic state. She takes the greatest care to hide her nest from the searching eye of the male, which breaks the eggs whenever he finds them. Incubation lasts from twenty-seven to thirty days. The young follow their mother from their birth; at six months they are reputed adult, and attain their full development at three years. The Peahen, like the hen Pheasant and the Common Hen, adopts the plumage of the male when age has rendered her unfruitful, or when, by a premature atrophy, her eggs have become sterile. The Peacock lives from twenty-five to thirty years; some authors have wrongly attributed to them the longevity of a century. [Illustration: Fig. 178.--Domestic Peacock (_Pavo cristatus_, Wood).] The POLYPLECTRONS (_Diplectron_, Vieillot) owe their name to the superabundance of spurs with which they are armed; the males always possess two, sometimes three. The plumage of these birds, like that of Peacocks, is sprinkled with glittering ocellations; but their tails are shorter, and not susceptible of expansion. There are three or four varieties known, which inhabit India, China, and the isles of Sumatra and Borneo. Their manners have not yet been studied. IMPEYAN PHEASANTS are little better known than the Polyplectrons. They prefer cold climates, which sufficiently accounts for their predilection for the elevated ridges of the Himalayas. No one has as yet succeeded in acclimating them in Europe. This is one of the most brilliant Gallinaceans; its plumage, bedizened with the most lively colours, has gained for it in India a very significant name--that of the "Golden Bird." Under the name of _Alectors_ (from the Greek +alektôr+), Cuvier has united a certain number of American birds bearing some resemblance to the Cock, and has divided them into several varieties: the Hoccos, Pauxis, Penelopes, Parraquas, and Hoazins. [Illustration: Fig. 179.--Impeyan Pheasants (_Lophophorus Impeyanus_, Gould).] [Illustration: Fig. 180.--Curassow, or Hocco (_Crax alector_, Linn.).] HOCCOS are analogous in form and size to Turkeys, of which they are the representatives in their habitat, Central America, Guiana, and Brazil. Deprived of spurs, they have a large tuft upon the head, formed of distorted and erectile feathers. They live in numerous troops in the midst of forests, and feed upon seeds, berries, and buds. Naturally very gentle, they readily yield to captivity, when they become familiar, and evince pleasure in the caresses of their masters. Sonnini relates that he has seen them wander at liberty through the streets of Cayenne, return to their homes without hesitation, and leap upon the tables to take their food. Their flesh is exquisite, and in all respects worthy of the favour of epicures. These different qualities should cause an honourable place to be assigned to Hoccos in our poultry-yards; it is, therefore, to be regretted that the attempt to acclimate these birds made by the Empress Josephine, at the commencement of this century, have not been renewed. GALEATED CURASSOWS, or PAUXIS (_Ourax pauxi_, Cuv.), differ but little physically from the Hoccos. They have the same habits and characteristics, and easily habituate themselves to servitude. GUANS or PENELOPES (_Penelope cristata_, Gmelin), and PARRAQUAS (Latham), are two genera of birds strongly resembling each other; they have an analogy to Pheasants, but only on account of their general forms; in short, they possess the confiding and peaceable nature of Hoccos and Pauxis, and easily submit to the domination of man. Their flesh is delicious; they also deserve to be acclimated. The HOAZINS (_Opisthocomus cristatus_, Quoy and Gaimard) inhabit the savannahs of Guyana. Their flesh, which exhales a strong odour--due, no doubt, to the vegetables on which they feed exclusively--is far from being agreeable. COLUMBIDÆ. The _Columbidæ_ family establish a transition between real Gallinaceans and Passerines; in short, they partake of the nature of both. Whilst they approach the former in their anatomical and purely material characteristics, such as the structure of their beaks, sternum, and crops, they resemble the latter in their elegant forms, peaceable manners, and in all their habits. Like the Passerines, they are monogamists. The male and female build their nests together, and share the cares of the incubation and education of their young; these, when born, are blind, and only covered with a slight down, and are quite unable to run like young Gallinaceans. There are generally two Pigeons hatched at the same time; and it is a very curious fact that there is almost always a male and a female. They do not quit the nest till they have acquired sufficient strength to use their wings and fly. During the earliest portion of their existence they receive no other nourishment from their parents than a sort of pap secreted in the walls of the gullet; but at the end of some days the father or mother discharges into their beaks the food which they themselves take. When they are sufficiently developed, they travel with the adults in large flocks to seek a milder climate or better feeding ground: their migrations in the natural state occur in spring and autumn. What distinguishes them from the true Gallinaceans is that they have a thumb inserted even with the other toes, and that consequently they are able to perch; almost all Pigeons pass much of their lives on trees. Their food consists principally of seeds, berries, and fruits, sometimes insects, and a peculiar little snail similar to that found in the Isle of France. Their flesh, generally good, in some species, such as the Crowned Goura, acquires an exquisite flavour. Thus they form an immense part in public alimentation, both in a domestic and wild state. They are shot very extensively at the time of their migration. Although their flight is noisy, and even presents some appearance of heaviness, it is easy and sustained, so that Pigeons have been known to accomplish journeys of surprising length in a few hours. We will divide the Pigeons into three families--the _Colombi-Gallines_, the _Colombes_, or, properly speaking, Pigeons, and the _Colombars_. COLOMBI-GALLINES. A certain number of birds rank in this family, which, with the general forms of Pigeons, still preserve the habits of Gallinaceans; hence the mixed name of _Colombi-Gallines_. Thus they constantly live on the earth, build their nests there, and only take refuge upon trees to pass the night or escape from danger. They run perfectly, but fly badly, and are sedentary; lastly, some species have cephalic nudities and fleshy appendages, or long, movable feathers round the neck like the male of the Domestic Fowl. Physically they are characterised by a slight and straight beak, and by rather high tarsi. This family comprises a very large number of species spread throughout Central and South America, the isles of the Indian Ocean, and a great part of Africa. The compass of this work will not permit us to examine all: we will merely mention the most remarkable, the Great Crowned Pigeon (_Columba coronata_, Latham), very common in New Guinea and the Moluccas. The plumage of this bird is of a beautiful greyish blue; its head is ornamented with a pretty plume of straight, long, and tapering feathers; it is about the size of a Domestic Fowl, and very highly esteemed for the qualities of its flesh; consequently the inhabitants of the above islands raise it in their poultry-yards (Fig. 181). [Illustration: Fig. 181.--Crowned Goura (_Phasianus cristatus indicus_, Latham).] COLOMBES. Colombes have slender beaks, long wings, and short tarsi. The principal species are the Wood Pigeons, Common Domestic Pigeons, Carriers, Turtle Doves, and Passenger Pigeons: the first three are indigenous to Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 182.--The Wood or Ring Pigeon (_Columba OEnas_, Selby).] The WOOD PIGEONS (_Columba OEnas_, Selby), Fig. 182, are the largest species of this family; their plumage is slaty grey, with bluish, green, and rose-coloured reflections. They are spread throughout all Europe, but chiefly in warm and temperate parts. They are very common in France, where they arrive in numerous flocks early in March, generally departing in October or November to pass the winter in more hospitable climates. At the time of their passage the Alpine and Pyrenean hunters destroy them in large quantities. The Wood Pigeons or Cushats inhabit forests, and delight among the branches of large trees. They feed upon acorns and beech-nuts, and are very partial to cherries and strawberries. With the farmers this bird is far from a favourite, for its appetite is insatiable, and it is alike destructive to grain in the ear or germinating. They build their nests in lofty trees. The female, after having chosen a place, forms the nest out of materials which the male brings her, such as little dead branches which it detaches from trees by the aid of its feet or beak; it never picks up the boughs which strew the ground. This nest is but a rude shelter, scarcely large enough to contain the young, and sometimes falls to pieces before they are able to fly; in this case the brood retains, if possible, a position on the large branches which supported their previous dwelling. Queests, as they are frequently called, generally lay in March and August. Incubation lasts twelve days, and the young can take flight about two weeks afterwards. During all the time of the incubation and education of the young the male remains near the female, constantly cooing, as if to break the monotony of her occupation. In the wild state Ring Pigeons are distrustful and difficult of approach, but their characters become modified by domestication, or even by an independent life passed in the neighbourhood of man. Thus young ones taken from their birth familiarise themselves without difficulty, and do not appear to regret having lost their liberty. They do not breed in this condition--or at least we do not know how to make them do so; it is said that the ancients understood this art. Ring Pigeons are seen in Paris which have from time immemorial chosen a domicile in the gardens of the Tuileries, at the Luxembourg, and in the Champs Elysées. They are very tame, and come almost under the feet of promenaders. Few inhabitants of Paris have not seen at the Tuileries the charming spectacle of an old man who attracts round him numbers of Wood Pigeons and Sparrows, to which he distributes crumbs of bread. The confidence they show to this kind friend as an acknowledgment of his goodness is wonderful; they rest upon his shoulders, take the bread from between his fingers, and even from his mouth, and allow themselves to be caressed without manifesting the least fright: this is evidence of the possibility of taming Ring Pigeons. Wood Pigeons (_Columba OEnas_) have many traits of resemblance to Ring Pigeons, but they are smaller, justifying the name of Little Queest which is sometimes given to them; their habits are the same as those of the preceding species, except that they build their nests in the hollows of trees, instead of upon the branches, as the former species do. They are very plentiful in the South of Europe and in Africa. They leave France regularly in the month of October. WILD ROCK PIGEONS (_Columba livia_, Selby) delight in rocky and arid places. They depose their two eggs in the clefts of rocks and ruins. They are seldom seen in Europe in a state of complete liberty, except upon some parts of the coasts of England and Norway and certain isles of the Mediterranean. They willingly sacrifice their independence to live in pigeon-houses. They are generally regarded as the founders of the numerous races of our Domestic Pigeons. DOMESTIC PIGEONS probably sprang from the Wild Rock Pigeons. They are of two kinds--the Colombier Pigeons and the Aviary Pigeons. The former enjoy almost complete liberty; they traverse the country all day to seek for food, and sometimes even return to a wild state. The latter are quite tame, and the door of their habitation can be left open without danger; they go a little distance, and always return to their domicile. If Domestic Pigeons cause some harm to our crops, they amply compensate for these devastations by the services which they render to agriculture. They are equally valuable to the breeder and consumer; the former derive a certain profit from them, and the latter an agreeable and economical article of food. To give a sufficient idea of the resources which they supply to public alimentation, we have only to state that certain species lay as many as ten eggs a year. Further, they supply a manure which is very efficacious for some soils. Raising Pigeons necessitates certain precautions which cannot be neglected without bad results: the greatest cleanliness is necessary in the pigeon-house or aviary; all turbulent individuals which sow discord, and often injure the fecundity of females, must be excluded; and the races must be separated as much as possible the one from the other, in order to avoid the production of sterile varieties. Amongst the Domestic species the naturalist can study at leisure the manners of Pigeons, and form an exact idea of their natures and inclinations; for he can observe them from their first steps, making their early timid endeavours to raise themselves in the air; afterwards noting at more mature age the evolutions of the sexes, and their fidelity to each other through years after pairing. We will examine rapidly the principal races of Domestic Pigeons. The first is, as we have said, the Common House Pigeon, differing slightly from the Wild, which almost exclusively supports the population of Pigeon-breeders; this is sometimes called the Fugitive Pigeon. The Blue Rock is only a modification of the Wild Rock Pigeon; in form it is, however, more elegant, while the plumage is prettier. It is one of the most fruitful species. The Pouter Pigeon owes its name to the faculty which it possesses of inflating its crop to an immense size by the introduction of air. This peculiarity often destroys them; indeed, when feeding their young, they find so much difficulty in causing the seeds which they have swallowed to reascend into their beaks, that they contract a malady which is frequently fatal. The Roman Pigeons, thus named because they are very common in Italy, are easily recognised from the circle of red which surrounds their eyes. The Swift Pigeon is of small size, its flight is light and rapid, and its fecundity very great. The Carrier Pigeons belong to this race. They are celebrated for their attachment to their birth-place, or to the spot that contains their offspring, and for the intelligence which enables them to regain their native countries from whatever distance. Transport them miles from their homes, even in a well-closed basket, then give them their liberty, and after a time they will return, without the slightest hesitation, to the place from which they were taken. This valuable faculty has long been utilised, especially in the East. The Romans made use of Pigeons as messengers. Pliny says that this means was employed by Brutus and Hirtius to concert together during the siege of a town by Marc Antony. At the siege of Leyden, in 1574, the Prince of Orange employed Carrier Pigeons to carry on a correspondence with the besieged town, which he succeeded in freeing. The Prince, to mark his acknowledgment of the services rendered by these sagacious birds, wished them to be fed with strawberries, and their bodies to be embalmed after death. We learn from Pierre Belon, the naturalist, that in his time navigators from Egypt and Cyprus took Pigeons upon their galleys, and liberated them when they had arrived at the port of destination, in order to announce to their families their safe journey. In our century they have been made use of for similar purposes. The fluctuations of the Bourse were for a long time sent from Paris to Brussels by means of Carrier Pigeons. The Tumbler Pigeon owes its name to its curious manner of flying. It has a habit, after it has risen to a certain height, of throwing five or six somersaults. The Wheeling Pigeon describes circles like birds of prey. It is turbulent, and ought to be banished from pigeon-houses. The Nun Pigeon is recognised by a kind of hood formed of raised feathers, which covers the back of the head and neck, and to which it owes its name. It flies heavily, but is very familiar and very prolific. The Fan-tailed Pigeon is remarkable for its tail, which is very large, and raised like that of the Peacock, and for the convulsive trembling which agitates it, especially at breeding-time. It thrives badly in an aviary, and is little valued, except as an object of curiosity. There are two species of Doves--the Turtle Dove (_Turtur communis_, Linn.) and the Ring Dove (_Turtur risorius_, Selby). The former is the smallest species of the family of Colombidæ. They are found throughout Europe, but are more abundant in the south than the north. They arrive in France in spring, and depart for warmer countries at the end of summer. They build their nests in large trees in the shady and most retired parts of woods. They feed on seeds and berries. After harvest they visit stubbles of wheat or other grain; the abundant nourishment which they there find makes their flesh extremely delicate and nutritious. Although naturally wild, the Turtle Dove is easily tamed when taken young, when it evinces great attachment. The RING DOVE is indigenous to Africa, where it lives in a state of freedom. This is the species which, in Europe, is raised in cages and aviaries. In certain towns of Egypt, particularly Alexandria and Cairo, they are so tame that they walk in the streets, and even enter houses, fearless of the presence of occupants. They are prolific, for they lay every month, except during the moulting season. Their cooing somewhat resembles a laugh--hence the name of Laughing Dove which has been given them. The ancients made the Turtle Dove an emblem of tenderness. This honour is justified by the kind attention which the male shows the female, especially during the period of incubation. The PASSENGER PIGEON (Fig. 183) is the _Columba migratoria_ of many authors: it inhabits North America. They are remarkable for the strength and rapidity of their flight, and for the migrations which they accomplish. The American naturalist, Audubon, says, "Pigeons have been killed in the neighbourhood of New York, having their crops still full of rice, which they could not have taken nearer than the fields of Georgia and Carolina--six or seven hundred miles distant. As their digestion is sufficiently rapid to entirely decompose grain in the space of twelve hours, it follows that they must have travelled the above space at the rate of a mile a minute. One of these birds, if able to keep up this velocity, could visit the European continent in less than three days." [Illustration: Fig. 183.--Passenger Pigeons (_Ectopistes migratoria_, Sw.).] It is not for the purpose of seeking a warmer climate that they undertake their journeys, but to procure food when the acorns become scarce in the woods which they inhabit. Their migrations, consequently, are irregular as to date. Looking at the innumerable and closely-packed masses of Passenger Pigeons which take part in these voyages confuses the mind. Audubon one day endeavoured to count the flocks which passed above him in one hour. He counted a hundred and sixty-three in twenty minutes, but he was soon obliged to give up, the flights succeeded each other so rapidly. He says: "The more I advanced, the more Pigeons I met. The air was literally filled with them. The daylight, in full mid-day, was obscured as by an eclipse; the dung fell like flakes in a fall of snow; the buzzing of their wings stunned me, and gave me a sleepy sensation." These Pigeons are endowed with very strong sight. When flying at a considerable height they can perfectly distinguish the places which will furnish them with the means of subsistence. Having found a suitable country, they alight upon an immense space of ground, and in a few minutes completely ravage it. Large quantities of them can then be destroyed without any apparent diminution in their number. Some hours after their descent they again take to flight, and regain their nocturnal domicile, frequently twenty or thirty miles distant, where a frightful slaughter is often made amongst them. Long before the sun sets the inhabitants of surrounding counties await them with horses, carts, guns, and ammunition. Some even bring flocks of pigs, to fatten on the flesh of the Pigeons which the destroyers are unable to carry away. Audubon, who assisted at one of these slaughters, has related it as follows. He says:--"Every one holds himself in readiness, with eyes directed towards the heavens. Suddenly a general cry of 'They come!' resounds. The noise which they made, although at a distance, reminded me of a strong sea-breeze amongst the cordage of a ship, the sails of which are furled. When they passed above my head I felt a current of air which astonished me. Thousands were already struck down by men armed with poles, but they continued to arrive without intermission. Fires were lit, and it was then a fantastic sight full of frightful magnificence. The birds precipitated themselves in masses, and pitched where they could, one upon the other, in large heaps like barrels. Then the branches gave way under the weight, cracked and fell, bringing to the ground and crushing the closely-packed flocks which covered every part of the trees. It was a lamentable scene of tumult and confusion. In vain I tried to speak, or even to call the persons nearest to me. It was with difficulty that I could hear the guns fire, and I only perceived they had fired by seeing them reload their arms. Pigeons continued to come, and it was past midnight before I noticed any diminution in the number of the arrivals. The uproar continued all night. At last the day approached, the noise began to abate a little, and, long before we could distinguish objects, the Pigeons commenced to start in quite an opposite direction to that in which they had come in the evening. At sunrise all that were capable of flying had disappeared. Now it was the Wolves' turn, the howls of which saluted our ears. Foxes, Lynxes, Cougars, Bears, Rats, Opossums, and Martins, bounding, running, climbing, pressed to the quarry, whilst Eagles and Falcons of different species flew down from the air to take their part of such rich booty. The sportsmen then, in their turn, entered into the midst of the dead, the dying, and the wounded. The Pigeons were piled in heaps, each took what he wished, and the Pigs were left to satiate themselves on the remainder." These massacres are in nowise injurious to the existence of this species. In short, according to Audubon, the number of these Pigeons becomes doubled or quadrupled in a single year. COLOMBARS. This family, established by Levaillant, comprises some species which belong entirely to the hot countries of Asia and Africa. These birds are characterised by thick, strong, bent beaks, which enable them to break the envelopes of the fruits which serve them for food. They fly less rapidly than birds of the Dove family, and coo in a different manner. They inhabit woods, and build in holes in trees. Their flesh is good. The principal species are found in Abyssinia, Senegal, and the Indian Archipelago. CHAPTER VI. SCANSORES, OR CLIMBERS. People will be strangely mistaken if they imagine that all the birds which rank in this order possess the faculty of climbing. In reality it is only the privilege of some, and does not belong exclusively even to them, for it is found in some of the Passerines. The essential characteristic of the Climbers lies in this organic disposition--that the external toe, instead of being placed in front like that in other birds, is placed behind, by the side of the thumb. For this reason the denomination of Climbers has been substituted by that of _Zygodactyles_, which is used by Temminck, Vieillot, and others, and which has the advantage of perfectly expressing the distinctive characteristic of the order, for this word signifies _fingers disposed in pairs_. Thanks to the formation of their feet, the Climbers can clasp the branches of trees strongly; thus they are almost continually perched. Their flight is medium, being neither so powerful as that of the Raptores nor so light as that of the Passerines. These birds feed upon fruits or insects, according to the strength of their beaks. They chiefly inhabit warm countries, and their colours are generally brilliant. Lastly, they are all monogamists, with the exception of the Cuckoo. This order is one of the least numerous of the class of birds. It comprehends but few families, amongst which we will mention the Parrots, Toucans, Cuckoos, Woodpeckers, and Jacamars. PARROTS. Parrots have large, strong, and round beaks; the upper mandible strongly hooked and sharp at the extremity, extending beyond the lower, which is rather deeply hollowed. The tongue, which is thick, fleshy, and movable, is terminated by a cluster of sinewy papillæ, or by a cartilaginous gland. The tarsi are very short, and the feet perfected to such a degree that they really become hands, able to seize, hold, and retain small objects. Their toes are supplied with strong and hooked claws, which make these birds pre-eminently Climbers. With the exception of one single species--the Loriets (_Platycercina Vigorsia_, Sw.)--which have rather long tarsi and straight claws, enabling them to run with some rapidity, the Parrots, on the contrary, walk with difficulty. They drag along the ground with such trouble that they rarely descend to it, and only under pressing circumstances. Besides, they find all the necessaries of their existence on trees. They are not more favoured with regard to their flight, and we can understand that it should be so; for, living in thick woods, they only require to effect trifling changes of place, such as from one tree to another. However, some species, especially the smaller, are capable of a more prolonged and effective use of their wings. According to Levaillant, some even emigrate, and travel hundreds of miles every year; but this is an exception. In general, Parrots are sedentary, and willingly remain in localities without a desire to leave. Sociable in their dispositions, they assemble in more or less numerous bands, and make the forests re-echo with their loud cries. To some species it is such an imperative necessity to be near each other and live in common, that they have received from naturalists the name of Inseparables. At breeding-time each couple isolate themselves for the purpose of reproduction. The male and female evince the greatest attachment to each other. The females deposit their eggs in the hollows of trees and in the crevices of rocks. The young birds are quite naked when hatched; it is not till the end of three months that they are completely covered with feathers. The parent birds wait upon them with the greatest solicitude, and become threatening when approached too closely by intruders. Essentially frugivorous, Parrots prefer the fruits of the palm, banana, and guava trees. They may be seen perched upon one foot, using the other to bear the food to their beaks, and retain it there till eaten. After they have extracted the kernel they free it from its envelope and swallow it in particles. They often visit plantations and cause great devastation. In a domestic state they are omnivorous. Besides seeds and grain, they eat bread, and even raw or cooked meat, and it is with manifest pleasure that they receive bones to pick; they are also very partial to sugar. It is well known that bitter almonds and parsley act upon them as violent poisons. They drink and bathe very frequently; in summer they evince the greatest desire to plunge into water. Captive Parrots will habituate themselves, if permitted, to the use of wine; it produces the same effect on them as on the human family, viz., excites their loquacity and gaiety. They climb in a peculiar manner, which has nothing of the abruptness displayed by other birds of the same order. They accomplish their slow and irregular movements by the help of the beak and feet, which lend a reciprocal support. Like almost all birds of tropical regions, Parrots are adorned with most beautiful colours, green predominating; then comes red, and finally blue and yellow. They have often largely-developed tails. Notwithstanding their prattling, Parrots are the favourites of men, from their remarkable talent of imitation. They retain and repeat with great facility words which they have learned or heard by chance, and also sometimes imitate, with startling resemblance, the cries of animals, the sounds of different musical instruments, &c. By the words that they utter in an unexpected manner, Parrots contribute to our amusement and diversion, and quite become companions. Is it, then, to be wondered at that these birds have been eagerly sought since their introduction into Europe? Alexander the Great brought into Greece a Parrot which he had found in India. These birds became so common in Rome at the time of the emperors, that they figured in their sumptuous repasts. They are now spread throughout Europe in a domestic state. The species most remarkable for their mimic babbling faculties are the Grey Parrot, or Jaco, a native of Africa, and the Green Parrot, from the West Indies and Tropical America. In the sixteenth century a cardinal paid a hundred crowns for a Parrot because it recited the Apostles' Creed correctly. Monsieur de la Borde relates that he has seen a Parrot supply the place of chaplain to a ship, for he recited the prayer and rosary to the sailors. Levaillant heard a Parrot say the Lord's Prayer lying on its back, placing together the toes of its feet as we join our hands in the act of prayer. Willoughby mentions a Parrot which, when he said to him, "Laugh, Parrot!" immediately burst out laughing, and cried out an instant after, "O the great fool who made me laugh!" A keeper of a glass shop possessed one which, whenever he broke anything or knocked over a vase, invariably exclaimed, in tones of anger, "Awkward brute! he never does anything else." "We have seen a Parrot," says Buffon, "which had grown old with his master, and partaken with him the infirmities of age. Accustomed to hear little more than the words, 'I am ill,' when asked, 'How are you, Parrot--how are you?' 'I am ill,' it replied in doleful tones, 'I am ill,' and stretching itself on the hearth--'I am ill.'" "A Parrot from Guinea," says the same author, "being taught on the journey by an old sailor, learnt his rough voice and his cough so perfectly that they could be mistaken. Although it had been given immediately after to a young person, and only heard his voice, it did not forget the lessons of its former master, and nothing was so agreeable as to hear it pass from a sweet and pleasant voice to its old hoarseness and the cough of early times." Goldsmith relates that a Parrot belonging to King Henry VIII., and always confined in a chamber bordering upon the Thames, had learnt several phrases which it heard repeated by the boatmen and passengers. One day it was let fall into the Thames, when it cried with a strong voice, "A boat! a boat! twenty pounds to save me!" A waterman immediately threw himself into the river, thinking that some one was drowning, and was much surprised to find it was only a bird. Having recognised the king's Parrot, he carried it to the palace, claiming the recompense the bird had promised when in distress. The circumstance was related to Henry VIII., who laughed much, and paid it with a good grace. The Prince Léon, son of the Emperor Basil, having been condemned to death by his father, owed his life to his Parrot, which, in repeating the lamentable accents several times, "Alas! my master Léon!" ended by touching the heart of this barbarous father. M. Lemaout says:--"In a town of Normandy a butcher's wife beat her child unmercifully every day. The infant sank under the ill-treatment. The justice of man made no remonstrance, but a Grey Parrot which lived in the house of a rope-maker, opposite to that of the butcher, took upon itself the chastisement of this unnatural mother. It continually repeated the cries which the poor child uttered when he saw his mother rush at him with the rod in her hand--'What for? what for?' This phrase was uttered by the bird with such doleful and supplicating accents, that the indignant passers-by entered unexpectedly into the shop, and reproached the rope-maker with his barbarity. He justified himself by showing his Parrot, and relating the history of his neighbour's child. After some months the woman, pursued by the accusing phrase and the murmurs of public opinion, was obliged to sell her business and leave the village." The Marquis of Langle, in his "Travels in Spain," writes thus:--"I saw at Madrid, at the English Consul's, a Parrot which has retained a quantity of things--an incredible number of stories and anecdotes--which it retails and articulates without hesitation. It spoke Spanish, murdered French, knew some verses of Racine, could say grace, repeat the fable of the Crow, and count thirty louis. They dared scarcely hang its cage at the windows; for when it was there, and the weather was fine, the Parrot talked ceaselessly. It said everything it knew, apostrophised all passers-by (except women), and talked politics. In pronouncing the word Gibraltar it burst out laughing. One would think it was a man who laughed." An English gentleman bought a Grey Parrot in Bristol, the intelligence of which was quite extraordinary. It asked for everything it wanted, and gave orders: it sang several songs, and whistled some airs very well, beating the measure. When it made a false note it recommenced, and never committed the mistake again. We have often, when passing through the Rue Four-des-Flammes, at Montpellier, heard a Parrot which sung and articulated most distinctly the two verses of this song:-- "Quand je bois du vin clairet, Tout tourne, tout tourne au cabaret." Parrots imitate not only the words, but even the gestures of those with whom they come in contact. Scaliger knew one which repeated the songs of some young Savoyards, and imitated their dances. [Illustration: Fig. 184.--The Ara Macaw (_Macrocercus_ (Sw.) _ararauna_, from Brazilian name).] These birds are more or less susceptible of education. Some, naturally peaceable, are easily tamed; others, more refractory, submit to captivity unwillingly. In general, when they are taken young they attach themselves strongly to those who have care of them. Parrots have a mania for using their beaks upon everything that comes in their way. When encaged against their will they utter loud cries, and sometimes turn their fury upon the bars of their prison. They have been known to pluck and even tear themselves in these paroxysms. Supplying them with a plaything is the only means of keeping them quiet under such circumstances. These Climbers are endowed with remarkable longevity. The "Memorandums of the Academy of Sciences of Paris" mention a Parrot that lived in the family of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, in Florence, more than a hundred and ten years. Vieillot speaks of having seen one near Bordeaux which was eighty-four years of age. The average length of their life cannot, however, be exactly ascertained. [Illustration: Fig. 185.--Ringed Parrakeet (_Palæornis torquatus_, Vig.).] Parrots rarely breed in Europe; it is true they often lay, but the eggs are sterile. A few instances have been known in France where, under favourable circumstances, they have perpetuated their species. Generally all that we see in our temperate regions are brought from countries where the majority have been taken from the nest. Different means are employed to capture the adults, all of which have for their aim to stun them for an instant, in order to paralyse their movements. The family of Parrots comprises four principal groups--the Macaws, Parrakeets, Parrots properly speaking, and Cockatoos. [Illustration: Fig. 186.--Love-birds (_Psittacula taranta_, Gould).] The MACAWS (Fig. 184), the largest of the Parrots, are recognisable from their bare cheeks and long tapering tails. They inhabit South America, and are arrayed in the most brilliant colours. The principal species are the Red, the Blue, the Green, and the Black Macaws. The name Arara, by which they are known in their habitat (Brazil), describes the deafening cries which they utter. Very familiar, they tame easily, and do not abuse the liberty granted them, for they never move far from their dwelling-place, and always return to it. They like the caresses and attentions of people they know, but do not care for strangers. The Green Ara is remarkable for its aversion to children. This peculiarity doubtless arises from the fact that it is very jealous, and that it often sees children receive the caresses of its mistress. The Macaws have only the gift of imitation in a slight degree; they are scarcely able to retain any words, and articulate badly. PARRAKEETS, much smaller than Macaws, have, like them, long and tapering tails, but their cheeks are wholly or partially feathered. Some species, which resemble the preceding group by being more or less destitute of plumage round the eyes, for this reason have received the name of Macaw-Parrakeets. Parrakeets are highly esteemed for their vivacity, gentleness, and the facility with which they learn to talk. Their plumage is generally of a uniform green; sometimes it is varied with red or blue. They inhabit South America, the islands of Oceania, the Indies, Africa, and Senegal. [Illustration: Fig. 187.--Grey Parrots (_Psittacus erythacus_, Sw.).] The TABUAN or KING'S PARROT (_Platycercus scapulatus_, Vig.), which inhabits Australia, belongs to this group. These birds form a curious exception in the order of Climbers by their terrestrial habits. According to M. J. Verreaux, they never perch when pursued, but take refuge on the ground among the herbage. [Illustration: Fig. 188.--Green Parrot (_Psittacus amazonicus_, Briss.).] PARROTS, properly speaking, are distinguished from other groups of the same family by their short square tails. They have feathered cheeks like Parakeets, and their size is intermediate between them and the Aras. They are much appreciated on account of their memory, and also for their habit of repeating what they hear. Parrots are divided into several species, founded upon the size and the predominating colour of the plumage. The first of these is generally grey, and consists only of the Grey Parrot, or Jaco, indigenous to the West Coast of Africa, to which the chief part of the anecdotes recounted in the preceding pages relate. Next comes a species the plumage of which is green; the most remarkable of these is the Amazonian Parrot. The principal colour of the Lories is red; they inhabit the Moluccas and New Guinea. Love-birds (Fig. 186) are the smallest of this group; their plumage varies in shades according to the climates. They are met with in America, Southern Africa, and in the islands of Oceania. COCKATOOS have tails of medium length, cheeks feathered, and head surmounted by a white, yellow, or pink tuft, which they can raise and lower at will. They are the largest among the race of Parrots of the Old Continent. They inhabit the Indies and the isles of Oceania, and are pretty, graceful, docile, and caressing, but are indifferent talkers. One very remarkable species of this group is the _Microglosse_ (little tongue), called by Levaillant the "Macaw with the trumpet," from the formation of its tongue, which is cylindrical, and terminated by a little gland slightly hollowed at the extremity. When this bird has reduced into fragments, by the help of its jaws, the kernels of the fruits which form its nourishment, it seizes the pieces by means of the hollow which terminates the tongue, and having tried the flavour, projects the trumpet in front, and makes it pass to the palate, which has the function of causing it to fall into the throat. This curious mechanism was disclosed by Levaillant. [Illustration: Fig. 189.--Sulphur Cockatoos (_Cacatua suiphurea_, Wood).] TOUCANS. The characteristic of the birds which compose the family of Toucans is their enormous beak. This is much longer than the head, is curved at its extremity, dentated at its edges, and possesses a projecting bone at the middle of the upper mandible. It is not so heavy to bear, and incommodes the movements of the birds less than might be supposed, for it is formed of a spongy tissue, the numerous cells of which are filled with air. Thus it is very weak, and does not serve to break, or even to bruise, fruits, notwithstanding the idea one forms at first sight of its strength, for it is not even capable of breaking off the bark of trees, as certain authors have urged. This wonderful bill encloses a still more strange tongue; very straight, and as long as the beak, which is covered on each side with closely-packed barbs, similar to a feather, the use of which remains a complete mystery to us. This curious instrument so struck the naturalists of Brazil, where many Toucans are found, that it furnished these birds with a name. In Brazilian _Toucan_ means "feather." [Illustration: Fig. 190.--Toucan (_Ramphastos toco_, native name).] Toucans feed on fruits and insects; they live in bands of from six to ten, in damp places where the palm tree flourishes, for its fruit is their favourite food. In eating they seize the fruit with the extremity of the beak, make it bounce up in the air, receive it then into the throat, and swallow it in one piece. If it is too large, and impossible to divide, they reject it. They are rarely seen on the ground, and although their flight is heavy and difficult, they perch on the branches of the highest trees, where they remain in ceaseless motion. Their call is a sort of whistle, frequently uttered. Very timid, they are approached with difficulty. During the breeding season they attack the weakest birds of their own race, chase them from their nests, and devour the eggs or nearly-hatched young ones which they enclose. They build their nests in holes hollowed out by Woodpeckers or other birds. They all have very brilliant plumage, and inhabit Paraguay, Brazil, and Guiana. This family is divided into Toucans, properly speaking, and the Aracaris. These are distinguished from the former by their much less size, more solid beak, and longer tail. The most beautiful species of the family is the Brazilian Toucan, described by Humboldt under the name of Yellow Toucan (Fig. 191). The beautiful orange feathers which cover this bird are sometimes employed for ladies' dress. This fashion has passed from Brazil and Peru into Europe, and muffs made of the throats of Toucans sell at a great price. [Illustration: Fig. 191.--Yellow Toucan (_Pteroglossus Humboldtii_, Gould).] CUCKOOS. The general characteristic of the birds ranked in this family are--slightly-curved beaks of medium dimensions, wings generally short and concave, and tapering tails. Among the Cuckoos are comprehended Anis, or Annos (_Cotophagus_, Briss.), Barbets, Trogons, and Touracos, or Plantain-eaters. Cuckoos have elegant shapes; beaks almost as long as the head, compressed, and slightly curved; the tail rather long and rounded. Unlike other birds of the same family, they have long and pointed wings. Their size is about that of the Turtle Dove. Their flight is light and rapid, but they are unable to bear strong winds; thus they cannot accomplish great journeys without resting. There are a great number of known species belonging to all the countries of the Old Continent. The whole of Africa, South Asia, China, Japan, and certain isles of Oceania are inhabited by Cuckoos. Europe only possesses one species, the Grey Cuckoo, which has been carefully studied, and to which what we have to say regarding this group of birds applies. Grey Cuckoos are essentially migratory. They pass the warm season in Europe, and the winter in Africa or in the warm parts of Asia. They arrive in France in the month of April, and leave it at the end of August or the beginning of September. They travel during the night, not in numerous bands, but alone, or in groups of two or three at the most. They prefer bushy parts of woods, but often traverse the country in search of nourishment, which is composed principally of insects and caterpillars. They are frightfully voracious, which accounts for the enormous capacity of their stomachs. Of a surly and tyrannical nature, they suffer no rival of their species in the neighbourhood which they have chosen; for if some intruder arrives, it is hunted out without truce or mercy. On account of this unsociable disposition, the Grey Cuckoos, when captured after attaining maturity, are unable to accommodate themselves to confinement--in short, adults starve themselves to death when in captivity. Young birds are less restive, and gradually accustom themselves to a cage; but they are always disagreeable on account of their quarrelsome habits, which prevents them from living caged with feathered companions. [Illustration: Fig. 192.--Cuckoo (_Cuculus canorus_, Linn.).] Cuckoos are celebrated for the peculiar manner in which they raise their progeny. The females do not build a nest or cover their eggs, neither do they take care of their young. They lay their eggs in the nests of other birds, generally in those of little insectivorous Passerines, such as the Lark, the Robin, Hedge Sparrow, Redthroat, Nightingale, Thrush, Blackbird, and sometimes also in those of the Magpie, Turtle Dove, and Wood Pigeon. They leave the care of hatching their eggs to these strangers, and of feeding their young until they are completely developed. Different explanations have been proposed to justify the anomaly which seems to make a hard-hearted mother of the Cuckoo. We owe to M. Florent Prevost the possession of certain information on this point which had long remained in obscurity. According to this naturalist, Cuckoos are polygamous, but in a reverse sense to other birds. Whilst among them males have several females, with Cuckoos it is the females that have several males, because the stronger sex is much more numerous than the weaker. These ladies have no fixed home. At the breeding-time they wander from one district to another, reside two or three days with a male at one place, and then abandon him, according to inclination. It is at this time that the males so frequently utter the cry known to all the world, and from which the bird derives its name; it is a sort of call or challenge to the females, which in their turn reply by a peculiar clucking. Cuckoos lay eight or ten eggs in the space of a few weeks. When an egg has been laid, the female seizes it in her beak, and carries it to the first unoccupied nest in the vicinity, and there deposits it, profiting by the absence of the proprietor, which would certainly oppose such an addition. A Redthroat has been seen to return unexpectedly, and force the stranger to retire with her burden. The next egg is placed in a neighbouring nest, but never in the same as the first. The mother is doubtlessly conscious of the unfortunate position it would place her two nurslings in if she acted otherwise, for it would certainly be impossible for two little Passerines to supply the wants of two such voracious beings as young Cuckoos. Pertinent to this, we will mention a fact that we have not seen stated in any work on natural history. It often happens that the female Cuckoo takes from the nest one of the eggs of the Passerine, breaks it with her beak, and scatters the shell. Thus, when the mother returns, she finds the same number of eggs that she left. It is from this cause one frequently sees pieces of egg-shell surrounding the nests where Cuckoos have deposited their progeny. This action on the part of the birds denotes perfect reasoning powers, and consequently real intelligence. What say the great philosophers to it, who refuse this faculty to animals? When it has thus left its eggs to nurse, the female comes several times to see that they are well cared for, and does not leave the neighbourhood till she is assured that such is the case. She is not quite so free from solicitude about the welfare of her young as one at first thinks. Thus we can understand why the female Cuckoo does not herself discharge her maternal functions. Laying her eggs at considerable intervals, she would find that to cover several eggs and to raise a young one at the same time was incompatible, for the latter duty involves frequent absences which would destroy the eggs, to which, during incubation, an equal and constant temperature is necessary. It is not then indifference, but thought, that causes her to confide to others her maternal cares. The young Cuckoo is no sooner hatched than he employs his infant strength to get rid of the true children of his foster-parents, in order to be the only one to profit by their attentions; he glides under the frail creatures, gets them on his back--where he holds them by means of his raised wings--and precipitates them one after another from the nest. The mother, though thus cruelly treated in return for her affection, generally retains her love for this perfidious child of her adoption, and provides for all its wants until the time of its departure. Sometimes, however, she is so angry at the loss of her young, that she brings no nourishment to the monster, and lets it die of starvation. HONEY GUIDES, or INDICATORS (_Indicator_, Vall.), have their place next to Cuckoos. These are little birds inhabiting the interior of Africa. They feed on insects, and especially delight in the pupæ of bees; they employ very curious manoeuvres in order to procure them, which denote perfect intelligence. When one of these birds discovers a hive, it endeavours to attract the attention of the first person it meets by frequently-repeated cries. When observed it proceeds to fly, and sometimes leads thus for great distances till it reaches the place where the hive is, which it takes care to point out by every means in its power. Whilst the honey is being taken, the bird remains in the neighbourhood, observing all that passes, and when that work is accomplished, it approaches to reap the fruits of its trouble. The bees make very little buzzing, but flutter round, trying to sting it (but its skin is impervious to their efforts). Often, however, the despoiled bees attack its eyes, and sometimes succeed in blinding it: the unfortunate bird, incapable of guiding itself, then perishes in sight of the place that witnessed its triumph. The Hottentots esteem Indicators very highly on account of the services which they render them in revealing the abodes of bees, and therefore scruple to kill them. The group of Cuckoos is supplemented by several more species nearly allied to the genus Cuckoo, upon which it is useless for us to enlarge. These are Courols, Coccyzus, Couas, and Guiras. All these birds are strangers. ANIS have bulky, short, very compressed beaks, surmounted by a slight and sharp crest. They inhabit the countries of Equatorial America, and live in troops of from thirty to forty in the midst of savannahs and marshes. They feed upon reptiles and insects; they are often seen to alight upon cattle to devour the insect parasites which torment them. Hence comes their scientific name of _Crotophaga_ (Linn.), or eaters of insects. They are of very gentle, confiding natures, and the sight of man does not frighten them; besides, there is no advantage in killing them, for their flesh exhales a repulsive odour. Taken young, they become very familiar, and are as quick as Parrots in learning the art of speaking. They possess the instinct of sociability in the highest degree; so much so, that they do not even isolate themselves at pairing-times as other birds do. They build a common nest either in the trees or bushes, in which all the females lay and sit on their eggs. This nest is sometimes divided by walls into a certain number of compartments, each of which belongs to a female, but generally all the eggs are mixed, and the females cover them indiscriminately. This admirable understanding does not cease after the young are hatched. These are nourished by all the mothers in common. Are not these little republics models of peace and concord? and does not man find in them salutary examples of disinterestedness and affection? The two principal species of the genus are the Razor-bill of Jamaica and the Crow Blackbird of America. The former is the size of a Blackbird, the latter of a Jay. [Illustration: Fig. 193.--African Barbet (_Pogonias hirsutus_, Sw.).] BARBETS (Fig. 193) owe their name to a number of straight hairs which they have upon their beak. They are massive in form, and their flight is heavy. Inhabiting warm countries of both continents, they conceal themselves in thick forests, either alone or in small bands. They feed on fruits, berries, and insects. Certain species even attack and devour young birds. They build in the trunks of trees. The number of eggs they lay is two, sometimes (though rarely) three. Levaillant asserts that the old and infirm Barbets are cared for and fed by those in the enjoyment of all their vigour. He says that, having taken five Barbets in a nest of Republicans, one of which was so old that it could not stand on its legs, and having enclosed them in a cage, "the four healthy Barbets hastened to give food to the one lying in a dying state in a corner of the cage." He adds that the nest whence he had taken them was filled with husks and the remains of insects, which led him to think that the old invalid had been fed a long time by these kind and thoughtful birds. If this is true, it is worthy the attention of moralists. [Illustration: Fig. 194--Resplendent Trogons (_Trogon_ (_Calurus_) _resplendens_, Gould).] TROGONS, like Barbets, have the bases of their beaks covered with hairs. Their soft and silky plumage glitters with the most brilliant hues, and their tails are extremely long. They very strongly resemble the birds of night by their unsociable nature and melancholy dispositions, and by the solitary lives they pass in the wildest parts of woods. Like them, also, they only go out in the morning and evening to seek the insects and caterpillars which form their principal nourishment. The presence of man does not frighten them; and this confidence often leads to their death, for they are actively pursued for their flesh, which is said to be excellent, and also for their very beautiful feathers. Their name Couroucous arises from the cry which they utter at breeding-times. They inhabit the intertropical regions of both continents. The most remarkable species is the Resplendent Trogon (Fig. 194), indigenous to Mexico and Brazil. The plumage of this bird is of a magnificent emerald green frosted with gold: its head is surmounted by a beautiful tuft of the same colour. The daughters of the Caciques in the New World formerly used its feathers in their dresses. At the present time creoles employ them for the same purpose. The most common species is the _Trogon mexicanus_ (Fig. 195). [Illustration: Fig. 195.--Mexican Trogon (_Trogon mexicanus_, Gould).] TOURACOS, or PLANTAIN-EATERS (_Musophagidæ_), are African birds, of which the general forms bear some analogy to the Hoccos. They live in forests, and perch upon the highest branches of trees: their flight is heavy and little sustained. WOODPECKERS. The birds which compose this family are characterised by a rather long, conical, pointed beak, and by a very extensible tongue. They form two genera, Woodpeckers and Wry-necks. [Illustration: Fig. 196.--Black Woodpeckers (_Picus_ (_Dryocopus_) _martius_, Gould). 1. Female. 2. Male.] [Illustration: Fig. 197--Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers (_Picus minor_, Gould).] WOODPECKERS excel in the art of climbing, but they do not perform it in the same manner as Parrots. They accomplish their ascensions by extending their toes, supplied with bent claws, upon the trunk of a tree, and maintain themselves hanging there; then move themselves a little farther by a sudden and jerked skip, and so on. These movements are facilitated by the disposition of the tail, formed of straight resistant feathers, slightly worn away at their extremities, which, pressed against a tree, serve as a support to the bird. Thanks to this organisation, Woodpeckers traverse trees in every direction--downwards, upwards, or horizontally. Woodpeckers are of a timid and restless disposition; they live alone in the midst or on the borders of large forests. Insects and their larvæ form their nourishment; there they seek them in the trunks and clefts of trees. Their tongue is wonderfully suited to this work of exploration. It is very long, and, by a peculiar mechanism, can be projected out far enough to reach objects three or four inches away. The beak is terminated by a horny point bristling with small hooks. In many species it is overlaid with a sticky humour, secreted by two voluminous glands, the effect of which is to catch the insects which it touches. Whenever the bird darts this tongue into the crevices, it draws it out more or less laden with insects. If it perceives an insect that it cannot reach by means of this organ, it has recourse to its strong beak: striking the tree with redoubled blows, it cuts the bark, breaks an opening, and seizes the coveted prey. It often also strikes with its beak to sound the tree, and assure itself that there is no cavity in the interior which would serve as a refuge for its prey. If the trunk is hollow, it examines all parts to find the entrance to the cavity. When it has discovered it, it introduces its tongue; and if the canal is not large enough to permit it to explore the hiding-place with success, it increases the size of the aperture. It is not only to seek for food that Woodpeckers make holes in trees, but also to establish their nests. Some species, it is true, select the anfractuosities which they find, but others hollow out their resting-places according to their tastes. When such is the case, they inspect soft-wood trees, such as the beech, aspen, &c., to ascertain those that are decayed in the interior. When they have made their choice, the male and female peck the bark off the tree by turns, and do not cease to labour till they have reached the decayed portion. The cavity which they bore is generally so oblique and so deep that perfect darkness must surround them. It is doubtless a measure of security against the little mammals, especially the rodents, the natural enemies of their family. The female deposits her eggs upon a bed of moss or the dust of worm-eaten wood. The young birds grow slowly, and receive in the nest the care of their parents for a long time. In general they have little voice, or only utter disagreeable cries. At breeding-time they frequently employ a language peculiar to themselves: they strike the trunks of dead trees with their beaks, and these blows, which are heard at a great distance, attract all the Woodpeckers of the neighbourhood. Woodpeckers are generally considered noxious birds, because they are supposed to injure the trees of forests and orchards, and for this reason a relentless war is made against them. They should, on the contrary, be protected; for they destroy innumerable insects, the real enemies of timber. Besides, they scarcely ever attack healthy trees--they reserve their labours for those which are worm-eaten. There are a great number of species of Woodpeckers known, which are spread over the two continents: Europe possesses eight, seven of which live in France either in a settled state or as birds of passage. The principal are the Black Woodpecker, the Spotted Woodpecker, and the Grey Woodpecker. [Illustration: Fig. 198.--Wry-necks (_Yunx torquilla_, Yarrell).] WRY-NECKS owe their name to the curious property which they possess of being able to twist their necks in such a manner as to turn the head in all directions. They repeat this movement every instant, especially when surprised or angry. At the same time their eyes become fixed, the feathers of the head stand up, and the tail expands itself. Like Woodpeckers, they can hang upon trees, and sustain themselves in a vertical position for a long time; but they are incapable of climbing. The weakness of their beaks does not permit of their boring trees; therefore they seek their nourishment upon the ground, principally amongst the ant-hills. They lead a solitary existence, which they only relinquish at pairing-time. They possess a characteristic confidence, never in the least avoid the presence of man, and become very familiar in captivity. They build in the natural holes of trees, or in those hollowed by Woodpeckers. Their plumage is pleasing, and their size is the same as the Lark. They inhabit all the Old Continent. JACAMARS. [Illustration: Fig. 199.--Paradise Jacamar (_Galbula paradisea_, Latham).] Jacamars (Fig. 199) inhabit Equatorial America. They are characterised by long and pointed beaks, short tarsi, and short or obtuse wings. They have three or four toes, according to the species. Their habits are little known; but it is certain that they live isolated or in pairs, that they are stupid, move but little, and rarely depart from the neighbourhood where they have chosen their dwelling. All species do not frequent the same places--some like thick woods, others prefer plains, while some select damp localities; but all are insectivorous. In their manners, as well as in their physical characteristics, Jacamars appear to resemble King-fishers, of which we shall speak in the following order. CHAPTER VII. PASSERINES. The Passerines (from _passer_, the Latin name for Sparrow) form the least natural group of the class Aves. Here one seeks in vain for the homogeneous characteristics which distinguish the preceding races. Indeed, it is difficult to detect the bonds which connect them together. For example, where is the link which unites the Crow to the Swallow or to the Humming-birds? Nevertheless, all these winged creatures, though so different externally, belong to the _Passerinæ_. It may be said that this order presents only negative characteristics, bringing together in a somewhat odd assemblage all birds which are neither web-footed, wading, gallinaceous, climbing, nor rapacious. The only physical feature on which much stress can be laid, which is common to all Passerines, and even that not of much value, is that the outward toe is united to the middle one in a more or less extended manner. Their food consists of seeds, insects, and fruit. They live singly or in pairs; they fly gracefully and easily; their walk consists of a leap; and they build their nests and take their rest under the thick foliage of trees, or under the eaves of buildings. In this extensive group we find most of the songsters whose melodious voices so charmingly wake the echoes of the woodlands. Some of them have even the gift of imitating to a certain extent the human voice, as well as the cries of wild animals. Many are remarkable for their brilliant plumage; others are appreciated for their delicacy on the table. Man has reduced numbers of them to comparative tameness, but has altogether failed in bringing them to a domestic state. Cuvier divides the _Passerinæ_ into five great families--the _Syndactyles_, _Tenuirostres, Conirostres, Fissirostres_, and _Dentirostres_. The first is based on the structure of the feet; the other four on the formation of the bill. But this classification is very arbitrary, as it is not always possible to assign a place to certain groups by an inspection of the beak alone. We shall, however, follow this distribution, as being that generally adopted. SYNDACTYLES. The _Syndactyles_ (having the toes united) have the external toe nearly as long as the middle one, and united to it up to the last articulation. The birds which constitute this group have little analogy with each other, the physical characters which we shall have occasion to notice being purely artificial as a means of classification. The family includes the Hornbills (_Buceros_, Linn.), the Fly-catchers (_Muscicapidæ_), the King-fishers (_Alcedo_, Linn.), the Bee-eaters (_Merops_, Linn.), and the Momots (_Prionites_, Ill.). The HORNBILLS, or CALAOS, are remarkable for their enormous development of beak, which is long, very wide, compressed, and more or less curved and notched, and in some species surmounted by a large helmet-like protuberance. This immense beak is nevertheless very light, being cellulose, as in the Toucans. The Hornbills have in some respects the bearing of the Crow: this led Bontius to class them among the Crows, under the name of Indian Crow (_Corvus indicus_). They walk with difficulty, and their flight is clumsy, their favourite position being on a perch at the summit of lofty trees. Great flocks of these haunt the forests of the warmer regions of the Old World, especially Africa, India, and the Oceanic Archipelago. They build their nests in the hollows of trees. They are omnivorous, and the fruits, seeds, and insects of those regions are their principal food; yet they feed also on flesh. In India they are domesticated, their services in destroying rats and mice being much appreciated. The plumage of the Hornbill is black or grey, of various shades; but there is a species described by Dr. Latham and Dr. Shaw, under the name of the Crimson Hornbill, which Mr. Swainson thinks may prove to be a link between Toucans and Hornbills, and thus combine the beauty of plumage of the former with the peculiarity of form of the latter. Their flesh is delicate, especially when fed on aromatic seeds. Many species are described, varying in size, among which the Rhinoceros Hornbill (_Buceros rhinoceros_), Fig. 200, is the most worthy of notice. This bird is so named from the singular protuberance with which its bill is surmounted: this is a smooth horny casque or helmet, curving upwards from the bill, somewhat resembling the horn of the rhinoceros. It is a native of India and the islands of the Indian Ocean. [Illustration: Fig. 200.--Rhinoceros Hornbill (_Buceros rhinoceros_, Gould).] The FLY-CATCHERS (_Muscicapidæ_) are a family of insectivorous birds, many of which are British, comprehending, according to Temminck, the Todies (_Todus_), distinguished by long, broad, and very flat bills, contracting suddenly at the tip. Characteristics:--Tail short, slender, and rounded; legs long and weak; toes short, the outer one more or less united to the middle one. _T. viridis_, the only species, according to Temminck, has a bright green plumage above, whitish beneath; a scarlet throat; sides rose colour; and the tail-coverts yellow. It is a native of South America and the Antilles; and Sir Hans Sloane, under the name of "Green Humming-bird," describes it as "one of the most beautiful small birds he ever saw." Mr. Browne states that it is a familiar little bird, and will often let a man come within a few feet to admire it before becoming alarmed. "It keeps much about the houses in country parts," he adds, "flies slow, and probably may be easily tamed." It lives almost entirely on the ground, feeding on insects, which it catches in the evening. It builds its nest in the crevices on river banks, or in the soft rocks, in which it hollows out a dwelling by means of its bill and feet. The KING-FISHERS (_Alcedo_), the Martin-fishers of some authors, form a highly interesting group, of which _Alcedo ispida_ (Linn.) is the only known species indigenous to Britain. M. Vigors finds an intimate resemblance between them and the Todies. The King-fishers are very singular birds. Their bill is strong, straight, and angular, being of immense length compared with their size; the tip of both mandibles acute; the commissure perfectly straight; the head strong and elongated; wings and tail of moderate size; tarsi short, and placed far back (Fig. 201). The King-fisher (_A. ispida_) has behind each eye a patch of light orange brown, succeeded by a white one; from each corner of the mandible proceeds a line of rich blue, tinged with green; the crown of the head is deep olive green; the feathers are tipped with a verdigris shade; chin and throat with yellowish white; breast, belly, and vent with orange brown; tail a bluish green; shafts of the feathers black; and the legs a pale brick red. This beautiful bird is as interesting in manners as in appearance. Living on the banks of rivers, they feed almost exclusively on fish. The King-fisher watches patiently from a fixed station, generally a naked twig overhanging the water, or a stone projecting above the surface, for its prey: in this position it will sometimes wait for hours, absolutely immovable. When the fish comes within reach, with great rapidity it pounces upon it, seizing it in its powerful mandibles, and after destroying it by compression, or by knocking it against a stone or the trunk of a tree, it swallows it head foremost. When fish is scarce it feeds also upon aquatic insects, which it seizes on the wing. Its aërial movements are rapid and direct, but weakly maintained, being performed by a series of quick, jerking beats of the wings, generally close to the surface: the action of the wings is so rapid as to be scarcely perceptible. The short tarsi render the King-fisher a bad walker. [Illustration: Fig. 201.--King-fishers (_Alcedo ispida_, Linn.).] The King-fisher is a solitary bird, living generally in secluded places, and is rarely seen even with birds of its own species, except in the pairing season. Like the Todies, they build their nests in the steep banks of rivers, either in the natural crevices, or in holes hollowed out by water rats; and these dwelling-places are generally disfigured by the fragments of their repast. Father and mother sit alternately, and when the young are hatched they feed them with the produce of their fishing. The bird has a shrill and piercing note, which it utters on the wing. Their flesh is very disagreeable. The King-fisher is the Halcyon of the ancients, who attributed to it after death the power of indicating the winds. The seven days before and the seven days after the winter solstice were the Halcyon days, during which the bird was supposed to build its nest, and the sea remained perfectly calm. To its dead body the attributes of turning aside thunder-bolts, of giving beauty, peace and plenty, and other absurdities were ascribed. Even now, in some remote provinces of France, the dead birds are invested with the power of preserving woollen stuffs from the attack of the moth; hence they are called Moth Birds by drapers and shopkeepers. They are inhabitants of almost every region of the globe, and comprehend a great number of species, spread over Asia, Africa, and America.[32] Europe possesses one species not larger than a Sparrow, and which is remarkable for the rich colouring of its feathers. What, indeed, can surpass the brilliancy of the King-fisher as it suddenly darts along some murmuring brook, tracing a thread of azure and emerald? Some authors separate the King-fishers, properly so called, or riverside birds, from the Bee-eaters and other Fissirostral birds, which, while they resemble each other in many physical characteristics, differ essentially in their habits; in short, while the one haunts the river, feeds upon its inhabitants, and nests upon its margin, the other keeps to the woods and forests, feeds upon insects, and builds in holes in trees. [32] In China a great number of species are to be found, all robed in the most brilliant plumage, nine of which we have collected.--ED. The _Ceyx Meninting_ of Lesson (_Alcedo Biru_ of Horsfield) very closely resembles the King-fisher of Europe in its habits; it darts in short, rapid flight along the surface of lakes and rivulets, emitting shrill, discordant sounds; it perches on trees on the river banks, and feeds on small fishes and aquatic insects. The tarsus is smooth, the inner toe suppressed; in other respects its habits are those of the King-fisher. The BEE-EATERS (_Meropidæ_) have the beak long, thin, slightly curved, and pointed, the mandible having a trenchant edge; the tarsi short; the wings long and pointed; the tail well developed, tapering, or forked. They are slender, light, and clamorous; their cries are incessant, while they skim through the air on rapid wing with well-sustained flight. Their name of Bee-eaters they take from their principal food, which consists of various Hymenoptera, especially bees and wasps. They seize their prey either on the wing, like the Swallows, or they hide themselves at the opening of their hives, and snatch up all that enter or depart. They are skilful in avoiding their sting. Living together in numerous flocks, they rapidly clear a district of wasps and wild bees. They build their nests in the banks of rivers or rivulets, in holes which they excavate to the depth of six or seven feet. Some species are highly esteemed as table delicacies by the French. [Illustration: Fig. 202.--Common Bee-eater (_Merops apiaster_, Sw.).] The Bee-eaters inhabit the warmer regions of the Old World, such as Bengal, the west coast of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope, Morocco, and Malta. One species alone is found in Europe, the Common Bee-eater (_Merops apiaster_), Fig. 202. From the coast of Africa it migrates in small flocks into the countries skirting the northern shores of the Mediterranean. Some individuals proceed into France, Switzerland, and Germany; others spread themselves over Turkey and the southern parts of Russia. In England it is occasionally met with in Cornwall, Devonshire, and along the Hampshire coast. It has been shot in the Mull of Galloway. In France it arrives in the month of May, and remains but a short time. As a rule it rarely ventures further north than the South of France. The MOMOTS (_Prionites_, Illiger) are birds still very imperfectly known. They are remarkably massive in form, heavy and slow on the wing. They are placed by systematists near the Toucans (_Ramphastos_), from similarity of habits, and especially from the structure of the tongue, which is in both long, and so much ciliated at the sides as to resemble a feather. The feet, however, are totally different from those of the Toucans. In the Momots the beak is long, robust, and crenated at the edge. They are very wild, and lead an isolated life in the thick forests of South America, where they build in holes in trees. [Illustration: Fig. 203.--Momot (_Prionites_, Sw.).] TENUIROSTRES. The Passerine Tenuirostres are characterised by a long slender beak, straight or curved, but always without indentation. They are insectivorous, and comprise the Hoopoes, Humming-birds, Creepers, and Nuthatches. The HOOPOES (_Upupa_, Linn.) have the beak long, slender, triangular, and slightly curved. This group, which Mr. Gray designates the _Upupidæ_, includes a number of birds whose general form presents the greatest analogy, but which possess their own peculiarities of plumage and special physiognomy. This has necessitated its subdivision into sub-genera, of which the Hoopoes (_Upupa_), the Promerops (Brisson), and the Epimachus are worthy of notice. [Illustration: Fig. 204.--Hoopoes (_Upupa epops_, Linn.).] The Hoopoes are easily recognised from the double range of plumes which form an arched crest on their head, which they have the power of raising at pleasure. These feathers are, in the Common Hoopoe, of a ruddy buff colour, tipped with black. They are solitary birds, living by preference in low grounds and humid places, where they prey on the worms, insects, and terrestrial mollusks. They are migratory, and are occasionally found in the British Islands in autumn: instances have occurred of their breeding there. They take their departure for warmer regions in September. They have a light and graceful walk, and nearly pass their existence on the ground, rarely perching, and flying with visible effort. They have no song, and only utter two notes, which may be rendered by the syllables _zi, zi; houp, houp_. They nest in the clefts of rocks or walls, and in holes in the trunks of trees. When captured young, they become very tame, and seem to be susceptible of great attachment to those who take care of them. The Hoopoe (Fig. 204) is found in summer as far north as Denmark and Sweden; and southward, in France and Italy, at Gibraltar and Ceuta, and in Egypt, where it breeds, as it probably does over Northern Africa. It has been seen occasionally at Madeira, and is abundant at Trebisond, whence it comes every year to pass the summer season in Europe. During the spring and summer it abounds all over France. At the period of its departure--that is to say, in the month of September--it is plump enough to be a choice morsel for the table, as its flesh is very delicate. The EPIMACHUS are remarkably beautiful birds. When at maturity the side-feathers develop themselves in delicate lines or elegant panicles, while their plumage, richly coloured, is brilliant with diaphanous metallic reflections. Little is known of their habits. They are natives of Australia and New Guinea. The very remarkable species, _E. multifil_ (Fig. 205), has six long fillets on each side of its body. The equally striking species, _E. magnus_, has the elongated side-feathers raised and curling, of a glittering steel blue, azure, and emerald green; the breast and belly lustrous with the same diaphanous tints. This bird is an inhabitant of New Guinea. [Illustration: Fig. 205.--Epimachus (_Epimachus multifil_).] The PROMEROPS are distinguished from the other _Upupinæ_ by the absence of the crest, by their very long tail, and by their forked and extensible tongue. They are natives of Africa, and their habits, like those of the former, are little known. The _Colibri_ of Cuvier may be divided into Humming-birds (_Trochilidæ_), or species having the beak straight, and true _Colibri_, having the beak curved. With this slight difference, the _Trochilidæ_ and _Colibri_ closely resemble each other. They have the same slight, elegant figure, the same brilliancy of plumage, and the same habits--describe the one, and you describe the other. We must be permitted, therefore, to treat of them together. The HUMMING-BIRDS (_Trochilidæ_) are the most lovely of the winged race. Nature seems to have endowed them with her rarest gifts. In creating them she surpassed herself, and exhausted all the charms at her disposal; for she imbued them with grace, elegance, rapidity of motion, magnificence of plumage, and indomitable courage. What can be more delightful than the sight of these little feathered beauties, flashing with the united fires of the ruby, the topaz, the sapphire, and the emerald, flying from flower to flower amid the richest tropical vegetation? Such are the lightness and rapidity of some of the smaller species, that the eye can scarcely follow the quick beat of the wings. When they hover they seem perfectly motionless, and one might fancy they were suspended by some invisible thread. Specially adapted for an aërial life, they are unceasingly in motion, searching for their food in the calyx of flowers, from which they drink the nectar with so much delicacy and address that the plant is scarcely stirred. But the juice and honey of flowers, as some authors affirm, are not their only food--such unsubstantial diet would be insufficient to sustain the prodigious activity displayed almost every moment of their existence. The tongue of the Humming-bird is a microscopic instrument of marvellous arrangement. It is composed of two half-tubes placed one against the other, capable of opening and shutting like a pair of pliers. Moreover, it is constantly moistened by a glutinous saliva, by which it is enabled to seize and hold insects--an arrangement not without its analogy in the Woodpeckers. Proud of their gay colours, the Humming-birds take the greatest care to protect their plumage. They frequently dress themselves by passing their feathers through their bills. Their vivacity often amounts to petulance, and they frequently manifest belligerent propensities not to be expected in such minute creatures. They attack birds much larger than themselves, harassing and pursuing them without intermission, threatening their eyes, and always succeeding in putting them to flight. They frequently contend with each other. If two males meet on the calyx of a flower, bristling with anger, and uttering their cry, they rush on one another. After the conflict is over the conqueror returns to reap the reward of his valour. [Illustration: Fig. 206.--Nest of Humming-bird.] The nest of the Humming-bird (Fig. 206) is a masterpiece. It is about the size of half an apricot. The materials are brought by the male, and arranged by the female. These consist of lichens, and are most artistically interwoven, the crevices being closed up with the bird's saliva: the interior is padded with the silky fibres furnished by various plants. This pretty cradle is suspended to a leaf, sometimes to a small branch, bundle of rushes, or even to the straw roof of a hut. The hen bird lays twice a year a pair of eggs of a pure white, about the size of a pea. After an incubation of six days the young are hatched; a week later they are capable of flight. During the breeding season the males are tender and demonstrative, and both parents show much affection for their progeny. These little creatures are universally admired for their elegance and beauty, and the names given them are generally descriptive of their excessive minuteness. The creoles of the Antilles call them Murmurers; the Spaniards _Picaflores_; the Brazilians _Chupaflores_, or Flower-suckers; finally, the Indians call these darlings Sunbeams. Humming-birds are much sought after--not for their flesh, which is valueless from its minute quantity, but for their feathers: these ladies turn to various uses, such as collars, pendants for the ears, &c. Some of the Indian races which have been converted to Christianity employ them to decorate the images of their favourite saints. The Mexicans and Peruvians formerly employed them for trimming mantles. The French soldiers who shared in the Mexican expedition report that pictures with the feathers of the Humming-bird are fresh, brilliant, and effective. Humming-birds cannot be preserved in captivity--not that they do not become familiar and affectionate, but their extreme delicacy unfits them for confinement, and in spite of the utmost care that can be bestowed on them, they will die in a few months. In their habitat they are killed with very small shot or with the _sarbacane_: if desired alive, they are taken with a butterfly net. Among the most formidable enemies of the _Trochilidæ_ may be reckoned the Monster Spider (_Mygale avicularia_), which spins its web round their nests, and devours eggs or little ones; even the old birds are sometimes its victims. Humming-birds are scattered over the whole of South and North America, even as far north as Canada; but in Brazil and Guiana they are most abundant. At least five hundred species are known. Cuvier included them in his genus _Colibri_. Mr. Gould has described three hundred of which he has actual specimens; these he divides into fifty-two genera. Among the more remarkable species we may note the Topaz-throated Trochilus (_T. pella_, Gould), a native of Brazil; the Sickle-winged Humming-bird (_Trochilus falcatus_, Sw.); Gould's Humming-bird (_Ornismya Gouldii_, Less.); the Double-crested Humming-bird (_Trochilus cornutus_, Wied.); Cora Humming-bird (_Ornismya cora_, Less.); the Giant Humming-bird, which attains the size of the Swallow; the Dwarf Humming-bird, whose size does not exceed that of a bee; the Bar-tailed Humming or Sapho Bird of Lesson (Fig. 207), a native of Eastern Peru; and the Racket-tailed Humming-bird, so named from the shape of its tail, which spreads out at the extremity in the form of a racket. [Illustration: Fig. 207.--Bar-tailed Humming-bird (_Trochilus sparganurus_, Lesson).] The CLIMBERS (_Scansores_, Vig.) among birds, such as the Woodpeckers, are characterised by an arched beak and a stiff pointed tail. The family comprehends several genera and sub-genera, of which the principal are the Climbers, properly so called, as the Creepers (_Certhia_), the Wall-Creepers (_Tichodroma_), the Picumnus, the Furnarius, the Sucriers, the Soui-mangas, and the Nuthatches (_Sitta_). [Illustration: Fig. 208.--The Creeper (_Certhia familiaris_, Linn.).] The CREEPERS (_Certhia_) are small Climbing birds which live and build their nests in the holes they bore in the trunk or in the natural hollows of trees: the insects to be found under the bark are their food. Looking at the form of their slender beak, it is difficult to imagine how it can penetrate the hard covering of an oak, for which they exhibit a marked preference. The Tree-Creeper (_Certhia familiaris_) is spread over nearly every European country, and is very common in France. The Wall-Creeper (_Tichodroma muraria_, C. Bonap.), called also Wall-Climber (the _Grimpereau des Murailles_ of French authors), owes its name to its habit of climbing the walls of dwellings. Supporting-points are not found in their tails, as in the Woodpeckers. Grasping the tree with their claws, they assist their feet by a slight movement of the wings. They feed on insects, and lead a solitary life on the mountains, only descending into the plains with the early frosts of winter. They are found diffused over all the South of Europe. The PICUMNUS (_Climacteris picumnus_, Temm.) have form and habits very similar to the Creeper, but the beak is stronger and more boldly curved. They are natives of Brazil and Guiana. [Illustration: Fig. 209.--Furnarius (_Furnarius_, Lesson).] The FURNARIUS (_Furnarius figulus_, Spix.) live singly or in pairs in the plains of Chili, Brazil, and Guiana. They feed principally on seeds, but also on insects. They take up their residence with much confidence in the neighbourhood of man. Their nests (Fig. 209) are remarkable for their construction, being in the form of an oven, whence their name. This structure it builds upon trees, on palisades, or on the window of a house. It is remarkable for its size as compared with its inhabitant, measuring not less than from twelve to fourteen inches in diameter; it is entirely formed of clay, and the interior is divided by a partition into two compartments, the outer and inner, the latter being that in which the female lays her eggs. The male and female alternately bring small balls of earth, out of which the edifice is constructed, and they labour so industriously that it is sometimes finished in two days. Some species construct their nests on trees, interlacing them with spiny branches, and providing one or many openings; that of the _Annumbi_ is fifteen inches in diameter by twenty inches in height. The SUCRIERS (_Cinnyridæ_) are American birds, so called from their attachment to saccharine substances. They feed on honey they extract from flowers, and the sap from the sugar-cane, the juice of which they suck through crevices in the stem. Like the Humming-birds, they have the tongue divided into two parts, by which they are enabled to seize insects, which form a part of their food. They are small in size, and their plumage is brilliantly coloured. Among the _Cinnyridæ_ we find the _Guits-guits_, ingenious little creatures which construct a nest in the form of a horn, which is suspended from the flexible branches of a shrub: in order to protect their young from the attacks of earwigs, the opening is below. [Illustration: Fig. 210.--Sun-birds (_Certhia chalybeia_, Linn.).] The SOUI-MANGAS (Fig. 210) have the same partiality for sugar exhibited by the last, justifying their name, which signifies "sugar-eater" in the Malagash tongue. They are natives of Southern Africa and India, and represent in the Old World the Humming-birds of the New. They are gay and sprightly, and decked in the most brilliant colours. Like the other _Cinnyridæ_, they love to plunge their tongue into the corolla of flowers and extract its sweets. Their most brilliant colours are displayed in the breeding season. The NUTHATCHES (_Sitta_), Fig. 211, have the beak straight, pyramidal, and pointed, covered at the base with small feathers directed forward; the long toes are furnished with claws strong and crooked; their habitat resembles that of the Creepers. The Nuthatch is found in Oceania. [Illustration: Fig. 211.--Common Nuthatch (_Sitta europæa_, Gould).] CONIROSTRES. The _Conirostral Passerinæ_ are characterised by a strong, robust beak, more or less conical, and without notches. They are generally granivorous, but some species are insectivorous or carnivorous. This group includes the Birds of Paradise, Crows, Rollers, Starlings, Sparrows, Tits, and Larks. The BIRDS OF PARADISE have the beak straight, compressed, and strong, the nostrils covered with velvety feathers. In brilliancy of colouring, and in graceful, pendent, gossamer-like plumage, they take precedence in the feathered creation. They have a very restricted habitat, being only found in New Guinea, Ternate, and in the island of Papua, situated to the north of Australia: there they dwell in the thick forests, feeding on fruit and insects. Occasionally they are found living in solitude, but more frequently are to be met in large flocks, altering their residence with the change of the monsoon. Their flight is very swift, and has been frequently compared by Europeans resident in the East to that of a Swallow; in consequence, they have bestowed on the Bird of Paradise the name of Swallow of Ternate. [Illustration: Fig. 212.--The Great Emerald (_Paradisea apoda_, Linn.).] It is owing to the long lateral plumes, which they most perfectly control in the air, that they are so buoyant; at the same time, this unusual amount of plumage almost entirely stops their progression against a head wind. When the Bird of Paradise was first spoken of in Europe few believed that it existed. Nor is this to be wondered at, when we remember that it was affirmed that these gorgeous birds were without legs, and hung on to the branches of trees by their long aërial plumes; that the female deposited her eggs under the feathers on the back of the male; that they passed the breeding season in Paradise; and many other stories equally absurd. The inhabitants of Papua capture these birds, for their plumage is of great commercial value. The method they adopt is to place themselves in the tops of the highest trees: when thus concealed, they attract the birds within reach of their blow-pipes by whistling. The Birds of Paradise are divided by Vieillot into _Parotia_, _Lophorina_, _Cincinnurus_, and _Samalia_. The most remarkable among these is _Paradisea apoda_, the Great Emerald, as it is sometimes called (Fig. 212), the throat and neck of which are of a bright emerald green, from which circumstance it has received one of its popular names, while on its sides are shaded tufts of yellow feathers which float on the breeze, forming an elegant aërial plume, and giving the bird a meteor look as it shoots through the air. They live in flocks in the vast Papuan forests. When prepared for migration--for they change their quarters with the monsoons--the females assemble in small flocks on the tops of the loftiest trees, and utter their call to the males, each flock of fourteen or fifteen being attended by one male. [Illustration: Fig. 213.--King Bird of Paradise (_Cincinnurus regius_, Vieillot).] The King Bird of Paradise (_Paradisea regia_, Linn.), Fig. 213, is an inhabitant of the Molucca Islands, where it is scarce. Little is known of its habits. The beak, which is furnished at the base with small feathers pointing forward, is slender, convex, and slightly compressed at the sides. The hypochondrial feathers are broad, elongated, and truncated. In the Superb (_Lophorina superba_), Fig. 214, the beak is furnished with elongated feathers, extending half its length; the feathers of the neck, rising just behind the head, expand into a wing-like form. [Illustration: Fig. 214.--The Superb (_Paradisea superba_, Latham).] [Illustration: Fig. 215.--Golden-throated Sifilet (_Paradisea aurea_, Gmelin).] In the Sifilets (_Parotia_) the beak is furnished with short feathers for half its length, and is slender, compressed laterally, notched and curved at the tip; they have long, broad, and loose plumes covering the sides and abdominal part. Of this group the Gold-throated Sifilet of Buffon (_Parotia sexsetacea_, Latham), Fig. 215, is a fine example. It obtains its name from the three thread-like feathers on each side of the head expanding into a lancet shape at the extremity, and which form a very striking ornament. The birds which constitute the CROWS (_Corvidæ_) are characterised by a very strong beak with cutting edges, broad at the base, flattened laterally, and hooked towards the point; the nostrils covered with stiff feathers directed forward; also by strong claws and long pointed wings. They are divided into four groups or sub-genera--namely, _Corvus_, the Crows properly so called; the Magpies (_Pica_); the Jays (_Garrulus_); and the Nut-cracker (_Nucifraga_). The genus _Corvus_, as limited by modern naturalists, comprehends the Raven (_C. corax_, Lesson), the Carrion Crow (_C. corone_, Temm.), the Royston Crow (_C. cornix_, Selby), the Rook (_C. frugilegus_, Linn.), the Jackdaw (_C. monedula_, Linn.). All these species have in many respects the same characteristics, the same aptitude, and the same habits. With the exception of the Raven and Magpie, which live in pairs, the others reside together in large flocks, whether they are in quest of their daily food or roosting at night. They are all possessed of the same intelligence, the same cunning, the same mischievous habits, the same gift of imitation, though in different degrees, and the same provident habit of amassing provisions in secret places. This last peculiarity in tamed birds degenerates into a mania, which leads them to carry off and hide everything that attracts their attention, especially gems and bright articles of metal. The whole group are susceptible of domestication. The Crows, especially the Raven and the Carrion Crow, are pre-eminently omnivorous. Living or dead flesh, fish cast up on the shore, insects, eggs, fruit, seeds--nothing comes amiss to them. Their depredations are enormous. Thus Ravens, not content with raising a tribute on moles, wood-mice, and leverets, venture into poultry-yards, and without ceremony appropriate chickens, ducklings, &c. Buffon even asserts that in certain countries they fasten upon the backs of buffaloes, and after having put out their eyes, devour them. As for the Carrion Crows, according to Lewis, it is certain that they attack the flocks in Scotch and Irish pastures. Lastly, all Crows delight in digging up newly-sown ground, eating with avidity the germinating seed. On this account the agricultural population are generally their bitterest enemies, destroying them when opportunity offers. In certain parts--Norway, for instance--laws were made ordering their extermination. But this policy was short-sighted: if they did harm, they also did good, for the quantity of noxious grubs and larvæ formerly devoured by them, and consequently kept in check, became most formidable foes to the farmer, and most difficult to overcome. How is it that men will not use their brains--that they actually destroy the animals provided by a bounteous Creator, and whose utility is most conspicuous? The flesh of the Raven and the Carrion Crow exhales a very bad odour, doubtlessly caused by the quantities of putrid animal matter they consume; consequently, it is unfit for human food. Not so, however, with the Rook. This bird, when taken young, is not only eatable, but by some deemed a delicacy. Crows possess a vigorous and sustained flight; they have a keen sense of smell, and excellent vision. By exercising these latter qualities they become aware where food is to be obtained, and as they wing their way towards it they constantly utter their cry, as if inviting their companions to join them: this croak, as it is called, is very harsh and dissonant. The plumage being of a sombre funereal black, and the voice so unmusical, have doubtless been the reasons why they have long been considered birds of ill omen. When taken young, they are tamed with great facility, even to permitting them to go at large, for they will neither rejoin their own race nor desert the neighbourhood where they have been kindly treated. True, they may go into the fields to seek for food, but when the increasing shadows predict the approach of night, their familiar resting-place in the house of their protector will be sought. They become much attached to those who take notice of them, and will recognise them even in a crowd. Their audacity and their malice are incredible. When they take an antipathy to any one, they immediately show it. They suffer neither cats nor dogs to approach them, but harass them incessantly, tearing from them their very food. Finally, they choose secret hiding-places, where they store up all that tempts their cupidity or excites their covetousness. They even learn to repeat words and phrases, and to imitate the cries of other animals. These facts are confirmed by numerous anecdotes related by naturalists of undoubted veracity. Pliny speaks of a Raven which established itself in one of the public places of Rome, and called out the name of each passer-by, from the emperor to the humblest citizen. We have all laughed heartily at the recital of an adventure which happened to an awkward horseman who lost his seat, while a Raven perched on a branch of a tree above him cried out with solemn voice, "How silly!" Dr. Franklin thus speaks of a Raven of his acquaintance which had been brought up at a country inn:--"It had," he says, "great recollection of persons, and knew perfectly all the coachmen, with whom it lived on the greatest intimacy. With its special friends it took certain innocent liberties, such as mounting on the top of their carriage and riding out with them until it met some other driver with which it was on terms of similarly close friendship, when it would return home." The same Raven had unusual sympathy with dogs in general, and especially those which happened to be lame. These it loaded with the most delicate attentions, keeping them company and carrying them bones to gnaw. This excessive kindness to animals which are rarely in the good graces of Ravens arose from this bird having been reared along with a dog, for which it entertained such strong regard, that it attended it with unremitting assiduity when it had the misfortune to break its leg. The same author mentions another Raven which was captured in Russia, and came to be confined in the Jardin des Plantes, of Paris. It recognised Dr. Monin when he stopped accidentally before its cage. It had belonged to him ten years before, and when brought before its old master it leaped upon his shoulder and covered him with caresses. The doctor reclaimed his property, and the bird was henceforth an ornament to his house near Blois, where it learnt to address the country-people as "great hogs." Dr. Franklin raised one of these birds himself which showed wonderful powers of imitation. "He called himself Jacob. Sometimes it made such a noise at the bottom of the stairs that you could only imagine it was caused by a party of three or four children quarrelling with great violence; at other times it would imitate the crowing of a cock, the mewing of a cat, the barking of a dog, or the sound produced by a rattle for frightening away birds from a wheat-field; then a silence would ensue; but soon after the crying of a child of two years of age would be mimicked; 'Jacob! Jacob!' its own name, probably it would then call, repeating the cry at first in a grave tone, then with shriller intonation and more vociferously; again another silence; but after a pause, a man seems to knock at the gate; if it is opened, enter Jacob, who runs about the room, and finally mounts on the table. Unfortunately, Jacob was a thief--and that was not his least fault; spoons, knives, forks, even plates, disappeared, with meat, bread, salt, pieces of money--especially if new; he carried off everything, and hid all in some secret hole or corner. A washerwoman of the neighbourhood was accustomed to dry her linen near our window, fixing the clothes on the line with pins; the bird would labour with a perseverance truly wonderful to detach these, the woman chasing him off with bitter maledictions about her fallen linen; but he would only fly over into his own garden for safety, where he would indulge in a few malicious croakings. One day I discovered, under some old timber, Jacob's hiding-place. It was full of needles, pins, and all manner of glittering objects." Mr. Charles Dickens was partial to keeping Ravens in his youth, and has related some of his experiences in the preface to "Barnaby Rudge." He had two great originals. "The first was in the bloom of his youth, when he was discovered in a humble retreat in London and given to me. He had from the first, as Sir Hugh Evans says of Anne Page, 'good gifts,' which he improved by study and attention in a most extraordinary manner. He slept in a stable--generally on horseback--and so terrified a Newfoundland dog by his preternatural sagacity that he has been known, by the mere superiority of his genius, to walk off unmolested with the dog's dinner from before his face. He was increasing in intelligence and precocity when, in an evil hour, his stable was newly painted. He observed the workmen closely, saw that they were careful of their pigments, and immediately burned to possess some of them. On their going to dinner, he ate up all they left behind, consisting of a pound or two of white-lead. Alas! this youthful indiscretion terminated in death. "Whilst yet inconsolable for the loss, another friend of mine," adds Mr. Charles Dickens, "discovered an older and more gifted Raven at a village inn, which he prevailed upon the landlord to part with for a consideration. The first act of this sage was to administer to the effects of his predecessor, by disinterring all the cheese and halfpence he had buried in the garden--a work of immense labour and research, to which he devoted all the energies of his mind. When he had achieved this task, he applied himself to the acquisition of stable language, in which he soon became such an adept that he would perch outside any window and drive imaginary horses all day long, with great skill in language. Perhaps I never saw him at his best, for his former master sent his duty with him, and said, 'if I wished the bird to come out very strong, to be so good as show him a drunken man;' which I never did, having (unfortunately) none but sober people at hand. But I could hardly have respected him more, whatever the stimulating influence of this sight might have been. He had not the least respect for me, I am sorry to say, in return, or for anybody but the cook, to whom he was attached--but, I fear, only as a policeman might have been. Once I met him unexpectedly, about half a mile off, walking down the middle of the public street, attended by a pretty large crowd, and spontaneously exhibiting the whole of his accomplishments. His gravity under this trying ordeal I never can forget, nor the extraordinary gallantry with which, refusing to be brought home, he defended himself behind a pump until overpowered by numbers. It may have been that he was too bright a genius to live long, or it may have been that he took something pernicious into his bill, and thence into his maw--which is not improbable, seeing he new-pointed the greater part of the garden-wall by digging out the mortar, broke countless squares of glass by scraping away the putty all round the frames, and tore up and swallowed in splinters the greater part of a wooden staircase of six steps as well as the landing--but after some three years he was taken ill, and died before the kitchen fire. He kept his eye to the last upon the meat as it roasted, and suddenly turned over on his back with the sepulchral cry of 'Cuckoo.'" Crows (_Corvus_) are universally diffused over the globe. The Raven (_Corvus corax_), Fig. 216, and the Carrion Crow (_Corvus corone_), are sedentary birds, and never voluntarily abandon the place they have elected for their home. The Hooded Crow (_Corvus corone_), the Rook (_Corvus frugilegus_), and the Jackdaw (_Corvus monedula_), are migratory in their habits, only visiting the countries of Southern Europe on the approach of winter. The Royston Crow (_Corvus cornix_) inhabits the lofty mountain regions of Europe, descending into the plains during winter. Finally, the Senegal Crow (_C. senegalensis_, Temm.) is exclusively confined to Africa. [Illustration: Fig. 216.--The Raven (_Corvus corax_, Lesson).] The MAGPIES are distinguished from the Crows by their shorter wings, longer tail, and by their variegated plumage; but for this difference, they greatly resemble the previously described in appearance and habits. Like the Crows, they are omnivorous, but they generally avoid dead prey; they have the same desire, whether in the wild or domestic state, to store away provisions and hide glittering objects. Their instinctive habit of appropriating all sorts of plunder is one of the causes of their popularity. Every one has heard the true story on which the drama of _The Maid and the Magpie_ is founded--how Ninette was accused and pronounced guilty of robbing her master, and when executed found to have been innocent, the true culprit being the pet Magpie of the house. The Magpie is a bold, impudent bird, which is easily put to flight by man, but will fearlessly harass a dog, a fox, or any of the smaller birds of prey. Having caused one of these to retreat, it pursues it vigorously, rousing by its cries all the birds of its kind; and what with its own energy and the combined efforts of its kindred, it generally succeeds in utterly discomfiting the intruder. Its action is unceasing, its movement short and jerky; but it is heavy on the wing. It cries and chatters incessantly. Hence the proverb to "chatter like a Magpie." It builds its nest of withered shrubs, dry sticks, and sand, on the highest branch of some lofty tree, it is and equally remarkable for its form, size, and solidity. This fabric has many beginnings: the foundation of the last and permanent structure is laid with infinite precautions, to avert observation. This care is taken, according to M. Nordmann, in order to mislead those who are spies on its actions; for it is in this last nest that the female deposits her eggs. If this fact were clearly established, it would show a great amount of cunning in the bird. The Magpie lays seven eggs, which the parent birds hatch with care, each bird sitting alternately. They show great attachment to their progeny, and continue to exercise their protection and solicitude until the young are well advanced towards maturity. The Magpie is tamed with facility, and soon becomes familiar, assiduously following its master everywhere, and eagerly seeking his caresses, so that it is necessary sometimes to shut it up to get rid of its importunities. It readily learns to repeat a few words, "mag" being the favourite in its vocabulary. The ability to pronounce words is said to be increased by extending the soft fibrous slit which binds the lower part of the tongue to the palate. But, compared with the beautiful glossy bird of the thicket, the domesticated Magpie, draggled and mutilated, is a miserable-looking object. The Common Magpie (_Pica melanoleuca_), Fig. 217, abounds in all parts of the world. Cultivated valleys with natural or artificial woodlands on their slopes; low ground diversified with fields; pastures and moors partially covered with plantations; fertile plains fenced in with wooded hedgerows, and studded with farm-houses and cottages, are the type of landscape they prefer. In spring plumage the Magpie is a fine bird, the feathers of the back being of velvety black, while the breast and a part of the wings are pure white. [Illustration: Fig. 217.--Common Magpie (_Corvus pica_, Linn.).] In the Brazils and Paraguay we find another species, whose whole plumage is a fine cerulean blue, with the exception of the head and throat, which are black. In China there is also a Magpie of beautiful cobalt-blue plumage; its two centre tail feathers are very long, barred with black, and tipped with pure white; the bill and legs are red. It is extremely shy, and occasionally seen in flocks. By the inhabitants it is frequently taught to speak. The JAYS (_Corvus glandarius_) have short bills, which are slightly notched at the tip; head rather large; feathers on the upper and anterior part of the head erectile when the bird is irritated; those feathers at the base of the upper mandible are stiff, with short barbs. It is not less shy than other members of the family, although it frequents gardens, where it feeds on beans and peas, of which it seems to be particularly fond. Its food, however, is not confined to fruit and vegetables, as it picks up worms, insects, the eggs of small birds, and crustacea, after the manner of Crows and Magpies. Naturally irascible and quarrelsome, they are nevertheless easily tamed when taken young, and soon learn to pronounce a few words. They abound in Europe and the Indies. The European Jay (_Garrulus glandarius_), Fig. 218, is a pretty bird of soft and blended plumage, the feathers of the fore part of the head elongated, oblong, and erectile: its general colour is a delicate brownish red tinged with grey, approaching to purple on the back. The most conspicuous trait of the plumage is the patch of ultramarine blue, banded with blackish blue, on the primary coverts. [Illustration: Fig. 218.--European Jay (_Garrulus glandarius_, Belon).] [Illustration: Fig. 219.--The Nut-cracker Crow (_Nucifraga_, Briss.).] The American variety of Jay is not quite as large as the European representative. Its plumage is less brilliant. In characteristics they are much alike, being equally mischievous and dreaded by the smaller feathered denizens at the period of nesting. The NUT-CRACKER (_Nucifraga caryocatactes_) is furnished with a long, strong, and straight bill, with which it can penetrate under the bark of trees when in search of insects, and open the cones of firs and pines, on the kernels of which it feeds; failing these, it eats the hazel-nut and wild fruit, from which circumstance its name is derived. They inhabit the mountain forests of Europe and Asia, building their nests in the trunks of trees, to which they are capable of clinging, but not of climbing. [Illustration: Fig. 220.--European Roller (_Galgulus_, Briss.).] The ROLLERS (_Coracias garrula_), Fig. 220, have in their general appearance and habits considerable resemblance to the Jays; but they differ from the beak being more robust, and the nostrils uncovered; they are also more timid, withdrawing into the thickest parts of the woods, which are their favourite haunts. When taken young from the nest it is tameable. Dr. Meyer, of Offenbach, and others, have succeeded in rearing them; but although they become so tame as to know those who attend to their wants, they never grow familiar. Their favourite food consists of insects and their larvæ, worms, and the smaller reptiles; but in their absence they feed on berries, seeds, and certain roots. The bill of the Roller is black towards the point, becoming brown at the base, with a few bristles; the irides are formed of yellow and brown circles; the head, neck, breast, and belly present various shades of bluish verditer, changing to a palish green; the plumage of the upper part of the body is a brilliant azure blue on the shoulders, and reddish brown on the back; rump feathers purplish. Wing primaries dark bluish black, lighter on the edge; tail feathers pale greenish blue. They abound in Europe, Africa, and Southern Asia. Although the natural habitat of the bird is oak and beech forests, M. Vieillot tells us that in Malta, where trees are scarce, the bird nests on the ground. In Barbary it has been observed to build on the banks of the rivers, and Pennant observes that where trees are wanting it builds its nest in clayey banks. [Illustration: Fig. 221.--Starling (_Sturnus vulgaris_, Swainson).] The STARLINGS (_Sturnidæ_) are characterised by a straight bill, depressed towards the point. They are remarkable for their vivacity, and grave, sombre plumage, lit up with brilliant metallic reflections of green and blue. They are sociable birds, living in numerous flocks, being, says Selby, "particularly abundant in the fenny parts of Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire, where they roost among the reeds. Before retiring to rest they perform numerous manoeuvres in the air, the whole colony frequently describing rapid counter-flights round a common centre. They will sometimes continue repeating the eccentric evolutions for half an hour before they finally settle for the night." Their favourite food is seeds and berries, and occasionally insects, worms, and small terrestrial mollusks. They choose for their nests well-protected places, such as the hollows of decaying trees, crevices of walls, the belfries of old churches, the ledges of roofs, and sometimes even the interior of pigeon-houses. The nest is formed of dry grass, in which it lays five light blue eggs. The Starling is accused of seeking the shelter of the dovecot for the purpose of sucking the inhabitants' eggs, but this is now found to be a calumnious error." They are diffused over all quarters of the globe. There are two species described among European birds--_Sturnus vulgaris_ (the Common Starling), and _Sturnus unicolor_ (the Sardinian Starling), which is black, and without spots, with the anterior feathers very long, tapering, and drooping from the base of the neck. It is found in Algeria among the rocks, where it builds. It passes the winter on the African coast of the Mediterranean, in company with the Common Starling. Its flesh is bitter, and consequently unpleasant to the taste, but it is sought after for its docility, and for the ease with which it is taught to speak. [Illustration: Fig. 222.--The Pensile or Baltimore Oriole (_Icterus baltimorus_, Wood).] The BALTIMORE ORIOLES (_Xanthornis baltimorii_, Sw.) have the bill broad at the base, nearly conical and pointed; the upper mandible has the dorsal line slightly arched, the ridge narrow, the sides flat and sloping at the base. They are chiefly American birds, and have considerable resemblance in form and habit to the European Starlings. Like them, they are sprightly, light, and very rapid on the wing, live together in large flocks throughout the year, feeding on seeds, berries, and especially insects, and frequently committing ravages on cultivated fields and orchards. Some of this genera exhibit remarkable industry and skill in the construction of their nests: the most ingenious represents a kind of purse, about a yard in length and a foot in diameter, the mouth or entrance being placed sometimes at the upper extremity, sometimes on the side. Naturalists have subdivided them into many smaller groups or genera, the most important being the one here described, and which may well be taken as an example. They are confined entirely to North America. [Illustration: Fig. 223.--The Beef-eater (_Buphaga africana_, Levaill.).] The BEEF-EATERS (_Buphagus_, Briss.), Fig. 223, owe their name to a singular habit they have of lighting on the backs of ruminating mammalia, and picking off the insects or extracting the larvæ of OEstri which infest them--an operation which cattle submit to with great pleasure. Their food is not confined to the larvæ of the OEstri; they feed also upon the wood-bug and locusts: hence they are likewise called Locust Hunters. They generally unite in small flocks of six or eight. They are very wild, and take flight with a sharp cry of alarm on any one approaching their haunts. Among the congeners of the Beef-eater may be placed the Colius (Briss. and Linn.), which, like that bird, is an inhabitant of Africa. They are small, about the size and shape of the Yellow-hammer, and have a tuft on the head. They live in flocks of from twelve to twenty, which nest in common, and feed on fruit and young birds. According to Levaillant, they creep on the branches of trees, with the head downwards; and, strange to say, even sleep in this peculiar position, pressing one against the other. Their flesh is said to be very delicate. [Illustration: Fig. 224.--Crossbills (_Loxia curvirostra_, Linn.).] The CROSSBILLS (_Loxiadæ_) are remarkable for the form of their bill, the mandibles being compressed and recurved, crossing each other in contrary directions, the terminations being hooked, forming an instrument admirably adapted for dividing the scales of fir-cones so as to disclose the germs, which are favourite portions of their food. They are sometimes found near orchards, feeding on the kernels of apples, which their bill readily cuts. They are said to commit great ravages on the fruits of Normandy when they pass through that province, which they annually do in great flocks. This family present this peculiarity, which is almost unique among birds--that they build their nests and lay at all seasons. The Crossbills haunt the wooded mountains of the North of Europe and America. [Illustration: Fig. 225.--Grosbeak, or Hawfinch (_Loxia coccothraustes_, Linn.).] The SPARROW (_Passer_) is, perhaps, the best-characterised genus among the Passerine Conirostres. In it are included a great number of species with bills more or less thick at the base. Coming to the most remarkable of them, we have the Grosbeak (_Fringilla coccothraustes_, Temm.), Fig. 225, which is the type of the genus, for it is distinguished by the possession of a bill which is about three-quarters of an inch long, not less than half an inch in thickness at the base, and of immense strength when the size of the bird is considered, which scarcely exceeds that of the Thrush. It feeds on seeds, berries, and insects; the kernels of the hardest fruit cannot resist the powerful implement with which it is provided. Widely diffused throughout Europe, it is always met with in England during autumn, continuing with us till April, but it has not been recorded as breeding here. It is constantly found in France, where it appears in open country or woods, according to temperature. It is a quarrelsome and unsociable bird; and if placed in confinement with others, it will undoubtedly maltreat, and perhaps kill them. The Americans possess many species of _Fringilla_, some of them having plumage of a fine rose colour. [Illustration: Fig. 226.--Bullfinches (_Loxia pyrrhula_, Penn.).] The BULLFINCHES (_Pyrrhula vulgaris_, Gould), Fig. 226, are pretty little birds. Their cheeks, breast, and belly are a bright crimson, shaded with orange red; grey round the shoulders, with black head. They feed on various kinds of seeds or berries. They are easily tamed, being of a gentle, docile disposition. Their attachment to their master, and the ease with which they are taught to pipe, are their principal recommendations. In their natural state they construct their nest in the most inaccessible part of the thicket, usually in a black or white thorn bush. This is composed of small dry twigs, lined with fibrous roots. [Illustration: Fig. 227.--Siskins (_Fringilla spinus_, Penn.).] The SISKIN (_Carduelis spinus_, Yarrell), Fig. 227, may be mentioned among the numerous songsters which charm with their melodious notes. It is very pretty, although less richly coloured than the Goldfinch and others, its congeners. It is neat and compact in form; its bill resembles that of the Goldfinch, but is more compressed, the two mandibles in some specimens meeting only at the base. The plumage is soft, blended, and glossy. The HOUSE SPARROW (_Passer domesticus_, Yarrell), Fig. 228, is among the most interesting of the Passerinæ. It abounds all over Europe, from its most southern regions up to extreme north. Every one is acquainted with this little bird; lively, pert, and cunning, the true _gamin_ of the winged race. It lives in flocks in the neighbourhood of dwelling-houses, and even in the heart of large towns; it is familiar, but its familiarity is circumspect and sly. It haunts our streets and public places, but is careful to keep men and boys at a respectful distance. It has a notion that the friendship of the great is dangerous, and its prudence counsels it to avoid intimacies which might have troublesome consequences; it is only after multitudinous proofs of good offices that the Sparrow will form an unreserved treaty of friendship with man. The Sparrow quoted by Buffon, which not only followed its soldier master everywhere, but would recognise him from all the others in the regiment, proves they are both intelligent and capable of affection. [Illustration: Fig. 228.--House Sparrows (_Fringilla domestica_, Penn.).] Sparrows are eminently sociable, seeking their food and building their nests near each other, whether it be in crevices of walls or under the eaves of houses, in hedges or trees, or in the deserted nests of Swallows, which they have the effrontery to appropriate. In their nest, which is a bulky, soft, and warm structure, lined with wool, bristles, and hair, the female deposits from four to six eggs three times a year; their fecundity is consequently very great. They are omnivorous, but prefer seeds and the larvæ of insects to all other food. Oceans of ink have flowed to prove the ravages committed by Sparrows on the corn-fields, and to demonstrate that they should be exterminated by the farmer. But it is now generally agreed that the Sparrow is a benefactor, and belongs to the list of useful birds. Have we not seen in the Palatinate that after the Sparrow was proscribed and exterminated, the inhabitants were under the necessity of reimporting them in order to arrest the ravages of insects, which, in consequence of this bird's absence, had multiplied in a frightful manner? [Illustration: Fig. 229.--Goldfinches (_Fringilla carduelis_, Linn.).] [Illustration: Fig. 230.--Linnets (_Fringilla linota_, Penn.).] The GOLDFINCH (_Carduelis elegans_, Yarrell), Fig. 229, is at the same time the most gentle and peaceful of birds, and one of the prettiest of European races. It has the back brown, the face red, with a bright yellow spot upon each cheek; its voice is full, sweet, and harmonious; it is exceedingly docile, easily tamed and raised as a cage-bird; in the aviary it soon becomes familiar, testifying great attachment to those who take charge of it; it readily learns to sing and go through various exercises, such as drawing up the vessel containing its food and drink, firing a miniature cannon, and other similar tricks. The LINNETS (_Linota cannabina_, Yarrell), Fig. 230, have considerable analogy to the Goldfinch. They are, like them, extremely sociable, except at the period of incubation; that duty over, the individuals begin to muster in small flocks towards the end of autumn, which increase as the winter advances, when they betake themselves to sheltered districts, and to the neighbourhood of villages and farm-houses in search of food. They associate with various species, such as the Mountain Linnet, Green Linnet, and other small birds. The nest of the Linnet is generally placed in a bush of furze or heath. It is a neat structure, formed externally of blades of grass intermingled with moss and wool, and lined with hair of various kinds; sometimes with thistle-down. The female lays from four to six eggs, of an oval form, colour bluish white, marked with distinct spots of brownish black, purplish grey, and reddish brown. Should the nest be destroyed during incubation, the pair will build again, and lay two or three sets of eggs if needful; but the male is said to take no part in the building or incubation, although he watches the female with great solicitude, supplying her with food during the process. The Linnets feed principally on hemp and linseed, whence their popular name. In the winter season, in the absence of their favourite food, they attack the young buds of trees, and pick up the stray seeds about farm-yards. Their song in confinement is remarkably sweet, brilliant, and varied, but will not compare with the thrilling voice of the Blackbird or Thrush. The species are numerous, both in Europe and America, but there is a tendency to reduce their number, and to regard them as seasonal varieties of the species under consideration. The CHAFFINCH (_Fringilla coeleb, Linn.)_ Fig. 231, lives in flocks, except when breeding, like the Goldfinch and Linnets. But they differ from these members of the group in this--that their wing is less compact, and that they disperse themselves more in search of food than their congeners. Chaffinches are met with all over Europe, either as birds of passage or as permanent residents. They feed on various kinds of seeds and larvæ of insects, the latter of which they obtain in the early mornings of summer and autumn by searching the lower surface of the leaves of oak, ash, and other trees. They inhabit indifferently the woods, gardens, or high mountain ridges. In the early days of spring the mellow, modulated "tweet, tweet, tweet" of the Chaffinch is exceedingly pleasant to hear; but its monotony is apt to fatigue, for its eternal refrain makes it seem an affectation of gaiety, whence probably the French proverb, _Gai comme un pinson_. [Illustration: Fig. 231.--The Chaffinch (_Fringilla_, Gesner).] [Illustration: Fig. 232.--Canaries (_Carduelis canaria_, Wood).] The CANARIES (_Fringilla canaria_, Linn.), are only known by us as cage-birds, where they are recognised by their yellow plumage, more or less varied with green, although the facility with which they breed with the Linnet, Goldfinch, and others of the group, has introduced great varieties of colouring. Originally from the Canary Islands, they were first imported into Europe in the fifteenth century, and such was the charm of their song, added to their natural docility and gay plumage, that every one was eager to possess them. Buffon says, in his elegant manner, that if the Nightingale is the songster of the woods, the Canary is the chamber musician. Their race propagates, moreover, so rapidly that the poorest can afford to possess them; for these elegant little creatures are to be found among every grade of society, pouring out their joyous melody in the garret of the poor workman with as much energy as in the gorgeous saloons of the wealthy. [Illustration: Fig. 233.--Whidah Finch, or Widow Birds (_Emberiza paradisea_, Linn.).] There are two distinct species of the Canary, the Plain and Variegated, or, as the bird-fanciers designate them, the Mealy, or Spangled, and Jonquils; but between these innumerable varieties have sprung up from cross-breeding with the Goldfinch, Linnet, and Siskin. These cross-breeds are often charming songsters; but, like all mules, they are completely sterile. Bechstein is of opinion that our Domestic Canary has a cross of the Siskin in it: this belief for a long time existed, but most naturalists now are of opinion that the Siskin belongs to a different genus. The WIDOW BIRDS, or WHIDAH FINCHES (_Vidua_, Sw.), Fig. 233, are among the most remarkable of the hard-billed, seed-eating birds to which they belong. The long, drooping tail feathers which adorn the males in the breeding season give them a very singular appearance. The upper part of their plumage is of a faded blackish brown, assuming a paler hue on the wings and lateral tail feathers. The whole body is tinged with this faded black, gradually narrowing as it descends to the middle of the breast; a broad, rich orange-brown collar proceeds from the back of the neck, uniting with a tinge of the same colour on the sides of the breast, this last hue passing into the pale buff colour of the body, abdomen, and thighs, and the under tail coverts being of the same colour as the upper ones--a hue to which the bird is indebted for its popular and scientific name. The tail feathers are black; the four lateral ones on each side slightly graduated, and rather longer than the one immediately above. The next two are the long, drooping feathers, externally convex, so conspicuous in the male bird, which, in fine specimens, measure a foot in length from base, and about three-quarters of an inch in width. The body of the bird is about the size of a Canary. They are natives of South Africa and Senegal. Near to the Widow Birds in the system we may place the Java Sparrow, Rice Bird, or Paddee Bird of the East Indies and Eastern Archipelago (_Fringilla oryzivora_, Sw.), Fig. 234. They are eagerly sought for as pets, in consequence of their brilliant plumage, and the facility with which they learn innumerable tricks. The WEAVER BIRDS (_Ploceus_, Cuvier) close the series of _Fringillidæ_. They live in flocks in the interior of Africa, where they feed on the cereals and the young of weaker birds. They chirp, but have no song; and they owe their name to the inimitable art which they display in constructing their nests. These vary in form according to the species, and are composed of grass, rushes, and straw. They are usually suspended from the branches of a tree, the entrance being below. Sometimes they are spiral-shaped, occasionally round; in fact, they are of every imaginable outline. Mr. Swainson describes the nest of a species of _Loxia_ built on a branch extending over a river or a pool of water, shaped like a chemist's retort suspended from the head, while the shank was eight or ten inches long, at the bottom of which was the entrance, all but touching the water. [Illustration: Fig. 234.--Java Sparrows, or Rice Birds (_Loxia oryzivora_, Linn.).] Another species of the _Ploceinæ_ construct their nests in a clump under one roof or cover, each nest having a separate entrance on the under side, but not communicating with that next it. Another variety is said each year to attach a new nest to that of the previous year, and nothing is more picturesque than these groups of nests thus suspended to the branches of a tree. But the most curious of birds, in respect to nidification, are the Republican Weaver Birds (_Loxia socia_, Latham). These establish themselves, to the number of five or six hundred, upon the same tree, constructing their nests under a common roof, the one backing against the other, like the cells of a bee-hive, all living together in the happiest manner. The BUNTINGS (_Emberizidæ_) are intimately associated with the Passerine birds. They are characterised by a short, stout, conical bill, the upper mandible narrower than the lower, its dorsal outline nearly straight, sides convex, edges inflected, the tip acute; the lower mandible has the angle short, broad, and rounded. In the palate is a hard, bony knob to bruise the seed which forms their principal food. Their general habitat is the fields and hedges upon the margin of woods; some few species haunt the banks of rivers. They build their nests on the ground, or on low bushes, and in this they deposit four or five eggs. The young, when hatched, are blue. Their plumage is deficient in brilliancy, but their song is not without attractions. In autumn, when they leave the colder regions to go south, fattened with the rich produce of the harvest-fields, they have a rich, delicate flavour, and are then in France eagerly sought after for the table, and frequently brought to market along with Larks and Ortolans. [Illustration: Fig. 235.--The Reed Bunting (_Emberiza schoeniclus_, Yarrell).] [Illustration: Fig. 236.--The Cirl Bunting (_Emberiza cirlus_, Yarrell).] The Buntings are divided into the Buntings properly so called, in which the claw of the back toe is short and hooked, and the Spurred or Lark Buntings (_Plectrophanes_, Meyer), in which it is long, straight, compressed, and slightly arched. To the first of these divisions belongs the Reed Bunting (_Emberiza schoeniclus_, McGillivray), Fig. 235, which may be considered the type of the group, and is a constant resident all the year round in France and England, but migratory in Scotland and other northern countries. The Cirl Bunting (_E. cirlus_), Fig. 236, on the other hand, although found in Devon and Cornwall, and other parts of England, is only plentiful in the southern parts of Europe, and does not migrate into the colder regions. [Illustration: Fig. 237.--The Ortolan Bunting (_Emberiza hortulana_, McGillivray).] The Ortolan Bunting (_E. hortulana_, Yarrell), Fig. 237, so well known to gourmets and pot-hunters of Southern Europe, migrates periodically. Some have been found in various parts of England, but they were evidently stragglers, driven there by accidental circumstances. They abound on the northern shores of the Mediterranean, in Western Central Asia, in France, and as far north as Norway, where they are known to breed. Their favourite resorts, according to Meyer, are the borders of woods, hedges, and fields, near a water-course, clothed with low willows and bushes. They are very shy: still great numbers are captured in nets, when they are kept in confinement, and crammed for the table. The Snow Bunting (_Plectrophanes nivalis_, Gould) rarely shows itself in France, and Montagu describes them as rare in England, but McGillivray found them in considerable flocks all over Scotland, from the Outer Hebrides to the Lothians. On the 4th of August, 1830, being on the summit of Ben-na-muic-dhu, one of the loftiest mountains in Scotland, he observed a beautiful male flitting about in the neighbourhood of a drift of snow, and some days after, in descending from Lochnagar on a botanising expedition, he noticed a flock of eight individuals flying about among the granite rocks of a corry, evidently a family. "It is, therefore," he thinks, "very probable that it breeds on the higher Grampians." The Conirostral Passerines include the family of _Paridæ_, or TITS. The Titmice, as they are sometimes called, are small birds, seldom attaining the size of the Common Sparrow. Their general form is moderately full, the head large in proportion, and broadly ovate. Their bill is straight, short, and tapering, furnished with hairs at the base, but their individuality is distinguished by their specific peculiarities rather than by physiognomy. A characteristic feature is their audacity, almost approaching to impudence, and their courage, the instinctive result of their sociability. These qualities secure for them a well-defined place in the group under consideration. Who discovers the Owl during the day? Who besieges him with its clamours? Who pursues him with unintermitting blows of his bill? Who rouses the whole tribe of small birds against the nocturnal tyrant? It is the Titmouse. Bellicose as bird can be, it gives full scope to its most warlike instincts whenever a suitable occasion presents itself, its want of physical power being compensated for by the vigour of its assault. The Tit is, indeed, the incarnation of motion; it is continually on the _qui vive_, skipping from branch to branch, at one moment piercing the crevices of the bark with its bill in search of food, the next hanging suspended from a branch, to which it clings with its claws, while it picks off the insects which occupy the lower surface of the leaves. Nevertheless, it varies its food according to seasons and circumstances. Not only does it devour all kinds of insects, not excepting wasps and bees, but even cereals and fruits. It is even carnivorous, for it has been known to kill weak or sickly birds in order to devour them. Some species have a most unnatural partiality for grease, and devour it whenever opportunity offers. They are sociable birds, inhabiting thickets or woods, living in flocks the greater part of the year, and showing strong attachment to each other, so that a flock of them will suffer themselves to be decimated, and even altogether destroyed, rather than desert a wounded companion. In the spring they pair, and each isolated couple now seek out a suitable place in which they may rear their future progeny. The position of the nest varies with the species. The Great Tit, or Oxeye (_Parus major_, Selborne), builds in the hole of some wall, or in a cavity formed in a decayed tree. It is usually composed of moss, hair, and feathers. The Blue Tit (_P. cæruleus_, Selborne) occasionally builds its nest in very insecure places. Mr. Duncan, one of Mr. McGillivray's correspondents, in a MS. note now before us, says, "In the year 1836 I discovered the nest of a pair of Blue Tits in the shaft of a pump well, which was drenched and partly carried away every time water was drawn; still they persevered in building. Gladly would I have left them there, but they kept the water in a continually muddy state, and their removal became absolutely necessary." The Coal Tit (_P. ater_, Selborne) chooses the crevice of a wall or decayed tree. So does the Marsh Tit (_P. palustris_, Selborne). The Crested Tit (_P. cristatus_, Selborne), Fig. 238, is a retiring, solitary little bird, provided with plumage both brilliant and beautifully blended. They are rarely seen in England, but several flocks are recorded as appearing in Scotland. They are said to breed annually in plantations near Glasgow, in the forest of Glenmore, and near the Spey two were killed in 1836. In the North of Ireland, in autumn, they are not uncommon wherever plantations of larch trees are to be found. Their nest, according to Temminck, occurs in holes of trees, the oak being preferred, in rocks, or in a deserted Crow's or Squirrel's nest. The nest of the Long-tailed Tit, or Mufflin (_P. caudatus_), is, perhaps, the most skilful specimen of construction. It is oval in form, and has two openings, one for entrance, the other for exit--an arrangement which the long tail of the bird renders necessary. This singular bird--the most diminutive of our birds except the Kinglets--differs from the Tits in its softer and more bulky plumage and tail. Its flight is undulating and rapid; its long tail and body muffled up to the chin in dense plumage giving the observer the idea of an arrow flying through the air. The Tits abound throughout Europe, and are also found in America; some of them remaining all the year with us, although they are all birds of passage. [Illustration: Fig. 238.--The Crested Tit (_Parus cristatus_, Selborne).] The LARKS (_Alaudinæ_) complete the Conirostral Passerinæ. They are distinguished by the great muscularity of their gizzard, and their elongated and slightly-curved claws, which are sometimes longer than the toe itself, indicative of a ground-bird; in short, they pass their lives on the ground, in the bosom of great grassy plains, or soaring in the air. This family renders eminent service to agriculturists by the enormous quantity of worms, caterpillars, and grasshoppers it daily devours. The Lark builds its nest in a furrow, or between two clods of earth, without much skill it is true, but with sufficient intelligence to know that it is necessary it should be concealed. Here it lays four or five eggs, spotted or freckled; in favourable seasons three sets of eggs in the year are sometimes hatched. The young birds break the shell after fifteen days' incubation, and are in a condition to leave their cradle at the end of fifteen more; but the mother still continues her surveillance, guides their steps, satisfies their wants, and continually hovers near them until the demands of another brood take her away, when they are abandoned to themselves, being now so fully fledged as no longer to require maternal care. [Illustration: Fig. 239.--The Crested Lark (_Alauda cristata_, Linn.).] The Lark is the living emblem of happy, peaceful labour, the songster of the cultivated earth. In the early dawn the male bird rises aloft, and with soaring wing fills the air with his joyous notes, and calls the husbandman to his labour. Higher and higher he mounts, until he is lost to sight; but his voice is still heard. The song is significant; it is the hymn of good fellowship--a call to all the dwellers of the plain. The season of incubation over, the Larks assemble in numerous flocks, having now only their food to think of; and that being plentiful, they soon get plump and fat. In countries like France this is the signal for their destruction, for persons assemble from all quarters to make a _razzia_ on these valuable innocents, using every means to accomplish their work of death; and unless the legislature interfere in their behalf by passing laws for their preservation, it will finish probably by exterminating the race. Taking Larks by means of a mirror is a _ruse_ based upon the natural curiosity of this species, which leads it irresistibly towards any reflected light. The slaughterer places a glass, or any object that will reflect the sun's rays, in a field, concealing himself in its neighbourhood. The Larks, attracted by the light, come within reach of his blows, and fall around the mirror, undismayed by the fate of their companions. In this family the only species which lives in confinement is the Sky-lark, and that only by very great care. It sings unceasingly in a cage, and even imitates the song of other birds. Larks are found all over the Old World, especially in Europe and Asia. The principal species are the Sky-lark (_Alauda arvensis_), the Crested Lark (_Alauda cristata_), the Wood Lark (_Alauda arborea_), and the Shore Lark (_Alauda alpestris_). The Crested Lark (_Alauda cristata_), Fig. 239, abounds on the continent of Europe, but is rare in this country, one or two specimens only being recorded. It is migratory, moving northward in spring, and again toward the south on the approach of winter. It is a handsome bird, about the size and appearance of the Sky-lark, having a few feathers on the crown forming a crest pointing backwards. FISSIROSTRES. The _Fissirostral Passerinæ_ are characterised by a broad, short bill, flattened horizontally, and slightly hooked; mandibles slightly concave; mouth very wide. They are essentially insectivorous. They comprehend three genera:--1. Swallows (_Hirundo_). 2. House Martins (_Chelidon_). 3. Sand Martins (_Cotyle_). The SWALLOWS are recognisable by their long pointed wings, forked tail, and excessively short tarsi. The air is the true element of these birds; they fly with a facility, lightness, and rapidity quite inconceivable; indeed, their existence is one eternal flight. They even feed their young on the wing when the latter first begin to fly. Watch them in the air, and they will be seen to rise and fall, tracing the shortest curves, crossing and interlacing each other's course, moderating their pace suddenly when at their utmost speed in order to follow the eccentric course of some winged insect which they have doomed for their food. Such, indeed, is the rapidity of their progress that some of the species have been known to travel at the rate of thirty leagues an hour. [Illustration: Fig. 240.--Window Swallows (_Hirundo rustica_, Linn.).] This wonderful power, however, is only developed at the sacrifice of another locomotive faculty, for they are bad walkers. With their short limbs, activity on their feet is impossible; and if by chance they are placed on the ground, with difficulty they rise again on the wing. On the other hand, their sight is excellent--equal to even that of the Eagle or Falcon. According to Spallanzani, who made numerous experiments on the Swallows, the Martin perceives the winged fly passing through the air at the distance of more than a hundred and twenty yards. Swallows are celebrated for their migratory journeys. In the early days of spring they reach Europe, not in flocks, but as isolated individuals or in pairs. They occupy themselves almost immediately either in repairing their last year's nests, or, if these have been destroyed, in constructing new ones. Among the arrivals are many young birds of the previous year which have not had nests, and yet it is not a little extraordinary that these, after six months' absence, return with unerring certainty to the old dwelling where hatched. This fact has been too often recorded to admit of any doubt on the subject. The form, structure, and locality of the Swallow's nest vary with the species. The Common Swallows (_H. rustica_), Fig. 240, build theirs in the upper angles of the window of some country house, under the eaves of a roof, or on the interior wall of a chimney. A chimney seems an odd place to select for such a purpose; and White of Selborne relates, not without some expressions of wonder at such a choice, that near the middle of May one of these little birds began to form her nest about five or six feet down a chimney adjoining the kitchen fire. Their nests consist of a crust or shell of mud mixed with straw, and lined with fine grass and feathers. Other species, sometimes in vast numbers, establish themselves in the clefts of dead trees. Audubon estimated at the incredible number of eleven thousand the quantity of Swallows which had taken up their dwelling in a sycamore tree (familiarly known there as a button wood) near Louisville, Kentucky, United States. Some Swallows prefer rocks or caverns, and hollow out in steep escarpments a gallery from two to three feet in depth, at the extremity of which they place their nest. Sometimes the nest is formed of twigs torn by the bird from the dead branches of trees, and bound together by a viscous liquid which flows from the bird's mouth. When, after a month's labour, the Swallows have finished their dwellings, the female deposits from four to six eggs. Incubation commences, and continues from twelve to fifteen days, during which the male bird exhibits intense interest in the proceedings, carrying food continually to his mate, and passing the night in her immediate vicinity, twittering and chirping all day long to cheer the mother at her task. Two or three times in the season they thus raise a family. From the time when the little ones are hatched the parent birds attend them with all the care their feebleness demands, and often exhibit remarkable proofs of affection. When the young Swallows feel strong enough to try their wings, the old ones tenderly guide them on their first attempts at flight, and teach them how pursuit of insects in the air is successfully performed. Boerhaave quotes an instance where a Swallow, returning from some distant excursion, found the house in which it had built its nest in flames. It did not hesitate an instant to throw itself into the fire in order to save its young. Swallows generally prefer the proximity of a lake or river, the surface of water being always the rendezvous of crowds of insects, among which they can reap a plentiful harvest. Swallows are extremely sociable; they assemble in large flocks, and appear to be bound together by strong attachment, for they aid each other in trying circumstances. "I have seen a Swallow," says Dupont de Nemours, "which was unfortunate, and had, I know not how, entangled its foot in a ball of string, one end of which was attached to the roof of the College of the Four Nations; its strength was exhausted, and it hung uttering painful cries at the end of the string, only endeavouring to release itself occasionally by fluttering attempts at flight. All the Swallows between the Tuileries and the Pont Neuf, and perhaps for a much greater distance, were assembled to the number of many thousands, forming a perfect cloud, uttering cries of alarm. All that came flew past, giving a peck of their bill at the fatal string; these blows, being frequently repeated, and always directed at the same spot, were finally successful, for in half an hour the string was cut and the captive set at liberty." Another fact, related by the great naturalist Linnæus, proves how strong is the spirit of brotherhood with these birds. When the Window Swallows returned in spring to take possession of their nests, a certain number of them were found occupied by Sparrows. One of the more legitimate proprietors, thus despoiled of his property, endeavoured by every possible means to recover possession, but all was unavailing. Under these circumstances the assistance of its companions was demanded. The whole assembly proceeded to besiege the intruder. It resisted, intrenching itself in its fort, and in revenge the ousted Swallows brought mud in their bills, and actually walled up the entrance to the citadel and entombed the interloper in his cell. The truth of this account, which is repeated by many naturalists, has been denied; but Mr. McGillivray, than whom we have no more reliable author, records three well-authenticated similar instances. The Swallow generally leaves us in the month of September in order to seek a milder climate, and one providing more abundant food in winter. Some time before their departure their cries are incessant, and great agitation is seen in their ranks; they assemble in some elevated place, as if to hold council and deliberate over their journey, and fix the date of their departure; finally, a day is decided on, which when it arrives, all the Swallows of the neighbourhood mass at an appointed place, and after certain evolutions, intended, no doubt, to determine the route, they advance in one mass towards the shores of the Mediterranean, whence they pass into Africa. Although they are of all birds the strongest on the wing, and best adapted for a long journey, they cannot accomplish this without rest if adverse winds should arise. Ships passing are frequently boarded by stragglers which light on the rigging; and both at Gibraltar and Tangiers large flocks are occasionally seen to arrive in a state of great exhaustion. Those stragglers which, through weakness or the duties of maternity, are prevented from joining the great flocks, depart some days later in smaller parties. Occasionally, however, a few individuals seem to remain with us all the year round, contriving to survive the most severe winters, which has given rise to the supposition that the Swallow has the power of hibernating, or of remaining in a state of torpor during the winter, and returning to animation in the spring. This much-controverted point has now been consigned among the mythical legends to which it belongs. Swallows have in all ages possessed the sympathies of mankind, some of the ancients regarding them as sacred birds; nor are they ungrateful for the good feeling they excite. The services they render in destroying vast quantities of noxious insects, not to speak of their gentle habits, mutual attachment to each other, and the happy presage they bring with them of spring's advent, contribute to make them welcome visitors. Nevertheless there are instances where these proper sentiments yield to the love of destruction--where their innocent confidence is rewarded by death. [Illustration: Fig. 241.--The Cliff Swallow (_Hirundo fulva_, Gin.).] Swallows generally have the breast and belly white, and the upper parts of the body black, tinted with a reflected blue or peach colour. There are about sixty species spread over the globe, of which six only are natives of Europe. They are divided into Swallows proper (_Hirundo_), Martins (_Chelidons_), Sand Martins (_Cotyle_), and Swifts (_Cypselus_). The Martins are larger in size than the true Swallows; have the wings longer, and consequently their powers of flight are greater and their speed more sustained; their claws are more robust and hooked. The principal species we have already named. It is only necessary to mention the Cliff Swallow (Fig. 241), the Chimney Martin, the Bank Martin, and the Alpine Swift (_Cypselus alpinus_), Fig. 242. [Illustration: Fig. 242.--The Alpine Swift (_Cypselus melba_, Wood).] Among the foreign species the SALANGANE SWALLOW (Fig. 243) may be mentioned, so famous over the world for its edible nest. This bird inhabits the rocks and caverns of the sea-shore in Sumatra and Java. When building it eats of the plant called fucus, which abounds in these regions; this is metamorphosed in the bird's stomach, and afterwards disgorged, to fabricate the walls of its nest. The fucus thus devoured forms the nutritive substance so eagerly sought after by the Eastern gourmet. The consumption of the nest of the Salangane (Fig. 244) in China, in spite of its high price, is very considerable. From the days of Buffon there have been exported from the coast of Cochin China four millions of them annually; and the proprietors of one cavern in the island of Java receive annually fifty thousand florins for rent alone. [Illustration: Fig. 243.--The Salangane Swallow (_Hirundo esculenta_, White).] The distinctive features of the GOATSUCKERS (_Caprimulgus_) are a short, much-depressed bill; the body small in proportion to the plumage; the neck short; the head large, broad, and depressed; the eyes very large and broad; the feet very small; tarsi partially feathered; toes four, the lower surface broad and flattened, the anterior toes connected by basal membranes; claws moderate, arched, and compressed. The plumage is full, soft, downy, and blended, like the Owl's; the wings have the second and third quills longest; tail long and rounded. Almost all the species have strong bristles along the base of the upper mandible, and some have the feathers of the face radiated, like those of the Owls. [Illustration: Fig. 244.--Nest of the Salangane Swallow.] The Goatsuckers are solitary birds, living generally in pairs, sleeping during the day, and issuing from their nest with the setting sun, or possibly earlier in gloomy weather, to chase the crepuscular and nocturnal insects on which they feed. They move silently and with great rapidity. Some authors say that when on the wing they keep the mouth open; but this is not supported by facts, and is opposed to reason. The insects they principally devour are moths, dragon-flies, beetles, crickets, cockchafers, and mosquitoes. Their usefulness, therefore, is nearly equal to that of the Swallow. As they get very plump and fat in the autumn, they fall a sacrifice to the gunner, and in their turn are eaten by gourmets greater than themselves. They are migratory birds, travelling only during the night. They are readily distinguished by the bristles at the base of the bill, and by the claws of the middle toe, which is toothed. The object of this toothed appendage has been the subject of speculation. Some writers fond of the marvellous even surmise that it is intended to comb and smooth the head feathers. Mr. Vigors is of opinion that it may be useful as a further power of prehension, citing, in support of his view, the family of the _Ardeidæ_ among the Wading birds, which exhibit an analogous construction in the middle nail. Through Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australia the Goatsuckers are diffused, and naturalists have divided them into several sub-genera, such as _Podargus_, represented by _Podargus humeralis_ of the Gold River, and _Podargus javanensis_, the Chabba-wonno of Java, and the Guacharo Bird, _Steatornis villot_ of Humboldt and Bonpland. The typical species of _Caprimulgus_ is the NIGHT-JAR (_C. europæus_), Fig. 245. It is about the size of a Thrush; and Montagu states that he observed on one occasion a flock of eight or ten on the wing together, in the dusk of the evening, skimming over the surface of the ground, after the manner of Swallows, in pursuit of insects. Its nest is of the simplest kind, for it deposits its eggs on the bare ground, or upon a few dry leaves. These eggs, in number only two, are hatched by the female in fourteen days. The Common Night-jar is chiefly found on furzy commons, wild bushy heaths, and broken hilly ground in the neighbourhood of thickets and woods. During the day it lies concealed in the scrub, issuing forth in the balmy summer evenings to pursue its insect prey on the wing. On the prairies of North America, especially those intersected by sloughs, dozens of these birds may be seen at the hour of sunset, their swift, powerful, and graceful flight being worthy of the greatest admiration. They are there called Bull Bats, and are often accused by the ignorant of the crime of sucking milk from cows--about as probable as snakes being guilty of the same offence; yet there are hundreds who believe in such impossibilities. The Night-jar is a bird of evil omen in the estimation of our rural population: such it has been considered since the days of Aristotle, and possibly even further back. The reverse should be the case, for the benefit it produces by clearing the air of noxious insects is incalculable. The GUACHAROS are singular birds, which were first described by MM. Humboldt and Bonpland as being found in the interior of a vast Columbian cavern--the Grotto of Caripe. Their hooked bill and general aspect are more robust than the Night-jars, for they more resemble birds of prey. They inhabit in thousands the deep recesses of the caverns of the Cumana Chain, hanging to the walls by their pointed claws. In these caves, which they only leave during the night, they build their nests. Unlike their congeners, they feed only on grain and seeds. The Indians of Caripe enter these sombre domains from time to time, and make raids upon their ranks, for they are deservedly esteemed as great delicacies. [Illustration: Fig. 245.--The Night-jar (_Caprimulgus europæus_, Sw.).] DENTIROSTRES. The _Passerine Dentirostres_ are characterised by a bill more or less strong, compressed on each side of the point. They feed on berries and insects, and comprehend numerous genera, including the Fly-catchers (_Muscicapidæ_), the Manakins (_Piprinæ_), the Warblers (_Sylvinæ_), the Lyres (_Lyra_), the Orioles (_Oriolus_), the Philedons (_Meliphagidæ_), the Dippers (_Cucelus_), the Thrushes (_Turdus_), the Tanagers (_Tanagrinæ_), the Caringas (_Coracina_), and the Butcher Birds (_Lanius_). M. Lesson thinks the _Muscicapidæ_ should consist of the genera _Tyrannus_, _Monacha_, _Eurylaimus_, _Platyrhynchus_, _Todus_, _Myiagra_, _Muscicapa_, _Alectrurus_, _Drymophila_, _Formicivora_, _Rhipidura_, _Seisura_, _Psophodes_, and _Euicurus_. Of these, _Eurylaimus_ have a very large, depressed, and cleft bill. They are of more elegant form than plumage; for their colouring is devoid of brilliant tints. They live a retiring life in marshes, and upon the banks of lakes and rivers, feeding upon the worms and insects which abound in such localities. They are about the size of the Thrush, and they inhabit the isles of Oceania. The MANAKINS (_Piprinæ_, Sw.) have the bill rather short; the upper mandible much curved, and pierced with large nostrils; the feet longish, slender, and weak; the external toes reverted towards the middle. These birds are natives of South America, and are gifted with brilliant plumage. The _Rupicola_ (Briss.), or Cock of the Rock, is remarkable for the lively and delicate shades of the colour of its plumage, and for a graceful crest which decorates its crown. It prefers sombre localities, and retires into clefts and caverns when pursued. It is very wild, and only issues from its hiding-place in search of the fruits which form its food. Under the most favourable circumstances these birds are difficult to approach, taking flight at the slightest appearance of danger. Their name comes from their size, and also from their habit of scratching up the earth, and flapping their wings like the Domestic Cock. They are natives of South America and Malaya. The best-known species, _Rupicola aurantia_ (Vieillot), is a native of Guiana; its plumage is bright orange, and the crest is formed by two rows of feathers, so arranged as to form a semicircle. The WARBLERS (_Sylvianæ_, Sw.) are readily recognised by their short, slender, and tapering bill, constituting a numerous series of birds, among which we note the Fauvette (_Sylvia hortensis_), Gold-crested Wren (_Regulus auricapellus_), the Wren (_Troglodytes_), the Whin Chats (_Saxicola_), and many other genera. All these are of small size, and have the singular property of imparting a vibratory motion to their tails. They are chiefly denizens of our woods, thickets, and gardens, where they fill the air with their melody. They are generally migratory, arriving in the spring, and departing at the fall of the leaf. Living, except in autumn, almost exclusively on insects and their larvæ, they render in this respect eminent services to man; but it is a curious fact that at that period these birds cease to be insectivorous, and feed on fruits--among others, figs and grapes, whence the name of _Bec-figues_ applied to them in the South of France. There they are most eagerly sought for, the attraction being their flesh, which is considered most delicate. Warblers prefer the woods and sloping hill-sides, or the banks of rivers, clothed with trees and shrubs, for their residence. In the first rank of the Warblers stands the NIGHTINGALE (_Philomela luscinia_, Selby), Fig. 246, celebrated all over the world for its song, which is superior, without any doubt, to that of all other birds. In size it is somewhat greater than the Garden Warbler, which it resembles in its homely attire. Many have been the attempts made to describe this far-famed bird. Naturally shy, the Nightingale retires into the freshest and most sheltered places, rarely exposing itself to observation. Brushwood and thickets, witch-elms and evergreen trees, growing on the banks of some retired water-course, are its favourite dwelling. It is among these that it establishes its nest, built without care, at irregular height, and sometimes even on the ground. It possesses this peculiarity--that it sings not only during the day, but also in the night; but let any alarming noise approach its retreat, and it stops instantly. It seems to love solitude above all things. Audubon, the American naturalist, has described some of the distinctive characteristics of the bird with a few graphic touches. He has left his downy couch, and sallied forth to watch the eventful moment when nature arises, fresh, blooming, and full of renovated vigour. In his wanderings he comes upon a Nightingale. "In the midst of a thicket," he says, "I now see a solitary bird, humble in its attire, and of most modest mien, peeping at me with a caution so uncommon, and yet so inviting, that I feel tempted to seek its acquaintance. With care I approach the feathered stranger. Its form is somewhat elongated, yet not incompact; its eyes are large, and of peculiar mildness; it stands rather high, on a pair of light flesh-coloured, and, as it were, transparent legs; its wings, which are of moderate length, droop, and seem at intervals to tremble; and, as it moves from one twig to another, I see it hops, or leaps, and does not walk step by step, like many other birds. Its colour is a dull brownish olive, but the hind part of the back and the tail are of a richer tint, though corresponding with the general hue. At this moment it flies lightly to the ground, hops a few steps, picks up a grub, and returns to its former station." [Illustration: Fig. 246.--The Nightingale (_Luscinia Philomela_, Wood).] "The Nightingale," says McGillivray, "which in summer is spread over the greater part of the Continent, extending its migrations to Sweden and the temperate parts of Russia, arrives in the South of England about the middle of April, or a few days later, should the weather be severe. The females, according to various observers, come from a week to ten days after the males. Individuals settle in the southern counties, including part of Devonshire, in the eastern and midland districts, and as far north as York and Carlisle; but none are to be seen in Cornwall, Wales, or the north-western parts of England, although it is found much farther north on the Continent." It is alleged that the migration of the Nightingale does not extend into Scotland. Mr. Duncan, one of Mr. McGillivray's most reliable correspondents, states that a pair of Nightingales arrived in Calder Wood, in West Lothian, in the early part of the summer of 1826. "Before and about midnight, when the full moon shone bright and clear, the warble of the male was first heard; it soon attracted a number of admiring listeners, who hastened to the spot. The owner of the wood was anxious to preserve them, thinking they might breed; but, in spite of his care, the male was shot, upon which the female left the wood." In France they arrive singly, and depart alone about the middle of August, in order to pass into Africa or Asia. The SEDGE WARBLER (_Salicaria phragmites_, Yarrell) is a delicate, lively little bird, haunting the margins of streams and pools overgrown with weeds, sedges, and other aquatic plants, in the midst of which it seeks its food, and nestles so secretly that it very frequently eludes observation. Mr. McGillivray found a nest of this species on the marshy borders of Duddingston Loch, near Edinburgh. It was placed in the midst of a large clump of _Solanum dulcamara_, supported by the branches, and so hidden that he only found it after cutting off a great number of flowering twigs. This nest was composed of leaves, grasses, and other slender plants, loosely but neatly put together. [Illustration: Fig. 247.--The Night Warbler (_Salicaria arundinacea_, Yarrell).] The NIGHT WARBLER (_Salicaria arundinacea_, Yarrell), Fig. 247, closely resembles the preceding in form and size. Its song is loud, cheerful, and much diversified, night being generally selected for the display of its vocal powers. Its nest is composed of blades and stalks of grasses, lined with finer plants and hair; is of a conical form, with the apex downwards; in depth from four to five inches externally, and three in the interior, and as much in breadth at the top; and is fastened to the stalks of several reeds, placed some distance above the ground--"an arrangement," says Montagu, "which gives security to the eggs," which are four or five in number, of an oblong shape, greyish-brown colour, spotted with dark olive, and usually marked with one or two blackish, irregular lines. [Illustration: Fig. 248.--The Robin, or Redbreast (_Erythaca rubecula_, Yarrell).] The Warbler known to French writers as _la Fauvette Couturière_ is the most curious of all in respect to the manner of building its nest. Aided by bill and claws, it stretches out into a thread fibres gathered from the trees; selecting broad resistant leaves, it drills them with its bill, sews them together with the cotton which it has prepared, and in this manner constructs a bag which serves the purpose of completely hiding its nest from the observation of enemies. This species belongs to India and the islands of the Indian Ocean, and is unknown in Europe. Among other well-known species we may mention the GARDEN WARBLER (_Carruca hortensis_, Selby), known also as the Whitethroat, Greater Prettychaps, and other pet names; also the BLACKCAP (_Sylvia atricapilla_), both of which abound near dwelling-houses surrounded by gardens. [Illustration: Fig. 249.--Wrens (_Regulus cristatus_, Temm.).] The ROBIN, or REDBREAST (Fig. 248), is too familiar a friend to require description. It is lively, pert, pugnacious, cheerful, and a universal favourite. In April the Robin betakes itself to the woods and thickets, where it rears its brood. On the approach of winter it returns to civilised life, when, as M. Figuier informs us, it constitutes excellent game! No doubt it is edible; but where is the consumer of such to be found? Not in the British Islands, we hope. The WRENS (_Motacilla_) are the smallest of European birds. The Golden-crested Kinglet (_Motacilla regulus_, Linn.), Fig. 249, inhabits the woods and thickets of the cold and temperate regions of the earth, where, among the twigs, with great agility it searches for insects, on which it feeds. While thus occupied it emits a single shrill, feeble note, too often accepted by heartless boys as a tell-tale of its whereabouts. [Illustration: Fig. 250.--The Common or European Wren (_Motacilla troglodytes_, Linn.).] The European Wren (_Troglodytes europæus_, Cuvier), Fig. 250, is widely diffused over Europe, from Greenland to the southern parts of Italy, and from Trebizond to the west coast of Ireland. Like the Robin, it has become, in a sense, a sacred bird, and few venture to commit any outrage on the familiar little creature. Its nest is found in all kinds of situations; a favourite one being under the turfed summit of a stone wall skirting a brook, or on the edge of a wood or shrubbery. It is an elegant structure, oval in form, and dome-shaped, with the entrance at the side, the materials varying with the locality; but the lining generally is soft, downy feathers. The Wood Warbler, or Wood Wren (_Motacilla trochilus_, Bewick), Fig. 251, is a delicate, active little bird, pretty generally diffused. It is of retiring and unobtrusive manners, its favourite haunt being among the willows and osiers which skirt some sluggish stream. While flitting about in such localities it emits a small chirping noise; but during the months of May and June it is often heard chanting a soft, mellow, and very pleasing song. In autumn great numbers of them may be seen gliding among the fruit trees and bushes. [Illustration: Fig. 251.--The Wood Warbler, or Wood Wren (_Sylvia sibilatrix_, Bechstein).] The STONE CHAT (_Saxicola rubicola_, Temm.), Fig. 252, has the head and throat black in the male, the breast brownish red, the sides of the neck white, a white spot on the wings, the upper parts brownish black, and the feathers edged with brownish red. In the female the head and upper parts are streaked with brownish red, the throat yellowish grey, the breast dull brownish red, a white spot on the wings, and the upper tail coverts yellowish red. "In April," says McGillivray, "it forms its nest, generally under some furze bush, or other shrub, or among rank grass; it is formed of stems and blades of grasses, intermixed with moss, and lined with finer straws, fibrous roots, hair, and wool, as well as feathers. These birds manifest intense anxiety should any one approach their nest, fluttering and flitting about, and incessantly emitting their sharp, snapping note, while endeavouring to lead the intruder off in pursuit of themselves." [Illustration: Fig. 252.--The Stone Chat (_Saxicola rubicola_, Temm.).] [Illustration: Fig. 253.--The Pied Wagtail (_Motacilla Yarrelli_, Gould.).] The WAGTAILS (_Motacilla_, Cuvier) are remarkable for their slender, elegant form; the neck of moderate length; the head ovate, small, and narrow; plumage soft and blended; the wings long, broad, and pointed; tail long, straight, slender, consisting of twelve weak, narrow feathers. The Wagtails are intimately allied to the Pipits, and resemble them in many of their habits, differing chiefly in the lengthened tail and shorter claws. Both are remarkable for the vibratory motion of their body while standing or walking, which their long tail renders a conspicuous feature. [Illustration: Fig. 254.--Quaketails (_Motacilla flava_, Temm.).] The Pied Wagtail (_Motacilla cinerea_, Gmelin), Fig. 253, which is generally distributed in England, seems to have been confounded with the White Wagtail (_Motacilla alba_, Linn.) by naturalists until both species were examined by Mr. Gould. In form and proportion the two species closely resemble each other, the Pied Wagtail being the smaller. Mr. Gould states, in the "Magazine of Natural History," that while preparing his work on the Birds of Europe he was surprised to find that the sprightly Pied Wagtail, so common in our island at all seasons, could not be referred to any described species, and that its habitat was limited to the British Islands, Norway, and Sweden. The true _Motacilla alba_ of Linnæus, on the other hand, is abundant in France, particularly in the neighbourhood of Calais, but has never been discovered on the opposite Kentish coast. The QUAKETAILS (_Budytes_, Cuv.), Fig. 254, form the transition from the Pipits to the Wagtails, but incline more to the latter. They are the _Bergeronnettes_ of French authors. The claw on the hind toe, which is long, and greatly resembles that of the Larks, distinguishes them from Wagtails. They are said to follow flocks of sheep; hence the name given them in France. [Illustration: Fig. 255.--The Lyretail (_Mænura paradisea_, Vieill.).] The TITLARKS, or PIPITS (_Anthus_), the _Farlouses_ of French writers, approach the Larks by the same characteristics which distinguish the Quaketails, and might be confounded with them were it not for their compressed bill. Hence their name of Meadow Larks. They feed on autumnal fruits. _Anthus trivialis_, the Tree Pipit; _A. pratensis_, the Meadow Pipit; _A. aquaticus_; and _A. Ricardi_ are the British species figured by Mr. Gould. The LYRETAIL (_Mænura superba_, Swainson), Fig. 255, is a bird of New Holland, about the size of a common Fowl, and has been classed by some naturalists among Gallinaceous birds; but Temminck places it in his Insectivorous order, among the Thrushes, and between _Cuculus_ and _Pitta_. Cuvier places it among the Passerines. Vigors places it in the order _Rasores_, and in the family of the _Cracidæ_. This curious bird has a long compressed bill, triangular at the base. It owes its name to the peculiar disposition of its tail, which in the male has the exact form of a lyre. The singular development of the feathers of the tail is its chief attraction, for the plumage is dull and sombre in colour. In Australia it inhabits the forests of Eucalyptus; builds its nest in trees, a short distance from the ground; and feeds upon worms and insects, which it seeks for under the dried leaves and the surface of the soil. Its song is described as not unpleasant. The ORIOLES (_Oriolus_, Linn.) have the bill long, stout, nearly straight, rather broad at the base, the dorsal line arched, and the tarsi very short. They are found in all the warmer parts of the Old World, and in the islands of Oceania. Their plumage is richly coloured, shades of yellow and black blending in great variety. [Illustration: Fig. 256.--The Golden Oriole (_Oriolus galbula_, Sw.).] The Golden Oriole (_Oriolus galbula_, Wood), Fig. 256, is about the size of the Blackbird, which it much resembles in form. The plumage is of a bright yellow; the feathers are oblong, with disunited barbs; those on the fore part of the head very short. The wings, when closed, reach to within an inch of the end of the tail; hence its flight is easy and sustained; while the form of its feet is equally well adapted for hopping on the ground and gliding among the branches. It is a shy, solitary bird, and is approached with great difficulty. In the countries where it is a constant visitor it arrives in May, and departs in August; but while it arrives singly, on its return migration it departs in whole families. It establishes itself on the borders of woods, or on the banks of some water-course; especially is it found where there are large trees, such as oaks and poplars, in which it builds its nest. The bird is common in the South of France. It lays from four to six eggs, and during incubation feeds on insects' larvæ and caterpillars, and is especially fond of the more delicate fruits of the sunny South, such as mulberries, cherries, and figs. This food gives a delicious flavour to its flesh, which causes it to be much sought after. The Oriole will not live in confinement. It is the _Beccafica_ of the Italians. The MINO (_Eulabes javanses_, Vieill.), Fig. 257, has been assigned to various families. Swainson places it among the _Sturnidæ_, Gray in the sub-family of _Graculinæ_, under the family of _Corvidæ_. However, we prefer placing it as we have. They are sought after by the Orientals in consequence of their gentle habits, and the facility with which they imitate, like the Parrakeets, all sorts of phrases, and even airs. Their song is very agreeable. The Minos have a bill analogous to that of the Orioles; but their general form and habits approximate more to the Starlings, among which they ought to be ranged. They are eminently social in their habits, searching for their food in large flocks, and passing the night in numbers on the same or on neighbouring trees. Their natural disposition being peaceful, lively, and confiding, they appear to prefer the vicinity of man's residence, and the cultivated fields that surround his dwelling. They frequently attend upon flocks of sheep, to feed upon the insects that infest these ruminants' skins. In countries where locusts abound, they are of great service to man by feeding upon them. The Isle of Bourbon was at one time so infested with locusts that it threatened to become uninhabitable. The idea was entertained of introducing some Minos, and these birds multiplied so fast that in a few years the pests had disappeared. Unfortunately, the services of the Minos had to be paid for dearly, for they showed a _penchant_ for fruit, and made great havoc among the cherries, mulberry trees, &c. When insects became scarce they even attacked the cereals and other crops. [Illustration: Fig. 257.--The Mino Bird (_Gracula religiosa_, Linn.).] These Passerines readily habituate themselves to confinement, and in a short time become as tame as Starlings. Like these birds, too, they possess the talent of remembering and repeating words and various cries. They inhabit Africa, Asia, and Java. In their migrations they sometimes visit the southern countries of Europe; but they are rarely seen in France. The HONEY-SUCKERS (_Meliphagidæ_) are remarkable for having a thin tuft of hair at the end of their tongue, and for the fleshy pendants which adorn the beaks of some species. Their plumage is in general brilliant, and ornamented with tufts or collars. The voice of some kinds is very melodious, but little or nothing is known of their habits. We now come to the ROSE-COLOURED OUZEL, which is called in France _Merle Rose_, because it combines the shape of the Blackbird with a breast and back of a lovely rose colour. The characteristics of the Ouzels are a straight and slender bill; large and stout toes, furnished with strong and hooked claws; and short wings and tail. The decidedly aquatic habits of these birds form a curious exception to the rest of the Passerine order. They live constantly on the edge of the water, or in the water itself, hunting for the insects which constitute their food. Although their toes are not webbed, they may often be noticed diving and moving about under water, by extending their wings and using them as fins. They are frequently to be seen flying along streams, and catching the winged insects skimming over the surface of the water. They live a solitary life, except during the pairing season. Ouzels principally frequent the banks of mountain streams, especially in rocky and precipitous countries. [Illustration: Fig. 258.--The Dipper, or Water Ouzel (_Cinclus aquaticus_, Bechst.).] The European species, called the Dipper, or Water Ouzel (_Hydrobata cinclus_, Wood), Fig. 258, is met with in Great Britain, France, the Alps, Pyrenees, and other mountain chains in the South, West, and North of Europe. The SOLITARY or WOOD THRUSHES (_Turdus mustillinus_, Gm.), Fig. 259, are distinguished from the other Dentirostral Passerines by their long and slender tarsi. They are natives of America, and, in the midst of its vast forests, busy themselves in hunting ants, on which they feed. Other insects are not refused by them; but, first and foremost, they are _formicivoræ_. They fly indifferently, but in running and hopping they are very nimble. Generally speaking, they do not take the trouble of building a nest, preferring to lay their eggs on the ground, on a bed of dry leaves. Their song is of a strange character, differing in its nature in the various species. Some of them have received the name of "Bell-ringer," &c., from the similarity of their note to the sound of a bell. They are wild and shy, and dash their heads against the bars when they are shut up in a cage. Their flesh is appreciated for the table. [Illustration: Fig. 259.--The Wood Thrush (_Turdus melodus_, Wilson).] The _Merulidæ_ genus is characterised by a flattened, curved, and slightly denticulated bill, and is one of the most numerous of the family, embracing as it does no less than one hundred and fifty species spread plentifully over the whole surface of the globe. Birds of this genus are, generally speaking, migratory, and travel in more or less numerous flocks. They feed on berries, fruits, and insects, and are endowed with very harmonious powers of song. They have been divided into two great sections, the division being based on the particular arrangement of their colours. First, the section of _Merulæ_, which embraces all the species the plumage of which is of a uniform colour; next, that of _Turdi_, which contains those of speckled plumage, that is, marked with small dark spots on the breast. The principal species of the first section are the Common Blackbird, the Rock Blackbird, the Solitary Blackbird, and the Mocking Bird, or Polyglot Thrush. The COMMON BLACKBIRD (_Merula vulgaris_, Ray), Fig. 260, is so called on account of its plumage, which in the cock bird is of a uniform bright black colour. It delights in neighbourhoods covered with groves and thickets situated in the vicinity of water. When a sufficiency of food is to be found it seldom leaves the district it has frequented. In nearly all the countries of the European continent it is to be met with the year round. These birds appear to be less numerous in winter than in summer, and it is only exceptionally that they are sedentary. The Blackbird is shy and artful by nature, and shows extreme caution in approaching any object of suspicion. It rarely allows itself to be surprised by man, except when its voracity and greediness lead it into danger; but still, notwithstanding its shyness, it is disposed to frequent public and private gardens, and the vicinity of habitations. When taken young it easily becomes accustomed to captivity. [Illustration: Fig. 260.--The Common Blackbird (_Turdus merula_, Linn.).] It builds its nest at a short distance from the ground, on trees or bushes, the hen bird only participating in the labour of building. She lays from four to six eggs. In the South of Europe this species is much sought after, on account of the exquisite flavour which its flesh acquires from living on myrtle and juniper berries. The RING BLACKBIRD (_Merula torquata_, Gould) differs from the kind we have just noticed in being of larger size, and in the predilection which it shows for mountainous countries. It sings very agreeably, and in France is found on the high summits of the Vosges, the Alps, and the Pyrenees. The SOLITARY BLACKBIRD (_Merle Bleu_ of the French) is remarkable for the deep blue colour of its plumage. It frequents the same regions as the bird last described, and its habits are nearly the same; but it is wilder in its nature, and its song is even still more charming. We read in the chronicles of his time that Francis I. was never weary of listening to the strains of one he possessed. This bird is common in the South of Europe and the whole of the Levant, and when it is tamed acquires considerable value. [Illustration: Fig. 261.--The Mocking Bird, or Polyglot Thrush (_Mimus polyglottus_, Briss.).] Of all the various species of the _Merulidæ_ the one which is unquestionably the most favoured, as regards its vocal qualities, is the MOCKING BIRD, or POLYGLOT THRUSH (_Turdus polyglottus_, Linn.), Fig. 261, a native of North America, and chiefly of the Southern States. Its notes are so melodious that the conscientious Audubon does not hesitate to rank them far above those of the Nightingale. In addition to this, it possesses the wonderful faculty of imitating the songs of other birds, and even the cries of the mammals which make their abode near it. For this reason the Indians call it the "Bird with Four Hundred Tongues." Being protected by the inhabitants of Louisiana, it does not seem to dread the presence of man, and builds its nest with the utmost publicity in the vicinity of dwellings. When it is captured before leaving the nest it becomes very tame. The principal species of the Thrush are the Song Thrush, the Redwing, the Mistletoe, and the Fieldfare. [Illustration: Fig. 262.--The Song Thrush (_Turdus musicus_, Linn.).] The SONG THRUSH, Mavis of the Scotch (Fig. 262), has enjoyed, ever since the days of antiquity, great reputation, not, as we might have desired, for its vocal powers, but for the delicacy of its flesh. The Romans appreciated these birds to such a degree that they were in the habit of fattening them by thousands in immense aviaries, cleverly combining the privation of light with a suitable diet. Nowadays, Thrushes are not fattened artificially, because they take very good care to fatten themselves in their autumnal visit to the South of Europe; for they gorge themselves to such an extent with grapes, figs, and olives, that they attain an incredible pitch of obesity, causing them to be sought after with avidity, to gratify the fastidious palate of the gourmand. It is even said that Thrushes intoxicate themselves among the vines, which has given rise to the French proverb, "As drunk as a Thrush," in speaking of a man who has been indulging too freely in wine. But this is absurd; although the Thrush may be unable in the autumn to fly away with its usual agility, the only cause is its increased weight. The REDWING shares both the good qualities and the defects of the Song Thrush, and it is likewise much esteemed by epicures. The two other species are of less importance in an edible point of view. They are all natives of Europe, and visit the centre and South of France. [Illustration: Fig. 263.--Tanagers (_Tanagra rubra_, Nutt.).] The TANAGERS (_Tanagrinæ_) form a genus of birds peculiar to the hot regions of America. They are remarkable for a bill which is tapering and triangular at the base, and for the brilliant colours of their plumage. They are allied by their habits to the Warblers and the Sparrow. They are lively, constantly in motion, and but seldom settle down on the ground. In general life they resort about among trees and bushes to collect berries, seeds, and insects. According to the species, they live either solitarily, in families, or in flocks. Some kinds have an agreeable song; among these are the Euphones (beautiful voices), or Bullfinch Tanagers. Those which are most richly endowed, as regards the splendour of their dress, are the Scarlet Tanager, the Cardinal Tanager, the Bishop Tanager, and the Black-throated Tanager. The Grosbeak Tanager (_Tanagra magna_, Cuvier) is remarkable for the sociability of its nature. It has received this name because, with the help of its companions, it is in the habit of building on the top of a palm tree a vast construction, divided into a certain number of compartments, which are portioned out to so many couples, to hold their nests and young broods. [Illustration: Fig. 264.--The Tufted Drongo (_Tephrodomis_, Sw.).] The DRONGO SHRIKES (_Dicrurinæ_, Sw.) resemble a Crow in their shape and a Blackbird in their size. They have a carinated beak, pretty strongly curved, and a forked tail. The ground of their plumage is black, with a green or blue metallic reflection. They live in small flocks in the forests of India, Polynesia, and South Africa. They are great destroyers of bees. The better to accomplish this, they post themselves, at morning and evening, at the skirts of a wood, on a tree which is dead or bare of leaves, and watch for them as they leave or regain their retreats. When they attack their prey, they fly down from their post of observation, and from their great activity make terrible massacre of the unfortunate insects. Their turbulent and noisy nature has been the means of gaining for them among the Hottentots, who look upon them as birds of evil omen, the name of "Devil-birds." Their flesh is of no value; but some species are said to sing in a way which is not unpleasing. In the Broad-tailed Drongo the two outside feathers of the tail are long filaments, terminating in square-pointed feathers. We give (Fig. 264) the representation of another species, the Tufted Drongo. The genus _Cotinga_ is characterised by a short, flattened, curved, and stout bill. It embraces as sub-genera the Cotinga proper, the Caterpillar-eaters, and the Chatterers. [Illustration: Fig. 265.--The Brilliant Cotinga (_Coracina scutata_, Temm.).] The COTINGA or CORACINA proper is a bird about the size of a Thrush; it inhabits Brazil and Guiana, and is remarkable, during the pairing season, for its brilliant and variegated plumage. It frequents damp localities in the midst of great forests, and its food consists of seeds, fruit, and insects. It is very shy in its nature, and cannot habituate itself to captivity. Its rich colours alone cause it to be admired, for its voice is by no means melodious, and its flesh is too bitter for human food. The most beautiful species are the Pompadour Cotinga and the Brilliant Cotinga (Fig. 265). CATERPILLAR-EATERS (_Ceblepyrinæ_) owe their name to the source from which they derive their principal sustenance; but they also feed on flies and the larvæ of insects. They differ from the preceding kinds both in their habitat and in the more sombre colour of their plumage. The Cotingas are only met with in America; and the Caterpillar-eaters are not found except in Southern Africa and the Indian Archipelago. The CHATTERERS (_Ampelidæ_) are sociable birds, living together in flocks the whole of the year, except during the breeding season. They feed on buds, berries, and insects; they even catch flies on the wing. They are, nevertheless, extremely indolent, and do not move about more than is necessary to satisfy the requirements of appetite. The greater part of their time they remain hid in the recesses of woods, and are rarely seen; they settle little on the ground, for their gait is awkward and constrained. Not endowed, properly speaking, with any powers of song, their only utterance is a feeble twittering, which, in some species, is very prolonged. The Bohemian Waxwing is noisy at all seasons; and this is probably the origin of the name Chatterer, which is given to the whole genus. They are tamed with great facility, and, as they are adorned with a brilliant plumage, they are often reared in cages. These birds are found in Europe, North America, and Japan. [Illustration: Fig. 266.--Bohemian Waxwing (_Ampelis garrulus_, Wood).] The European species (Fig. 266) breeds in northern countries, and migrates to Germany at the approach of winter. It is rarely met with in France. It is a very pretty bird, carrying a floating tuft on the top of its head. [Illustration: Fig. 267.--The Spotted Fly-catcher (_Muscicapa grisola_, White).] The birds belonging to the Fly-catcher genus (_Muscicapidæ_) have a flattened and hooked bill, furnished with a projecting edge, and with stiff hair at the base. They are divided into Fly-catchers proper, Tyrants, and _Eurylaiminæ_. [Illustration: Fig. 268.--King Fly-catcher (_Eurylaimus serilophus_, Sw.).] The FLY-CATCHER proper feeds on insects, which it catches on the wing with a vivacity and agility which are extraordinary. It sometimes adds to its fare caterpillars and ants, and it never settles on the ground except when in pursuit of prey. They are birds of taciturn and solitary habits, frequenting alone the depths of forests, or the margin of sluggish streams. They are silent even during the pairing season, and are rather negligent in their mode of building, taking no care to hide their nests from the view of their enemies. According to the species, they build either on trees and bushes, or in the crevices of walls, rocks, or under the eaves of roofs. The hen bird lays from three to six eggs once a year in Europe, but more frequently in other parts of the world. [Illustration: Fig. 269.--The Long-tailed Tyrant (_Milvulu_, Sw.).] The Fly-catchers are not larger than the Warblers. They are birds of passage, and various species of them are spread over the whole surface of the globe. Some are natives of Europe, among which we will name the Spotted Fly-catcher (Fig. 267), and the Pied Fly-catcher. The latter bird is very fond of fruit, and in the South of France it is killed for the delicacy of its flesh. The common name there given it, _Bec-figue_, is also applied to a species of the Warbler genus. The Fan-tailed Fly-catchers (_Rhipidura flabellifera_, Latham) are birds of the same size and with the same habits as the Fly-catchers proper. They differ in nothing but their plumage, which is much more brilliant, their more fully developed tail, and the beautiful tufts which adorn the heads of some species. They are natives of Africa, India, Polynesia, and America. The species which may serve as a type is the _Eurylaimus serilophus_ (Fig. 268), on account of a magnificent red tuft, edged with black, which spreads out round its head, and resembles a splendid diadem. It is a native of South America, and is a very rare bird in collections. [Illustration: Fig. 270.--Cephalopterus ornatus (_Coracina cephaloptera_, Vieill.).] The TYRANTS (Fig. 269) owe their name to their courageous, audacious, and quarrelsome character, which leads them to attack birds more powerful than themselves, such as some of the smaller birds of prey, and even the White-headed Eagle. It must be added, too, that they more often than not succeed in forcing these robbers to quit the neighbourhood in which the Tyrant's young brood is reposing. They feed on insects, small reptiles, and some times very small fish. They are found in South America only, and principally in Brazil and Guiana. The _Cephalopterus ornatus_ (Less.), Fig. 270, has some resemblance to Crows, both in size and plumage. Their name, which in Greek signifies "winged-head," is given them on account of a wide crest which spreads out above their heads like a parasol. Added to this, the front of the neck is bare, but the lower part is furnished with a thick tuft of feathers, which hang down over the breast. These birds are natives of the forests of Brazil, but little or nothing is known as to their habits. The wide shape of the bill would suggest that they feed chiefly on berries and fruit. The SHRIKE genus concludes the Passerine order. It comprises a certain number of birds with tapering or flattened bills, more or less hooked at the point, and deeply indented, and which resemble the Rapacious order in their quarrelsome nature, and in their taste for live flesh. Among them are classed the Great Grey Shrike, the Red-backed Shrike, the Vangas, and the Cassicus. The Shrikes proper possess the instinct of destruction in the very highest degree. They delight in shedding blood and in spreading death wherever they go; indeed, their evil disposition has become proverbial. Not satisfied with killing with a view of satisfying the lawful needs of hunger, they sacrifice, as if for mere pleasure, insects, birds, and small mammals. They afterwards impale them upon the thorns of bushes and hedges. But still we must not condemn these birds with too great a degree of severity. No doubt there is, to some extent, cruelty in their actions; but, first and foremost, we are bound to recognise the foresight which they show. These victims are stored as a supply in time of need. It is a mistake to think that all creatures which they attack are smaller than themselves. Although not large, they are not afraid of a contest with Ravens, Magpies, and even some of the birds of prey, when called upon to defend their young. Shrikes generally inhabit extensive woods. During the daytime they post themselves in the top branches of the trees, from which they pounce down upon their prey. They fly rather indifferently, but hover with great ease. Their twittering is continual, and some of their melodies are not entirely devoid of charm. They are remarkable for their talent of imitation, and reproduce the songs of all the other birds with such similarity as to be mistaken for them. Some even go so far as to assert that they abuse this faculty by deceiving small birds, whose song they imitate. [Illustration: Fig. 271.--The Great Grey Shrike (_Lanius excubitor_, Wood).] They migrate every year, and at the time of their journey are much sought after for the table; for their flesh, being covered with abundant layers of fat, is very rich. It is a curious fact that, in spite of their cross-grained nature, they are very easily tamed. They cannot, however, accommodate themselves to close captivity, their active natures requiring a more extended field of action; such, for instance, as a large aviary affords. When kept in a place of this kind, they become very friendly, and appear to be fully sensible of the caresses of their master. Shrikes are common in all parts of the globe. Seven species are known in Europe, the principal of which are the Great Grey Shrike (Fig. 271), the Red-backed Shrike (Fig. 272), and the Southern Shrike. In France these birds are hardly ever found, except in the southern departments. [Illustration: Fig. 272.--The Red-backed Shrike (_Lanius collurio_, Wood).] [Illustration: Fig. 273.--The Cassicus.] The Falcon Shrikes are sometimes called Swallow Shrikes, because they fly with as much ease as the Swallow, and, like the latter bird, pursue insects on the wing. Their habits, however, differ but little from those of the true Shrike. They are natives of Africa, India, and the Southern Archipelago. The Vangas (Buffon) bear a still greater similarity to the Shrike proper. Their habits of life are altogether the same; but they are found only in South Africa, Madagascar, Australia, and New Guinea. Lastly, the Cassicus (Fig. 273) belongs to America, and holds an intermediate place between the Shrike and the Crow, the latter of which it resembles in its gait, size, and plumage. In its habits it is clamorous, turbulent, and omnivorous. It may be readily recognised by its long bill and the feathers in front of its head. CHAPTER VIII. RAPTORES, OR BIRDS OF PREY. The Raptores enjoy a greater amount of public notoriety than almost any other birds, although they are of little or no service to us, and possess infinitely fewer claims to our interest than a multitude of other winged creatures. The audacity and courage by which several species are distinguished, the marvellous stories to which their exploits have given rise, and the superstitious terror caused by their appearance may help to explain the reason of their popularity. Poets and novel-writers, in order to characterise their heroes, have often inspired them with the qualities or defects of some of the Rapacious birds. They have made the Eagle a type of nobility, strength, and valour; the Vulture the incarnation of cowardly and unclean cruelty. The Owl, with its staring aspect and noiseless flight, has become with them a bird of ill omen; its doleful hoot echoing through the shades of night, over the house of sickness, is an infallible prediction of death. These superstitions have had considerable influence upon popular imagination, and have thus passed into habitual use in conversation. The Rapacious order is characterised by a very strong, hooked, and sharp-edged bill, which is furnished at its base with a membrane called the _cere_--it is generally of a yellow colour, and upon it the nostrils open; strong legs, covered with feathers; four toes, three in front and one behind, which are usually very flexible, and provided with crooked and retractile talons, often possessed of considerable strength. Their powers of vision are very great, and they are marvellously organised for flight; their long and vigorous wings enabling them to hover in the highest regions of the air, and to travel over immense distances in an incredibly short space of time. Their generic name sufficiently indicates that they live only by rapine, and are naturally plunderers and bloodthirsty. They correspond, in the class of Birds, with the Carnivora among Mammalia. Like them, they live on animals, either dead or living; like them, too, they possess the strength and adroitness which are necessary to satisfy their sanguinary appetites. With her ever-admirable foresight Nature has wisely limited the reproduction of these destructive creatures--the largest only lay two eggs a year; the others, on an average, five or six. It is a singular thing that the female is often nearly a third bigger than the male; hence the name of "tarsel," given to the latter in certain species. The Raptores present none of the grace and charming prattle of other races of birds. They enjoy no powers of song; their sole utterance consists either of harsh cries or strange and plaintive modulations. Their plumage, which is nearly always of a sombre colour, is sad and monotonous in its appearance. Destruction is the sole object of their existence; they are the terror of all the rest of the feathered creation, among which they every day make numerous victims. They live alone, or in couples, in the most deserted places; it is only exceptionally that they gather together in flocks, and then merely to devour in common some putrid carrion. They are of a despotic and combative temperament, and will not suffer any rivals in their neighbourhood. They practise absolutism in its strictest form, and reign as lords and masters in the districts which they choose for their territory. The Raptores are met with over the whole surface of the globe; the larger species inhabit lofty mountains, or seek a hiding-place in the face of inaccessible and solitary cliffs. This order is divided into two sub-orders, the Nocturnal and the Diurnal. This division is a very rational one, for it is founded on dissimilarity of habits, which is owing to a difference of organisation. NOCTURNAL BIRDS OR PREY. Nocturnal birds of prey are distinguished by large staring eyes, directed straight in front, and surrounded by a circle of slender and stiff feathers, which, by their circular radiation round the face, form a nearly complete disk, to which the name of _facial disk_ has been given; by the large development of their head; by very short bills, devoid of cere, which is replaced by a plain skin covered with hairs; by tarsi feathered down to the claws; by the mobility of the outside toe, which can be turned either forwards or backwards; by very strong, sharp, and retractile claws; by abundant and soft plumage; and by tails which are generally short. But the original characteristic of these birds, and that which has contributed to their union in one group, is their inability to bear the light of mid-day, and the faculty they possess of being able to see in twilight, owing to the pupils of their eyes having enormous powers of dilation. They therefore remain hidden in their retreats while the sun is high, and do not begin to hunt until the luminary has approached the horizon, when they are able to distinguish with surprising clearness the objects on which they prey. We are not, however, bound to believe that these birds can see in the midst of perfect darkness. When the night is thoroughly obscure they again become subject to the law common to all. The epithet of "nocturnal," which is applied to them, is, therefore, not strictly accurate, and must not be taken literally. They manifest the greatest amount of activity when the moon diffuses her light over the earth; then it is that they revel in their destructive instincts, levying a heavy tax on all weaker animal life. The Raptores have the sense of hearing strongly developed, owing to the large cavities existing in their skulls, which communicate with the internal ear, and thus increase the capacity of this organ. Their plumage is streaked with diversely-arranged markings, and is quite as soft and delicate as the down of fledglings. These peculiarities are probably owing to the special conditions of their existence. Constantly deprived as they are of the rays of the sun, the action of which upon colour of plumage cannot be doubted, they are not arrayed in those splendid hues which clothe diurnal birds of tropical regions. Owing to the structure and nature of their feathers, nocturnal birds of prey fly without making the least noise. They can, therefore, pounce unawares on their victims, seizing them before they have any idea of necessity for escape. When they lay hold of their prey it is immediately devoured--an easy matter on account of the enormous expansion of their bills. Their stomach afterwards separates the indigestible parts, such as bones, hair, and feathers, and when these are rolled together in the shape of a ball or pellet, they are ejected by vomiting. Diurnal birds of prey which subsist on living animals possess the same power. With the exception of the Barn Owl, nocturnal birds of prey all lay eggs of a spherical shape. They live in couples, only assembling in flocks at the epoch of migration; they never, however, hunt in common. They do not build any nest, but deposit their eggs in cavities in old trunks of trees or ruined habitations. They exhale a disagreeable and unwholesome smell, which is no doubt owing to their exclusively animal diet. A nocturnal bird of prey, unless forced, never comes out of its lurking-place during day. When compelled by circumstances to do so, it is assailed by all the Passerines of the neighbourhood, which resent its intrusion, and avenge the oppression exercised over them during the night, by combined attacks. It places itself in the strangest postures, ruffles up its feathers, and balances its head with a stupid look, making its bill crack, when so assaulted. It does not, however, try to defend itself, and passively receives the blows of its feathered enemies, which do it but little harm. This natural antipathy of small birds for their nocturnal destroyers has been taken advantage of for purposes of sport. The method of catching birds by calling is founded upon it. Imitating the voice of an Owl, the birds flock together and perch on the trees or bushes in the suspected neighbourhood, where twigs covered with birdlime have been abundantly scattered. This operation must take place about an hour before sunset; if later, it would not be successful. This way of catching birds was in use in the days of antiquity, for Aristotle has given us a description of it. The Owl has given rise to more fables and prejudices than any living creature, doubtless in consequence of its peculiarities. Although inoffensive in general, and even useful--for they destroy a large quantity of rats and mice--in the rural districts nocturnal birds of prey have occasioned so much superstition and terror, that they have been hunted down with the utmost animosity. The Greeks dedicated the Owl to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, no doubt on account of the calm and grave attitude which distinguishes it, and gives it the air of a philosopher meditating on the problems of life. Mr. Swainson divides Owls into three groups--namely, Typical Owls, Horned Owls, and Hawk Owls; for simplicity and brevity we prefer making only two families--namely, those with horns and those without. HORNED OWLS. Horned Owls are distinguished by two tufts or horns of feathers placed on each side of their head. They are subdivided into three genera--the Great Horned Owls, the Long-eared Owls, and Small Horned Owls. The COMMON GREAT OWL (_Bubo maximus_), Fig. 274, is the most remarkable of the family on account of its size and strength. Its height is, on an average, two feet, and it is justly acknowledged as the king of nocturnal birds. Its bill and claws are of a black colour, very strong and hooked. Its plumage is russet, variegated with black spots and brown stripes; its wings, when extended, are not less than five feet across. Its eyes are large and fixed, with black pupils surrounded with yellow. It bears light with less inconvenience than the other nocturnal birds, and therefore goes out sooner in the evening and returns home later in the morning. This bird makes its home among the clefts of rocks, or in the recesses of old towers situated on the mountains, which elevated ground it but rarely leaves to descend into the plain. Its cry, _huibou, houhou, bouhou, ouhou_, resounding in the silence of the night, is a source of terror to those animals which form its prey. It feeds principally upon hares, rabbits, moles, rats, and mice. Now and then, and especially when rearing its young, which are very voracious, it devours toads, frogs, and small reptiles. [Illustration: Fig. 274.--Great Owl (_Strix bubo_, Linn.).] The Great Owl is very courageous, and often has battles with the Tawny Eagle, from which it frequently comes off with honour. The fight is sometimes so severe that it terminates in the death of both combatants. M. Bailly relates that he was told, by reliable witnesses, that an Eagle and Great Owl, which were fighting together in the mountains of Savoy, drove their claws so deep into one another's flesh that they could not withdraw them, so both died from their wounds on the scene of action. In a similar fight near Zurich a Great Owl, which was the conqueror, was so fastened to its adversary that they fell to the ground together, and, being unable to disengage its talons, was in consequence taken alive. When wounded so as to be unable to fly, and attacked by dogs, the Great Owl will sell its life as dearly as possible; for, turning upon its back, with open claws and menacing bill it presents an appearance to its enemies which is enough to make the bravest shrink from the assault. In spite of this combative temperament, the Great Owl easily becomes tame; it knows its name, and comes at the call of its master. Perfect liberty may then be safely allowed it, as it will remain in the neighbourhood of its home, returning at meal-times. Frisch relates that he twice kept birds of this kind, and that they lived for a considerable time; he fed them on ox-flesh and liver. They would sometimes swallow as many as five mice without stopping, having first broken their bones with blows from their bills. In case of necessity they would eat fish. Some hours after taking their food, they ejected the bones and hair of their victims. Instances have been known, however, in which this Owl would not submit to confinement. The Great Owl is possessed of the strongest attachment to its young. M. Cronstedt, a Swiss gentleman, lived for several years on a farm situated at the foot of a mountain, on the top of which a couple of Great Owls built their nest. The servants caught and shut up in a hen-house one of the young birds, which the thirst for rapine had doubtless impelled prematurely to leave the maternal abode. The next morning they were surprised to find at the door of the hen-house a freshly-killed Partridge. The idea was that the parent birds, attracted by the cries of the young Owl, had thus provided for its sustenance. The same thing occurred fourteen days running. M. Cronstedt, wishing to come to a right understanding on the matter, watched during several nights in order to surprise the hen bird in this act of maternal love. But he failed, probably because the bird, thanks to its penetrating sight, took advantage to leave her offspring's provisions at a moment when his attention was diverted. These parental duties ceased in the month of August, when the young bird became capable of providing for itself. The Great Owl inhabits Europe and Asia, but is common in Switzerland and Italy. It is not often met with in France, except in the eastern and southern departments, where it rarely remains during winter. Another species, which is very common in Egypt, differs but little from the last mentioned. It is sometimes seen in the South of Sardinia and Sicily. It is commonly designated by the name of the Great Short-eared Owl. The VIRGINIAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus_), the _Strix virginiana_ of Vieillot, inhabits North and South America. This bird is nearly the size of the Great Owl of Europe; it is distinguished from the latter by a different arrangement of the feathered projections on its head, which, instead of starting from the ears, take their rise close to the bill. This bird feeds on young Gallinaceæ, which it boldly carries off from the very midst of the poultry-yards; the Turkey especially is a particular favourite with it. When other food fails, it feeds on dead fish found on the river-banks. If caught when young it is easily tamed, but as it gets mature its bloodthirsty instincts become so powerful that it ultimately proves a most expensive pet. The SHORT-EARED OWL (Fig. 275) is about a foot in height. The horns on this species' head are shorter than those of the Great Owl in proportion to the birds' size. Its wings are thirty-nine inches across; in its plumage russet predominates, shaded with grey and brown. It has a blackish bill and claws, and beautiful yellow eyes. It inhabits hollows in rocks or dead trees, and old ruined houses, and sometimes instals itself in nests left vacant by Magpies, Ravens, and Buzzards. It is much less wild than the Great Owl, and is frequently in the habit of prowling round dwelling-houses. This Owl being very fond of mice, which form its principal food, all that is requisite to attract it to a snare is to imitate the cry of these little animals. It also feeds on moles, and, in cases of emergency, even on frogs, toads, leverets, young rabbits, and insects. This bird displays much courage in the defence of its young when it thinks them in danger, and does not then fear even to attack man. Its cry consists of a kind of low moaning _clow, cloud_, which it frequently utters during the night. It is easily tamed if taken young; but if old when caught, it persistently refuses food. The Short-eared Owl is more sociable than most nocturnal birds of prey, and is often met with in flocks of seven or eight. Its habitat is the North of Europe, quitting it in the autumn to winter in warmer regions: it regularly visits France in October and November. It is sometimes found in thickets close to marshes and rivers, where it catches frogs, and even fish. In the North, especially in Iceland, it builds its nest in the ground, sometimes occupying burrows made by rabbits. We shall see further on that this singularity is shared by one of the American Owls. [Illustration: Fig. 275.--Short-eared Owl (_Strix brachyotus_, Yarrell).] A species very similar to the last described is found in Senegal; but the head, tarsi, and lower part of the body are white; its height is ten inches. Lastly, the _Ketupu_ is a native of the islands of the Indian Archipelago. It often frequents the banks of rivers, and feeds principally upon crabs and fish. The name it bears is that which has been given to it by the natives. The SCOPS-EARED OWL (_Scops_), Fig. 276, is remarkable for its diminutive size, which does not exceed that of a Thrush, and for its horns, which are perfectly rudimentary and formed of a single feather. Its plumage, which is beautifully shaded with russet, grey, and black, is much more pleasing than that of the preceding species. [Illustration: Fig. 276.--The Scops-eared Owl (_Strix buboninæ_, Linn.).] These Owls are more sociable than larger ones, and assemble in flocks in autumn and spring to migrate into warmer climates; they depart after the Swallows, and get to their destination about the same time. They are of great service to the agriculturist in destroying field-mice. "At times when this kind of scourge was prevalent," says Buffon, "Small Horned Owls have been known to arrive in numbers, and wage such a successful warfare against the field-mice, that in a few days the ground was cleared of them." Dale, an English author, mentions another example of the utility of the Scops. In 1580 such a large quantity of mice appeared in the plains near South Minster that all the plants were gnawed off by the roots. Soon after, a number of Small Horned Owls came in flocks, and destroyed the mice. When pressed by hunger, the Scops is not above eating fish. It may then be seen hovering over ponds and rivers, and seizing fish upon the surface with remarkable dexterity. Bats and large insects also are its prey. It is difficult to kill or catch the Scops, although they travel in numerous companies; for they do not begin their journey until the evening, a short time before night closes in, and settle down in the woods during the day. If they meet with a place favourable for their subsistence, such as a plain intersected by marshes and small woods, they remain there for two or three days. In the evening they have a strange habit of following people passing through their haunts. Sometimes they precede them, hopping from tree to tree, and uttering low, plaintive cries, frequently fluttering round almost sufficiently close to touch them. The Scops is easily tamed, and becomes very familiar; it is, consequently, in much request in Savoy for the purpose of bird-catching. It perfectly recognises the voice of whoever feeds it, and, although at liberty, will not abandon the house of its master. But when the season of migration arrives it would be of no use to attempt to detain it; kindness and caresses are all in vain. Unless the precaution of shutting it up be taken, it rejoins its companions, and accompanies them, perhaps, to Africa or Asia. There is a variety of this bird, named _Scops asio_, which is found in North America, on the shores of the Ohio and Mississippi. It is very gentle, and allows itself to be caressed when taken, without attempting to bite or scratch. Audubon relates that he carried one of these birds from New York to Philadelphia; he kept it in his pocket during the whole journey, accustomed it to eat out of his hand, and the bird did not attempt to escape. Several other species of Scops are scattered over the two continents. The most interesting is the exotic species called _Choliba_, which the inhabitants of Brazil and Paraguay rear in their dwellings to destroy rats and mice. HORNLESS OWLS. The family of Hornless Owls is distinguished from the Horned group by the absence of projecting feathers on their heads. They comprehend several species, the principal of which are Sparrow Owls (_Strix passerina_, Aud.), Burrowing Owls (_Athene cunicularia_), Barn or Screech Owls (_Strix flammea_), Hawk Owls (_Surnia funerea_), Ural Owls (_Surnia uralensis_), and Snow Owls (_Surnia nictea_). SPARROW OWLS are of small size; their facial disk is incomplete; the tarsi are elongated; the claws bare or slightly hairy; their tails short and square. There are numerous species, of which we shall only notice the principal. The Common Sparrow Owl, which is very numerous in France, and, in fact, through the whole of Europe, is about the size of a Thrush. It inhabits old ruins and quarries, but never lives in the hollows of trees; therefore it rarely makes its abode in the woods. Its nature is much less nocturnal than that of its congeners, and it is often seen pursuing small birds in broad daylight, though probably with but little success. Its general food consists of mice, which it tears in pieces before eating, as it is unable to swallow them whole. It also very skilfully plucks the feathers from birds which become its victims. In winter, when the snow is on the ground, it devours the filth deposited in the farm-yards. Like the Scops, it delights in following persons who pass its retreat, especially at the break of dawn. When flying it utters a cry, _poopoo, poopoo!_ which it substitutes, when perched, for a sound very like the voice of a young Frenchman saying _aime, heme, esme!_ Buffon relates a curious anecdote on this subject:--"I was sleeping in an old tower of the Château of Montbard, when a little before daybreak, at three o'clock in the morning, a Sparrow Owl came and perched on the window-seat of my chamber, and woke me by its cry of _heme, edme_. As I listened to this voice, which seemed to me all the more singular as it was so near, I heard one of my servants, who was sleeping in a room above, open his window, and, deceived by the well-articulated sound of _edme_, answer the bird: 'Who is down there? My name is not Edme, but Peter.' The servant actually believed that it was a man calling, so much did the voice of the Owl resemble that of a human being, and so distinctly did it articulate the word." The bird-catchers of Tessin employ the Sparrow Owl for enticing birds into their nests. If taken when very young it is easily tamed, and shows itself sensible of attention. M. Bailly possessed one which exhibited much satisfaction when rubbed on the breast, back, or head. It would remain perfectly immovable, sometimes on its chest, and sometimes on its back, showing in every way the pleasure it felt. In Northern Italy this bird is reared in captivity; it feeds on mice, and even eats fruit and _polenta_. M. Gérard relates that he reared a Sparrow Owl, which became so tame that it willingly allowed itself to be caressed at any moment of the day. It destroyed a great many insects, and ate everything that was given it, but showed such a very decided taste for raw meat that it sometimes, without letting go its hold, hung suspended to a morsel of intestine for more than ten minutes. It was on the best of terms with the cat of the house; and they were often found lying close together in the same basket. The dog was never able to gain the bird's affections; and a Raven, which lived in the house by the same right as the Owl, was cordially hated by it. It showed much irritation at the sight of other birds, even if they were only stuffed ones; and when able to obtain possession of them, carried them into a corner and plucked off their feathers at leisure. It also delighted in rolling in the dust. A more diminutive species still, the Small Sparrow Owl, inhabits the northern part of the two continents, and sometimes ventures as far south as Germany. Its plumage, which is ash-coloured above, below the chest is dazzling white, marked with black spots. It has a white stripe round the front of its neck. The Pampas Sparrow Owl is found in South America, and is no bigger than a Thrush. This bird, though so small, has strongly-developed bloodthirsty instincts; for it slips under the wings of poultry, and kills them by tearing open their sides. Buffon classes with this species a variety which inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, and is endowed with magnificent plumage, red and black partly mixed with grey. The colonists tame it, and use it to keep their houses clear of mice. The BURROWING OWL derives its name from the place in which it makes its nest. This bird is about the size of a Pigeon, and frequents the immense plains, or pampas, of South America, and the prairies of North America. The burrows, however, it does not dig itself, but simply takes possession of those belonging to other animals, after having driven them away by its disgusting odour. This mode of conquering a territory, although of a peaceful character, is, to say the least of it, singular. Burrowing Owls do not confine themselves to going out in the evening and morning. They love the light of day, and willingly seek their food even when the sun is vertical. It is a curious fact that this bird lives in association with beings with which it has no natural tie, such as the prairie dog, a sort of marmot peculiar to the New World. Captain Francis Head, an English traveller, who one day came across a flock of these creatures thus living together, depicts their attitude as follows:-- "Towards the evening the prairie dogs keep outside their burrows, with a serious look on their faces, like grave and reflective philosophers or moralists. During the day the entrance to the subterranean burrow is guarded by two Owls, which never quit their post. While the travellers were galloping over the plain the Owls continued their duty as sentries, looking them full in the face, and one after the other shaking their venerable heads in a way which was most ludicrous on account of its solemnity. When the horsemen came near them the two sentinels lost much of their dignified look, and darted hurriedly into the burrows." This Owl feeds on rats, reptiles, and insects. It is gentle, and may be easily tamed, and is sometimes kept for the purpose of destroying vermin. The birds which are comprised in the genus of BARN or SCREECH OWLS have a complete facial disk, and short tarsi feathered down to the claws. They are as large, and even larger than the Short-eared Owl. The first of this group is the Tawny Owl, or Howlet, commonly called the Wood Owl. One of its names is derived from its cry, _hoo-oo-oo!_ which resembles the howling of a wolf, and caused the Romans to call it _Ulula_, from _ululare_, to howl. The Tawny Owl has a large head, and is about fourteen inches in height. It inhabits the woods during the summer, and conceals itself in the thickest bushes or the old trunks of trees. It remains hidden all day, only going out in the morning and evening to hunt small birds and field-mice, its favourite prey. In the winter it approaches human habitations, and even ventures into barns to catch rats and mice; but it retires to its hiding-place as soon as day begins to dawn. At the beginning of autumn, the education of its young ones being completed, this bird takes up its abode in damp places, where it can catch frogs and reptiles, to which it is very partial. During that season Woodcock shooters often flush them. Like many individuals of the same family, the Barn Owl will lay its eggs in strange nests, such as those of Ravens, Magpies, and Buzzards, or even in a dovecot. The young ones are very voracious. Before they are strong enough to stand upon their feet they will support themselves on their stomachs, and, holding their prey in their claws, tear it to pieces with their bills; when they become stronger, they stand on one leg, and use the other to convey food to their mouths. This Owl has a gentle disposition, and is easily tamed; it knows its master perfectly well, and calls to him for food by uttering low cries. It is found scattered all over Europe, and frequently in Scotland. As stormy weather has a great effect on animals' calling, and this dark variety is more frequently found in northern and stormy regions than the lighter-coloured, many authorities erroneously consider the Screech and Barn Owls different birds. The Common Barn Owl is found over a great portion of Europe, but in France it is rare. There are several varieties of this bird; the one best known in England has the following characteristics:--Its plumage is agreeably variegated with yellow, white, grey, and brown, and is more pleasing than that of any of the other Nocturnals. The eggs, which are elliptical, are generally five in number, sometimes six or seven, and are deposited in holes in walls, or hollow places in rocks and old trees; but the bird does not take the trouble to line these holes with grass or leaves. It is but seldom it takes possession of the nests of other birds, although stories are told of its driving away the Martins from their retreats, and installing itself therein, having first considerately devoured the young. [Illustration: Fig. 277.--Barn Owl (_Strix flammea_, Yarrell).] Children, women, and even men who are silly enough to believe in ghosts and sorcerers, look upon the Barn Owl as a bird of ill omen, and as a messenger of death. All these prejudices are really very foolish, for few birds are of more service. They destroy a vast quantity of vermin which are injurious to agriculture, and therefore have a good claim to protection. When the Owl has young ones to feed, rats and mice are exterminated without either truce or mercy. As rapidly as they can be caught they are carried to the nest; and each of the pellets of bone and hair which are thrown up from its stomach is composed of at least six or seven skeletons. Dr. Franklin collected, in the space of sixteen months, a whole bushel measure of these pellets, all proceeding from a couple of Barn Owls. Farmers are in error when they accuse the Barn Owl of destroying their Pigeons' eggs. The real culprits are the rats. When an Owl makes its appearance in the vicinity of a dovecot, the proper course of conduct is to give it a kind reception and to protect it, for its only object in coming is to obtain shelter for a time, and, during its stay, to destroy rats or mice, the real scourges of the pigeon-house. When the Barn Owl finds a deficiency of food it has recourse to fishing. It may then be seen diving perpendicularly on to the water to capture fish which are floating upon the surface. The Chinese and Tartars pay special reverence to the Owl, in memory of a fact which well deserves to be recorded. Gengis Khan, the founder of their empire, having been put to flight by his enemies, was one day compelled to take refuge in a wood, and an Owl which came and perched in the thicket in which he had hidden himself was the sole cause of his escaping the pursuit of his foes; for those who were searching for him very naturally omitted to explore the bushes in which he was concealed, thinking that it was impossible that a covert should at the same time shelter both an Owl and a man. Thus, thanks to the intervention of the bird, Gengis Khan was saved from his foes. In memory of this event the Chinese were in the habit of wearing on their heads an Owl's feather. Certain tribes of the Calmucs have an idol representing an Owl. [Illustration: Fig. 278.--The Canada or Hawk Owl (_Surnia funerea_, Yarrell).] The CANADA OWL (Fig. 278) is common in North America, and especially in Canada. It appears casually in the North of Europe, in Sweden and Norway. Its plumage is of a greyish-brown colour. It feeds on hares, rabbits, rats, mice, reptiles, and birds; it is about fifteen inches high. Audubon often had an opportunity of examining it. "Its cry," says he, "is a _waah, waahha_, which one is tempted to compare with the affected laugh of a votary of fashion. Often in my distant excursions, when encamped under the trees, and roasting a slice of venison or a squirrel by means of a wooden spit, I have been greeted with the laughter of this nocturnal disturber. It stopped at a few paces from me, exposing its whole body to the gleam of my fire, and looking at me in such an odd way, that had I not feared to make a fool of myself in my own eyes, I should have politely invited him to come and partake of my supper. This bird visits Louisiana, and is met with in all the most isolated woods even in open day. If it appears likely to rain, it laughs louder than ever; its _waah, waahha_, penetrates into the most remote recesses of the woods, and its comrades answer it in strange and discordant tones: one might almost think that the Owl nation was celebrating some extraordinary _fête_." Audubon adds that when you approach one of these birds it thoroughly scrutinises you, assuming at the same time the most grotesque attitudes. If any one fires at it and misses, it flies away, but stops at a little distance and utters its mocking cry. The name HAWK OWLS has been given to this genus, as it serves as a transition from the Nocturnal to the Diurnal birds of prey. In fact, although, by their general shape and physical conformation, they evidently belong to the former, they are also connected with the latter by their habits and mode of hunting, which are very like those of the Sparrow-hawk; hence their name. They are easily recognised by their long and tapering tail, and by their free and bold gait. They form a very characteristic group, and the species, which are four in number, present but little diversity. The WHITE OWL (_Surnia nictea_), the _Strix nictea_ of Foster, can be tamed; but it must not be closely confined. It requires both air and space to move about at will. Under these conditions it constitutes a useful auxiliary to the farmer, and will advantageously take the place of several cats. But if it is kept in a cage it refuses food, and dies after a few days' captivity. The White Owl may be found in all parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. There are two varieties of it: one in Java, the Calong Owl; the other in Mexico and the Antilles. These two species differ but little from the Common White Owl, and are characterised by nearly the same habits. The CAPARACOCH OWL, called by Buffon the Great Canadian Sparrow Owl, measures about fifteen inches. In summer it feeds upon small rodents and insects; in winter, on Ptarmigan, which it accompanies in their migrations from the South to the North. It will sometimes pounce down on the game which is killed by the sportsman, and, if care is not taken, will carry it off. It is a native of the Arctic regions, especially those of America. Sometimes it penetrates as far as Germany, but rarely makes its appearance in France. The HARFANG OWL, improperly called by some naturalists the King of the Owls, attains to about twenty-two inches in height; that is, to nearly the size of the Great Horned Owl. With the exception of the Lapland or Ash-coloured Owl, which measures two feet, this is the largest among the Owls. Its plumage is a brilliant white, with some black spots on the head. This colour is well suited to the nature of the places in which the Harfang lives. This bird inhabits the most desolate solitudes to the north of America: Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, and Greenland. It is also found in Iceland and the neighbouring islands, but is only accidentally seen in England and France. Thanks to its colour, which harmonises so perfectly with all around, it is enabled to traverse almost unseen the immense deserts of snow, and thus has great facilities for surprising its prey, which consists of Hazel Hens, Ptarmigan, Grouse, Hares, and Rabbits. Owing to its abundant plumage and thick down, it is able to brave the inclemency of a climate that would be fatal to any creature less amply protected. The fact is attested by the statement of Captain Parry, of Arctic-region notoriety, that this bird frequently dies of starvation. Sometimes it shows so much audacity and greediness that it is impossible to entertain any doubt on the subject of its hunger, as it will pounce on the game shot by the sportsman, totally disregarding human presence. The LAPLAND and the URAL OWLS have the same habits as the Harfang, only their geographical distribution is less extended. Mr. Gould regards the latter as one of the rarest European Owls. As their names indicate, they are peculiar to certain countries. Neither have they the dazzling whiteness of the Harfang Owl; and this is the characteristic which specially distinguishes them from the latter. We may class in the same genus two exotic species discovered by Levaillant. These are the Choucou, which is a native of Africa, and the Huhul Owl of Guiana, which hunts its prey in open day. DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. All that we previously remarked, when commencing the consideration of this order, as to the general characteristics which distinguish birds of prey, applies more particularly to the diurnal portion of them. We shall not repeat here what we have already stated, but only add a few words, in order the better to specify this division of the order. The diurnal birds of prey have their eyes placed at the sides of the head, and the toes completely bare. They vary in size from that of the Sparrow-hawk, the spread of whose wings is scarcely twelve inches, to the Condor, which stretches its pinions over a space of four or five yards. They lay their eggs, which are generally of an oval shape, in rude nests called "aeries." The Diurnal section of the Rapacious order is divided into three families: the Falcons (_Falconidæ_), the Vultures (_Vulturidæ_), and the Serpent-eaters (_Gypogeranus_). FALCONS. The Falcon tribe have a very strong and comparatively short beak, which is generally curved from the base, with denticulated or scalloped edges; the head and neck covered with feathers; the talons very powerful, and furnished with retractile nails--not, indeed, in the same manner as cats, which have the power of withdrawing or sheathing theirs within the integuments, but by a conformation which gives the bird of prey the power of elevating its claws at pleasure. These are the birds of prey _par excellence_. They feed for the most part on living animals; there are, however, some which, when other means of sustenance fail, devour putrefied flesh. Their flight is very rapid, and they ascend to immense altitudes in the sky. They are seldom to be seen on the ground; if they settle there it is but to seize their prey, which accomplished, they without delay take wing to their aerie. They lay, on an average, three or four eggs. Their plumage alters considerably during their early years; to such an extent, indeed, does this occur, that the young and the adult birds have often been taken for two distinct species. This fact has not a little contributed to confusing students of ornithology. This family is a very numerous one, comprising no less than nine genera; namely, Eagles, Sea Eagles, Harpy Eagles, Caracara Eagles, Hawks, Goshawks, Kites, Harriers, and Buzzards. The EAGLE genus is characterised as follows:--The bill scalloped, but not toothed, and presenting a straight portion at the base; the nostrils elliptical and transverse; the tarsi short, and feathered down to the toes; the wings long; and the tail rounded. Buffon has sketched a portrait of the Eagle, but his picture is by no means a model of accuracy:-- "The Eagles," he says, "both physically and morally, present several points of harmony with the Lion. In the first place, in strength, and consequently in an empire over other birds, as the Lion over beasts. In magnanimity; for he, too, disdains small creatures, and despises their insults. The Eagle will for a long time bear with the troublesome cries of the Crow and the Magpie ere he makes up his mind to punish them with death. Added to this, he covets no good things that he has not conquered for himself, and no other prey than that of his own catching. In temperance; for he scarcely ever eats the whole of his victim, and, like the Lion, leaves the bits and fragments for other creatures. However great may be his hunger, he will never feed upon dead carcasses. Again, like the Lion, he lives a solitary life, inhabiting a desert, into which he allows no other bird to enter, and in which he himself must be the sole hunter; for two pairs of Eagles in the same mountain district are, perhaps, a rarer sight than two families of Lions in the same part of a forest. They keep at a sufficient distance from one another, so that the space allotted to them should furnish each an ample subsistence; and the extent of their demesne is regulated by its productiveness. The Eagle has a flashing eye like the Lion, and is nearly of the same colour; has claws of a similar shape, a breath equally rank, and a cry equally frightful. Both seem as if they were made for combat and the pursuit of prey; both are alike inimical to companionship, alike ferocious, alike proud, and difficult to tame." Buffon has much overrated the reputation of the Eagle; it will be well to reduce it to somewhat more just proportions. Agreeing with the immortal naturalist, we admit that the Eagle is endowed with no common amount of strength. With regard to its magnanimity, we must be allowed to entertain a doubt. As a matter of fact, the Eagle always attacks animals which are unable to resist it; if it disdains small birds, it is because they can easily evade its pursuit, and after all, there would be but little profit gained if they were caught. As to its moderation, it is easily proved to have no existence save in the imagination of the distinguished naturalist. On the contrary, the Eagle is voracious; it never leaves its prey until it is completely surfeited, and then only because it is unable to carry away the remainder to its aerie. So far from despising dead carcasses, it will readily feed upon them, even when it is not compelled by need, for it will gorge itself on carrion to such an extent that it frequently becomes incapable of avoiding its enemies. Its honesty, too, is a fact not better established, for the Fish Eagle pursues birds that are weaker than itself, and, in defiance of all justice, takes from them the booty which they have acquired through labour. By a kind of rhetorical metaphor the Eagle has been proclaimed "the king of birds." If the possession of strength, and the abuse which is made of it, constitute the attributes of royalty, the Eagle has an unquestionable right to the title. But if with the kingly rank we connect the ideas of courage and nobility, it would never do to place the crown on the Eagle's head. The ancients were inspired with a juster sentiment in making the Eagle the symbol of victory. The Assyrians, the Persians, and the Romans placed an Eagle with outspread wings on the top of their standards; and even in modern times we find a representation of this bird filling the same emblematic post in the armies of several European nations. Some, as Austria, instead of _one_ Eagle, adopt _two_ as their allusive emblazonry. In consequence of the Eagle mounting up to such prodigious heights the ancients looked upon it as the bird of Jupiter and the messenger of the gods. When Jove, after the withdrawal of Hebe, came down to earth to seek for another cup-bearer, he changed himself into an Eagle, and it was under this shape he carried off Ganymede. But we must leave mythology and symbols, and turn our attention to a matter-of-fact description of the great bird of prey. In the Eagle the sense of vision is developed to its very highest excellence. Contemplate him hovering majestically among the clouds, and you will be struck with admiration. By an imperceptible motion of his wings he maintains this prodigious height without fatigue. Perceiving a Hazel Hen on the heath below, he folds his wings, and in a few seconds drops down to within a short distance of the ground; then, with his legs stiffened, he swoops upon his prey, seizes his victim, and carries it away to some adjacent mountain. The great strength of the muscles which work the wing of this bird (Fig. 279) will explain the power and long duration of his flight. The Eagle is endowed with such an enormous amount of muscular force, that it contends successfully against the most powerful winds. Raymond, the naturalist, who has been styled "the painter of the Pyrenees," relates that, having reached the summit of Mont Perdu, the loftiest peak of that range, he perceived an Eagle pass over him at surprising speed, although it was flying against a strong head-wind. If to the weight of the body of the Eagle we add that of the victim which it clutches in its talons; if we consider that this victim is often borne by it to considerable distances, and that the Eagle will thus cross the chain of the Alps; if we also reflect that the prey is not unfrequently a chamois or a sheep, we shall be enabled to form some idea of its strength and muscular power. [Illustration: Fig. 279.--Wing of an Eagle.] The size of the Eagle varies according to the race, but all attain imposing dimensions. The female of the Golden Eagle measures three feet nine inches from the tip of the beak to the points of the feet, and the spread of its wings is nearly ten feet. In the Imperial Eagle the spread of the wings is only six feet, and in the Small Marine Eagle four feet four inches. It has been stated that the Eagle can travel sixty-five feet in a second, which would give a speed of forty-four miles an hour; but Naumann positively contradicts this assertion, on the ground that the Eagle is incapable of overtaking a Pigeon. It is, at all events, a matter of certainty that the flight of this bird is very rapid. An Eagle has been noticed circling over a hare in a field, and hemming it in, so that the victim was unable to escape on either side, always finding its enemy in front. The Eagle builds its nest in the clefts of the most inaccessible rocks, or on their edge, that its brood may be safe from danger or surprise. This nest is nothing but a floor, made of sticks placed carelessly side by side, bound together with some pliable branches, and lined with leaves, reeds, and heather. However, its solidity is sufficient to resist for years the decay caused by time, and to bear the load of four or five birds, weighing from seventy to eighty pounds, with the provisions brought for their sustenance. Some Eagles' nests have an area of as much as five feet square. The number of eggs laid is generally two or three, rarely four. Incubation requires thirty days. Eaglets being very voracious, the parent birds are compelled to hunt with great assiduity. Nevertheless, should scarcity occur, the young brood do not suffer, for nature has endowed them with the faculty of supporting abstinence for many days. This peculiarity they possess in common with all birds of prey. Buffon mentions an Eagle which, having been taken in a trap, passed five weeks without anything to eat, and did not appear enfeebled until the last eight days. An English author states that for twenty-one days a tame Eagle was not fed, and that the bird appeared to have suffered little from its protracted fast. When the young are large enough to provide for their own wants they are pitilessly driven from their paternal home; they then proceed to an unoccupied district, of which they take possession. The Eagle is, as we have before said, endowed with immense muscular vigour; it is, therefore, able to carry off prey of considerable size, such as Geese, Turkeys, Cranes, &c.; also Hares, Kids, and Lambs. In the mountains in which Chamois are abundant they are the principal objects of the Eagle's pursuit, and it employs various stratagems to get these animals into its power; for the bird will not venture to make its attack in front, as the Chamois is well able to keep it at a distance with its horns, provided its rear is protected. The Eagle sometimes kills its prey with the force of its swoop, without clutching with talons or beak. Again, it is stated that a blow from its wing will deprive a kid of life; it is not, therefore, surprising that its strength enables it to lift up young children, and carry them off. Many for a long period have refused to give credence to this fact; but the evidence of persons who are worthy of all confidence will not allow of any doubt being raised on the subject. We will, however, mention a few instances. In the Canton of Vaud two little girls, one three years old and the other five, were playing together in a meadow. An Eagle swooped down upon the eldest, and carried her off. All that immediately afterwards could be found upon a most active search was a shoe and stocking belonging to the child. Two months having elapsed, a shepherd discovered the remains of the little victim, horribly mutilated, and lying upon a rock half a league from the meadow from which she was taken. In the Isle of Skye, in Scotland, a woman left her child in a field. An Eagle carried off the little one in its talons, and crossing over a broad lake, laid it upon a rock. Fortunately the robber was perceived by some shepherds, who came up in time to succour the infant. In Sweden a babe was carried away under somewhat similar circumstances. The mother, who was only a short distance off, heard the shrieks of the poor little thing; but it was impossible for her to rescue it. It was borne out of her sight, and the wretched woman went mad with grief. In the Canton of Geneva a boy of ten years old, who was robbing an Eagle's nest, was seized by one of the birds, and borne to a point six hundred yards from the spot. He was rescued by his companions without having suffered further injury than some severe wounds inflicted by the bird's talons. In the Feroë Isles an Eagle flew away with a child (which its mother had left for a few moments), and bore it off to its aerie. Maternal love inspired the unfortunate woman with such a degree of strength as to enable her to reach the nest; but alas! to find her child lifeless. Near New York, in America, a lad of seven years of age was attacked by an Eagle. The boy having avoided the first shock, the Eagle persevered in its onslaught; but he waited for it bravely, and gave the bird a vigorous blow under the left wing with a sickle, which killed it. When the stomach of this Eagle was opened it was found entirely devoid of food. The bird was, therefore, in a famished state, and consequently enfeebled. Its persistent boldness is thus explained, and also the ease with which it was mastered. We must, however, confess that cases of children being carried away by Eagles are rare, for they generally avoid the vicinity of man, feeling unable to cope with him successfully. The chief objects of their attacks are newly-born lambs, which they frequently carry off in spite of the shouts of the shepherds and the proximity of his dogs. Sometimes they devote their attention to young calves; they do not, however, attempt to carry them off, but feed on them where slaughtered. A considerable amount of ingenuity has been displayed by some men in turning to account the habit which Eagles have of storing up a quantity of provisions in their nests for the sustenance of their young. A peasant in Ireland kept himself and the whole of his family for an entire season by robbing the Eaglets in a neighbouring aerie of the stores of food which were brought to them by the parent birds. In order to prolong this singular means of livelihood, report says, he endeavoured to delay the moment when the young ones would be driven forth, adopting the artifice of cutting their wings to render it impossible for them to fly. Eagles are very suspicious, and it is consequently difficult to get within gunshot of them. The mountaineers of the Pyrenees suffer much from the ravages they make among their flocks, and for this reason brave many dangers to destroy the young birds. "This pursuit," says M. Gérard, "is carried on by two men; one of the hunters is armed with a double-barrelled carbine, the other with a kind of iron pike about two feet long. At the first indication of daybreak the hunters reach the mountain-peak where the Eagle has his aerie, just at the time that the old birds are away seeking food. The first stands on the summit of the rock, and, carbine in hand, waits the arrival of the Eagle. The other makes his way down to the nest, climbing from cleft to cleft by means of cords. With a bold hand the Eaglets are grasped, still too young to oppose resistance. The parents, hearing the cries of their young, swoop down furiously, and fall upon the intrepid mountaineer, who beats them off with thrusts of his pike, whilst his companion waits a favourable opportunity to deliver his fire, which generally terminates the contest." The Eagle has been taken in snares; but if the instrument is not fastened down securely to the ground, the bird will tear it up and bear it off. Meisner relates that an Eagle, having been caught by the foot in a fox's trap, struggled with such effect that it wrenched up the trap, and carried it away to the other side of the mountain, although the instrument weighed nearly nine pounds. The Scotch employ a method for capturing Eagles which originated from their known voracity. In a narrow space, bounded by four tolerably high walls, they throw down pieces of raw meat. The Eagle settles to devour it. When completely gorged it becomes too heavy to fly, and endeavours to make his way out through an opening at the foot of the walls, where it is caught and held fast by a running noose, which is placed in front of the exit. The Eagle is remarkable for its longevity; but this cannot be accurately determined. Klein mentions an instance of one of these birds which lived in captivity in Vienna for one hundred and four years; he also speaks of a pair of Eagles in Forfarshire, in Scotland, which inhabited the same aerie for such a length of time that the oldest inhabitants had always known them. If captured young, Eagles are susceptible of a certain amount of education; but there always remains a tinge of ferocity in their nature, which renders their behaviour gloomy and sullen. When old they are absolutely untamable. In captivity they adapt their appetite to circumstances, and will even devour their own race. When nothing better is to be obtained, serpents, lizards, and, according to Buffon, bread are acceptable food to them. Although the Eagle is so irascible by nature, it has sometimes given proofs of gentleness truly astonishing. We may instance the bird which lived in 1807 in the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, which was captured in the forest of Fontainebleau. One of its feet was broken in the trap in which it was taken, and in consequence it was compelled to submit to a most painful operation, which it underwent with exemplary calmness and courage. Fully three months elapsed before it was cured, and afterwards it became so familiar with its keeper that it allowed itself to be caressed by him, and on his retiring for the night the bird roosted by his couch. The ancient falconers of the East were not in the habit of making use of the Eagle; its want of docility and its great weight rendered it but little adapted for this exercise. Thus they rather unceremoniously class the Eagle among the _ignoble_ birds. [Illustration: Fig. 280.--Golden Eagles (_Aquila chrysaetos_).] The Tartars, however, are in the habit of using an Eagle indigenous to Central Asia to assist in taking the hare, fox, antelope, and wolf. As this bird is weighty, they do not hold it on the fist, but place it in front of their horse's saddle. The genus called the Berecoot, which is scarcely known by Europeans, is of great power and courage. A well-known traveller describes a scene he witnessed on the steppes of Tartary, where a pair of them attacked and killed a brace of wolves with the greatest apparent ease. [Illustration: Fig. 281.--Imperial Eagles (_A. mogilnik_).] The Eagle is cosmopolitan, and may be found in all parts of the globe. There are several genera which we shall merely make mention of, because the habits of all are so exceedingly similar. The synonyms here given are those used in the classification of the British Museum. The Royal Eagle (Fig. 280), called also the Golden Eagle (_Aquila chrysaetos_), attains a greater size than any other; it is a native of the North and East of Europe. The Imperial Eagle (Fig. 281) is found in the East and South of Europe, and also in North Africa. Bonelli's Eagle (_A. Bonellii_) inhabits Southern Europe, particularly Greece. The Tawny Eagle (_A. nævioides_) is to be met with in all the mountainous and woody countries of Europe. The Booted Eagle (_A. pennata_) lives in the East and South of Europe, and occasionally makes its appearance in France. Reinwardt's Eagle (_A. malayensis_) is found in the Malay peninsula and islands; and the Vulturine Eagle (_A. vulturina_) is a species peculiar to South Africa, and of which Levaillant was the first to point out the peculiar characteristics. The diurnal birds of prey belonging to the order of Sea or Fishing Eagles are distinguished from Eagles proper by their tarsi, which are feathered only in the upper part, as well as by their feeding principally on marine animalia. SEA EAGLES. Their name, _Pythargus_, which is derived from the Greek, means "white-tail." They generally frequent the sea-shore, where they feed on fish and aquatic birds; they sometimes also catch small mammals, and even devour putrefied flesh. Their claws are very powerful, and the strength of their vision is so great, that they can see their aquatic prey swimming under the surface of the water. The rapidity with which they descend through the air when striking at their quarry is so wonderful that many have compared it to lightning. They even venture to attack the Seal, but as they cannot lift their victim, they cling to its back, forcing it on shore by means of their wings. But this excess of boldness has been known to be fatal to them; large Seals are strong enough to dive and drag their foe under water, where the Eagle meets with a miserable death; for, having buried its claws deeply in its prey, it is often impossible for it to disengage itself. [Illustration: Fig. 282.--American Sea Eagles (_Haliæëtus leucocephalus_).] Sea Eagles hunt in the night as well as day. They attack sea-birds weaker than themselves, and pursue them to take possession of their prey. They are indefatigable in pursuit of Vultures, which they make disgorge, and afterwards appropriate the results. Audubon observed, on the shores of the Mississippi, a Sea Eagle pursuing a Vulture which had just swallowed some intestine. Part of this protruded from the Vulture's bill; the Sea Eagle seized it, and forced the original possessor to give it up. The Sea Eagle of Europe lives in the coldest regions of the globe. It is common in Sweden and Norway, where it builds. Its aerie is about two yards wide, and is generally situated in the forests bordering on the sea or great lakes. It visits the French coasts in the autumn, following flocks of Geese which are migrating to the South; and it is again seen in the spring, on its return to the North. In Russia the special conditions of existence somewhat modify the habits of this bird, where, living in the midst of the vast steppes, it feeds, not on fish, for it is unprocurable, but on small quadrupeds, birds, and carrion. This bird nearly attains to the size of the Golden Eagle. The BALD EAGLE, WHITE-HEADED EAGLE, or SEA EAGLE (Fig. 282), is a native of North America. It builds its nest on the summit of the highest trees. Its flight is as powerful as that of the Golden Eagle, and its strength and adroitness are even greater. This Eagle (_Haliæëtus leucocephalus_, Vig.) is represented on the flag of the United States. The illustrious Franklin with sorrow regretted the selection his nation had made. "It is a bird of low and evil nature," wrote Franklin in one of his letters; "it does not know how to gain its livelihood honestly. Added to this, it is nothing but a cowardly rogue. The little Wren, which is not so large as a Sparrow, resolutely attacks it, and drives it from its haunts! Thus in no point of view is it a suitable emblem for a brave and honourable nation." The varieties of this family are numerous on the North American continent, but the distinctions are not sufficiently great to deserve particular notice. Those from other portions of the globe most worthy of attention are the Marine Eagle (_Pandion ichthyaëtus_), which inhabits Java; the Piscivorous Sea Eagle (_Cuncuma vocifer_); the Caffir Sea Eagle, discovered in Africa by Levaillant; the Sea Eagle of Mace (_C. Macei_); and the Pondicherry Eagle, called by some the Sea Eagle of India, which inhabits India and Bengal, where the bird is an object of veneration among the Brahmins, being consecrated to Vishnu. We shall class with the same genus the OSPREY (Fig. 283), which, although different from Sea Eagles in certain details of organisation, is, however, allied to them by its aquatic habits. It prefers the neighbourhood of ponds and rivers to the sea-shore, where it is frequently mistaken for the Sea Eagle. Wild fowl and carrion are frequently its food, but fish forms the principal portion of its diet. It does not always enjoy the fruit of its labour, for the Sea Eagle frequently forces it to abandon its prey, which, if dropped in the air, will be adroitly reseized by the robber in its descent. [Illustration: Fig. 283.--The Osprey (_Pandion haliæëtus_).] The old naturalists, Aldrovandus, Gesner, Klein, and Linnæus sanctioned a singular error concerning the organisation of this bird. From the fact that it sometimes dives into the water to catch fish, they imagined that it had one foot webbed for swimming, and the other furnished with prehensile claws for seizing prey. The River Osprey is about a third smaller than the Sea Eagle. It is found all over Europe, but especially in Germany, Switzerland, and the East of France. The birds which form part of the genus _Morphnus_ (Cuv.) occupy a middle position between Eagles and Sparrow-hawks, of which we shall speak further on. They are characterised by a full and rounded tail, comparatively short wings, and the existence of a tuft on the back of the head. This latter feature, although general, is not, however, common to all the species. These birds generally inhabit the vast forests of Africa and South America. They are admirably organised for strife and slaughter, and are the terror of every creature in their neighbourhood. The HUPPART (_Falco occipitalis_, Daudin), thus named on account of its _huppe_, or tuft, which is about six inches long, is a native of Africa, and feeds on Hares, Ducks, and Partridges. It also pursues Crows, for which it feels a deadly hatred; as these birds sometimes league together to deprive it of its prey, and even to devour its brood. It will not suffer any rival in its domain, but accords protection to small birds which come near to its nest to seek a shelter from the attacks of inferior birds of prey. The _Falco urubitinga_ (Gmelin) inhabits Brazil and Guiana; it is eminently wild and taciturn, and builds its nest in the vicinity of marshes. It feeds on birds, small mammals, reptiles, and even fish. The HARPY, or DESTRUCTIVE EAGLE of South America (_Harpyia destructor_, Cuv.), Fig. 284, is the model species of the genus. It is the most formidable of the whole tribe of Eagles; for it is larger, measuring nearly five feet from the extremity of the head to that of the tail; its bill is more than two inches in length; and its claws and toes are longer and more robust than the fingers of a man. It is rumoured that the Harpy does not fear to attack carnivora of large size, and even men. Two or three blows from its bill are sufficient to break its victim's skull. In order to render these assertions worthy of belief they should be confirmed by those who have enjoyed opportunities for observation. Be this as it may, there is no doubt that Harpies are endowed with extraordinary strength. D'Orbigny relates that at the time of an exploring expedition on the banks of the Rio Securia, in Bolivia, he met with a Harpy of large size. The Indians who accompanied him pursued it, pierced it with two arrows, and gave it numerous blows on the head. At length, thinking it was dead, they plucked off the greater part of its feathers, and even the down also, placing it afterwards in their canoe. What was the surprise of the naturalist when the bird recovered from its stupefaction, darted upon him, and burying its claws in his arm, inflicted most dangerous wounds! The interference of the Indians was necessary in order to rid him of his antagonist. [Illustration: Fig. 284.--The Harpy (_Harpyia destructor_, Cuv.).] The Harpy inhabits the great forests of South America situated on the banks of the rivers. Its food consists of agoutis, fawns, sloths, and especially monkeys. The Indians, who highly estimate warlike qualities, hold this bird in great respect, and consider it most valuable. Its tail and wing feathers they use to adorn themselves with on state occasions. The WHITE-BELLIED EAGLE (_Cuncuma leucogaster_), so called because its plumage is white underneath, has points of similarity to the Eagle, the Sea Eagle, and the River Osprey. It is two feet in height, and its spread of wings is five feet. It is very common all over Europe, and is only too well known to the villagers on whose poultry-yards it frequently leaves heavy tax. It also feeds on moles, field-mice, reptiles, adders, and sometimes insects. It bears captivity very well. Buffon reared one which became tolerably familiar, but never showed the least affection for those who tended it. FALCONS (from _falx_, a reaping-hook) are marvellously organised for rapine, and realise the ideal of a bird of prey. They have a short bill, bent from the base, with a very strong tooth on each side of the upper mandible, with which an indentation corresponds in the lower portion. The wings of this bird are long and pointed, causing its flight to be at once powerful, rapid, and agile. Its tarsi are short, and its claws hooked and sharp. When we add to all this a most penetrating vision and enormous strength, it will easily be understood that these birds inspire terror wherever they go. They feed only on living prey--birds or small mammals--which they often instantaneously kill and carry off to eat elsewhere. They always hunt on the wing. They assemble in flocks at the time of migration to follow the birds of passage. At other times they live in solitary couples, and build their nest, according to the locality, in woods, cliffs, holes in quarries, or in ruined habitations, and sometimes even in the interior of towns. They lay from two to four eggs. We shall divide the Falcon genus into two groups: Gyrfalcons, characterised by tails longer than their wings; and Falcons proper, which have the wings as long, and sometimes longer, than the tail. The group of Gyrfalcons, or Jerfalcons, comprehends the Gyrfalcon proper, the Lanner Falcon (_Falco lannarius_), and the Sacred Falcon. The Egyptians venerated the Falcon, and to this circumstance the name of Gyrfalcon must be attributed, as it is a corruption of _Hierofalco_, or Sacred Falcon. The GYRFALCON is the best-proportioned and most active member of the Falcon tribe. In strength it even rivals the Eagle itself, although it is hardly two feet in height. Its colour varies with its age. When young it is of a beautiful brown tint, but becomes almost white with age. It inhabits the Arctic regions, where it feeds on large birds, principally Gallinaceæ or Palmipedes. [Illustration: Fig. 285.--Sultan Falcons (_F. peregrinator_).] Three varieties of this species are known, all very similar to each other: the White Falcon, called by Buffon the White Gyrfalcon of the North, which inhabits the extreme north of the two continents; the _Falco islandicus_, or Gyrfalcon of Iceland, peculiar to that country; and the Gyrfalcon of Norway, which is found in Scandinavia, and sometimes appears in Germany, Holland, and France. The first two of these are very docile, and consequently were eagerly sought after by falconers, who used them for pursuing the Heron, Crane, and Stork. An ancient Danish law, which was repealed in 1758, forbade, under pain of death, the destruction of these birds. The LANNER FALCON (Buffon) is about the same size as the White Gyrfalcon; it is found in Hungary, Russia, Styria, and Greece, where it makes its appearance after the arrival of the birds of passage. It is also easily trained for hawking. [Illustration: Fig. 286.--Peregrine Falcon (_F. peregrinus_).] The SULTAN FALCON (_F. peregrinator_), Fig. 285, is larger than the preceding species. It is found in Germany and Southern Russia, Turkey, and Asia Minor. In the first rank of Falcons proper must be mentioned the PEREGRINE FALCON (Fig. 286), often designated by the names of the Common Falcon and the Passenger Falcon. As its name sufficiently indicates, it is a bird of passage. It is common in the centre and north of Western Europe, as well as in the islands of the Mediterranean. It also inhabits North America, where it is frequently called the Chicken-eater. The flight of the Peregrine Falcon is wonderfully rapid. One of these birds having escaped from the falconry of Henri II., it is said that it performed the whole distance from Fontainebleau to Malta in one day, over three hundred leagues. It hovers in the air with graceful facility, and when it marks a victim, darts upon it with extraordinary rapidity, courage, and ferocity. The Falcon feeds principally on aquatic birds, Pigeons, Partridges, and Larks. So great is its courage that it has been known to pursue the latter into the nets of the bird-catcher. If compelled, it will eat dead fish, as was observed by Audubon on the banks of the Mississippi; but this latter circumstance is excessively rare. This bird possesses little dread of man, for it sometimes has the audacity to swoop upon the game which the sportsman has killed, and not unfrequently succeeds in carrying it off. One of these birds established itself, some years ago, on the towers of Notre-Dame, in Paris, and every day captured several of the tame Pigeons which fly at liberty in the city. This continued for a month, and was only put a stop to by the proprietors of the Pigeons keeping their pets shut up. Thus deprived of its means of existence, the Falcon soon disappeared. Notwithstanding the magnificent powers of flight of the Peregrine Falcon, it is not always successful in its forays. Naumann narrates that he saw a Pigeon pursued by one of these destroyers throw itself into a lake, dive down, and shortly after emerge in another part, thus baffling its enemy. When a Pigeon is harassed by a Falcon it endeavours to mount above its enemy; if it succeeds in this it is saved, for the Falcon becomes fatigued, and gives up the pursuit. Large Ravens are inveterate enemies of the Peregrine Falcon. They have frequent fights, in which the former sometimes prove the conquerors. A Raven has been known to break the skull of a Falcon with a blow of its bill. The Falcon is gifted with a more remarkable degree of longevity than even the Eagle. It is reported that in 1797, at the Cape of Good Hope, a Falcon was caught which showed no signs of decrepitude, and which had on a golden collar with an inscription stating that in 1610 it belonged to James I., King of England; it was therefore over one hundred and eighty-seven years old. [Illustration: Fig. 287.--The Hobby (_Hypobuorchis subbuteo_).] The parent birds exhibit the greatest solicitude for their young until able to provide for themselves: when that stage of maturity arrives they are driven forth. [Illustration: Fig. 288.--Merlins (_H. Æsalon_).] The Peregrine Falcon is found among the cliffs of Normandy. There are other species of Falcons smaller than the preceding. They are only distinguished from them by their size; their habits are identical, except that they prey on smaller birds, such as Quails, Larks, Swallows, and sometimes insects. These species are: the Hobby (Fig. 287), which is found all over Europe, and also in Africa--it is about a foot in height; the Merlin (Fig. 288), which is not much larger than a Thrush, and in summer inhabits the North, and in winter the South, of Europe; the Kestrel (Fig. 289), which owes its name to its sharp cry--it is thirteen inches in height, and is common in the centre of Europe; lastly, the Bengal Falcon (_Terax cærulescens_), which is a native of India and Java--this is the smallest of all birds of prey. Several other varieties of Falcon, which do not present any remarkable peculiarity, are met with both in Africa and America. [Illustration: Fig. 289.--Kestrel (_Tinnunculus alaudarius_).] The name of Falcon is still associated with the sport of _hawking_ or _falconry_, of which we are about to speak. Falconry, the art of training or flying hawks to take other birds, was formerly held in high esteem in the various countries of Europe. In consequence of the invention of fire-arms, after having been for centuries the delight of kings and nobles, it fell into disuse. The Arabs and other Asiatic nations adhere to it to the present day. This sport may be traced back to a very remote period, for Aristotle, and subsequently Pliny, make mention of it. Falconry was introduced into Europe about the fourth century of our era, and was at its greatest repute in the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance. All the nobility, from the monarch to the lowest courtier, were passionately fond of _hawking_--the name specially applied to it. Sovereigns and noblemen expended princely sums upon it. The gift of a few fine Falcons was considered a magnificent present. The kings of France solemnly received twelve Falcons every year, which were given to them by the grand-master of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. They were intrusted on their voyage to a French knight of the order, to whom the monarch accorded, under the name of a present, a sum of £3,000, and the expenses of his journey. Gentlemen, and even ladies, of the Middle Ages, seldom appeared in public without a Falcon on their wrists; and this example was followed by bishops and abbots--they entered the churches supporting their favourite birds, depositing them on the steps of the altar during mass. Noblemen on public ceremonies proudly held their Falcons in one hand and the hilt of their sword in the other. Louis XIII. was devoted to falconry. Daily he went hawking before going to church; and his favourite, Albert de Luynes, owed his fortune to his great skill in this science. Charles d'Arcussia of Capri, Lord of Esparron, published, in 1615, a "Treatise on Falconry," in which it is stated that the Baron de la Chastaigneraie, chief falconer of France under Louis XIII., purchased his office at a cost of fifty thousand crowns. He had the direction of one hundred and forty birds, which required the assistance of a staff of one hundred men for their care. This kind of sport has almost totally disappeared; a revival of it in England and Germany has taken place, but only with moderate success. For this purpose a society, called the "Hawking Club," meets together every year in a dependency of the royal castle of Loo, under the presidency of the King of the Netherlands, to _fly the Heron_. They take from one to two hundred of these birds in the space of two months; but this is only a feeble resuscitation of an institution which has now practically passed away. Falcons were formerly divided into birds of the _noble_ and _inferior_ grades. The former comprehended the Gyrfalcon, the Falcon, the Hobby, the Merlin, and the Kestrel; the latter, the Goshawk and Sparrow-hawk. The name of _Goshawk training_ has been given to the art whose special end was the education of these last two birds. As the mode of education varies little for all these birds, which only differ in docility, we shall merely consider one species, that of the Falcon, which will serve as a type for all the others. The Falcons destined for _training_ must be captured young. Those that have been providing their own food, and have nearly reached maturity, are taken with a lure, which is generally a Pigeon. Young birds which have just left the nest are called _eyases_; when rather more mature, _branchers_; that is to say, birds about three months old, strong enough to hop from branch to branch, but incapable of flying or providing for their own subsistence. The latter are preferable to all others, as they are not so young as to require the care necessary to the _eyas_, and are yet not old enough to have become intractable. At a year old it would be nearly useless to attempt their education; they are then called _haggards_. The Falcon being naturally wild, violent, and alike insensible to caresses and chastisements, it can only be tamed by privations, such as want of light, sleep, and food, and also by constantly being cared for by the same person. This is the foundation of the method which the falconer practises. [Illustration: Fig. 290.--Bewits.] [Illustration: Fig. 291.--Hood.] [Illustration: Fig. 292.--Dressed Falcon.] Supposing that a _brancher_ has been caught, its legs are first made fast in the shackles, or _benits_ (Fig. 290), made of straps of supple leather, terminated by bells. Then the falconer, his hand covered with a glove, takes the Falcon on his wrist, and carries it about night and day, without allowing it rest. If the pupil is intractable, refuses to submit, and tries to use its bill, the tamer plunges its head into cold water, and thus produces stupor in the bird. Afterwards the head is covered with a _hood_ (Fig. 291), which keeps it in complete darkness. Alter three days and nights of this treatment, rarely more, the bird becomes, to a certain extent, docile. The falconer then accustoms it to take its food quietly; this is presented in the hand, while at the same time a peculiar noise is made, which it learns to recognise as a call. In the meantime it is carried about in frequented places, so as to familiarise it with strangers, and also with horses and dogs, which are to be at some future time its companions in the chase. When an obstinate bird is dealt with its appetite is excited, so as to render it more dependent; with this view it is made to swallow small pellets of tow mixed up with garlic and wormwood. These pellets have the effect of increasing its hunger; and the pleasure which it afterwards experiences in eating tends to attach it more closely to the individual who feeds it. In a general way, after five or six days of restraint the Falcon is _tamed_, and the falconer can then proceed with the _training_, to which the former practices are nothing but preliminaries. The bird is taken into a garden, and taught to hop up on the fist when called; a piece of meat is shown to entice it, which is not given to the bird until the requisite manoeuvre is properly executed. The _meat_ is then fastened to a _lure_, or decoy, and the same course is adopted, the bird being attached to the end of a string from ten to forty yards in length. The _lure_ (Fig. 293) is a flat piece of wood, covered on both sides with the wings and feet of a Pigeon. The Falcon is uncovered, and the _lure_ is shown to it at a short distance off, and at the same time a call is given. If the bird stoops upon the lure it is allowed to take the meat which is attached to it. The distance is progressively increased, and the Falcon is recompensed for its docility on each occasion. When, at the full length of the string, it will obey the call, a great point is gained, for it fully recognises the lure, and knows that the meat attached will become its own on returning to its master. Then the falconer no longer fears it becoming free, for he well knows he can _reclaim_ it; that is, make it settle down upon his fist, even when the bird is flying in the air. Afterwards it is _introduced to living game_ by letting it fly at tied Pigeons; and, lastly, its education is completed by habituating it to stoop on the special game which it is intended to chase. Supposing the game it is destined for pursuing to be the Partridge, in the first place, the Pigeon's wings on the _lure_ are replaced by those of the Partridge, and then the Falcon is let fly in succession, first at Partridges tied to a string, and then at liberated birds. When it _binds_ its prey well, and shows itself obedient, it is employed on wild game. Birds of prey used to be educated for taking the Kite, the Heron, the Crow, the Magpie, the Hare, Partridges, Quails, and Pheasants; also Wild Ducks and other aquatic birds. The pursuit of the Kite, the Heron, the Crow, and the Magpie, the profit of which was absolutely nothing, was looked upon as a sport fit for princes, and was carried on by means of the Falcon and Gyrfalcon. But the chase of other birds, in which the inducement was a prey fit for food, was considered the sport of an esquire; and for this were used the Hobby (_Hobereau_, French), the Merlin, the Kestrel, the Goshawk, and the Sparrow-hawk. Hence comes the nickname of _Hobereau_ applied to French country gentlemen; "because," as Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye says, "they wish to show an appearance of more property than they really possess; and not being able to keep Falcons, which cost too much in their purchase and food, they hawk with Hobbies, which are readily procured, and also provide Partridges and Quails for their kitchens." [Illustration: Fig. 293.--The Lure.] The most noble _cast_, but also the rarest, was that at the Kite. We have already mentioned, when speaking of nocturnal birds of prey, how at one time they were in the habit of alluring this bird by means of a Great (Long-eared) Owl, dressed out with a fox's brush. Some stratagem of this kind was obliged to be used in order to get near the Kite, which flies at heights altogether inaccessible to the best Falcon. When the Kite came within range a Falcon was _let fly_, and then a most interesting conflict took place between the two birds. The Kite, harassed by its enemy, and, in spite of its turns and twists and numberless feints, unable to escape him, generally in the end fell into its foe's clutches. The cast at a Heron generally presented fewer incidents. This bird, from not being gifted with the same powers of wing, was unavoidably overtaken with much greater ease, although, when not overloaded with food, it occasionally managed to escape. Still it always defended itself with energy, and the blows of its formidable bill were often fatal to its pursuer. In Heron hawking (Fig. 294) a dog was required to flush the game, and three Falcons to capture it: the duty of the first was to make the _quarry_ rise, of the second to follow it, and of the third to clutch it. We shall quote from an ancient author of a "Treatise on Falconry" the account of a cast at a Heron; the description will well explain the details of this kind of sport. [Illustration: Fig. 294.--Heron Hawking.] "Now riding fast, we soon came by the side of the meadows adjoining the warren, where the 'markers' of M. de Ligné discovered three Herons, and at once came to tell him of it. Making up his mind to attack them, the Sieur de Ligné did me the favour of giving me a white Gyrfalcon, named 'La Perle,' to let fly; he himself took another, called 'Le Gentilhomme,' and one of his people took a third, named 'Le Pinson.' When the Herons heard us approach they became alarmed, and took wing while we were yet some distance off; seeing this, we let fly the birds, which were some time before they perceived the quarry. At last one of the Hawks caught sight of them, and went in pursuit. The two others immediately followed with so much ardour and speed that in a very short time they had all reached the Herons, and were attacking one, which defended itself; but it was so roughly treated that it could not make much resistance, and was soon taken. Whilst the Falcons were having their pleasure with it (that is, whilst the quarry was being given them), the other Herons, frightened at seeing their companion so badly treated, kept on rising in the direction of the sun, hoping to shelter themselves in its glare. But they were descried; M. de Ligné told me of this, saying, 'I can see the two Herons up above still rising. I give you one as your share.' On which, seeing them at such an immense height, I replied that the Falcons would have great difficulty in getting at them. Then he let fly his bird, we doing likewise, and they all vied with one another in soaring upwards, using such diligence that soon we saw them almost as high up as one of the Herons. Having first made an effort and got above their prey, they commenced to deal it such a shower of blows that it seemed stupefied, and flew down to gain the shelter of the woods. We rode forward to bring the hounds to the assistance of the Falcons, and were just in time; for the Heron had thrown itself into a thicket, in which we captured it alive, although taken from the mouth of one of the dogs. Giving this bird to the Falcons, we mounted our horses again to let fly after another." The casts at the Crow and the Magpie were also very amusing. These birds would try at first to escape by means of speed, and then, recognising the uselessness of their efforts, they afterwards took refuge in a tree, from which the falconers had much trouble to drive them, so great was their terror for their pursuers. For _field and river sport_ the Falcon is not let fly _direct from the fist_; that is, the Falcon does not attack immediately on leaving the hand--it is _thrown up_, or, in common parlance, is let fly, before the game flushes. The Falcon hovers for some time, and then stoops down on the prey which the dogs have forced up. In order to escape its persecutor the Wild Duck often takes to the water; from this the dogs again force it to take wing. The Hare is hunted in much the same way. Hawking is even nowadays held in high honour in the North of Africa and in Asia, being the favourite diversion of the Arabs. In the Sahara the Falcon is trained to hunt Pigeons, Partridges, Hares, Rabbits, and even the Gazelle. In Persia and Turkestan the Falcon is not trained, as it used to be in Europe, for some special game; they accustom it to stoop on all kinds of prey. Hunting the gazelle with Hawks is a diversion much esteemed among these nations. The plan adopted is as follows:-- "The Persians," says Thévenot, the traveller, "provide stuffed Gazelles, on the noses of which they always place the food for their Falcons, and never feed them anywhere else. After they have been thus trained they take them out into the open country, and when they see a Gazelle they let fly two of these birds, one of which darts down on the nose of the Gazelle, and fastens on to it with its talons. The Gazelle stops short, and shakes himself to get rid of the bird; but the latter keeps his place for some time by means of flapping his wings, thus preventing the Gazelle from running fast, and even from seeing where it is going. When at last, with some trouble, the Gazelle disengages itself from its pursuer, the other Falcon, which is flying near, takes the place of the one thrown off; the latter, in its turn, again resumes the assault when its companion has fallen. The birds thus hinder the running of the Gazelle, so that the dogs easily overtake it." In Egypt the Falcon is trained for this kind of sport by taking it young, limiting the quantity of its food, and then frequently bringing it into the presence of sheep: being in a famished state, the bird unhesitatingly darts on them. Hawking is also held in high esteem in India, both by the natives and Europeans resident there. It is no rare thing to see young ladies reviving all the customs of the Middle Ages, and penetrating into the jungles mounted on elephants, accompanied by their Falcons, which are flown at the charming blue antelope. In China and Japan hawking is also very popular: in the course of a day's journey it is no uncommon thing to meet persons pursuing this sport. The birds which form the next family differ from the Falcon in having no teeth in the upper mandible of the bill; their tarsi, also, are longer, and their wings shorter. Their flight, too, is both less high and less rapid than that of the Falcon. They are found in all parts of the globe, presenting some slight modifications due to the influence of climate. They generally feed on small birds and reptiles, and exceptionally on very small mammals. They are divided into Goshawks proper and Sparrow-hawks. There are various species of the Goshawk, all characterised by very strong tarsi, one only of which, the Common Goshawk, is a native of Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 295.--Goshawks (_Astur palumbarius_).] [Illustration: Fig. 296.--Common Sparrow-hawk (_Accipiter nisus_).] The COMMON GOSHAWK (Fig. 295) is by no means rare in France and England. In summer it frequents the oak and beech woods which cover the mountain-sides, and sometimes ventures near habitations to carry off Fowls and Pigeons. At the commencement of autumn it descends into the plains, making its nest on the skirts of some extensive wood, from which it darts out upon Partridges, Grouse, or young Leverets, which form its principal food. It pursues Larks with such ardour that it often falls into the snares laid for these birds; but it will never attempt to get free from the trap until it has satiated its sanguinary appetite. When hunting for its prey it skims over the ground and bushes, carefully inspecting each. Should it perceive a victim, it approaches with caution until within striking distance, when it suddenly darts upon its prey with unerring precision. This bird is as large as the Gyrfalcon, but, although equal in cunning and address, is possessed of less courage. The Goshawk is difficult to tame; its ferocious nature is not subdued by captivity. In 1850, a young one four months old, kept in the Botanical Garden of the Natural History Society of Savoy, killed with its claws and bill a Kite the same age as itself, which had been its companion for fifteen days. The young savage tore its victim to pieces and fed on the carcass, although it had not the least necessity for food, being perfectly well cared for. The Common Goshawk is also found in the North of Africa. Two other species are known in North America. The SPARROW-HAWKS are distinguished from the preceding birds by the slenderness of their tarsi. The Common Sparrow-hawk (Fig. 296) is found all over Europe. In France it is a constant resident. Although smaller, it has much the same habits as the Goshawk, but is bolder, and will carry off Partridges, or other small game, under the very hands of sportsmen or gamekeepers. It will even attack and devour Fowls and chickens in the poultry-yard, and so absorbed does it become in the enjoyment of its feast that a person may sometimes get sufficiently near to capture it. In the plains where game is abundant, Sparrow-hawks are very destructive, and consequently are seldom spared when within gunshot. The Sparrow-hawk (_Accipiter fringillarius_ of some authors) will become gentle and tame in captivity. Dr. Franklin mentions an instance of one of these birds, belonging to a friend of his, which lived with two Pigeons. This bird had succeeded in gaining the affection of all who knew it, and was, it is said, as playful as a cat. Africa possesses two species of Sparrow-hawk: the Dwarf Sparrow-hawk (_A. minullus_), which does not exceed the Blackbird in size. As intrepid, although not so strong, as its European brother, it often ventures to attack Kites and Buzzards, and, by its agility, harasses them with impunity. The Chanting Falcon (_Melierax musicus_), which is about the size of the Goshawk, sings in the vicinity of the female during the season of incubation. It is the only musician among birds of the Rapacious order, and therefore has claim to honourable mention. Both the Goshawks and the Sparrow-hawks were employed in hawking in days of old, but their relative value was much inferior to that of the Falcon. The birds which belong to the KITE genus (_Milvus_) are characterised as follows:--Beak curved from the base, and not toothed; tarsi short, slender, and feathered on the upper part; wings very long; tail long, and more or less forked; colour generally brown. Several species are known, but their characteristics are identical. [Illustration: Fig. 297.--The Kite (_Milvus regalis_).] The Kite (_Milvus regalis_), Fig. 297, thus named on account of affording amusement for princes, who hunted it with the Falcon, and even the Sparrow-hawk, measures two feet in height, the spread of its wings being not less than five feet. Of all the Falcon tribe this bird is gifted with the most graceful, rapid, and sustained powers of flight. It is so incessantly on the wing, that it appears scarcely to require rest. Love for soaring through space must be the cause of this activity, as it never pursues its prey, but descends upon it from the prodigious heights at which it may be hovering with incredible velocity, and seizing it in its claws, bears it to some adjacent tree to be devoured. Its food consists of leverets, moles, rats, field-mice, reptiles, and fish--the latter it catches on the surface of the water. It builds its nest on lofty trees, rarely on rocks. It is a constant resident in some parts of France, and is met with in nearly all countries of Europe. The Black Kite (_Milvus niger_) is very common in Russia, and has a particular _penchant_ for fish. It is not, however, above assisting Vultures in devouring carrion, and may be seen hovering over the city of Moscow to pick up the fragments which are thrown into the streets. In autumn these Kites assemble in flocks, and, crossing the Black Sea, proceed to winter in Egypt, where they are so tame that they perch on the windows of the houses. In the spring they return to Europe. The Parasite Kite (_Milvus ægyptius_) is thus named by Levaillant because his whole system of life seems to be at the expense of man, either by devastating his poultry-yards or robbing with extraordinary impudence travellers encamping in the open air. This celebrated naturalist relates that whenever he made a halt, some of these birds came and perched on his waggons for the purpose of stealing. "At Cairo," says Dr. Petit, in the account of his travels in Abyssinia, "I one day saw a Kite snatch suddenly from the hands of an Arab woman a piece of bread and cheese, at the very moment she was raising it to her mouth. At Chizé, in Abyssinia, another Kite carried away, from under the very nose of my dog, which was guarding it, a portion of a sheep just killed. The same thing took place several times in view of my servants." The same authority adds that these birds sometimes assemble in innumerable flocks; for he has seen thousands hovering over an Egyptian village. The American Kite (_Ictinia mississipiensis_) is remarkable for its deeply-forked tail, which it uses as a rudder to guide it in flying, when it describes the most elegant curves; hence the name Forked-tail Pilot, which is sometimes given it. Essentially migratory, they may be seen in spring and autumn proceeding North or South. They are protected by law; for, aided by the Buzzards, they are of great service in clearing away garbage. They have no fear of water, and pounce upon fish when opportunity offers. In the harbours of the Southern States they may frequently be seen perched on carcasses floating in the tide-way. The bill and claws of the Kite are weak in comparison with its size; it therefore wisely avoids coming in collision with birds of prey better armed than itself. This has been sufficient to give it the character of cowardice. Kites are easily tamed, and if taken young they will soon become familiar. BUZZARDS (_Buteo_) have long wings, a large head, and a rather squat figure; the tarsi are short, or of medium size; and the beak curved from the base; in fact, their appearance is heavy and ungraceful. They do not chase their prey when it is on the wing, but secrete themselves on a tree or other elevation, where they wait until a victim passes within reach. When thus occupied, they will remain for several hours in the most complete immobility, presenting an air of drowsiness which has become proverbial. This stupid look is owing to their nonchalant and apathetic attitude, and also to the weakness of their eyes, which are affected by the glare of strong light. They generally build their nests on the loftiest trees, occasionally in thickets of brushwood growing among rocks. When frost occurs they approach settlements and make forays upon poultry. If pressed by hunger, they become excessively bold. Their general food consists of small birds, rodents, serpents, insects, and sometimes corn. They are easily tamed. M. Degland mentions one which lived in perfect harmony with a sporting dog, and even went so far as to share its food. Buffon also speaks of another which was so attached to its master that it could not be happy unless in his company; it was present at all his meals, when it would caress him with its head and bill; and, although this bird always enjoyed the most complete liberty, every evening it returned to roost on the window-sill. One day when its master was riding on horseback, it followed him for more than two leagues, hovering over him in the air. Mr. Yarrell relates of these birds, which are much attached to their progeny, that in the town of Uxbridge a Buzzard kept in a domestic state having manifested a desire for building, the means were furnished, and two Hen's eggs placed under her. The young chickens were hatched and reared as if they had been her own. On another occasion, in order to save the trouble of sitting, some chickens just hatching were placed in her nest; these she killed, evidently feeling that she was not allied to them, by any maternal tie. [Illustration: Fig. 298.--Common Buzzards (_Buteo vulgaris_).] The principal species are the Common Buzzard (_Buteo vulgaris_), Fig. 298, which is found all over Europe--it was until lately very common in England; the Honey Buzzard (_Pernis apivorus_), a native of Eastern Europe--this bird is partial to bees, wasps, and their larvæ, of which its food principally consists--it will also eat grain, and, in a domestic state, fruit; and the Rough-legged Buzzard (_Archibuteo lagopus_), so called on account of the feathers which cover its tarsi down to the toes: it is a native of Europe, North Africa, Asia, and America. Ptarmigans are their principal food, and cold climates their favourite habitat. The birds which belong to the HARRIER genus are characterised by long and--slender tarsi, covered with feathers on the upper portion only, and also by a sort of collar formed of closely-planted feathers, which surrounds the neck and extends on each side to the ears. Marshy plains, and woods situated in the vicinity of rivers, are their most frequent resorts. They build their nests on the ground, or close to it, in the brushwood, and in this respect differ from most of the Falcon family. When searching for their prey they skim over the ground, and always seize it suddenly, as if by surprise: if the unfortunate is lucky enough to avoid the Harrier's onset it is safe from pursuit. In Europe the best-known species of this family are the Hen Harrier (_Circus cyaneus_) and the Moor Harrier (_Circus æruginosus_), Fig. 299. [Illustration: Fig. 299.--Moor Harrier (_Circus æruginosus_).] The former bird is about seventeen inches high; it inhabits all the countries of Europe, and feeds on serpents, rodents, and frogs. When it succeeds in making its way into pigeon-houses or poultry-yards it commits great havoc. The Moor Harrier feeds principally on game, to which it is extremely destructive. Game preservers consequently are their bitterest enemies. Their flight is not swift except when pouncing on their prey, when it is possessed of great certainty and velocity. The other species we will mention are the Frog-eating Harrier (_Circus ranivorus_), which is a native of South Africa, where it feeds principally on frogs and fish; the Pale-chested Harrier and Jardine's Harrier (_C. Swainsonii_ and _C. Jardinii_); and the Ash-coloured Harrier (_C. cinerescens_), which is met with in the extreme south of America. The latter has great powers of flight, and is always in motion, never halting except to seize its prey; it is very wild, and can only be approached when feeding. The CARACARAS (_Polyborus_, Vieillot) are a race of birds which form a link between the Falcon and the Vulture families. They have, like the latter, the projecting crop, goggle eyes; head partly bare of feathers, toes long, especially the middle one, and the claws but slightly crooked. They show a decided taste for putrid carrion. They do not, however, feed exclusively on it, for when opportunity offers they will capture mammals, young birds, reptiles, mollusks, grasshoppers, and even worms. These birds are essentially pedestrians; the slight curvation of their claws renders this easy, and it is not an unfrequent thing to see them walk at a slow pace for considerable distances. Their name is derived from the cry which they utter. They are peculiar to South America, in which they are found in every latitude, and at all altitudes. They present, however, differences according to the region which they inhabit. Each species fixes itself in a zone, which becomes its special place of habitation. Thus the Brazilian Caracara (Fig. 300) is met with everywhere, from the coldest districts to the hottest countries, but only at a slight altitude, and in company with the Chimango Caracara (_Milvago chimango_), whilst the summits of the Andes are inhabited by the Long-winged Caracara (_M. megalopterus_); and the Chimachima Caracara (_M. chimachima_) inhabits the burning plains between the tropics. The Caracaras, especially the common species and the Chimango, are distinguished from the other Falconides by an excessive amount of sociability: everywhere they seek out the vicinity of man. But we should be labouring under a mistake if we supposed that affection had any share in this alliance; egotism and self-interest are the motives which impel them to act thus. It is to feed at his expense--to devour the fragments of his meals, kill his Domestic Fowls, or take possession of the pieces of meat which are hung in the sun to dry. This bird, however, is useful, for it most efficiently performs the duties of scavengers. The Caracara will craftily follow the sportsman, and steal away game that is not quickly bagged. It also accompanies travellers across the vast pampas to prey on the carcasses of the worn-out beasts of burden. It will even attack horses and mules which are galled by the pack-saddle, fastening greedily on their wounds, and would actually devour them alive if the quadrupeds had not the sagacity to dislodge them by rolling on the ground. It will also take up its abode near flocks of sheep, and if it can evade the watchfulness of the shepherd, will destroy the newly-born lamb. [Illustration: Fig. 300.--The Brazilian Caracaras (_Polyborus brasiliensis_).] Having confidence in its own strength, the Caracara frequently pursues other birds, especially Vultures and Gulls, which it forces to disgorge their food. It will even engage in sanguinary conflicts with its own species for the possession of prey. Contrary to the habit of most birds in a state of freedom, it remains constantly paired, without, however, having more than one or two broods a year. The Caracara lays two eggs; the nest is generally placed on the ground among brushwood. Besides the four species we have mentioned there is also the _Caracara funebris_, thus named on account of its plumage, which is almost entirely of a black hue. This bird is still more of a plunderer than the preceding species, and is a native of the shores of Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Isles, Van Diemen's Land, New Zealand, &c. VULTURES. The Vultures (_Vulturidæ_) form a well-marked genus, which is readily distinguished from the Falcons by the following characteristics:--A beak almost entirely straight, and curved only at its extremity; the head and neck generally devoid of feathers; small and staring eyes; head small; tarsi generally bare; toes short and slightly curved; weak claws; and wings very long. They are also distinguished from holding themselves in a horizontal position, whether walking or at rest; whereas the Falcons stand erect, and present a noble bearing. Vultures probably adopt their attitude on account of the length of their wings, which even in a stooping position sweep the ground, and would drag much more but for this precaution. Lastly, they are specially characterised by their partiality for putrefied flesh, which forms their almost exclusive nutriment, as it is only occasionally they attack living prey. When a Vulture has glutted itself, its crop, swelled by the food which it has devoured, forms a voluminous projection in front of the neck; a fetid humour oozes from its nostrils, and it remains sunk in a state of stupid torpor until the food is digested. They fly heavily, but mount aloft to great altitudes. Their powers of vision are extraordinary. Should a carcass be left on the plain, they immediately see it and drop down, turning over and over in their hurry to partake of the anticipated banquet. It has been supposed by some that their olfactory organs are so acute as to smell, at great distances, the emanations which escape from bodies in a state of decomposition, and thus to account for their prompt arrival. Latterly, however, certain observers have opposed this theory: according to their ideas the Vulture tribe owe this wonderful facility to their sight, not to scent. This reason however, has not as yet been rendered altogether clear. We therefore think it prudent to abstain from giving an absolute judgment on the point, and will content ourselves by admitting that both sight and smell concur in producing the result: these two senses may either exercise an equal power, or one of them may predominate over the other. The Vulture family exhale a tainted odour, which is owing to the peculiar nature of their nutriment; it is, therefore, impossible for their flesh to be in any way utilised as food. This family comprises four principal genera: the Griffons (_Gypaëtos_, Storr), the _Sarcoramphi_ (Duméril), the _Cathartes_ (Cuv.; _Gallinazos_, Vieill.), and the Common Vultures (_Percnopterus_, Cuv.; _Neophron_, Sav.). The GRIFFONS, or Vulture Eagles (_Vultur fulvus_, Bennett), form, as their name indicates, an intermediate genus between the Eagles and the Vultures. Although they have small and goggle eyes, not very strong talons, and a projecting crop during the digestion of their meals, they are allied to the Eagles in virtue of their feathered tarsi, as well as by their head and neck; they also show a preference for living prey, which they attack with readiness. We will complete their portrait by stating that they have a very strong beak, enlarged towards the point. The Bearded Griffon (_Gypaëtus barbatus_, Gould) is the celebrated Lämmergeyer, described by Buffon under the name of the Golden Vulture. It owes its name to a tuft of stiff hair which is under the beak: the loftiest mountains of Europe, Asia, and Africa are its habitat. Its aerie, which is of considerable dimensions, it builds amongst the most inaccessible rocks. On the old continent it is the largest of all the birds of prey, and sometimes reaches five feet in length. Its spread of wing generally measures nine or ten feet. Sometimes these limits are exceeded for one was killed during the French expedition to Egypt, in the presence of Monge and Bertholet, which measured upwards of fourteen feet. The Griffon is endowed with wonderful strength of body and powers of flight. It is not, therefore, surprising that it attacks animals of considerable size, such as calves, lambs, deer, chamois, &c., and that it succeeds in overpowering them. Like the Eagle, it is reported to perpetrate the following _ruse_, one almost telling of reasoning powers. Waiting until its victim stands isolated on the edge of a precipice, it flies suddenly against the poor creature, beats it with its wings, and forces it to fall over into the abyss below, where the Griffon descends to feed on the mangled carcass. It has been asserted that it sometimes ventures to employ this manoeuvre against the chamois-hunter, to make him lose his equilibrium in difficult passes. But in spite of all the wonderful stories told, it cannot be admitted that it is capable of carrying off lambs or children, for the weakness of its claws will not support a prey of weight; it is therefore obliged to rend its victims in pieces, and devour them where killed. Although it cannot _carry off_ children, it is nevertheless true that it sometimes attacks them, as the two following facts will prove. In 1819 two children were devoured by Griffons on the environs of Saxe-Gotha, which induced the Government to set a price on the heads of these birds. M. Crespon, in his "Ornithologie du Gard," relates the second fact:-- "For many years," says he, "I was in possession of a living Griffon which exhibited no very great courage towards some other large birds of prey which were kept with it, but it was different as regarded children, upon whom it attempted to spring, spreading out its wings as if it wished to strike them. Latterly, I let this bird run about free in my garden. Watching for a moment when no one saw it, it darted upon one of my nieces, two years and a half old, and, having seized her by the top of her shoulders, threw her down to the ground. Fortunately her cries warned us of the danger she was in, and I hastened to her rescue, and found that the child had suffered no other injury but fright and the tearing of her dress." This bird shows great courage in defence of its offspring. Joseph Scherrer, a chamois-hunter, having first killed the male parent, climbed to an aerie to obtain the young, and had to engage in such a furious encounter with the female that it was with immense difficulty he saved himself by shooting the bird, from which he had received some severe wounds. They live in pairs, and a number together are rarely seen. This is common to all animals which nature has endowed with a great amount of physical strength, for it is the weak only which practise the maxim, "Union is strength." These birds were once far more plentiful in Europe than now. The reason of this is the great havoc which was made among them in the last century. Even at the present day pursuit of them is encouraged by the grant of a reward for each individual killed. The number of eggs they lay being limited (two), there is but little cause for surprise that the species is very sensibly diminishing. In the birds which belong to the _Sarcoramphus_ family the base of the bill is furnished with a ring of long feathers, and the bill itself is surmounted with a thick and scalloped fleshy crest; from this peculiarity of organisation they derive their name, the signification of _Sarcoramphus_ being "fleshy-billed." This genus comprises but two species, the Condor (_Sarcoramphus gryphus_, Duméril) and the King Vulture (_Sarcoramphus papa_). The CONDOR, (from the word _Cuntur_, in the Peruvian language), Fig. 301, commonly called the Great Vulture of the Andes, is the most remarkable species of the Vulture family, both for its size and strength, and also for the vast extent of the stretch of its wings. Its plumage is of a dark blue, approaching to black; its collar, which occupies only the back and sides of the neck, is formed of a dazzling white down. Its crest, bevelled off at the edge, is cartilaginous in its nature, and of a bluish colour, and extends down the side of the neck in two fleshy strings. Lastly, the male has two fleshy appendages under the lower mandible, level with the collar. The wings are as long as the tail, their whole development being ten or twelve feet. The length of the bird from the point of the bill to the tip of the tail is on an average about four feet. The chief habitat of the Condor is the western slope of the chain of the Andes, in Bolivia, Peru, and Chili; it frequents all the different altitudes, from the burning sands of the sea-coast to the ice-bound solitudes of perpetual snow. Humboldt and Bonpland, when exploring the Andes, repeatedly noticed Condors close round them when at a height of 15,700 feet above the level of the sea. D'Orbigny saw them as high up as the summit of Illimani, a height of 24,600 feet; and he likewise met with them on the coasts of Peru and Patagonia, seeking their food among the various _débris_ which the waves had thrown upon the shore, proving that they can support variations of temperature which man would be unable to bear; in fact, at a height of 19,000 feet the air becomes so rarefied, and the cold so intense, that no human being would be able to exist for any length of time subject to their influence. [Illustration: Fig. 301.--Condor (_Vultur gryphus_, Linn.).] The Condor passes the night at great elevations, perched on the cleft of a rock. As soon as the rising sun gilds the peaks of the mountains it raises its neck, hitherto buried between its shoulders, and shaking its wide wings, launches into space. The impetus of its own weight at first carries it downwards, but soon recovering itself, it traverses the aërial space with majestic ease and grandeur. Almost imperceptible movements of the wings are sufficient to carry it in every direction; at one moment it is skimming over the surface of the ground, now it is up in the clouds, three thousand feet above. The Condor's power of vision is so great that it commands a view of the plain beneath from the greatest heights, and although it is no longer visible to the denizens of earth, their slightest movements cannot escape its piercing sight. When it catches view of prey, it partly folds its wings and descends upon it with the rapidity of lightning. Although thus endowed with such powerful means of action, the Condor never attacks living animals unless they are helpless from youth, or enfeebled by disease. The stories of some travellers concerning the boldness of this bird are not founded on fact. It is inaccurate to state that the Condor will attack a man, as a child of ten years old, armed with a stick, has been known to put it to flight. It has been asserted that this bird will carry off lambs, young llamas, and even children, but this statement will not hold good when subjected to examination; for the Condor, like all the Vulture tribe, has short toes and non-retractile claws; it is, therefore, radically impossible for it to clutch and carry prey of any considerable weight. It is, however, a fact beyond all question that the Condor is in the habit of prowling round flocks of sheep and cows; and, like the Caracara, will fall upon and devour newly-born animals. It accompanies the caravans which cross the plains of South America, and when an unfortunate pack animal, worn out with fatigue and privation, sinks down exhausted, totally unable to proceed on the journey, it becomes the prey of these winged banditti, which often commence their meal before life has left the body. M. de Castelnau, who has observed the Condor in the Andes, writes with regard to this subject:-- "Travellers who have sunk down upon the ground when utterly worn out with fatigue and suffering have been known to be attacked, tormented, and finally torn to pieces by these ferocious birds, which pluck strips of flesh off their victims, having first disabled them with blows of the wing. The unfortunates may resist for a few instants, but ere long a few blood-stained fragments are all that remain to announce to the passer-by the horrible death of those who preceded him on these dangerous paths." The Condor possesses extraordinary tenacity of life. Humboldt relates that he found it impossible to strangle one, and that he was compelled to shoot it to put an end to its existence. When the Condor is gorged with food it becomes very heavy, and can scarcely fly. The Indians, who are well aware of this peculiarity, take advantage of it to destroy the robber thus:--Carrion is placed in full view to entice the Condors. When the birds have thoroughly surfeited themselves they are hunted on horseback and entangled with lassoes, to be finally beaten to death with clubs. Condors do not assemble in flocks except when devouring some animal of great size. The hen bird lays a couple of eggs in some crevice on the mountains or cliffs: nest-building they entirely disregard. The rearing of the young requires several months; the parent birds feed them by disgorging into their bills the food which they have stored in their crops. All the Vulture tribe do the same. The Condor is tamed with difficulty; captivity seems only to increase its savage nature. Humboldt kept one at Quito for eight days, and he states that to approach it was always dangerous. The KING VULTURE (_Sarcoramphus papa_), Fig. 302, is distinguished from the Condor by its collar, or ruff, which is of a slate colour, and surrounds the neck; also by its crest, of an orange hue, situated on the top of the bill. Instead of confining itself to arid and barren localities, it frequents plains and wooded hills, and nests in the hollows of old trees. Its habits are, however, very much the same as those of the Condor. It has been named the King of the Vultures because the other Vultures dread it, as it appropriates their prey. It is found in Mexico, Guiana, Peru, Brazil, and Paraguay, and occasionally in Florida, doubtless its most northern habitat. In this species the female has a crest as well as the male. The genus _Cathartes_ of Illiger has a long and elongated bill; the head and neck bare; the nostrils oblong and pierced through; the wings obtuse, and reaching a little beyond the tail. There are three species: the Urubu (_Vultur atratus_) and the Turkey Buzzard (_Vultur aura_, Linn.), which are natives of America, and the _Percnopterus_ (Vulture of Latham, Pharaoh's Hen of Bruce), peculiar to the Old World. [Illustration: Fig. 302.--King Vultures (_Sarcoramphus papa_, Yarrell).] The URUBU (_Vultur atratus_), Fig. 303, is the size of a small Turkey. Its plumage, of a brilliant black, gives it a somewhat dismal look, which is amply justified by its disgusting habits. This bird is of a sociable nature, and is always met with in numerous flocks. Like all birds which subsist on decaying matters, it is the constant guest of man, and accompanies him in all his wanderings through its habitat. In nearly all the large towns of South America it has acquired rights of citizenship, where it may be seen almost in a domestic state, and multiplying under the protection of the laws. In Peru the inhabitants are prohibited from killing a Urubu under penalty of ten pounds. The same prohibition exists in Jamaica. [Illustration: Fig. 303.--Urubus (_Vultur atratus_, Wils.).] This will easily be understood when it is explained that in these countries the Urubus perform the whole duty of cleansing the public streets from all kinds of filth and garbage, which, under the influence of an elevated temperature, would certainly infect the air, and engender continual epidemics. These birds, officiating as public scavengers, preserve the general health, and are therefore placed under the protection of the laws in spite of their unpleasant aspect and their unclean odour. "The familiarity and tameness of the Urubus," says Alcide D'Orbigny, "are extreme. At the time of the distributions of meat made to the Indians in the province of Mojos I have known them snatch away the pieces as soon as the men had received them. At one of these periodical distributions at Concepcion de Mojos, an Indian told me beforehand that I should see the most impudent bird possible, which was well known by the inhabitants by having lost a foot. It was not long, in fact, before we saw it come up, and it certainly showed all the qualities that had been attributed to it. I was told," says he, "that it was perfectly aware of the time of the distribution, which took place every fifteen days in each mission. And true enough, for happening to be present the following week at a similar performance at the mission of Magdalena, distant twenty leagues from Concepcion, I heard the Indians cry out, and soon recognised the lame Urubu just arrived. The _curés_ of the two missions informed me that this bird never failed to be present on the fixed days at both places. This fact would seem to indicate a very high degree of instinct in the Urubu, combined with memory." According as it inhabits country or town, the Urubu passes the night on branches of trees or roofs of houses. As soon as it is light in the morning it proceeds to search for food; and, describing wide circles in the air, explores the neighbourhood. If it perceives a carcass, it pitches on it, and, from the power with which its beak is furnished, soon effects an opening through the hide into the intestines. But its movements have been watched by others, and soon thousands arrive to take part in the putrid banquet. Contests and fights, wrangling and struggling, in which the strongest is always triumphant, then arise. In an incredibly short time the carcass is devoured, and nothing remains but a skeleton, the bones of which are cleaned as thoroughly as if done by an anatomist. The Urubus afterwards perch in the neighbourhood, and with their necks drawn back between their shoulders, and their wings extended, rapidly digest their food. The Urubus, like most of the Vulture family, spread their wings out for hours, although in a state of repose. The cause of this habit is that the attitude permits them to exhale from their bodies a kind of greasy perspiration. In spite of the services which this bird renders to man, it is still regarded with the greatest repugnance. Nevertheless, D'Orbigny states that he has seen some completely tamed, and that they appeared susceptible of affection. This naturalist also relates that a creole had one of these birds, which he had reared, and that it accompanied its master wherever he went. At one time, its master having fallen ill, the bird became very sad; but finding one day that the window of the sick-room was left open, it flew in, and came close to the invalid, manifesting by its caresses the joy it felt at seeing him again. The TURKEY BUZZARD (_Vultur aura_) is a native of the same hemisphere as the preceding species, but is more addicted to temperate climates: it is met with as far north as the shores of the great chain of lakes. It is the same size as the Urubu, and its habits of life are nearly identical. Like the Urubu, too, it is protected by the laws. In Peru, for instance, any one who kills an Aura is punished by a fine of fifty piastres; in Cuba, the culprit is excommunicated. They are capable of standing a great amount of cold: when snow covers the ground in the State of Illinois they may be seen congregated in great numbers wherever carrion is to be found. The COMMON VULTURE (_Neophron percnopterus_, Yarrell) is in the Old World that which the Urubu and the Turkey Buzzard are in the New. It is very common in Greece and Turkey, and especially in Egypt and Arabia. In Constantinople and other Eastern cities it performs the duty of removing all the putrid matter which the carelessness and apathy of the inhabitants allow to remain in the streets. A great amount of respect is consequently paid to these birds; and although the law inflicts no penalty for killing them, they nevertheless enjoy the most perfect security in the midst of the Mussulman population. These birds were well known to the ancients, who gave them the name of _Percnopterus_ on account of their black wings. The Egyptians classed them among sacred birds, and often represented them on their monuments as religious symbols. Flocks of them are in the habit of following caravans across the desert, always finding something to pick up; and, as they invariably accompany the pilgrims in their journey to Mecca every year, some devout Mussulmen have bequeathed money sufficient to support a certain number of the birds which manifest such fidelity to the faith of Islam. They are about the size of a Fowl; hence they obtain the name of Pharaoh's Chickens, by which they are designated in Egyptian. Although they do not manifest much inclination for living prey, they will sometimes attack small mammals which are incapable of defence or flight. The Crow is an adversary whose superiority they never fail to acknowledge, and rarely dare to resist. The Pondicherry Vulture (_Vultur ponticerianus_), the Indian Vulture (_Vultur indicus_), and Kolbe's Vulture (_Vultur Kolbii_), are also deserving of notice; the two former are found principally in Hindostan, the latter in different parts of Africa as well as Java. The Vultures properly so called (_Vultur_, Cuv.) have the head and neck bare, the latter being surrounded at its base by a ruff or collar of feathers; the nostrils round or oval; the tarsi bare or feathered on the upper portion; the middle toe very long; the wings pointed, and almost hanging down to the ground. Their faculty of flight, although powerful, is slow and heavy; they take wing with difficulty, and this fact has procured for them their name of _Vultur_ (_volatus tardus_, slow flight). Preferring putrid meat, they feed but little on flesh in a fresh state, although they do not absolutely refuse it; they consequently seldom attack living animals. Buffon has branded the Vulture with a stigma of infamy which will always cast an odium on its name. "Vultures," says he, "are actuated by nothing but a degraded instinct of gluttony and greediness. They will never contend with the living if they can glut their appetites on the dead. The Eagle attacks its enemies or its victims face to face; it pursues them, fights them, and seizes them by its own individual prowess. Vultures, on the contrary, however slight may be the resistance which they anticipate, combine in flocks like cowardly assassins, and are rather thieves than warriors--birds of carnage rather than birds of prey; for these are the only birds which are so madly devoted to carrion that they pick the very bones of a decaying carcass. Corruption and infection seem to attract instead of repelling them." Further on, too, he adds, "In comparing birds with quadrupeds, the Vulture seems to combine the strength and cruelty of the tiger with the cowardice and gluttony of the jackal." The great naturalist has, however, somewhat calumniated the Vulture. In depicting it in such very dark colours, his desire seems to be to contrast it with the Eagle, which he had represented as the highest type of courage and nobility; and he has evidently yielded to the temptation to make the contrast between the two birds as striking as possible. The idea of this antithesis must, in fact, have led Buffon's mind astray, as he was often more fond of figure than fact. The Vulture seeks after carcasses because it really prefers them to living prey; and its not attacking living animals, like the rest of the family, is caused by the fact that it is neither armed nor organised for such an attack. It obeys the irresistible and ordained instincts of its nature, and in this we have no right to discover any feeling of cowardice. In the present day it is really time to have done with all these time-worn rhetorical fancies of the old naturalists, which are in continual and complete variance with the results of science and observation. [Illustration: Fig. 304.--The Yellow Vulture (_Vultur fulvus_).] The Vulture genus comprises several species, all of which belong to the Old World. The Yellow Vulture (Fig. 304), the size of which is about equal to that of the Goose, is a native more especially of the South and South-east of Europe. It is common in the Pyrenees, Alps, Sardinia, Greece, Hungary, Italy, and Spain; it is rarely seen in France. It makes its nest in the crevice of some inaccessible rock. When pressed by hunger it shows no fear in attacking living animals; it is thus an object of dread among the shepherds along the sea-coast of the Mediterranean. It is easily tamed when caught young. Of this fact M. Nordmann gives us an instance:-- "A lady residing at Taganrog," says he, "was in possession of a Yellow Vulture which was in the habit every morning of leaving its home and resorting to the fresh-meat market, where the bird was well known and usually fed. If it so happened that it was refused its daily pittance, it was always well able to get hold of it by some cunning or other; and then, after the larceny was committed, the bird would take itself off to the roof of some neighbouring house, so as to consume its plunder in peace, and safe from any attack. This bird would often cross the Sea of Azoff, and visit the city of the same name, situated opposite Taganrog; and, after having spent the day there, would come back at night to the house of its mistress." There is a variety of the above bird rather larger than the one just noticed. It is common in the Alps, Pyrenees, the Tyrol, the Greek Archipelago, and also in the South of Spain, in Egypt, and a great part of Africa. In autumn it leaves the temperate regions to winter in some warmer clime. M. Degland and M. Bouteille mention various instances of intelligence and courage shown by it, for it has been known to repel dogs. Another bird of the same kind, having flown away from its master's house, grievously wounded two men who endeavoured to catch it. The shepherds fear it even more than the preceding. The Sociable Vulture (Fig. 305) is a native of the lofty mountain regions of Africa. It has a fleshy crest, which, taking its rise close to each ear, extends down the neck; from this it derives its Latin specific name. Levaillant, who often observed it in Africa, was several times a witness of its voracity. One day he had killed a couple of buffaloes, and, after having had them cut up, caused the quarters of meat to be hung to dry in the sun; they were soon assailed by a flock of these Vultures, which carried away the pieces of meat in spite of the numerous gunshots with which they were greeted. On another occasion, having killed three zebras at some distance from his camp, he went to find a waggon to carry them away; on his return he found nothing but the bones remaining, round which hundreds of Vultures were hovering. The Oricou is of somewhat considerable size; it is about four feet and three-quarters in length, and the spread of its wings measures as much as three yards and a half. It builds its nest among inaccessible steep rocks. [Illustration: Fig. 305--Sociable Vulture (_Vultus auricularis_)] Lastly, the Chinese Vulture (_Vultur leuconotus_), which is about the size of a Turkey, is of a dirty brownish black on the body, and white about the shoulders; it is very common in the southern portions of the Celestial Empire. THE SERPENT-EATERS (_Gypogeranus_, Illiger). This family comprehends but one single species, the Secretary Bird, which in its organisation seems allied to the Waders. The SECRETARY BIRD (_Gypogeranus serpentarius_), Fig. 306, has a widely-opening bill, very crooked and very powerful; a projecting superciliary arch; feathered legs; tarsi very long, and covered, as well as the toes, with large and hard scales. The tail is tapering, and the two middle feathers are longer than the others. The wings, which are short and provided with bony protuberances, form most destructive weapons, which the bird uses with much skill to disable the serpents, of which its food principally consists. It has on its head a tuft of long feathers, which can be raised at will. This has been the origin of its name, in allusion to the custom that clerks had of placing their pen behind their ear in the days when goose-quills were used for writing. Its toes are short, and its claws blunt and well adapted for walking. It consequently runs very rapidly; hence it sometimes obtains the name of Messenger Bird. [Illustration: Fig. 306.--Secretary Bird (_Gypogeranus serpentarius_).] A contest between a Secretary Bird and a Serpent is a most curious sight. The reptile, when attacked suddenly, stops and rears itself up, swelling its neck and showing anger by shrill hissings. "At this instant," says Levaillant, "the bird of prey, spreading one of his wings, holds it in front of him, and covers both his legs as well as the lower part of his body with it as if with a buckler. The reptile makes a spring at his enemy; the bird makes a bound, and spurning the Serpent with his wing, retreats again, jumping about in every direction in a mode which to a spectator appears highly grotesque. He soon returns to the combat, ever presenting to the venomous tooth of his adversary nothing but the end of his well-protected wing; and whilst the latter is fruitlessly expending its poison by biting the callous feathers, the bird is inflicting vigorous blows with his other wing. At last the reptile, stunned and wavering, rolls at full length in the dust; the bird then cleverly catches hold of it and throws it several times up into the air, until the victim becoming exhausted and powerless, the bird crushes its skull with his sharp-pointed bill. The Serpent is then swallowed whole by its conqueror, unless it is too big, in which case it is first torn in pieces." The Secretary Bird does not feed exclusively on serpents; it also consumes lizards, tortoises, and even insects; its voracity is extreme, and it possesses a power of digestion which is really surprising. Levaillant killed one the stomach of which contained twenty-one small tortoises, still whole; eleven lizards, eight or nine inches long; three serpents of a length varying from two to two and a half feet; a perfect heap of grasshoppers and other insects; and, lastly, a great pellet of various remains, which it had not been able to assimilate, and which would have ultimately been vomited up. These birds are natives of the arid plains of South Africa. They pair about the month of July, the male birds having first engaged in sanguinary conflicts for the choice of their mates. Their nest, which is flat, and lined on the inside with down and feathers, is constructed in the thickest bushes, or on the loftiest trees, in which two or three eggs, of a white hue spotted with red, are laid. The young ones are very late in quitting the parental home; for they do not leave it till they have acquired full development. Nearly four months elapse before they are able to stand firmly and run about with complete freedom. The Secretary Bird is much appreciated at the Cape of Good Hope, on account of the services it renders in destroying venomous reptiles. As it is easily tamed if captured when young, the colonists have made a domestic bird of it, and use it to protect their poultry against the incursions of serpents and rats. With the inhabitants of the poultry-yard it is always on good terms, even to quelling the quarrels which spring up among the Gallinaceæ around it. But it must be related that it is necessary to see that it is sufficiently fed, for otherwise it will not hesitate to help itself occasionally to a chicken. In 1832 the Secretary Bird was introduced into the French West Indies, particularly Guadaloupe and Martinique, on purpose to make war upon the _Trigonocephalus_, or Rattlesnake, a dangerous reptile swarming in those countries, which we mentioned in a previous portion of this work. The introduction of the Secretary Bird into the Antilles proved to be a real benefit. In order to be convinced of this it is only necessary to read the interesting work published a few years ago on this question by M. Rufz de Lavison, who was for a long time an inhabitant of the French West Indies before he became director of the Jardin Zoologique d'Acclimatation, in Paris. THE END. PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO., CITY ROAD, LONDON. [Transcriber's Note: Greek denoted by "+" signs. Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.]