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Encyclopaedia Britannica;
D I C T I 6 NARY
O F
ARTS, SCIENCES,
AND
MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE;.
Conftrufted on a Plan,
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Encyclopedia Britannica.
A N G
Angerema- \ NGEREMANIA, a province of the kingdom
nia J~\ of Sweden, bounded on the N. by Lapland and
. " Bothnia, on the E. by the gulph of Bothnia and Me-
* nferS',; an^ on W. by Jemti and Herndel. It is
' full of rocks, mountains, and forefts ; and there is one
very high mountain called Scu//. It has excellent iron¬
works, and lakes abounding with fiih.
ANGERMOND, a town of the duchy of Berg,
in Germany, on the E. fide of the Rhine, fubjeft to
the Ele&or Palatine. E. Long. 6. 20. N. Lat.51. ic.
ANGERONA, in mythology, the name‘of a Pa¬
gan deity whom the Romans prayed to for the cure
of the quinzy; in Latin, angina. Pliny calls her the
goddeft of ftlence and calmnefs of mind, who banifires
all uneafinefs and melancholy. She is reprefented
with her mouth covered, to denote patience and re¬
fraining from complaints. Her ftatue was fet up, and
facrificed to, in the temple of the goddefs Volupia, to
fhow that a patient enduring of amidtion leads to plea-
fure.
ANGERONALIA, in antiquity, folemn feafts held
by the Romans the 21ft of December, in honour of
Angerena, or Angeronia, the goddefs of patience and
filence. Feftus and Julius Modeftus, quoted by Ma-
crobius, Saturn, lib. 1. cap. 10. derive the name from
angina, “ quinzy and fuppofe the goddefs to have
been thus denominated, becaufe fhc prefided over that
difeafe.- Others fuppofe it formed from angor, “grief,
pain to intimate that file gave relief to thofe ainifted
therewith.—Others deduce it from angeo, “ I prefs, I
clofe,” as being reputed the goddefs of filence, &c.
ANGERS, a great city of France, and capital of
the duchy of Anjou, wdth a bilhop’s fee. It is feated
a little above the place where the Sarte and the Loire
lofe themfelves in the Maine. This laft river divides
the city into two equal parts, called the High and the
Low Town. There are twelve pariflies in the city,
and four in the fuburbs, which contain upwards of
36,000 inhabitants. Befides thefe, there are eight
chapters, and a great number of convents for both fexes.
Jts greateft extent is along the declivity of a hill, which
reaches quite down to the river fide. The cafile was
built by St Louis, about the middle of the 13th cen¬
tury. The walls, fofies, and numerous towers which
yet fubfift, evince its former magnificence ; and its fi-
tuation in the centre of the city, on a rock overhang¬
ing the river, conduce: to give it an air of grandeur,
though at prefentin decay. It was the principal.refi-
dence of the kings of Sicily, as dukes of Anjou, but
is now in a ftate of total ruin. The cathedral of An¬
gers is a venerable flru&ure ; and although it has un-
Voj.. II. Part I.
A N G
dergone many alterations in the-courfe of ages fince its -Angers
conftruftion, yet the archite&ure is Angular, and de- AnLje>
ferves attention. Here lies interred with her anceftors 1   —*
the renowned Margaret, daughter of Rene king of Si- '
cily, and queen of Henry VI. of England. She ex¬
pired, after her many intrepid, but ineffeftual, efforts
to replace her hufband on the throne, in the year 1482,
at the caftle of Dampierre in Anjou. Near the church
of St Michael is the handfomeft fquare in the city, from
whence runs a ftreet which has the name of the church.
On one fide of this ftreet is the town-houfe ; which has
a fine tower, with a clock, raifed upon an arch, which
ferves for a paffage into the great fquare. There are
two large bridges, which keep up a communication
between the two parts of the city ; and in the leffer of
thefe there is another fquare, which ferves for a mar¬
ket. The univerfity of Angers was founded in 1398,-
and the academy of belles lettres in 1685. This laft
confifts of thirty academicians. At the end of the
fuburbs of Brefigny are the quarries of Angiers, fo
famous for the fine flate which is got from thence.
The pieces are of the thicknefs of a crown piece, and
a foot fquare. All the houfes in Angers are'eovered
with this flate, which has gained it the appellation of
the Black city. The waits with which king John of
England furrounded it in 1214 remain nearly entire,
and are of very great circumference. W. Long. o. 3c.
N. Lat. 47. 28.
ANGHIERA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Milan, and capital of a county of the fame name. It
is feated on the eaftern fide of the lake Maggiore, in
E. Long. 9. 5. N. Lat. 4J. 42.
ANGINA, in medicine, a violent inflammation of
the throat, otherwife called quinzy. See Medicime-
Index.
Angina Pefloris. See Medicine-jWew.
ANGIOSPERMIA, in the Linnsean fyftem of bo¬
tany, the fecond order in the clafs Didynamia. It
confifts of thofe plants, of that clafs, whofe feeds are
in clofe d in a pericarpium. In this order the ftigma is
generally obtufe. Tliefe are the perfonati of Tourne-
fort.
ANGITLE lucus or Nemus, (Virg.), fituated
on the weft fide of the Lacus Fucinus. The inhabi¬
tants are called Luccnfes, by Pliny. Angitia was filler
of Medea, who taught antidotes againft poifon and
ferpents, according to Sil. Italicus. But Servius on
Virgil fays, that the inhabitants called Medea by this
name for ihe fame reafon. The town is now called Luca.
ANGLE,, the inclination of two lines meeting one
another in a point. See Geometry.
Angei
A N G
Angle Angle of Incidence, in optics, the angle which
fl ray of light makes with a perpendicular to that point
.Anglefey. ^ furface 0f any medium on which it falls ; tho’
^ it is fometimes underftood of the angle which it makes
with the furface itfelf.
Angle of Refraftion now generally means the angle
which a ray of light, refra&ed by any medium, makes
with a perpendicular to that point of the furface on
which it was incident; but has fometimes been under-
[ 2 1
A N G
there were 2010 houfeholds, or families, in Angle- Anglefey*.
fey ; allowing five to a family, the whole number of
inhabitants in that period was 10,050. In 1776, the
number of houfes in Anglefey was about 3,956 : al¬
lowing five perfons to a family, the whole number of
inhabitants was at that time 19,780; which want*
only 340 of doubling the number of inhabitants in the
intervening fpace. The chief town is Beaumaris.
In ancient times this ifland was called Mon, Mona, or
flood of the angle which it makes with the furface of Moneg. It was the great nurfery of the religion of the
the refracting medium itfelf.
ANGLER, a perfon who praftifes the art of ang¬
ling, whether as a diverfion, or otherwife. See the
article Angling.
Angler, in ichthyology, the Englilh name of a fpe-
cies of lophus. See Lophus.
ANGLES, an ancient German nation, originally
a branch of the Suevi; who,, after various migrations,
fettled in that part of Denmark, and duchy of Slef-
wick, which to this day is called Angel, and of which
the city of Flenftmrgh is the capital. Here they were
Druids ; being the refidence of the Grand Druid, or
chief pontiff, and confequently of all the learned doc¬
tors in that religion.
Many ancient monuments of Druidifm ftill remain
in the ifland.—At Tre’r Dryw, or the habitation of the
arch druid, are feveral mutilated remains, which have
been deferibed by Mr Rowlands. His Bryn G<wyn, or
Brein Gwyn, or royal tribunal, is a circular hollow of
180 feet in diameter, furrounded by an immenfe agger of
earth and ftones, evidently brought from fome other
place, there not being any mark of their being taken
known, even in the time of Tacitus, by the name of from the fpot. It has only a Angle entrance. This is
Angli. The origin of this name is varioufly accounted fuppofed to have been the grand confiftory of the druidi-
for. According to Saxo-Grammaticus, they were cal adminiftration.—Not far from it was one of the Gar-
called Angli, from one Angulus, fon to Humblus king feddau, now in a manner difperfed, but which once
of Denmark, Widifchind, a Saxon writer, will have
them to be called Angli, from an ifland in the corner
or angle of the fea, which they conquered. Goropius
derives their name from the Saxon word Angel, or En¬
gel, fignifying a firti-hook ; the Angles, like the other
Saxon nations, being greatly addifted to piracy, and
on that account being fo named by the neighbouring
nations; as if, like hooks, they caught all that was in
the fea. To this nation the Britifli ambaffadors are
faid to have applied when foliciting fuccours againft
the Scots and Pifts. The Angles, therefore, came over
fifted of a great copped heap of ftones, on which fat a-
loft a druid, inftrudting the furrounding people mult a
de Deorum immortalium vi et potejlate difputare, et juvftt*
tuti tradunt; Caef. lib. 6.—Here were alfo the relics of
a circle of ftones, with the cromlech in the midft ; but
all extremely imperfeft. Two of the ftones are very
large ; one, which ferves at prefent as part of the end
of a houfe, is 12 feet 7 inches high, and 8 feet broad ;
and another 11 feet high, and 23 feet in girth. Some
leffer ftones yet remain. This circle, when complete,
was one of the temples of the druids, in which their
in greater numbers than any other Saxon nation ; and religious rites were performed. It is the conjecture of
accordingly had the honour of giving the name of An¬
glia to England See Englanb.
ANGLESEY (Ifle of) is the moft weftern county
of North Wales. It is 24 miles in length, 18 in
breadth, and fends one member to parliament. It is
feparated from Caernarvonflrire by a ftrait calledilfi?/z<w,
and on every other fide is furrounded by the fea. It
is a fertile fpot, and abounds in corn, cattle, flelh, fifli,
and fowls.
At Port Aethwy, the moft general ferry into the
ifland, there is a great paffage of cattle. It is computed
that the ifland fends forth annually from 12,000 to
15,000 heads, and multitudes of ftieep and hogs. It
is alfo computed that the remaining ftock of cattle is
30,000. In 1770 upwards of 90,000 buftiels of corn
were exported, exclufive of wheat. The improvement
in hufbandry has greatly increafed fmee the fuppreffion
qf fmuggling from the Ifle of Man : before that time
every farmer was mounted on fome high promontory,
expe&ing the veffel with illicit trade; but fince that
period, he fets in earneft to induftry and cultivation.
Not but that the ifland was in moft remote time
famous for its fertility: Mon, Mam Gymry, the Nur-
fing-mother of Wales, was a title it affumed even in the
12th century.
This ifland is divided into 74 pariflies, of which
moft of the churches are fituated near the ftiores.
By an account given on the 13th of Auguft 1563,
Mr Rowlands, that the whole of thefe remains were
furrounded with a circle of oaks, and formed a deep
and facred grove : Jam per fe rohorum elegunt lucos,
neque ulla facra fine ea fronde conficiunt} (Plin. Hift.
Nat. xv. 44.).—Near this is Caer Leb, or the moated
entrenchment; of a fquare form, with a double ram¬
part, and broad ditch intervening, and a leffer on the
outfide. Within are foundations of circular and of
fquare buildings. This Mr Rowland fuppofes to have
been the refidence of the arch druid, and to have gi¬
ven the name, Tre’r Dryw, to the townftiip in which
it ftands. AtTrev-Wry are feveral faint traces of cir¬
cles of ftones, and other veftiges of buildings ; but all
fo dilapidated, or hid in weeds, as to become almoft
formlefs. Bod-drudan, or the habitation of the druids,
Tre’r-Beirdd, or that of the bard, and Bodonxiyr, or that
of the priefts, are all of them hamlets, nearly furround¬
ing the feat of the chief druid, compofing the effential
part of his fuite. At the laft is a thick cromlech,
refting on three ftones.
The ftiore near Porthamel, not far from hence, is fa¬
med for being the place where Suetonius landed, and
put an end in this ifland to the druid reign. His in¬
fantry paffed over in flat-bottom boats, perhaps at the
fpot ftill called Pant yr Tfcraphie, or the valley of
Skiffs. His cavalry croffed partly by fording, partly
by fwimming. Of the confliift on this occafion we*- , .
have the following animated defeription by Tacitus * : ^na'
A N G [
iAnglefey. “ Stat pro littore diverfa acies, denfa amis vlrifque,
intercurfantibus foeminis in modum furiarum, vefte fe-
rali, crinibus dejeftis, faces preferebant; druidccqne cir-
cutn, preces diras fublatis ad coelum manibus funden*
tes. Novitate afpe&us percutere militem, ut quafi hse-
Tentibus membris, immobile corpus vulneribus praebe-
rent. Dein cohortionibus ducis, et fe ipfe ftimulantes,
ne muliebre et fanaticum agmen pavefcerent, inferunt
figna, fternuntque obvios et igni mo involvunt. Prse-
fidium pofthac impofitum vicis, excifque luci, faevis fu-
perftitionibus facri. Nam cruore captivo adolere aras,
ethominum fibris confulere deos fas habebant.”—Thus
Englifhed : “ On the Ihore ftood a motley army in
clofe array, and well armed ; with women running
wildly about in black attire with difhevelled hair, and
like the furies brandiflring their torches ; furrounded by
the druids, lifting up their hands to heaven, and pour¬
ing forth the moft dreadful imprecations. The foldier
ftood aftonilhed with the novelty of the fight. His
limbs grew torpid, and his body remaining motionlefs
refigned to every wound. At length, animated by
their leader, and rouzing one another not to be inti¬
midated with a womanly and fanatic band, they dif-
played their enfigns, overthrew all who oppofed them,
and flung them into their own fires. After the battle,
they placed garrifons in the towns, and cut down the
groves confecrated to the moft horrible fuperftitions :
for the Britons held it right to facrifice on their altars
with the blood of their captives, and to confult the
gods by the infpe&ion of human entrails.”—There are
no traces of any Roman works left in this country.
Their ftay was fo ihort, that they had not time to form
any thing permanent.
Near the ferry of Moel y Don appear the fine woods
of Sir Nicholas Bayley, fkirting the Menai for a con-
fiderable way. The wooded part of the ifland is on this
fide. It commences at Llanidan, and recals the ancient
Britifli name of Anglefey, Tnys Dynvyll, or the Dark
IJland, on account of the deep ihade of its groves : but
nt prefent it is (except in this part) entirely diverted
of trees; and the climate fo averfe to their growth, that
in moft parts it is with great difficulty the gentry can
•raife a plantation round their houfes. Plas Newydd,
the feat of Sir Nicholas Bayley, lies clofe upon the
water, protefted on three fides by venerable oaks and
afties. The view up and down this magnificent river¬
like ftrait is extremely fine. The fliores are rocky;
thofe on the oppofite fide covered with woods ; and be¬
yond foar a long range of Snowdonian alps. Here
ftood a houfe built by Gwenllian, a defcendant of Ca-
drod Hardd. The manfion has been improved, and
altered to a caftellated form by the prefent owner.
In the woods are fome very remarkable druidical an¬
tiquities. Behind the houfe are to be feen two vaft
cromlechs. The upper ftone of one is 12 feet 7 in¬
ches long, 12 broad, and four thick, fupported by
live tall ftones. The other is but barely feparated from
the firft: is almoft a fquare, of five feet and a half,
and fupported by four ftones. The number of fup-
porters to cromlechs are merely accidental, and depend
on the fize or form of the incumbent ftone. Thefe
are the moft magnificent we have, and the higheft from
the ground; for a middle-fized horfe may eafily pafs
under the largeft. In the lands of Llugwy, indeed,
there is a moft ftupendous one of a rhomboidal form.
3 1 A N G
The greateft diagonal is 17 j feet, the lefler ij1, and the Anglefey.
thicknefs three feet nine inches ; but its height from ''—'■'V""
the ground is only two feet: it was fupported by fe-
veral ftones. The Welfti, who afcribe every thing ftu¬
pendous to our famous Britifh king, call it Arthur's
$>uoit. In the woods at this place are fome drmdical
circles nearly contiguous to each other.
At a fmall diftance from Beaumaris, on the ftiore.
Hand the remains of Llanvaes, or the Friars. It was
founded by Prince Llewelyn ap Jerwerth, and, accord¬
ing to the general tradition of the country, over the
grave of his wife Joan, daughter of King John, who
died in 1237, and was interred on the fpot. Here al-
fo were interred afon of a Danifh king, Lord Clifford,
and many barons and knights who fell in the Welflt
wars. It was dedicated to St Francis, and confecrated
by Howel bifhop of Bangor, a prelate who died in
1240. The religious were Francifcans, or minor friars.
Their church and houfe were deftroyed, and their lands
wafted, in the infurre&ion made foon after the death
of Llewelyn, laft Welfti prince, by his relation Madoc.
Edward II. in confideration of their misfortunes, re¬
mitted to them the payment of the taxes due to him,
which before the war were levied at the rate of L. 1
10 s. Thefe friars were ftrong favourers of Glendwr.
Henry, in his firft march againft Owen, plundered
the convent, put feveral of the friars to the fword,
and carried away the reft ; but afterwards fet them at
liberty, made reftitution to the place, but peopled it
with Engliftt reclufes. It poffibly was again reduced
to ruin ; for Henry V. by patent, eftablifhes here eight
friars, but dire&s that two only ftiould be Welfti. At
the diffolution, Henry VIII. fold the convent and its
poffeffions to one of his courtiers. They became in
later days the property of a family of the name of
White (now extinft), who built here a good manfion.
It of late became, by purchafe, the property of Lord
Bulkeley. The church is turned into a barn, and the
coffin of the princefs Joan now ferves for a watering-
trough.—A little farther is Caftle Aber Llienawg, a
fmall fquare fort, with the remains of a little round
tower at each corner. In the middle one ftood a
fquare tower. A fofs furrounds the whole. A hol¬
low way is carried quite to the ftiore, and at its extre¬
mity is a large mound of earth, defigned to cover the
landing. This caille was founded by Hugh Lupus
Earl of Chefter, and Hugh the Red Earl of Shrews¬
bury, in 1098, when they made an invafion, and com¬
mitted more favage barbarities on the poor natives,
efpecially on one Kenred a prieft, than ever ftained the
annals of any country. Providence fent Magnus king
of Norway to revenge the cruelties. His coming was
to all appearance cafual. He offeredto land, but was
oppofed by the earls. Magnus ftood in the prow of
his fhip, and calling to him a moft expert bowman, they
at once directed their arrows at the Earl of Shrewf-
bury, who ftood all armed on the fllore. An arrow
pierced his brain through one of his eyes, the only
defencelefs part. The vi&or, feeing him fpring up in
the agonies of death, infultingly cried out in his own
language, Lett loupe, “ Let him dance.” This fort
was garrifoned fo lately as the time of Charles I.
when it was kept for the parliament by Sir Thomas
Cheadle ; but was taken by Colonel Rohinfon in 1645.
Above Llanddona is a high hill, called Bwdd Ar-
A 2 -thur^
A N G [4
Anglefey. tkur, or Arthur’s round table: the true name was
\.n—probably Din, or Dinas Su/nuy; for a church imme¬
diately beneath bears that of Llanvihangle Dm-Sulnvy.
On the top of it is a great 'Britiih poft, furrounded by
a double row of rude ftones with their fiiarppoints up
Soft ; and in fome parts the ramparts are formed of
ftones. In the area are veftiges of oval build¬
ings : the largeft is formed with two rows of flat ftones
fet on end. Thefe had been the temporary habitations
of the pofieffors. It had been a place of vaft ftrength ;
for, befules the artificial defence, the hill Hopes fteep-
ly on all fides, and the brink next to the ramparts is
moftly precipitous. It is worth while to afcend this
hill for the fake of the vaft profpeft ; an intermixture
of fea, rock, and alps, moft favagely great.
About two miles fouth of Plas Gwyn, the feat of
Paul Panton, Efq; was fituated Penmynnydd, once the
refidence of the anceftors of Owen Tudor, fecond huf-
band to Catherine of France, queen dowager of Hen¬
ry V.; “ who beyng (as honeft Halle informs us ’ young
and luftye, folovvyng more her owne appetyte than
frendely confaill, and regardyng more her private af-
feftion than her open honour, toke to hufband privily
(in 1428) a goodly gentylman, and a beautiful perfon,
garniged with manye godly gyftes both of nature and
of grace, called Owen Teuther, a man brought furth
and come of the noble lignage and auncient lyne of
Cadwalader, the laft kynge of the Britonnes.” The
match, important in its confequences, reftored the Bri-
tilh races of princes to this kingdom : Thefe reigned
long, under the title of the Houfe of Tudgj:; the mix¬
ed race having ceafed on the acceffion of Henry VII.
grandfon to our illuftrious countryman. The remains
of the refidence of the Tudors are, the door of the
v gateway: part of the houfe, and the great chimney
piece of the hall, are to be feen in the prefent farm-
houfe. Some coats of arms, and dates of the build¬
ing or time of repairs, are to be feen, with the ini¬
tial letters of the names of the owners. The Tudors,
for a confiderable fpace before the extinftion of their
race, affumed the name of Owen. Richard was the
laft male of the family, and was ftieriff of the county
in 1657. Margaret, heirefs of the houfe, married Co-
ninglby Williams, Efq; of Gian y gors, in this ifland,
who poflefled it during his life. It was afterwards fold
to Lord Bulkeley, in whofe defcendant it Hill conti¬
nues. In the church of Penmynydd is a moft magni¬
ficent monument of white alabafter, removed at the
diflblution from the abbey of Llanvaes to this place ;
probably erefted in memory of one of the Houfe of
Tudor, who had been interred there. On it is the
figure of a man in complete armour, a conic helm, and
mail-guard down to his breaft; his lady is in a thick
angular hood ; their feet reft on lions, and their heads
are fupported by angels.
On the weftern point of the bay is a fmall cape, flat
at top, called Caftell-mawr, joined to the land by a
low ifthmus. It is compofed of lime-ftone, which is
carried to diftant parts in fmall veflels, which lie in a
fmall channel near the rock, and by their numbers fre¬
quently enliven the view. Roman coins have been
found in this neighbourhood; but there are no veftiges
of there having been any ftation. Beyond Caltle-
mawr, on the fliore, are vaft blocks of black marble
filled with fhells, corolloids, and fungitse.
1 A N G
At Tryfclwyn mountain is the moft confiderable Anglefey.
body of copper ore perhaps ever known. The part of —‘v—ai
Tryfclwyn which contains it is called Parys mountain.
Of this mountain, and the works there carried on, we
have the following very curious and particular account
by Mr Pennant * :—“ The external afpeft of the hill * Tour in
is extremely rude, and rifes into enormous rocks of^^’ lw
coarfc white quartz. The ore is lodged in a bafon, ov2b^'
hollow, and has on one fide a fmall lake, on whofe wa¬
ters, diftafteful as thofe of Avernus, no bird is known
to alight The whole afpeft of this traft has, by the
mineral operations, affumed a moft favage appearance.
Suffocating fumes of the burning heaps of copper a-
rife in all parts, and extend their baneful influence for
miles around. In the adjacent parts vegetation is near¬
ly deftroyed : even the moffes and lichens of the rocks
have periflied ; and nothing feems capable of refilling
the fumes but the purple melic grafs, which flourilhes
in abundance. It is thought that the ore had been
worked in a very diftant period. Veltiges of the an¬
cient operations appear in feveral parts, carried on by
trenching, and by heating the rocks intenfely, then
fuddenly pouring on water, fo as to caufe them to
crack or fcale ; thus aukwardly fupplying the ufe of
gunpowder. Pieces of charcoal were alfo found, which
proves that wood was made ufe of for that purpole. As
the Britons imported all works in biafs, it is certain
that the Romans were the undertakers of thefe mines ;
and it is very probable that they fent the ore to Caer-
ken to be fmelted, the place where the famous cake
of copper was difeovered. They might likewife have
had a fmelting-hearth in this ifiand; for a round cake
of copper was difeovered at Llanvaethlle, a few miles;
from this place. Its- weight was fifty pounds, and it
had on it a mark refembling an. L.
“ In the year 1762, one Alexander Frazier came
into Anglefey in fearch of mines. He vifited Parys
mountain; called on Sir Nicholas Bayley, and gave
him fo flattering an account of the profpeft,. as indu¬
ced him to make a trial, and fink lhafts. Ore was
difeovered; but before any quantity could be gotten,
th/e mines were overpowered with water. In about
two years after, Meff. Roe and Co. of Macclesfield
applied to Sir Nicholas for a leafe of Penrhyn ddu mine
in Caernarvonlhire; with which they were, much
againft their wills, compelled to take a leafe of part of
this mountain, and to carry on a level, and make a fair
trial. The trial was accordingly made ; ore was dif¬
eovered ; but the expences overbalanced the profits.
They continued working to great lofs ; and at length
determined to give the affair up- They gave their
agent orders for that purpofe; but he, as a final at¬
tempt, divided his men into ten feveral companies, of
three or four in a partnerfhip, and let them fink fhafts
in various places, about eight hundred yards eaftward
of a place called the Golden Venture, on a prefumption
that a fpring, which iffued from near the place, muft
come from a body of mineral. His conje&ure was
right; for in lefs than two days they met with, at the
depth of feven feet from the furface, the folid mineral,
which proved to be that vaft body which has fince been
worked to fuch advantage. The day that this dif-
covery was made was March 2. 1768 ; which has
ever fince been obferved as a feftival by the miners.
Soon after this difeovery,'another adventure was begun
A N G [
1 by the reverend Mr Edward Hughes, owner of part of
the mountain, in right of his wife Mary Lewis of Llys
Hulas ; fo that the whole of the treafure is the pro¬
perty of Sir Nicholas Bayley and himfelf. The body
of copper ore is of unknown extent. The thicknefs
has been afcertained in fome places by the driving of a
level under it, feveral years ago, and it was found to
be in fome places twenty-four yards. The ore is moft-
ly of the kind called by Cronfted Pyrites cupri flavo
viridefcens, and contains vaft quantities of fulphur. It
varies in degrees of goodnefs; fome of it is rich, but
the greater part poor, in quality.
“ There are other fpecies of copper ore found here.
Of late a vein of the Pyrites cupri grifeus of Cronlted,
about feven yards wide, has been difcovered near the
weft end of the mountain: lome is of an iron grey,
fome quite black ; the firlt contains fixteen lb. of cop¬
per per clb. the laft forty. An ore has been lately
found, in form of loofe earth, of a dark purplilh co¬
lour ; and the beft of it has produced better than eight
in twenty. Some years ago, above thirty pounds of
native copper was found in driving a level through a
turbery; fome was in form of mofs, fome in very thin
leaves.
“ It is quarried, out of the bed in vaft mafles; is
broken into fmall pieces; and he moft pure part is
fold raw, at the rate of about 3/. to 6/. per ton, or
fent to the fmelting-houfes of the refpe&ive companies
to be melted into metal. Mr Hughes has great fur¬
naces of his own at Ravenhead, near Liverpool, and at
Swanfey, in South Wales An idea of the wealth of
thefe .mines may be formed, by coufidering that the
Macclesfield company have had at once fourteen thou-
fand tons of ore upon bank, and Mr Hughes thirty
thoufand. %
“ The more impure ore is alfo broken to the fize of
about hens eggs; but in order to clear it from the quan¬
tity of fulphur with which it abounds, as well as other
adventitious matter, it mull undergo the operation of
burning. For that purpofe it is placed between two pa¬
rallel walls of vaft length : fome kilns are 20, others 4c,
and 50 yards in length; fome 10, others ze,. feet wide,
and above 4 feet in height. The fpace between is not
only filled, hut the ore is piled many feet higher, in a
convex form, from end to end. The whole is then co¬
vered with flat ttbnes, clofely luted with clay; and
above is placed a general integument of clay, and fmall
rubbifh of the work, in order to prevent any of the
fumes from .evaporating. Of late, fome kilns have been
conftrufted with brick arches over the ore, which is
faund to be the beft method of burning Within thefe
few years, attempts are made to preferve the fulphur
from flying away ; ^jid that is done by flues made of
brick, whole tops are in form of a Gothic arch, many
fcores of feet in length. One end of thefe opens into
the beds of copper which are to be burnt. Thofe beds
are fet on fire by a very fmall quantity of coal, for all
the reft is effected by its own phlogifton. The volatile
part is confined, and directed to the flues; in its courfe
the fulphureous partichs ftrike againft their roofs, and
fall to the bottom in form of the fineft brimllpne;
which is colledted and carried to adjacent houfes, where
it is melted into what is called in the fliops Jlone brim-
Jions.
“ The beds of copper, thus piled for burning, are
; ] A N G
of vaft extent. Some contain 400 tons of ore, others
2000. The firft require four months to be completely
burnt, the laft near ten. Thus burnt, it is carried to
proper places to be drefled, or waflied, and made mer-
chant^bjc. By this procefs the ore is reduced to a
fourth p'art in quantity, but confiderably improved in
quality : and by this means the water is. ftrongly or
richly impregnated with copper, which, is diflolved by
the acid quality of the fulphur; and is cofle&ed or pre¬
cipitated again by iron in the above-defcribed pits.
The iron is all diffolved.
“ But a far richer produce of copper is difcovered
from the water lodged in the bottom of the bed of ore,
which is highly faturated with the precious metal.
This is drawn up. either by means of whimfies or wind¬
mills, to. the furface, and then dillributed into num¬
bers of rectangular pits 36 feet long, fome pits more
fome lefs, 12 to 15 feet broad and 20 inches deep.
To fpeak in the language of the adept, Venus muft
make an aflignation with Mars, or this folution will
have no eff’eft. In plain Englifli, a quantity of iron
muft be immerfed in the water. The kind of iron is
of no moment; old pots, hoops, anchors, or any re-
fufe, will fuflice ; but of late, for the convenience of
management, the adventurers procure new plates, four
feet long, one and a half broad, and three quarters of
an inch thick. Thefe they immerfe into the pits.
The particles of copper inflantly are precipitated by
the iron, and the iron is gradually diflblved into a yel¬
low ocher. Great part of it floats off by the water,
and finks to the bottom. The plates, or the old iron
(as it happens), are frequently taken out, and the cop¬
per feraped off; and this is repeated till the whole of
the iron is confumed. The copper thus procured dif¬
fers little from native copper, and is prized accordingly^
and fold for prices of L. 25 to L. 45 a-ton.
“ This difcovery is far from new : it has been praCli-
fed long in the Wicklow mines in Ireland ; and above
a century in thofe of Hern-grundt in Hungary, where
it is called ziment copper. The waters of the Hunga¬
rian mines are much more ftrongly impregnated with
copper than thofe of Parys mountain. The firft effefts
its operation in 12 or about 20 days, the laft requires
two months. Horfe-fhoes, iron made in ihape of
hearts, and other forms, are put into the foreign wa¬
ters ; and when perfe&ly tranfmuted, are given as
prefents to curious ilrangers.
“ The ore is not got in the common manner of mi¬
ning, but is cut out of the bed in the fame manner as
ftone is out of a quarry. A hollow is now formed in
the folid ore open to the day, and extends about 100
yards in length, about 40 yards in breadth, and 24.
ards in depth. The ends are at prefent. undermined,
ut fupported by vaft pillars and magnificent arches,
all metallic; and thefe caverns meander far under
ground. Thefe will foon difappear, and thoufands of,
tons of ore be gotten from both the. columns and roofs.
The fides of this vaft hollow are moftly perpendicular,
and accefs to the bottom is only to be had by fmall
fteps cut in the ore ; and the curious vifitor mtift truft
to them and a rope, till he reaches fomc ladders, which
will condudl him the reft of the defeent. On the
edges of the chafms are wrooden platforms, which pro-
je& far; on them are windlaffes, by which the work¬
men xre lowered to tranfadl their bufinefs on the face
of
A N G [6
Angkfey, of the precipice. There fufpetided, they work in mid
Angling, air, pick a fmall fpace for a footing, cut out the ore
t*‘**V"—^ in vaft mafles, and tumble it to the bottom with great
noife. In fuch fituations they form caverns, and there
appear fafely lodged till the rope is lowered to convey
them up again. Much of the ore is blafted with gun¬
powder, eight tons of which are faid to be annually
ufed for the purpofe.
“ Nature hath beenprofufe in bellowing her mine-
xal favours on this fpot: for above the copper ore, and
not more than three quarters of a yard beneath the
common foil, is a bed of yellowilh greafy clay, from
one to four yards thick, containing lead ore, and
yielding from 600 to 1000 pounds weight of lead from
one ton ; and one ton of the metal yields not lefs than
57 ounces of filver. Mixed with the earth, are fre¬
quently certain parts of the colour of cinnabar. Whe¬
ther thefe are fymptomatic of the fulphureous arfenical
filver ores or of quickfilver, I will not pretend to de¬
cide. Something interferes with the fuCcefsful fmelt-
ing of this earth in the grate ; infomuch that it has
not yet been of that profit to the adventurers which
might reafonably be expedled from the crucible-aflays
of it, and they have at this time about 8000 tons on
bank undifpofed of. This place has been worked for
lead ore in very diftant times. In the bottom of the
pool was found an ancient fmelting-hearth of grit-ftone,
and feveral bits of fmelted lead, of about four inches
in length, two in breadth, and half an inch thick.
“ Thefe works have added greatly to the popula¬
tion of the ifland; for about 1500 perfons are employ¬
ed ; who, with their families, are fuppofed to make
near 8000 perfons, getting their bread from thefe
mines. The little village of Amlwch, the port of the
place, is increafing fall, and the market grows con-
fiderable. At the feafon of the greateft work, Mr
Hughes’s men alone receive for many weeks L. 200 in
•one week, and L. 150 in another, merely for fubfift-
ence. The port is no more than a great chaI'i between
two rocks, running far into land, and dry at low-water;
into which floops run, and lie fecure to receive their
lading.”
Near Kemlyn Bay Is a quarry of marble, common
to this place, fome parts of Italy, and to Coffica, and
known in the ftiops by the name of Verde di Corjica.
Its colours are green, black, white, and dull purple,
irregularly difpofed. In different blocks one or other
of the colours are frequently wanting ; but among the
green parts are often found narrow veins of a raofl ele¬
gant and filky white afbeflos. It is a compound fpe-
cies of marble : part is calcareous and may be afled on
by aquafortis. The green parts partake of the nature
of jafper. It is apt to be interfefted by fmall cracks,
or by afbefline veins, therefore incapable of taking a
high polifh., This quarry lies on the lands of Monach-
ty, in the parifh of Llan-Fair-Ynghornwy ; and it is
found again in the ifle of Skerries, off this parifh.
Neither the quarry nor the afbeflos are at prefent in
ufe. In Rhofcolyn parifh, a green amianthus, or
brittle afbeflos, is met with in great plenty in a green
marble fimilar to the above ; but by reafon of the in¬
flexible quality of its fibres not applicable to the fame
ufe.
ANGLING, among fportfmen, the art of fifhing
] A N G
with a rod, to which arc fitted a line, hook, and bait. Angling.
See Fishing-/?^, Fishing-#^, Fishing-^.
The angler’s firfl bufinefs is to attraft the fifh to the
place intended for angling. The method of doing this,
in Handing waters, by throwing in grains, chopped
worms, and the like, is well known : but the chief dif¬
ficulty is in running rivers and brooks. The method,
in this cafe, is to prepare a tin box capable of holding
fome hundred of worms, bored on all fides, and full
of holes of fuch a fize as they may be juft able to
crawl out at; there muft be a plummet faflened to this
box to fink it, and a line to draw it back at pleafure ;
in this cafe it is to he thrown into the water in a pro¬
per place, above which the angler may Hand under co¬
ver. The worms will flowly and gradually crawl out
of this box, and the fifh will be gathered about to feed
on them ; the baited hook is to be thrown in higher
up and carried down by the ftream. If this method
do not bring the fifh about the place in a little time,
there is reafon to fufpeft that fome pike lies lurking
thereabout, and deters them : in this cafe, it is proper
to throw out a baited hook, and he will generally be
taken ; after this the attempt will fucceed.
When the angler takes his Hand, he is to fhelter
himfelf under fome tree or bufh, or Hand fo far from
the brink of the water that he can only difeern his
float; as the fifh are timorous and eafily frighted away.
The angling rod muft be kept in a moderate ftate, nei¬
ther too dry nor too moift : in the fii ft cafe, it will be
brittle; in the other, rotten. When paftes are ufed,
it is proper to mix a little tow with them, and rub
them over with honey; finally, a fmall anointing
with butter is of great ufe to keep them from wafhing
off the hook. The eyes of any fifh that is taken are an
excellent bait for almoft any ether kind of fifh. The
beft way of angling with the fly is down the river,
and not up ; neither need the angler ever make above
half a dozen of trials in one place, either with fly or
ground bait, when he angles for trout: by that time
the fifh will either offer to take, or refufe the bait and
not ftir at all.
In a pond, the beft place for the angler to take his
Hand is ufually that where the cattle go up into water :
in rivers, if breams are fifhed for, it fhould be in the
deepeft and moft quiet places ; if eels, under the banks
of rivers that hang over ; perch are to be expected in
clean places, where the ftream is fwift; and chub in
deep fhaded holes: roach are moflly found where the
perch are, and trout only in fwift and clear ftreams.
Places where there are many weeds, or old Humps of
trees, harbour fifh in great numbers, and they ufually
bite freely there ; but there is danger of entangling the
line, or faftening the hook to the weeds. In cafe of
this accident, recourfe is to be had to a ring of lead,
of about fix inches round, faftened to a fmall pack¬
thread : this ring is to be thruft over the rod, and let
fall into the water. It will defeend to the place where
the hook is entangled.; and thfen, by pulling the pack*
thread gently, the hook will be foon difengaged, or
at the worft it can only be broke off near the end of the
line ; whereas, when this is not employed, the rod it-
felf is fometimes broken, or the line nearer its upper end.
Deep waters are beft for angling in, for the fifh do
not love to be difturbed by wind and weather.
The
A N G [ '
Angling Tlie openings of fluices and mill-dams always bring
!i fifli up the current to feek for the food which is brought
AnSlu9- , with the ftream ; and angling in thefe places is ufually
fuccefsful.
The beft feafon is from April to Oftober ; for, in
very cold ftormy weather, the fifti will not bite : the
bell times of the day are from three till nine in the
morning, and from three in the afternoon till fun-fet.
In an eafterly wind, there is never much fport for the
angler ; the foutherly winds are the beft for his pur-
pofe, and a warm but lowering day is moft of all to
be chdfen; a gentle wind, after a hidden ftiower, to dif-
turb the water, makes a very good opportunity for the
angler: the cooler the weather in the hotteft months,
the better ; but in winter, on the contrary, the warmer
the day the better. A cloudy day, after a bright moon¬
light night, is always a good day for fport; for the fifh
do not care for going after prey in the bright moon-
Ihine, and are therefore hungry the next morning.
Thofe who are fond of angling might fave themfclves
fome fruitlefs trouble, by obferving when fmall fifti in
ajar take or refufe food. See Fish.
The feveral methods of angling for falmon, trout,
carp, tench, pearch, pike, dace, gudgeons, roach,
flounder, &c. may be feen under the article Fishing.
ANGLO-Calvinists, a name given by fome wri¬
ters to the members of the church of England, as a-
greeing with the other Calvinifts in moft points except
church-government.
AsGi.o-Saxon, an appellation given to the language
fpoken by the Englifti Saxons; in contradiftin&ion
from the true Saxon, as well as from the modern
Englifti.
ANGLUS (Thomas), an Englifti prieft, well known
for the Angularity of his opinions, and feveral little
tra£b which he wrote in the 17th century. He went
by feveral names. Mr Baillet fays his true name was
White; but that he ufed to difguife it under that of
Candidus, Albus, Bianchi, and Richworth; but he
was moft known in France by the name of Thomas An-
•glus* Des Cartes generally called him Mr Vitus. He
paffed fome time in moft countries of Europe ; but his
longeft ftay was at Rome and Paris. When he was in
England, he lived a confiderable time in the family of
Sir Kenelm Digby ; and feems to have had a great e-
fteem for the opinions of this gentleman, as may be feen
in his writings, particularly in the Preface to his Latin
work concerning the Inftitutions of the Peripatetic
Philofophy, according to the hypothefis of Sir Kenelm.
He w^s a great advocate for the peripatetic philofo¬
phy. He attempted even to make the principles of
Ariftotle fubfervient to the explaining the moft impe¬
netrable myfteries of religion ; and with this view he
engaged in the difcuflion of predeftination, free-will,
and grace. Mr Baillet fays, “ What he wrote upon
this fubjeft refembles the ancient oracles for obfcurity.”
In fuch abftrufe points as we have mentioned, he was
much embarraffed ; and, by giving too great fcope to
his own thoughts, he pleafed neither the Molinifts nor
Janfenitts. He is allowed, however, to have been a
man of an extenfive and penetrating genius. On the
isth of June 1658, the congregation of the Index Ex-
purgatorius at Rome condemned fome treatifes of
Thomas Anglus. The do&ors of Douay cenfured alfo
22 propofitions extraded from his Sacred Inftitutions.
7 ] A N G
He publiflied his Supplicatio pojiulativa juJUtia, in op- AngoL
pofition to their cenfure; wherein he complains that Angola,
they had given him a vague undetermined cenfure, ''““’"V""
without taxing any particular propofition. He died
fome time after the reftoration of Charles II. but in
what year is uncertain.
ANGOL, a city of Chili in South America, fitu*
ated in W. Long. 78°. and S. Lat. 38°.
ANGOLA, a kingdom on the weftern coaft of A-
frica, lying, according to the moft probable accounts,
between Lat. 8. 30. and 16. 21. South, forming a coaft
of upwards of 480 miles ; but how far it extends from
weft to eaft, has never been exadly determined. An¬
gola Proper is bounded on the north by the river Dan-
da, which feparates it from Congo ; and on the fouth
by the Coanza, by which it is feparated from Benguela.
This laft, however, is now included in the kingdom of
Angola, having been conquered by its monarchs, tho*
it ftill retains the name of kingdom, and is included in
the dimenfions we have juft now given The air here
is very hot and unwholefome, and the country moun¬
tainous ; there being but few plains to be met with in
it, except on the fea-coaft, and between the huge ridges
of mountains. j
That part of the kingdom which we have diftinguilhed Originallya
by the name of Angola Proper, was fubjedl to the kings province of
of Congo in the year 1484, when the Portuguefe firft^onS°-
difcovered the country : but how long it had been fo
before that time, is not known ; the inhabitants being
utterly deftitute of chronology, and have no other way
of diftinguiftiing paft events, but by faying they hap¬
pened in fuch a king’s reign. Neither, though Ango¬
la became a diftinft kingdom fince its difcovery by the
Portuguefe, is it known with more certainty at what
time that revolution happened ; or whether the Portu-
uefe were not concerned in affifting the viceroy of the
ing of Congo, who governed the province of Angola,
to fet up fo’- himfelf- T
All accounts agree, that this kingdom was founded Tradition
by one Ngola, or Angola, from whom it took its name, concerning
According to the tradition of the country, this Ngola kcc°^.
was a fmith, and the inventor of that trade, in which kingj-
he had been inftrufted by the demons of the country, dom.
In confequence of this, he became exceeding rich, not
in gold, filver, or ftiell-money, which were not at that
time in ufe, but in corn, cattle, and fruits, which were
then exchanged in traffic. The country being not long
after vifited by a grievous famine, Ngola generoufly re¬
lieved his diftreffed countrymen, and laved the lives of
fome thoufands. In gratitude for this generofity, he
was unanimoufty chofen king ; and hence the fmith’s
trade is reckoned among the royal arts of Angola. j-
According to other accounts which can be more de- More au—
pended upon, Ngola was the king of Congo’s viceroy; thentic ao-
who, having become powerful by the redu&ion of feve- count,
ral of the neighbouring ftates, was induced to fet up
for himfelf. Dreading, neverthelefs, the power of his
old mafter, he chofe to fend him the ufual tribute and
prefents annually, till he reckoned himfelf firmly feat-
ed on the throne, and had fecured it to his defeendents.
His meafures were greatly facilitated by the wars which
the king of Congo was then engaged in with the Giagas,
a barbarous nation in the neighbourhood. Thefe made
fuch a powerful inroad into his dominions, that he was
glad to alk affiftance from Ngola;.not as a fubjgd, bui:
a*.
A N G [
Angela, as a friend and ally- This was readily granted ; and
*- ~the two monarchs continued ever after fending prefents
and affiftance to each other, and encouraging a mutual
4. commerce between their fubje&s.
Ngola the Ngola lived to a great age, highly refpe&ed by his
firft king. flfbjcas, and in alliance with the king of Congo and
the Portuguefe, whofe numerous fettlements on the
coaft had made them become very powerful. Accord¬
ing to the cuftom of the country, he had many wives
and concubines. By his chief favourite he had three
daughters, Zunda Rian gold, Tumba Riangola, and an¬
other whofe name is unknown. Towards the latter
part of his life, the king’s chief care was to fecure the
crown to the eldeft of thefe ; for which purpofe he con¬
sulted his beloved queen, who encouraged him in the
defign with-all the eloquence in her power. By her
advice, he fent for his lieutenant-general, a favourite
Have, whom he had created viceroy over the whole king¬
dom, to acquaint him with his refolution. The artful
minifter did not fail to applaud his defign, though his
intention was to defraud the princefs, and feize the
throne for himfelf. He accordingly took the opportu-
•n'ity, one day, when that princefs and the whole court
were employed in fowing their lands, to fpread a re¬
port that the Angolic enemies had entered the king¬
dom, and were deftroying every thing with fire and
fword. In this ctmfufion, the treacherous viceroy con¬
duced the three princeffes to the royal palace ; and ac¬
quainting Ngola with the pretended danger, urged him
to betake himfelf to a fpeedy flight. The frighted mo-
Murdered narch, unable to ftir with age, defired his minifter to
byhisprime take the moft proper means for his fafety: whereupon,
who feizes a ft°ut young fellow, he takes his majefty on his
the throne‘^5ack’ anc^ carries him into a neighbouring wood ; where
he no fooner had him in a convenient place, than he
Slabbed him with a dagger. 'Phis ftratagem was too
Shallow to remain long concealed ; the murderer was
quickly difcovered, and many of the nobles rofe in arms
againft him ; but finding his party too Strong to be op-
pofed, they were at laft obliged to fubmit, and fuffer
him quietly to afcend the throne, upon his publicly de¬
claring that he had not feized it but with a view of fe-
curing it to the princefs Zunda Riangola. »
To this princefs, the ufnrper palliated his conduit in
the beft manner he could; and ihe had art enough to
difguife her refentment fo effe&ually, that he never
6. difeovered the fmalleft occafion for jealoufy. At laft,
Deathofthehis hidden death gave Zunda an opportunity of afcend-
Ufho?rf t^e t^rone Peaceahly 5 when She behaved with fuch
ceeded by*moderation and juftice, as to gain the love and aSFec-
Zunda Ki-ti011 a^ her fubjeits. Her jealous temper prevent-
angoia. ed her from marrying; and, by giving too much way
to it, She came at laft to dread as rivals the two fons
of her younger filler Tumba, and to form defigns a-
gainft their life. To accomplish her purpofes, She or¬
dered them to be brought to court, pretending to have
them educated under her own eye. This was declined
for fome time; but at length the queen prevailed fo
far as to have the eldeft fent to her; whom She no
fooner got into her power, than She caufed him to be
Murders maffacred, with all his attendants ; only one efcaping,
her ne- all covered with wounds, to carry the dreadful news to
^phew. the piincefs and her huSband.
On hearing of this bloody ait, the affliited parents
immediately fallied forth at the head of all their vaffals.
8 ] A N G
They were waited for by Queen Zunda at the head of t Angola. *
a numerous army ; but, no fooner did her foldiers per- '"■’’■V- "
ceive the parents of the deceafed prince, than they im¬
mediately abandoned the queen to their refentment. *
Tumba immediately ruSHed upon her fifter, and Stab-
bed her to the heart; after which. She commanded herb her
entrails to be taken out, and thrown into the hole in£jfter,
which her Ton’s body had been call. Upon this Tumba
was crowned queen of Angola, and invited her huf-
band to participate with her in the managetheut of
public affairs. This offer he was too wife to accept j
and Tumba, upon his refufal, refigned the crown into
the hands of her furviving fon, named Angola Cbilvagni.
He proved a great and wife prince, extending his do¬
minions by cpnqueft, and gaining the love of his fub-
jedts by the moderation and equity of his government.
He was fucceeded by one of his younger fotre, named 9
Darnbi Angola ; who no fooner afeended the throne, DamN An*
than he put all his brethren to death, left they Should ^?r*n*cru^
unite in favour of the eldeft. The reft of his reign
proved conformable to fuch a beginning. He was a
monfter of cruelty, avarice, lewdnefs, and perfidy.
Death, however, in a Short time, happily delivered his
fubjedts from this tyrant ; who, notwithstanding his
infamous life, wa$ buried with the greateft magnifi¬
cence ; and a mount was eredted over his grave, con-
fifting, according to the cuftom of the country, of a
prodigious number of human vidtims which had been
Sacrificed to his ghoft. Dambi Angola was fucceeded j10^..
by Ngola Chilivagni, a warlike and cruel prince.
conquered many nations, and made the moft dreadful conquefts.
inroads into the kingdom of Cojigo, along the rivers of
Danda, Lucalla, Zanda, and Coanza : whofe waters
were often tinged with the blood of thoufands whom
he maffacred in his excurfions. Notwithftanding thefe
butcheries, Ngola Chilivagni Showed fuch generofity to
thofe who readily fubmitted to him, that he was Sure
to conquer, not only wherever he came, but wherever
he feemed to diredt his forces. At laft, as if weary
of conqueft, he planted a tree on the banks of the
Coanza, about eight leagues from Loanda San Paulo,
as a boundary to his ravages. This tree the Portu¬
guefe called Ifanda, or Ifandaura; and aSterwards er
redted a fortrefs near it. «
The fame folly and infolence which took place in the Fancies
brealt of Alexander the Great, on account of his rapid3
conquefts, foon puffed up the mind of this petty Afri-^0 ’
can tyrant. Becaufe he had conquered and ravaged
fome of the neighbouring countries, and brought un¬
der his fubjedtion a few cowardly barbarians ; he firit
fancied himfelf invincible, and then that he was a god.
He demanded the fame refpedt and adoration that was
paid to their other deities ; and with this demand his
fubjedts were fervile enough to comply. This pretend¬
ed deity, however, was forced to fubmit to the fate of
other mortals, and died without leaving a fucceffor be¬
hind him.
On the deceafe of Ngola Chilivagni, the ftates eledt-
ed Ngingha-Angola-Chilombo-Kickafanda, great-ne.-
phew to queen Tumba’s huSband, as his fucceffor, He
proved fuch a rapacious and cruel tyrant, that his fub-
jedts univerfally wiffied for his death; which, luckily
for them, foon happened. He was interred with the
ufual pomp and folerfinities, particularly that of having
a whole hecatomb of human vidtims facrificed upon his
grave.
A N G [
Angola, grave. His fon Bandi Angola, who fucceeded him,
~v—~<l proved yet a greater tyrant than his father ; fo that he
Ia foon became intolerable to his fubje&s. A general re-
ainftBan v0't enfuec^> in which his fubjefts called in the cannibal
df Angola! Giagas to their afliftance. Thefe immediately poured
in like a band of hungry dogs haftening to feed upon
a carcafe ; and having defeated and devoured the forces
of the tyrant, befieged him in an inacceffible mountain ;
where, not being able to come at him, they refolved to
13 reduce him by famine. Bandi Angola applied to the
Quelled by king of Congo for affiftance. As it was the interell
the alfift- Qf pr;nce hinder the ravenous Giagas from en-
kin6 'of1 eter‘ng *nto the Angolic dominions, whence they could
Congo andfo eafily pafs into his own, he did not hefitate at grant-
the Portu- ing his requeft; and ordered a ftrong reinforcement of
guefe. the Portuguefe, of whofe valour he had a high opinion,
and of whom he entertained a great number at his _
court, to march to the affiftance of the king of Ango¬
la. The command of the army was given to one of the
moft experienced Portuguefe officers; who, depend¬
ing more oh the handful of Europeans he had under
his command than on the Congoefe, attacked the re¬
bels, though greatly fuperior in number ; and, having
utterly defeated them, reftored the king of Angola to
his throne.
This eflential piece of fervice fo endeared the Portu-
14 guefe to Bandi Angola, that he took them into-his fer-
The king’svice, and even into his council. Their general became
a great favourite of the king, but much more fo of his
with* theVC<^auol1ter> wh° conceived a violent paffion for him.
Portuguefe Unfortunately for them both, the amour was carried
general; on with fo little precaution on her part, that the king
quickly difcovered it; and immediately formed a refo-
lution of exterminating the Portuguefe all at once.
Such violent meafures, however, could not be concert-
15 ed fo privately but the princefs got fome intelligence of
to CorTo68*15 anc* appnfed her lover of his danger, he im-
0 3°' mediately withdrew into Congo, taking with him as
many of his countrymen as he conveniently could. The
king of Congo expreffed fuch ftrong refentment againft
Bandi Angola for his ingratitude, that the Portuguefe
general would have probably prevailed upon him to de¬
clare war againft Angola, had he not been obliged to
defend his own dominions againft a nei 'hbouring prince
who then made an invafion. This afforded that gene¬
ral a fair pretence of afldng leave to return home ; pro-
mifing to come with fuch reinforcements as would en¬
able the king of Congo to reven ^e himfelf for the af¬
front put upon him by the Angolic monarch. His real
intention, however, was, to give the king of Portugal
an opportunity of feizing upon the kingdom of An-
16 gola.
I.ays a plan On his return to Lilhon, the Portuguefe general ha-
for the con-v;ng Jajj his plan before the king, it was fo well relifh-
gola before e<^ t^at an armament was ordered to be fitted out, well
the king of w*t^1 eveiT neceffary for building fortreffes,
Portugal. &c. and a fufficient number of men. The wind proving
favourable all the way back,, the Portuguefe foon ar¬
rived fafe at Loanda San Paulo ; whence the general
difpatched a meffenger to acquaint the king of Congo
with his arrival, and to make him fome rich prefents.
Thefe were no fooner gone than the admiral failed up
the Coanza ; and, landing without oppofition in the
kingdom of Angola, let about eredling a fortrefs in
Vol. II. Part I.
9 ] A N G
a convenient fituation, which was completed in a few Angola.
The king being informed of the return of the Por¬
tuguefe, and of their fortifying themfelves on advan¬
tageous ground, gathered together a numerous army ;
but his forces, though upwards of 100,000 in number, 17
were utterly defeated by the Portuguefe ; vaft num- Defeats the
bers killed, and many more carried into flavery. q'he Ang°lans*
admiral now ravaged the whole country, putting all to
fire and fword, and making himfelf matter of every ad¬
vantageous fpot of ground. The king, however, had
ftill the good luck to efcape all the ftratagems that
were laid for him ; and once more got fafe to his in¬
acceffible fortrefs.
All this time Bandi Angola had himfelf tyrannized,
and allowed bis favourites to tyrannize, in fuch a man¬
ner, that his fubje&s were become no lefs weary of his
government than when they formerly revolted. Being
now exafperated beyond meafure at the calamitous war
of which he had been the occafion, they formed a de-
fign of putting an end to his life ; and in order to draw
him out of his retreat, where he wallowed in all manner
of debauchery, they had recourfe to the following
ftratagem : A deputation was fent, acquainting him
with the revolt of one Cuculo Cabazzo ; who, at the
head of a numerous band, committed the moft cruel
ravages. They befought his majeity, either to levy a
fufficient number of troops, and march inperfon againft
him, or to allow them to arm themfelves againft him.
The credulous king complied with this laft propofal;
and granted them leave to raife what forces might be
thought neceffary. Four days after, notice was fent to
the king, that his fubje&s had attacked the rebels, and
had been repulfed with lofs ; but that, if his majefty
would but condefcend to animate them with his pre¬
fence, the fight of him would infpire them with fuch
courage, that they would affuredly prove vi&orious.
This had the defined effeft ; and the king fet out a few
day's after, without any other precaution than his own
guards, to head his army which was encamped on thq
banks of the Lucalla. He no fooner appeared in view,
than all the chief officers came out to meet him ; and jg
having, under pretence of paying their refpefts, gra- Band! An*
dually feparated him from his guards, they fell uponK°la mur¬
ium and difpatched him at once. dered.
Bandi Angola was fucceeded by his fon Ngola Ban¬
di, whofe mother had been a flave, and whofe title to
the crown was confequently difputable, according to the. 1?
laws of the country. Of this the new king being well Cruelty of
apprifed, thought proper to begin his reign by mur- new
dering every perfon who had oppcfed his ele&ion. Hekin^‘
began with the Tendula, or commander of the king’s
rear-guard ; who, by his office, is the chief of the elec¬
tors, and the perfon who governs the kingdom during
the interregnum. Him he ordered to be put to death,
with all his family. Thefe were followed by the prin¬
cipal officers of his father’s court; all his concubines,
together with their parents and near relations, whom
he caufed to be butchered ; together with his half-
brother, his father’s fon by a favourite concubine, and
then but an infant. He did not fpare even the fon of
his fifter Zingha Bandi, whom fhe had by one of her
paramours. The intereft of his fiftev had contributed
greatly to raife this tyrant to the throne; and his in-
B gratitude,
A N G [ io ]| A N G
Angola, gratitude, with the murder of her fon, fo exafperated Zingha was fo taken with the honours done her by Angola.
—'■V*—«^her, that flic fwore to be revenged on him in the fame the Portuguefe, and fo intent upon obferving the or-
der, chefs, arms, See. of their troops, that ihe ftaid at
Loanda a confiderable time ; during which {he was in- 24
ftru&ed in the Chriftian religion, and confented to be Embraces
baptized. Don John and his fpoufe were her fponfors ;the Chri-
who difinifled herfoon after, with all pofQble honours, ft.1311 re^*
and highly fatisfied with her reception and fuccefs. At^lon‘
way.
Makes war ^ie Portuguefe were the next obje&s of his refent-
on the Por-hmnt. Thefe he fo much dreaded on account of their
tuguefe, valour and policy, that he immediately declared war,
aiidisredu-refo]ving not to lay down his arms till he had extermi-
diftrefgreatnatC^ ^lem to the 1 aft man, or driven them totally out
1 °* of his dominions. His rafhnefs, however, coft him dear.
Myriads of the Angolic poltroons were overthrown,by
her return, ftie took care to have the articles ratified by
her brother; who expreffed his approbation of them,
an handful of Portuguefe; and the king himfelf was and the higheft obligations to her. He even went fo
forced to fly, firft into the ifland of Chiconda in the
ver Coanza, and then into the defarts of Oacco. Here
his conquerors, out of great clemency, allowed him to
live among the wild beafts, without any other fuftenance
than what the defarts afforded. He had the misfortune
alfo to lofe his queen and two fifters Cambi and Fun¬
gi, who were taken prifoners by the Portuguefe, but
honourably treated.
far as to defire the viceroy to fend him fome proper
perfons to inftruft him in the Chriftian religion, which
he faid he was very defirous of embracing. This re-
queft was immediately granted; and Don Denis de
Faria, a negro prieft, a native of Angola, was dif-
patched, along with an officer of diftinftion, to Hand
godfather to the king. Thefe met at firft with a gra¬
cious reception : but when they came to talk of bap-
The king being informed of this, fent an embaffy to tifm, Ngola altered his tone, and told them it was too
treat of their ranfom and an exchange of prifoners.
zl The propofal was readily agreed to ; and the princef-
His treach-fes were fent back, laden with prefents. The king,
cry however, refufed to perform his part of the agreement,
and thereby plunged himfelf into ftill greater difficul¬
ties. A new Portuguefe viceroy being arrived about
much below his'dignity to receive it from the fon of
one of his {laves, and fent them both back. This was
cried up by the courtiers as a princely aft : but Zingha
reprefented, that it could not fail to exafperate the vice¬
roy ; and tried all poffible means to diffuade him from
it, but in vain. He fuffered, however, his other two
this time, Ngola was quite at a lofs howto excufe the fifters, Cambi and Fungi, to be baptized; which was
non-performance of his part of the treaty. At laft he
Sends his had recourfe to his exafperated lifter Zingha ; and ha-
fiiler Zing-ving excufed, as well as he could, the murder of her
13 fon, propofed to fend her on a fplendid embaffy to the
viceroy. Having confented, but without forgetting
her refentment, fixe fet out, as plenipotentiary for the
king of Angola, with a magnificent retinue, was re-
enibaffy.
performed in 1625, with a fplendor fuited to their dig-
nity. as
As no experience feems to have been a fufficient an-War again
tidote againft the innate folly of Ngola Band!, he foon^f^61^3'
after took it into his head to make war on the Portu-f?”? ^
guefe, and invaded fome of their territories. This laft “
aftion proved his ruin : his troops were all cut off, and
ceived with all the honour due to her rank, and lodged himfelf forced to fwim for his life to a fmall ifland in
aj in a fplendid palace prepared for her.
1 ler liaugh- At the firft audience Zingha had of Don John (the
t v beha- Portuguefe viceroy), {he was greatly furprized to find
mow. a ftately elbow-chair prepared for him to fit upon, and
for herfelf only a rich tapeftry fpread on the floor, with
a velvet cufliion embroidered with gold, and placed over
againft the chair of ftate. Diffembling her difpleafure,
however, fhe beckoned to one of the ladies of her re¬
tinue, commanded her to lay herfelf down on her el¬
bows and knees upon the carpet, and fat herfelf upon
her back during the whole time of the audience. She
behaved with fuch addrefs and dignity, as to gain the
admiration of the whole council. A propofal was made
of entering into an alliance offenfive and defenfive with
the king of Angola, provided he acknowledged him¬
felf the vaffal of the king of Portugal, and fubmitted
to pay a yearly tribute To this Zingha replied, that
fuch conditions were indeed fit to be impofed upon thofe
the Coanza, about a mile long, and two bow-fliots in
breadth; whither the Portuguefe purfued and furround-
ed him ; fo that he had no other chance, but either to
fall into their hands, or be devoured by the wild beafts
with which the place fwarmed. From both thefe dan- 26
gers he was relieved by a dofe of poifon, given him, as The king
was fuppofed, by his fifter Zingha. Before this time,P01fr,ne<k
however, he had taken care to fend his eldeft fon to
the country of the Giagas, and put him under the care
of one of their chiefs, called Giaga Caza, whom he be-
fought to take care of him, and proteft him from his
aunt Zingha, as he rightly imagined {he would not
fail of attempting his life, in order to fecure herfelf on
the throne. 47
Zingha Band! was crowned queen of Angola, with- Zingha
out oppofition, in 1627.—She was a very artful woman,Bandi
endowed with great prefence of mind, firm in her refolu-crowne
tions, of an intrepid courage, and a great miftrefs in the^
who had been conquered by the fword ; but not upon, art of diffimulation. She inherited a large {hare of her
a great and powerful monarch, who only fought their
friendlhip and allianci : upon which the treaty was
concluded on both fides, without any other conditions
than the exchange of prifoners. The audience being
over, Don John took notice to Zingha, as he conduft-
ed her out of the hall, that the lady who had ferved
her as a feat, continued ftill in the fame pofture; up¬
on which fhe replied. That it did not become the am-
baffadrefs of a great monarch to make ufe of the fame
chair twice, fo file looked upon her as a piece of caft-
off goods not worthy of further notice.
brother’s jealous and cruel temper, to which ffie would
not hefitate to facrifice her neareft relations, if they
gave her the leaft umbrage.—To this jealoufy, there¬
fore, (he refolved to facrifice her nephew, as well know¬
ing he had a better title to the crown than herfelf. She
made ufe of the moft folemn oaths to draw him out of
the hands of his guardian, protefting that fhe had ac¬
cepted of the throne with no other view than to pre-
ferve it for him. But Giaga, being well acquainted
with her temper, was proof againft all her oaths and
fair fpeeches.— Zingha, finding this metliod ineffeftual,
pretended
A N G [ i
Angola, pretended a defire of refigning the crown to her nephew;
«V—«^to which fhe faid fhe had no other objection, than that
fhe was afraid he was yet incapable of afluming the reins
of government. She therefore defired an interview with
him, though ever fb (hort, that (he might fatisfy her-
felf in this particular, and promifed to detain him no
longer than Giaga (hould think neceflary. Giaga
thought there could be no danger in contenting to a
{hort interview; and therefore fent the unfortunate
ag prince to her, attended by a magnificent retinue. The
She tnixr- cruel queen no fooner got him in her power, than (he
dersherne-murdered him with her own hand, andcaufedhis body
phew. to be thrown into the Coanza, ridding herfelf, by that
inhuman a&, of a dangerous rival, as well as reveng¬
ing herfelf on her brother, as (he had fworn to do, for
the murder of her fon.
Zingha’s next fcheme was to fid herfelf of the Por-
tuguefe, who had eftablilhed themfelves in fuch a man¬
ner as to be almolt. entire mailers of the country. They
had built fortrefies on every convenient fpot that fuitcd
them, efpecially near her principal towns, which they
could level with the ground with the greateft cafe.
They had engroffed all her commerce, were become
very wealthy, and their numbers increafed daily ; fo
that they were dreaded not only by her fubjeCts, but
ap. by all the neighbouring nations. As Zingha was of
Declares a martial temper, (he did not long hefitate. She quick-
war againftly made all neceffary provifions, ftrengthened herfelf
the Portu- alUanccs w;th the Giagas, and other idolatrous na-
• tions, and even with the Dutch and the king of Congo.
With this combined force (he attacked the Portuguefe
fo fuddenly and unexpeftedly, that (lie gained fome
advantages over them ; and the Dutch made them¬
felves mailers of San Paulo de Loando, and foon after
of fome of the bed provinces in the kingdom. This
happened in the year 1641 ; and the Portuguefe did
not- recover thefe places till the year 1648, when the
30> Dutch were entirely driven out of Angola.
Her bad Zingha’s fuccelfes proved dill more (hort-lived. Her
fuccefs. allies the Congoefe were fo completely overthrown, that
they were forced to fue for peace ; which the Portu¬
guefe did not grant till they had obtained a fufficient
number of holtages, and obliged the Congoefe to de¬
liver up to them fome conliderable poils, upon which
they immediately erebled fortre(Fcs. Zingha’s troops
were now defeated in every battle ; and thefe defeats
followed one another fo dole, that (he was foon aban¬
doned, not only by her allies, but by her own troops.
She was now conltrained to abandon her dominions,
and retire to fome of the eallern defarts, whither the
Portuguefe did not think it worth while to follow her.
Zingha being reduced to fuch diftrefs, the Portu¬
guefe, after giving her fome time to ruminate on her
fituation, fent her propofals of peace, upon condi¬
tion that fhe (hould become tributary to the crown
ftefufes to Portugal. This propofal (he rejected with fcorn ;
become tri-and let them know, that, however her daftardly fubjefts
butary to might fubmilfively and lhamefully behave towards them,
them. their queen difdained fubjedion to asy foreign power.
3t- On this haughty anfwer, the Portuguefe, to mortify
a kmfetUr^er ^ more, let up a king in her place. The per-
fon they pitched upon was named Angola Oarij, or
Aaru, who was of the royal family, before he was
crowned, the Portuguefe obliged him to turn Chriflian;
and he was accordingly baptized by the name of John.
1 ] A N G
The new king, however, foon died of grief, at feeing
himfelf fo hardly treated by his mailers the Portu--
guefe. They' quickly fet up another, named Philip ;
who bore the yoke with more patience, and lived to
the year 1660. 33.
In the meantime Zingha, exafperaled at feeing Zingha’s a-
herfelf deprived of eleven of the bell provinces in her and
dominions, and her authority in the remaining lixj^T1 ar"
greatly [weakened, renounced the Chriftian religion, arKy’
and embraced all the horrid and bloody cuftoms of the
Giagas, whom (he outdid even in their own barbarity.
—We have already hinted the barbarity of this nation
in eating human flelh. In this Zingha not only join¬
ed them, but took pleafure in devouring the raw fiefh
of human victims, and drinking the blood while warm,
both at her facrifices and at her public meals.—She
affe&ed a martial and heroic fpirit, together with an
utter averfion to the male fex ; but, according to the
Portuguefe, maintained a number of the ilrongell and
lu(lie(t youths, in whofe embraces (he gave a full fcope
to her inclinations, and managed matters with fuch ie-
crecy that her intrigues could never bo difeovered. At
the fame time (lie ordered many of her own fex to be
ripped up, when their incontinency was manifefled by
their pregnancy ; and their bodies, with thofe of the
infants, to be call to wild beads.
But what made her mod admired, as well as dreaded,
by her fubjefts, was a notion that (he had by various
flratagems inculcated upon them, of her being able to
penetrate into the mofl fecret thoughts. To keep up
this apprehenfion, fhe ordered the bones of her deceafed'
brother to be brought from the ifland where he was
poifoned, locked up in a chelt covered with coarfe plates
of filver, and laid on a fine carpet upon a pedeflal. A
number of finghillos or prieits were ordered to offer
facrifices to thefe bones, and to keep lamps continually
burning before them. To this place fhe herfelf fre¬
quently repaired, to aflifl at thofe rites, which, as (he
gave out, and every body believed, engaged the fpirit
of the deceafed to inform her of every thing that was
done, faid, or even defigned, either in the kingdom or
out of it.—To procure, however, as much real intelli¬
gence as pofiible, 'fhe kept vaft numbers of fpies all
over the kingdom, who conftantly gave her notice of
what happened in their refpeftive circles ; and this
fhe fo cunningly improved to her own ends, that her
fubjetls locked upon her as a kind of deity from whom
nothing could be concealed. ^
By fuch means as thefe, Zingha gainedduch autho-Her infiu-
rity over the Giagas, that they were ready, at the verycnce over
firft indication of her will, to follow her through thethe Giaga*.
mod dreadful dangers, and to engage in the mod def-
perate enterprizes. She now made many drenuous and
daring efforts to drive out the Portuguefe ; but though
(he had, in all probability, more valour and (kill than
her enemies, the fire-arms gave them fuch an advantage,
that (he was always defeated with great lofs. Per¬
ceiving therefore the folly of attempts of this kind,
(Ire contented herfelf with making continual inroads
into their country', carrying off or dedroying every
thing that fell in her way. Though* (he (pared nei-Her’terriblie‘
ther Europeans, nor blacks, who were fubje&s of theravages-
mock-monarchs fet up by the Portnguefe, yet the cafe
of the former was peculiarly dreadful w-hen they hap¬
pened to be taken prifoners. They w'ere either roaded
B 2 by
A N G [ i:
Angola, a {]ow {jre> or their flefli cut off in pieces, and
devoured before their faces, in the manner related by
* See Abyf- yir Bruce of the Abyffinian oxen *. In this manner
J‘ma' Ihe infefted the Portugucfe territories for 28 years,
fcarce ever allowing them a moment’s ceffation of arms.
Their mock-kings were often obliged to Ihelter them-
felves from her fury in an inaccefEble rock called
Maopongo ; and they themfelvep could never hope to
enjoy their dominions with any kind of peace fo
long as this furious queen continued alive. They in
vain exhaufted all their politics either to reduce her
by force, or to mollify her by prefents and fair offers.
The one fhe rejedled with difdain, and always found
means to baffle the other. Nor would fhe hearken to
any terms, unlefs they confented to refign all their
conquefts. The refufal of this demand was fo com¬
monly followed by fome marks of her refentment, that
it was with the utmoft difficulty the Portuguefe could
prevail on any body to carry their propoialfe to her;
and as for Zingha, fhe difdained to make any to them,
except thofe of the hoftile kind. The terror of her
arins procured her a free paffage wherever, fhe directed
her courfe; all the inhabitants of a province making
no lefs hafte to abandon, than fh^ to invade it. Thus
fhe continued to advance, till at length fire was got fo
far as the fmall ifland of Dangii in the river Coanza.
The Portuguefe now found themfelves under a ne-
ceffity of railing an army of negroes, in order to drive
her out of it. Accordingly they furrounded the ifland,
and intrenched themfelves along the banks on both fides
of the river; but while they were bufy at their work,
Zingha attacked them with fuch advantage, that fhe
killed and wounded feveral hundreds of the blacks,
and fome of the white men. Elated with this advan¬
tage, file was preparing for another attack ; when fhe
perceived, to her furprife, that the Portuguefe had drawn
their lines fo clofe, and raifed them to fuch a height,
that they overlooked her whole camp, and could fire
upon her naked foldiers as if they fhot at a mark.-—
Thus great numbers of her men were cut off, particu-
36. larly her chief officers. The queen, now perceiving the
Outwits the danger of her fituation, amufed the Portuguefe with
Portuguefe. pr0p0fa]s 0f
an accommodation ; and having obtained
a truce for three days, croffed the river in the dead of
the night, and led her forces to the province of Oacco.
The next morning, the Portuguefe, feeing no human
creature upon the ifland, began to apprehend fome
new flratagem ; but, upon landing fome of their troops,
they perceived themfelves over-reached, and deprived
of the faireft opportunity they ever had of forcing her
to furrender at difcretion.
Zingha ftaid lip longer in the province whither fhe
had retired, tlijh|?. till fhe was affured that the Portu¬
guefe were retried from the Coanza ; and then, croffing
that river once more, marched dire&ly towards the
kingdom of Metamba, which had been invaded by
lome of the neighbouring princes. The fpeed with
which fhe led her forces thither, and recruited her army
with multitudes of Giagas, who were all emulous of
37. fighting under her banner, quickly enabled her to re-
Hercompli-cover fome of her territories in that kingdom. Begin-
cated rnif- n;ng n0w to think herfelf fuccefsful, file again attacked
tortunes. tjje Portuguefe ; but was defeated with great lofs, fo as
to be obliged to fend for frefh troOps. To complete
her misfortune, fhe received news that the Giaga Caf-
L ] A N G
fangi had taken the advantage of her abfence, to en-. Angola,
ter the kingdom of Metamba with a numerous army,
had carried off the greateft part of the inhabitants, de-
ftroyed ail the ftuits of the earth, plundered the towns
of all that was valuable, and fet fire to the reft, lea¬
ving that kingdom in a manner defolate. To add to
all this, her troops, exafperated at the lofs of their
wives, children, and goods, which were carried to the
fartheft corner of Benguela, were all on the point of
revolting. 38.
Notwithftanding thefe difafters, Zingha behavedThe Portn-
with fuch refolution and addrefs, that the Portuguefe, guefc fend
who, according to charafter, had probably inftigated®”^*53^
the Giaga againft her, were fo much afraid of her
joining with him in alliance againft them, that they
difpatched one Anthony Coglio, a learned prieft and
an excellent negociator, with Don Gafpar Borgia an
eminent officer, under pretence of negociating a peace
between them, firft to the Giaga, and afterwards to
the queen. They met with a very civil reception from
the firft, who told them that he was very willing to
live at peace with that princefs, and even to let her
enjoy the kingdom of Metamba, though he was the
rightful heir to it, provided file would lay down her
arms. This anfwer encouraged the prieft to try whe¬
ther he could prevail on him to embrace the Chriftian
religion ; but this was declined by the Giaga in fuch
ftrong terms, that the prieft thought proper to defift,
and fet out for Zingha’s camp. 39.
The ambafladors, at their firft arrival, met with fuch Their pro
a polite reception, as made them hope for fuccefs : butPe°^sreJec’
after (he had heard their propofals, file affumed a
haughty threatening tone; and told them, in the conclu-
fion of her fpeech, “ That it did not become her dig¬
nity to lay down her arms, till file had brought the war
file had begun to an honourable conclufion ; that as to
the Giagas, whofe feci file had embraced fome years
before, and who had furniftied her with fuch a prodi¬
gious number of forces to fight in her defence, her ho¬
nour and intereft required that file fliould ftill keep
them in her fervice, and under her prote&ion : and
laftly, that as to herfelf, ftie remembered, indeed, that
file had formerly embraced Chriftianity ; but that it was
not now a proper feafon to propofe her returning to it,
and they ought to remember that they themfelves were
the caufe of her abandoning it.”
Borgia, perceiving that ftie was not to be wrought
upon by religious motives, fliifted the topic ; and told
her, that file had gained honour enough in war, and
that it was now high time to think of granting peace
and tranquillity to the fubje&s of two fuch powerful
kingdoms, and accept of the favour and friendftiip of
the king of Portugal, wftiich was offered her by his
viceroy. To this the queen made anfwer, that ftie was
perfeftly w'dl acquainted with the valour and ftrength.
of the Portuguefe, and ftiould efteem it an honour to,
be allied to that monarch; but that ftie thought it juft
that their refpeftive claims to the dominions which (he
juftly inherited from her anceftors, and of which he had
unjuftly deprived her, ftiould firft of all be decided, ei¬
ther by the fwmrd or by fome equitable judges.
Borgia, vainly imagining that he had now obtained
enough, fet off immediately for Loanda San Paulo ;
but left the prieft, on fome pretence or other, to fee
whether, in the time of fickuefs, he could make any
A N G [ :
Angola, impreffion on the inflexible mind of Zingha, who now
W—laboured under a lingering difeafe. Coglio, however,
found all his arts to no purpofe ; and, upon the queen’s
recovery, flie recommenced the war with more fury than
Zingha’s
For fotne time hoftilities were carried on with va-
narrow e- nous fuccefs ; Zingha being fometimes vi&orious and
fcape. fometimes defeated. In one attempt of the latter kind,
before the fortrefs of Maflangana, fhe not only loft a
great number of men, but had her two' lifters Cambi
and Fungi taken prifoners, Ihe herfelf efcaping with the
utmoft difficulty. Exafperated by this lofs, fhe led her
troops into fome of the beft provinces of the Portu-
guefe, and reduced them to a mere wildernefs. Still,
however, Ihe had the mortification to find her Ioffes
vaftly greater than what fhe gained; and had now the
additional misfortune of lofing her After Fungi, who
was put to death by the Portugugfe for treachery, and
feeing her allies the Dutch totally expelled out of An-
41 gola.
Begins to. Zingha being thus oppreffed with a complication of
relhit; misfortunes, and confcious of the crimes fhe had com¬
mitted, began ferioufly to confider whether fuch a con¬
tinued feries of difafters was not owing to the difpleafure
of the God of the Chriftians. To this opinion fhe
feemed to have inclined ; and therefore began to treat
with more lenity fuch Chriftians as fell into her hands,
efpecially if they happened to be priefts or monks. To
thefe fhe now began to liften with fome attention ; and
ordered them, under fevere penalties, to be treated with
all poffible refpeft ; yet without lofing in the leaft that
invincible hatred fhe had conceived againft thofe who
had ftripped her of her dominions, or dropping her
refolution never to make peace till Ihe had recovered
42 them.
But ft ill re- The viceroy, Don Salvador Correa, who had driven
lifts the ar-ojjj- Dutch, being apprifed of the regard fhovvn to
Portuguefee.the clergJr b7 Qiieen Zi?gha> thought proper to fend
s fome capuchins to her, in hopes that they might now
find her more tra&able. But Zingha was ftill proof
againft their utmoft art; obferving, however, that if
they-would confent to reftore what they had unjuftly
taken from her, fhe would not only return to the
Chriftian religion, but encourage it to the utmoft of
her power.
The viceroy, being now afraid that Zingha might
make an alliance againft him with the king of Congo,
firft raifed a powerful army, and then acquainted that
monarch, that, if he defigned to prevent the total ruin
of his dominions, he muft immediately make repara¬
tion for all the damage he had caufed to the Portuguefe
by his alliance with the Dutch. The fame of the Por¬
tuguefe valour fo intimidated the king, that he fubmit-
ted to a treaty almoft on the viceroy’s own terms; and
as foon as this treaty was concluded, Don Ruy Pegado,
an old experienced officer, \yas difpatched to Zingha,
offering a firm and lafting alliance with her, provided
fire renounced the Giagan fedt, and returned to the bo-
fom of the church. To this embaffy fhe returned the
old anfwer, namely, that the Portuguefe themfelves had
been the occafion of all that had happened; as they had
not only ftripped her of her hereditary dominions, but
dared to proclaim one of her vafials king of Angola ;
but, provided thefe dominions were reftored, fhe would
immediately embrace Chriftianity..
'3 } A N G
All this time the furious Queen Zingha went on with Angola,
her ravages, notwithftanding the viceroy kept plying —v—-J
her with letters for near three years. At laft he had 43
■ recourfe to the artifice of taking advantage of the re-Thcir infa*
morfe for her crimes with which Zingha was fometimes du(ci.<
affedted, in order to procure the peaceable enjoyment
of his own ill-gotten conquefts.
It is eafy to fee, that had this viceroy, or the priefts
he employed, really intended to convert Zingha to
Chriftianity, they ought to have fo far fet her an ex¬
ample, as at leaft to abandon part of the countries of
which they had robbed her : But, inftead of this, they
impioufly made ufe of the facred name of our Saviour,
in order to deter a poor favage African from recovering
what juftly belonged to her. 44
Queen Zingha, at laft, came to incline fo much to She returns
return'to the Chriftian religion, that a general mur-chrifliar
mur ran through her army. But having, by variousnit^*
artifices, reconciled the minds of her fubje&s to this
event, fhe explained her defign in a fet fpeech ; offer¬
ing at the fame time liberty to thofe who chofe to
abandon her on this account to go where they would ;
and fuch was their attachment to her, that even in fuch
a hidden and important change in her refolutions they
expreffed no uneafinefs, but on the contrary applauded
her to the higheft degree.
The Portuguefe, after having been harraffed in a ter¬
rible manner for 28 years, and at laft obliged to pro¬
fane the name of their Saviour to procure a peace, be¬
gan now freely to enjoy the, fruits of their villany. A 45
treaty was fet on foot between the viceroy and Zing-Treatywitfis
ha; which, however, was not eafily concluded. Shethe Portu'
demanded the releafe of her filler Cambi, whole Chri-gu^ Pro’
Ilian name was Donna Barbara ; and the Portuguefec
demanded a ranfom of 200 Haves, or an equivalent in
money. This Zingha did not well relifli; and, being
preffed to a compliance, threatened them with a more
furious war than any they had yet experienced. Upon
this the viceroy was obliged to have recourfe to the
ufual method of fending priefts to perfuade her to com¬
ply through motives of religion. Thefe hypocrites ef-
fefted their purpofe; and the flaves were fent, as if
Chriftianity required the delivering up innocent people
to thofe who had no lawful authority over them : but
not being able to conclude a lafting peace about the
ceffion of the Angolic provinces, they were forced to
conclude a fhort truce, and fent back her filler.
This princejs was received by Zingha in a very af¬
fectionate manner : and, fome time after, the queen*
her mind being probably weakened through the infir¬
mities of old age, not only was thoroughly reconciled
to the Portuguefe, but looked upon them as her heft
friends. She encouraged the Chriftian’religion; had
a church built in her capital; made feveral laws againft
Paganifm ; and, to encourage marriage, fhe herfelf
wedded a handfome young fellow in the 75th year of
her age.
The Portuguefe now imagining they would .at laft
gain their point, propofed to her the following terms,
as the bafis of a lafting treaty between the two nations. 4s
1. “ That they fhould yield to her, as a prefent, fome The Portu-
of the countries of which they had already robbed her.guel’eterm31
2. That, in confideration of the faid prefent, which
fhould in noways be interpreted as an invefliture, the
queen fhould pay yearly a certain acknowledgement to
the
A N G [ H ] A N G
Angola, the king of Portugal, who fiiould be at liberty to with-
draw t.he faid prefent whenever the failed of making
the faid acknowledgement. 3. That a free commerce
fhould be opened between thofe two ftates, as well for
(laves as for other merchandizes. 4. That the queen
fhould moled none of the lords that were feudatory to
•the Portuguefe, whatever damages and ravages they
• might have committed during the late wars between
them. 5. That fhe fhould reftore all the Portuguefe
flaves that had taken refuge in her dominions. 6. That
(he (hould deliver up the Giaga Colanda, who had re¬
volted from the Portuguefe, upon condition that his
crime fhould go unpunifhed.”
The queen, having now a thorough view of the deep-
rooted villany of thofe with whom fhe had to do, con¬
ceived fuch difpleafure againft the Portuguefe, that fhe
•fell fick. During this fickr.efs, father Anthony, her
chief confident, and a creature of the viceroy, never
left off foliciting her to make her peace with God, and
to accept of the terms offered her by the Portuguefe :
but Zingha, though worn out with age and ficknefs,
had dill the’good fenfe to perceive, that there was no
connection between making her peace with God and
complying with fuch infamous terms; and therefore
gave the following anfwer, which, under fuch circum-
47 dances, (hows a magnanimity fcarce equalled in any
Thequeen’sage or in any country, f. “ That as to her conver-
fwer6 ^ ^10n’ 33 ^ WaS ne‘t^er ovv’ng to any defire of obtaining
'iwer’ a peace, or other worldly motives, but the Divine
Grace by which fhe was recalled, fhe was refolved to
perfevere in it to her lad breath. 2. That as to her
going over to the Giagan fed, fhe had in a great mea-
fure been forced to it by the Portuguefe viceroy.
3. That the king of Portugal would do a generous
a& in redoring fome of her Angolic dominions; but
it would be more fo, were he to redore them all.
4. That as to her paying homage to him, neither
her mind nor heart were bale enough to confent to it ;
and that as {he had refufed the propofal while fhe lived
among the Giagas, much more did fhe think herfelf a-
•hove it now fhe was a Chridian queen, and owed neither
tribute nor homage to any but to the Supreme Power,
from whom fhe had received both her being anther
kingdom: That, neverthelefs, if fhe could be convinced
that there was any thing in her dominions that would
be acceptable to his Portuguefe majedy, die would vo¬
luntarily make him a prefent of it; and as to the red of
the articles, fuch was her defire of making a firm and
lading peace with them, that fhe {hould make no diffi¬
culty of confentmg to them.”
This anfwer was not altogether fatisfa&ory to the
viceroy ; but the pried, finding it impoffible to make
48 any impreffion upon her mind, eafily prevailed upon
Articles of him to confent to the following terms, x. “That
the treaty, the river Lucalla fhould be the boundary between the
dominions of the Portuguefe and of Queen Zingha.
2. That neither fide fhould thenceforth give any re¬
ception to the fugitive flaves of the other, but fend
them back without any delay, together with the pri-
foners which had been taken during the lad war.
3. That the queen fhould remain wholly free and
exempt from all tribute and homage whatever, provided
49 fhe agreed to the other articles.”
The peace Thefe terms were at lad figned by the queen and
figned, viceroy in the month of April 1657", and ratified by
the king of Portugal in ^he month of November the Angnla.'
fame year.—The only difficulty the queen had con-
cerning this treaty was with regard to the Giaga Co¬
landa : and the manner in which die extricated her¬
felf from it, with her fubfequent behaviour, cannot fail
to give us an high idea of the mental abilities of this
African heroine. 50
This Giagan chief, weary of the Portuguefe yoke, Zingha’sl
had retired from them, at the head of 1000 flout fol- honourable
diers, and a much greater number of fl'aves, fomebe Y10Ur'
leagues beyond the river Lucalla, and put himfelf un¬
der the queen’s proteftion. This fire readily granted,
as he was very able to be ferviceable to her in cafe the
perfidious conduft of the Portuguefe fhould oblige her
to renew the war. She could not therefore but look
upon it as unjufl and difhonourable, to deliver up a
brave chief who had devoted himfelf to her fervice, and
whom fire had taken under her fpecial proteftion, to a
nation with whofe perfidy fhe was fo well acquainted.
To fave her honour, therefore, fome time before the
ratification of the treaty, fhe fent privately for the Gia¬
ga, and acquainted him with the demand of the Portu¬
guefe ; telling him, at the fame time, that though fhe
doubted not of the viceroy’s keeping his word, and
forgiving his offence, yet fhe advifed him to go out of
her dominions, and fettle himfelf and his men in fome
diffant country from the Portuguefe frontiers; but for¬
bade him, on pain of her higheff difpleafure, to com¬
mit the lead outrage or hodility within their domi¬
nion^.
The Giaga thanked her majedy, and feemed to ac-
quiefee with her advice, but did not follow it. On
the contrary, he had no fooner reached his fortrefs, than
he fet himfelf about fortifying it in fuch a manner as
looked rather like defiance than defence ; and, having
gathered a confiderable army, foon fpread a general
terror around him. Of this the Portuguefe failed not
to complain to the queen ; who immediately marched 51
againd him, furprifed and defeated his army ; and he Defeats and
himfelf being killed in the aftion, his head was cut 0ff^i!*s^e.Gi*
and fent to the Portuguefe. ^ Colan‘
This was among the lad memorable affions perform¬
ed by this famous queen; who, now finding herfelf un¬
fit for the fatigues of war, contented herfelf (in 1658)
with difpatching an old experienced general againd a
neighbouring prince who had invaded her territories.
He proved no lefs- fuccefsful than herfelf, and quickly jz
forced the aggreffor to fubmit to her terms. She now Encourage*
gave herfelf up to fludy the bed method of propagating chriffian!-
Chridianity among her fubje&s; and for this purpofe^'
fent a fokmn embaffy to Rome, to pay homage to the
Pope in her name, and to requeft a frefh fupply of mif-
fionaries. To this letter fire received an anfwer from
his Holinefs in 1662 ; and it was read in the church,
that fame year, in the mod public and folemh manner.
The day appointed was the 15th of July; on which fhe
repaired to the church at the head of a numerous reti¬
nue, and having the letter hanging about her neck in
a purfe made of cloth of gold. The concourfe was fo
great, that the church could not contain one half of the
people, fo that none were admitted but perfons of rank.
The father having finifhed the mafs, read the letter at
the altar in the Portuguefe language; and the fecretary
interpreted it in that of the country. The queen, who
had flood all the while it was reading, went towards
the
A N G [
Angola, the altar, and on her knees received it from the fa-
V— ther : and having kifled it, and fvvorn afrefh upon the
53 gofpel to continue in obedience to the church of Rome,
Ceremoniest]ie ietter agra;nj. pUt it into the purfe, and re-
aIeteterfr!Mnturne^ t0 Pa^ace amidft the (houts and acclamations
the Pope. many thoufands of her fubjefts. On that day fhe
gave a magnificent treat to the Portuguefe refident, and
to all her court, in two great porticos, and file herfelf
vouchfafed to eat after the European manner ; that is,
fitting on a fiately elbow chair, with a high table be¬
fore her, covered with the fined linen, and with difiies,
plates, knives, and forks, all of filver gilt. She be¬
llowed fome largefles upon her chief officers, releafed
a good number of flaves, and at night appeared at the
head of her ladies of honour, both Ihe and they drefled
in the Amazonian manner. They performed a kind of
combat, in which the queen, though upwards of eighty
years of age, behaved with the great vigour and a£ti-
54 vity of a woman of thirty.
Zinghames j^er }!0wever} wag not lengthened in proportion
to her vigour and activity : for in the month of Sep¬
tember (he was feized with an inflammation in her
throat; which, in December, having leized her bread
and lungs,, file expired on the 17th of that month, and
was fucceed’ed by her fider Barbara.
Succeeded The deceafed queen was buried with extraordinary
by her filter pomp ; and, out of regard to her, Barbara was inau-
Barbara. gurated a fecond and third time, with the greated
pomp, and the mod joyful acclamations.—She was a
very zealous Chridian, but wanted her fider’s abilities,
and had the misfortune of being in the decline of life,
lame, and almod blind. Befides this, die had been
married to a proud ill-natured hulband, named Mona
Zingha ; who, though to her he owed all his fortune
56 and advancement, being himfelf no more than the fon
Cruelty of 0f a Have, ufed her with fuch cruelty, even in the late
Mona Z'11^ clueei,,s ^Te, fhe was obliged to take refuge in the
gha to her ^rom whence he had the infolence immediately
’ to fetch her. This fo exafperated queen Zingha, that
die had well nigh ordered him to be cut in pieces be¬
fore her face ; but pardoned him at the requed of fa¬
ther Anthony, who probably knew he was privy to
fome religious fecrets which he might, in a cafe of fuch
emergency, have difclofed. On Barbara’s acceffion to
the throne, however, he not only redoubled his cruelty
to her, in hopes of getting the management of affairs
entirely into his own hands, but invented accufations
againd Anthony himfelf, with a defign to extirpate
He accufes ^im anc* religion. He gave out, that the late
Father An-flueen had been poifoned by fome favourite European
thony. difhes, with which brother Ignatio ufed to regale her
during her lad ilfnefs^ and attributed his wife’s lame-
nefs and blindnefs to fome forceries or charms ufed by
the convent againd her. He had even perfuaded, or
rather forced, his queen to confcnt that -fome of the
finghillos orprieds fhould be brought to counter-charm
her didemper.
Who repri- Father Anthony, far from being intimidated at the
mands the accufations brought againd him, repaired immediately
■Queen. to the palace; where he boldly reprimanded the queen
for giving ear to thefe jugglers, threatening at the fame
time to leave her dominions, and carry off with him all
the erodes, and other religious utenfils, from which a-
lone they could have any benefit. The queen return¬
ed a very fubmiffive anfwer ; and promifed to deliver up
15 T A N G
the counter-charms which fte at that time had upon Angola,
her, before funfet; which file accordingly did, and fent — tt
them to the convent by the hands of her fecretary. This
fo exafperated her hufliand, and all the Giagan fe<d,
that they refolved upon the dedrudtion of all the prieda
and Europeans, and even the queen herfelf. This,
however, was found improper to be attempted; amt
Mona Zingha was fo much chagrined at his difappoint-
ment, that he retired to his own edate; giving out,
that he defigned to meddle no more with date-affairs 5
but, in reality, to concert meafures for engroffing the
fovereignty to himfelf, and to deprive his wife of her
life and crown.
To accomplifii his purpofe, he fent a meffenger to
her, defiring her to repair to his houfe, where he had
fomething of importance to communicate ; but (he de¬
clining the invitation by the advice of father Anthony,
he found himfelf difappointed, and begged leave to
retire to a neighbouring province, which was under
his government. He was again difappointed, and
forbid to dir out of the province of Metamba The
queen was, however, guilty of an error not long after,
in fending Mona Zingha, at the head of an army, to 59 .
quell a revolt on the frontiers. On his returning vic-^?ona
torious, he thought himfelf drong enough to revive the .
ancient Giagan rites, and therefore ordered 100 flaves rites; e
to be facrificed to the manes of the deceafed queen.
Though the queen was immediately apprifed of his in¬
tention, and difpatched a meffenger exprefsly command¬
ing him to defill; yet Mona, by didributing fome pre-
fents, particularly fome European wines, among the
counfellors, effefted his purpofe with impunity. He did •
not forget to fend fome of this wine to father Anthony:
but to prevent fufpicion, prefented him only with a fmall
quantity, to be ufed, as he faid, at the mafs ; adding, 6°.
that if it proved agreeable, he would fupply him with
a larger quantity. The unfufpe&ing pried drank about Anthony,
two glaffes of it; and in about a quarter of an hour was
feized with violent convulfions in his bowels,'and other
fymptoms of being poifoned. By proper affidance, how¬
ever, he recovered : yet fo far was he difabled by this
dofe, that he was obliged to abandon his miffion. gr .
The queen’s infirmities in the mean time daily in-The Queea -
creafing, Mona Zingha was foon delivered from all fur- dies,
ther oppofition on her part, by her death, which hap¬
pened on the 24th of March 1666. Upon this, Mona
Zingha made all poffible hade to get himfelf eledted
king ; and immediately renounced the Chridian reli¬
gion, raifing a perfecution at the fame time againd its
profeffors. He even wrote to the Portuguefe viceroy,
acquainting him with his having renounced Chridianity,
which he had only embraced out of complaifance to his
queen, and with his defign to revive the Giagan rites. .
To fliow that he meant to be as good as his word, he Cruelties of :
ordered all the children under fix years of age, that Mona Zin--
could be found, to be facrificed in honour of their in-S*13,
fernal deities. He alfo recalled the finghillos, and
heaped many favours upon them ; fo that they became
entirely devoted to his purpofes. Fie likewife caufed
many of his fubjefts to be privately poifoned ; and then
gave out, that their unaccountable deaths were owing to
their having abandoned the religion of their ancedors,
and embraced Chridianity; which he dyled the religion
of a parcel of famiflied Grangers, who through their ex¬
treme mifery, had been forced to leave their native coun¬
try,*
A N G [ i
Angola, try, and feek for a livelihood in the richeft provinces
V- —-v--. of Africa.
By thefe and fuch like ftratagems he almoft entirely
extirpated Chriftianity, and any appearances of civili¬
zation which had been introduced among his fubjeds.
His career, however, was itopped by Hon John the
princefs Barbara’s firft hulband, from whom flie had been
divorced on account of his having another wife. He
foon compelled the ufurper to fly into an ifland in the
Coanza 5 but not having the precaution to reduce him
entirely, Mona Zingha found means to retrieve his af¬
fairs, and at laft defeated and killed Hon John himfelf,
by which he became mafter of the throne, without any
further oppofition. He was no fooner re-eltablifhed,
than he began to purfue his butcheries, with more fury
than ever : when, on a fudden, Don Francifco, the fon
^ of Don John, appeared at the head of an army in op-
He is de- pofition to the ufurper ; and in the firft engagement
feated and Mona Zingha being defeated and killed, Don Francif-
lulled. co became foie mafter of the empire.
It is not known whether this prince kept to the
terms of the alliance made by Queen Zingha with the
Portuguefe or not.—Thefe, however, have preferved
their conquefts, and for fume time they allowed the
natives to choofe a king for themfelves, or rather they
64 chofe him for them, as we have already noticed. Thele
Lowftateof k;ngg enjoyed only a mere fhadow of royalty i, their
fcteukinif wh°ie grandeur conflfting in being allowed to breed
the'pomi- peacocks, and adorn themfelves with their feathers,
guefe. which was forbidden to their fubjedts under pain of
perpetual flavery.—The laft of thefe kings was named
Ngola Sedefio, who, difliking an empty name of roy¬
alty, revolted from the Portuguefe, and carried on a
long war with them ; but being at laft. defeated and
killed, his head was cut off,- failed, and fent to Lifbon
in pickle. After this the Portuguefe feem not to have
thought it fafe to truft their Angolic fubje&s even with
the name of a king of their own, but have vefted the
power entirely in their viceroy ; but ^s to the extent
of his dominions, and how matters Hand between him
and that race of Angolic princes who have preferved
their liberty, we are entirely in the dark.
Uivifionin- When in its greateft fplendor, the kingdom of An-
toprovincesg0la contained the 17 following provinces : Cheffama,
Sumbi, Benguela, Riirtba, Sietta, High and Low Bem-
bea, Temba, Oacco, Cabezzo, Lubolo, Loanda, Ben-
go, Danda, Mofiche, Higher and Lower 11 anaba, Oraij,
and Embacca. The provinces conquered by the Por¬
tuguefe during the wars above mentioned were, Danda,
Mofiche, Bengo, the Higher and Lower llamba, Oraij,
Embacca, Benguela, Sietta, Cabezzo, Lubolo, and
Oacco.
Rivers. The principal rivers are thofe already mentioned,
viz. the Danda and Coanza. The Coanza is large,
deep, and rapid. It empties itfelf into the Atlantic
ocean about Latitude 90 20'. S. twelve leagues fouth of
Loando the capital of the kingdom. It is navigable for
150 miles, and abounds with variety of fifh. It forms
feveral Hands, has fome cataradfs, and one in particu¬
lar which bears its name. As for its fource, and the
length of ground it crofles from eaft to weft before it
comes to the Portuguefe fettlement, it is abfolutely
unknown, as well as the countries through which it
runs. Its mouth, which runs between the capes Pal-
;n? 21.
6 ] A N G
merino and Lego, is above a league wide ; the north- Angola,
ern (hore is the deepeft, anct along which the veflels II
fail. The fall of this river into the ocean is fo rapid, Ang>ou*
that the fea appears quite muddy for two or three .
leagues below it. Its mouth is not eafily perceived w
from the open fea, by reafon of an ifland quite cover¬
ed with high trees which lies juft befoie it. The two
principal Hands formed by this river are called Majfan-
der and Motchiamia. The one is fix leagues long, and
about two miles broad : it is very fertile in maize,
millet, and fome other grains, which are reaped at three
different feafons of the year. It produces likewife vaft
quantities of manhioic, a root, of which they make a
coarfe kind of meal, which ferves inftead of bread.
Here alfo grow great numbers of palm and other fruit
trees of various kinds. The ifland of Motchiamia is
four or five miles long, and one in breadth, moftly
plain, and producing variety of roots and herbs. It
likewife abounds in cattle ; and there were formerly five
or fix Portuguefe families fettled upon it, who drove a
confiderable trade in thefe commodities, and likewife
in flaves.
Concerning the river Danda we know little or no¬
thing : only, that though its mouth is not above 70 or
80 miles diftant from that of the Coanza, yet their di-
ftance grows fo confiderably wider as you penetrate
further into the inlands, as to be much above twice if
not thrice that fpace ; though how much, is not exactly
known.
The manners, religion, and drefs, &c. of the inhabi¬
tants, are much the fame with the Congoefe. See
Congo.
AiiGO^k Pea, at Pigeon-pea. See Cytisus.
ANGON, in the ancient military art, a kind of ja¬
velin ufed by the French. They darted it at a confi¬
derable diftance. The iron head of this weapon refem-
bled a flower-de-luce. It is the opinion of fome wri¬
ters, that the arms of France are not flowers de-luce,
but the iron point of the angon or javelin of the an¬
cient French.
ANGOR, among ancient phyficians, a concentration
of the natural heat; the confequence of which is a pain
of the head, palpitation, and fadnefs.
ANGOT, a province or kingdom of Abyfiinia, for¬
merly rich and fertile, but almoft ruined by the Gaiks,
a wandering nation in the internal parts of Africa,
who difpoffeffed the Abyffinian monarchs of all that
was worth poffeffing.
ANGOULESME, a city of France, the capital of
the duchy of Angoumois, and the fee of a bifhop. It
is feated on the top of a hill, furrounded with rocks, at
the foot of which runs the river Charante. The inha¬
bitants are faid to be about 8000, and to drive a con¬
fiderable trade in paper, which is their manufacture.
E. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 45. 39.
ANGOUMOIS, a province of France, bounded on
the north by Poitou, on the eaft by Limoufin and
March, on the fouth by Perigord, and on the weft by
Saintonge. Through this province run the rivers
Touvre and Charante. This laft is full of excellent
filh ; and though it often overflows its banks, it is fo far
from doing any damage, that it greatly enriches the
foil. The Touvre is full of trouts. The air is generally
warmer than at Paris, though the country is hilly. The
A N G [ 17 ] A N G
A^goura. foil produces plenty of wheat, rye, oats, SpanKh corn,
Angoy. faffron, grapes, and all forts of fruits. Here arefeveral
jron mlnes, which yield a veiy good fort of iron.
ANGOURA, Angora, or Angori, a city of A-
fia, in Anatolia, formerly called Ancyra, and hill full
of remarkable antiquities, which are fo many marks of
its ancient magnificence. It is at ptefent one of the
beft cities in Anatolia ; its ftreets are full of pillars and
old marbles, among which are fome of porphyry and
jafper. The greatell part of the pillars are fmooth and
cylindrical; fome are channelled fpirally ; but the molt
fingular are oval, with plate bands before and behind
from the top to the bottom of the pedestal. The houfes
are now made of clay, which is fomctimes intermixed
with fine pieces of marble. The walls of the city are
low, with very mean battlements. The mafonry of the
walls is intermixed with pillars, architraves, capitals,
and other ancient fragments, efpecially that of the
towers and gates. The caftle of Angora has a triple
inclofure ; and the walls are of large pieces of white
marble, and a ftone much like porphyry.
The baflia of Angora has about 30 purfes income ;
and there are here about 300 janizaries, under the
command of a fardar. The Turks are faid to be 40,000,
the Armenians 4000 or 5000, and the Greeks 600.
The Armenians have feven churches, befides a mona-
ftery; and the Greeks two. They breed the fineft goats
in the world; and their hair, which is of a dazzling
white, is almoft as fine as filk, and nine inches in length :
it is worked into very fine huffs, particularly camblet.
.All the inhabitants are employed in this manufa&ure..
Several large caravans pafs through this city to diffe¬
rent places. E. Long. 32. 5. N. Lat. 39. 30. See
Ancyra.
ANGOY, a kingdom of Loango in Africa, bound¬
ed on the north by Cacongo, and on the fouth by Con*-
go; from the former of which it is feparated by the
river Cabinda, and from the latter by the river Zaire.
It is but of fmall extentbeing only a vaffal province
of Cacongo, till the mani or prince, who had married
a Portuguefe’s daughter, was perfuaded by his father-
in-law to make himfelf independent. This he effedled
at a favourable jundlure, the king of Loango having
but juft before revolted from the king of Congo, and
the king of Cacongo from the new king of Loango.
The country is full of woods and thickets ; and has no
towns of any note, except one called Bomangoy, fitu-
ated on the north banks of the Zaire, and not far from
its mouth. Its chief port is Cabinda, called alfo Ka-
Lenda, orCubenda, fituated on the mouth of a river of
the fame name, about five leagues north of Cape Pal-
mefino, on the north fide of the Zaire’s mouth. The
bay is very commodious for trade, or wooding and wa¬
tering along the ftibre. It is flat and maflhy, in fome
places ; but afcends gradually about three miles inland,
and then forms itfelf into a ridge 6f hills. On the afcent
of thefe is fituated a town belonging to the father-in-
law of the king above mentioned, where he conftantly
kept a ftock of wood ready cut, to fell to foreign {hips
at an eafy rate. From thefe wood-piles, fouth-weft
along the bay, lie fcattered a number of fiflrermens
huts, on each fide a fmall freftt-water river which falls
into the bay ; and thence all the water for {hips is
brought in calks to the mouth of the river, which is fo
Shallow, that even at full flood it can only be entered by
Vol. II. Part L
a yawl carrying a caflc or two. The town ftands on the Angoy.
round point of the bay looking to the weftward ; and Angra.
the Eugliftr have a fatiory on the fouth-weft of thev—
road.
The country round the bay is moftly barren ; owing
chiefly to the lazinefs of the inhabitants, which often
occafions a fearcity of provifions. The wild beafts
fwarm fo in the woods, that they deftroy all the tame-
kinds; fo there are no cattle bred here but hogs. From
the: woods in this country fome monkeys have been
brought away, which in ftiape and ftature refembled the
human fpecies. Civet-cats abound here in great plenty,
and parrots may be bought for three or four ordinary
knives. The coafts abound fo with oyfters, that the
failors quickly load their boats with them ; they being
found lying in great heaps like fmall rocks. The na¬
tives follow the occupation of fiflring more than any
other. They fifli both on the fea and in the rivers, ma¬
king ufe of drag-nets, which have long canes fixed at
equal diilances, inftead of corks, to ftiow when any fifh
is caught. Thefe nets are made of a peculiar kind of
root, which, after being beaten, may be fpun like
hemp.
The drefs of the inhabitants is the fame w-ith that of
the Congoefe. They allow polygamy, and the beft be¬
loved wife hath the command of the reft ; but is no lefs
liable to be turned out, if {be proves unfaithful. The
ladies of the blood-royal have the privilege of choofing
their hulbands out of any, even the meaneft rank; and
have even the powder of life and death over them; as
likew'ife over their paramours, if any of them are caught
tripping : but the hulbands are by no means intitled
to expeff the fame fidelity from their royal ladies. Wo¬
men of the lower rank are obliged, when they receive
a ftranger, to admit them for a night or two into their
embraces. This obliged the iniflionaries, who travel¬
led through this country, to give notice of their ap¬
proach to any of their houfes, that none of the female
lex might enter wnthin their doors.—Their religion
confifts chiefly in a variety of fuperflitious cuftoms ;
fuch as powdering their public and domeftic idols with
the dull of a kind of red wood, on the firft day of the
moon, and paying a kind of worlhip to that planet.
If, on that night, it happens to fliine clear and bright,
they Cry out, Thus may I renew my life as thou
4oft 5” but if the air is cloudy, they imagine the moon
hath loft her virtue, and pay her no refpeft. We do
not hear of their offering any facrifices to their idols;
though they commonly confult them about the fuccefs
of their enterprifes, thefts, or fuch like. The king of
Congo ftill ftyles himfelf fovereign of Angoy; but the
king of this little hate pays neither tribute nor homage
to any foreign power.
ANGRA, a city of Tercera, one of the Azores; the
capital, not only of that illand, but of all the reft,
and the refidence of the governor. It is feated on the
fouth fide, near the middle of the longeft diameter of
the ifland, on the edge of the fea. The harbour is
the only tolerable one in the whole ifland, being e-
qua’lly fecured againft ftorms and the efforts of an ene¬
my. It is of the form of a crefcent; the extremities
of which are defended by two high rocks, that run fo
far into the fea as to render the entrance narrow* and
eafily covered by the batteries on each fide. From
this harbour the town is faid to derive its name, the
C word
A N G [
Angra word Angra figiufying a creek, bay, or ftation for fhip-
li ping; and this is the only convenient one among all the
.Anguil a-1 Azores. The opening of the port is from the eaft to
v-r—y-w t^e {■outj1.wefl.. according to Frezier, it is not
above four cables-length in breadth, and not two of
good bottom. Here (hips may ride in great fafety du¬
ring the fummer ; but as foon as the winter begins, the
ftorms are fo furious, that the only fafety for (hipping
is the putting to fea with all pofiible expedition. Hap¬
pily, however, thefe ftorms are preceded by infallible
iigiis, with which experience has made the inhabitants
perfectly well acquainted. On thefe occafions the Pico,
a high mountain in another of the Azores, is overcaft
with thick clouds, and grows exceedingly dark ; but
what they look upon as the moft certain fign, is the
fluttering and chirping of flocks of birds round the city
‘ for fome days before the ftorm begins.
The town is well built and populous, is the fee of a
bifhop, under the jurifdidtion of the archbifhop of Lif-
bon. It hath five parifhes, a cathedral, four monafteries,
as many nunneries, befides an inquifition and bilhop’s
court, which extends its jurifdi&ion over all the A-
zores, Flores, and Corvo. It is furrounded by a good
wall, a dry ditch of great depth and breadth, and de¬
fended by a ftrong caftle, rendered famous by the im-
prifonment of king Alphonfo by his brother Peter in
1668. Though moft of the public and private build¬
ings have a good appearance externally, they are but
indifferently furnifhed within; but for this poverty the
Portuguefe excufe themfelves, by faying, that too much
furniture would prove inconvenient in fo warm a cli¬
mate.
At Angra are kept the royal magazines for anchors,
cables, fails, and other (tores for the royal navy, or oc-
cafionally for merchantmen in great diftrefs. All ma¬
ritime affairs are under the infpe&ion of an officer call¬
ed Defembergrador, who hath fubordinate officers and
pilots for conducing (hips into the harbour, or to pro¬
per watering-places. The Englilh, French, and Dutch,
have each a conful refiding here, though the commerce
of any of thefe nations with the Azores is very inconfi-
derable.
ANGRIVARII, (Tacitus); a people of Germany,
fttuated between the Wefer and the Ems, and eaft ward
reaching beyond the Wefer, as far as the Cherufci, on
which fide they raifed a rampart (Tacitus); to the fouth,
having the Tubantes on the Ems, and on the Wefer
where it bends to the foreft Bacemis; to the weft, the
Ems and the confines of the Bru&eri; and to the north,
the territory of the Angrivarii lay between the Chama-
vi and Anfibarii. Ptolemy places them between the
Cauchi and Suevi or Catti. Suppofed now to contain
a part of the county of Schaumburg, the half of the
bifhopric or principality of Minden : to the fouth, the
greateft part of the bifhopric of Ofnabrug, the north
part of the county of Teclenburg, and a part of the
county of Ravenfberg. A trace of the name of the
people ftill remains in the appellation Engern, a fmall
town in the county of Ravenfberg.
ANGUILLA, one of the Weft-India or Carribbee
iflands, lying in about 150 N. Lat. It has its name
from its fnake-like form ; and is about ten leagues in
length and three in breadth. It was firft difcovered by
the EngKfh in 1650, when it was filled with alligators
and other noxious animals; but they, finding the foil
18 ] A N G
fruitful, and proper for raifing tobacco and corn, fettled Anguina
a colony on it, and imported live cattle, which have II
fince multiplied exceedingly. But the colony not being Angumum.
fettled under any public encouragement, each planter
laboured for himfelf, and the ifland became a prey to
every rapacious invader, which difheartened the inha¬
bitants fo much, that all induftry was loft among them.
Their chief fuffering was from a party of wild Irifti,
who landed here after the Revolution, and treated them
worfe than any of the French pirates who had attacked
them before. The people of Barbadoes, and other En-
glifli Carribbees, knowing the value of the foil, feveral
of them removed to Anguilla, where they remained for
many years, and even carried on a profitable trade,
though without any government, either civil or eccle-
fiaftical. In 1745, their militia, though not exceeding
ico men, defended a breaft work againft 1000 French
who came to attack them ; and at laft obliged them to
retire with the lofs of 1 50 men, befides carrying off
fome of their arms and colours as trophies of their vic¬
tory. Since that time the inhabitants have fubfifted.
moftly by farming ; though they ftill plant fugar, and
the ifland is faid to be capable of great improvements.
ANGUINA. See Tricosanthes.
ANGUILLIFORM, an appellation given by zoo-
logifts, not only to the different fpecies of eels, but to
other animals refembling them in ftiape.
ANGU1NUM ovu-m, a fabulous kind of egg, faid
to be produced by the faliva of a clufter of ferpents,
and poffeffed of certain magical virtues. The fuperfti-
tion in refpedf to thefe was very prevalent among the
ancient Britons ; and there ftill remains a ftrong tra¬
dition of it in Wales. The account Pliny * gives of it * Lib. xny
is as follows : “ Praeterea eft ovorum genus in magna c- 3*
“ Galliarum fama, omiffum Grascis Angues innume-
“ ri aeftate convoluti, falivis faucium corporumque fpu-
“ mis artifici complexu glomerantur ; anguinum appel-
“ latur. Druidae fibilis id dicunt in fublime jadlari,
“ fagoque oportere intercipi, ne tellurem attingat:
“ profugere raptorem equo : ferpentes enim infequi,
“donee arceantur amnis alicujus interveiitu.5* — Of
which the following may ferve as a tranflation : (from
Mafon's Car abacus ; the perfon fpeaking, a Druid.)
But tell me yet
From the grot of charms and fpells.
Where our matron After dwells,
Brennusy has thy holy hand
Safely brought the Druid wand,
And the potent Adder-Jlone,
Gender’d ’fore the autumnal moon ?
When, in undulating twine.
The foaming fnakes prolific join ;
When they hifs, and when they bear
Their wond’rous egg aloof in air:
Thence before to earth it fall.
The Druid in his hallow’d pall.
Receives the prize,
And inftant flies,
Follow’d by the envenom’d brood,
’Till he crofs the cryftal flood.
This wondrous egg feems to be nothing more than
a bead of glafs, ufed by the Druids as a charm to im-
pofe on the vulgar, whom they taught to believe, that
the poffeffor would be fortunate in all his attempts, and
that it yvould gain him the favour of the great.
Our
A N G [ 19 ] A N G
Anguls. Our modernDruldeffes (fays Mr Pennant, from whom
we extra£l) give much the fame account of the ovum
anguinum, glain neidr, as the Welih call it, or the
adder-gem, as the Roman philofopher does ; but feem
not to have fo exalted an opinion of its powers, ufmg
it only to alfift children in cutting their teeth, or to
cure the chincough, or to drive away an ague.
Thefe beads are of a very rich blue colour ; fome
plain,othersftreaked. Fortheirfigure,feePlateXXXIl.
fig. 22. n° 1, 2, 3.
ANGUIS, or Snake, in zoology, a genus belong¬
ing to the order of amphibia ferpentes. The charac¬
ters of the anguis ar.e thefe: They are fquamous or
fcaly in the belly and under the tail; without any
‘ See Plates fcuta *. There are 15 fpecies of the anguis, viz.
xx'ixn<1 1‘ eryx’ a nat’ve Britain and likewife of Ame-
' rica, is about a fpan in length, and about the thick-
nefs of a man’s finger. One from Aberdeenlhire, de-
fcribed by Mr Pennant, was 15 inches long; tongue
broad and forked; noftrils fmall, round, and placed
near the tip of the nofe ; eyes lodged in oblong fiffures
above the angle of the mouth ; belly of a bluilh lead
' colour, marked with fmall white fpots irregularly dif-
pofed : The reft of the body of a greyifii brown, with
three longitudinal dufky lines ; one extending from
the head along the back to the point of the tail; the
others broader, and extending the whole length of the
fides. It was entirely covered with fmall fcales ; largeft
on the upper part of the head. 2. The fragilis, blind-
worm, or flow-worm, grows to about a foot in length,
and to the thicknefs of a man’s-little finger : the hides
are red; the head is fmall; the neck ftill more flender ;
from that part the body grows fuddenly, and continues
of an equal bulk to the tail, which ends quite blunt.
The colour of the back is cinerous, marked .with very
fmall lines compofed of minute black fpecks : the fides
are of a reddilh call-; the belly dufky ; both marked
like the back. The tongue is broad and forky ; the
teeth are minute, but numerous ; the fcales fmall. The
motion of this ferpent is flow, from which, and from
the fmallnefs of the eyes, are derived its name. It re-
fembles the viper in the manner of producing its young,
which are put forth alive. It is frequent with us in
gardens and paftures, where it lives principally under
ground feeding on worms. Like others of the genus,
they lie torpid during winter, and are fometimes found
in vaft quantities twilled together. 3. The ventralis,
or glafs-fnake of Catefby, has 127 fquamre on the belly,
and 223 on the tail. The head is very fmall, and the
tongue of a Angular form. The upper part of the
body is of a colour blended brown and green, muft re¬
gularly and elegantly fpotted with yellow, the under-
moft part of which is brighteft. The fkin is very
fmooth; and fliining with final! fcales, more clofely
comiefted, and of a different ftrufture from thofe- of
other ferpents. A fmall blow with a flick will caufe
the body to feparate, not only at .the place ftruck, but
at two or three other places, the mufcles being articu¬
lated in a Angular mannerquite through to the vertebra.
They appear earlier in the fpring than any other fer¬
pent. and are numerous in the fandy woods of Virginia
and Garoliha. They are generally faid to be harmlefs.
4. The jaculus, or dart-fnake, is about three hand-
breadths long, and about the thicknefs of one’s little
finger. Its colour is a milky grey on the back, varie¬
gated with fmall black fpots like fo many eyes ; and Angiiis.
on the belly it is perfeflly white. The neck is wholly Anguria,
black ; and from that two milk-white ftreaks run all
the way along the back to the tail : the black fpots
alfo are each furrounded with a fmall circle of white.
It has its name from its vibrating its body in the man¬
ner of a dart. It is a native of Egypt, Libya, and the
ifiands of the Mediterranean. 5. The quadrupes : The
body of this fpecies is cylindrical, with 14 or 15 lon¬
gitudinal aflr-coloured ftreaks ; the teeth are extremely
fmall; it has no eara: the feet are at a great diftance
from each other, very fliort, with five toes and fmall
nails ; but the toes are fo minute, that they can hardly
be numbered: It is a native of Java. 6. The bipes,
is a native of the Indies; it has two fhort feet, with
two toes, near the anus. In every fcale of the bipes
there is a brown point. 7. The meleagris, is likewife
a native of the Indies ; it has fmall teeth, but no ears.
This fpecies has a great refemblance to the former.
8. The colubrina, an inhabitant of Egypt, is beautifully
variegated with pale and yellow colours. 9. The ma-
culata, a native of America, is yellow, and interfperfed
with afh coloured lines on the back : the head is finall
in proportion to the body. 10. The reticulata, a native
of America, has brownilh fcales, with a white margin.
1 1. The ceraftes, with 200 fquamse on the belly and
15 on the tail, is a native of Egypt. 12. The lum-
bricalis, a native of America, has 230 fquamte on the
belly and 7 on the tail; its colour is a yellowilh white.
13. The platura: The head is oblong and without
teeth ; the body is about a foot and a half long, black
above and white below; the tail is about one-ninth of
the length of the animal, much cofnpreffed or flatted,
and variegated with black and white; the fcaks are
roundifh, final!, not imbricated, but they cannot be
numbered. 14. The laticauda, a native of Surinam :
the tail is compreffed, acute, pale, with brownilh belts.
15. The feytale, a native of the Indies, with .220 Iqua-
mac on the belly and 13 on the tail. The head is
fmall and oval, and the eyes are little : the body is cy¬
lindrical, about a foot and a half long, covered with
oval obtufe fcales : the tail is thick and obtufe like the
head ; its colour is white, interfperfed with brownifii
rings; the margins of the fcales are of an iron colour ;
and the top of the head is blue.—According to Lin¬
naeus, none of this genus are poifonous.
ANGURIA, the water melon : A genus of the
diandria order, belonging to the monoccia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
34th order, Cucurbitacea. The efiential charadters
are thefe: The male calyx is quinquefid, and the co¬
rolla quinquepetalous: The female calyx and corolla
the fame : The pericarpium is a pome beneath, with
two cells : The feeds are numerous.
Species. Of this genus, Linnaeus reckons three fpe¬
cies, the trilobata, pedata, and trifoliata ; but only one
is known in this country, by the name of Citrnl. The
fruit is cultivated in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and other
warm countries of Europe ; as alfo°in Africa, Alia, and
America; where it is elteemed on account of its whole-
fome cooling quality ; but in Britain it is held in little
eftimation
Culture. To have this fruit good, fome feeds muft
be procured of three or four years old; new feeds be¬
ing apt to produce vigorous plants, which are feldom
C 2 fi>
A N H r 20 1 AN H
Angus fo fruitful as thofe of a moderate ftrengtli. The fe are
li to be fown in the hot-bed for early cucumbers. Some
Anhalt. new Jung ;s to be prepared in the beginning of Fe-
.-wv-mmc* |3ruary.} which fhould be thrown into a heap to heat, as
is praftifed for early cucumbers. The bed is then to
be made in the fame manner as for the mufk-melon,
covering the dung about five inches thick with loamy
earth; but as thefe plants require much more room
than either cucumbers or common melons, there fhould
be but one plant put into a three-light frame. A hill
of the fame loamy earth fhould therefore be raifed a foot
and a half high, in the middle light of each frame;
into which, when the bed is of a proper temper for
heat, the plants fhould be carefully planted, obferving
to water and fhade them until they have taken good
root. As to other particulars, their management dif¬
fers very little from that of the mufk-melon : only they
muft frequently have frefh air admitted to them ; and,
when the nights are cold, the glaffes muft be covered
with mats to keep the beds warm.
ANGUS, a diftrift of the county of Forfar in
Scotland. It was an earldom belonging to the Dou-
glafes, now extindt.
ANGUSTICLAVIA, in Roman antiquity, a tu¬
nica embroidered with little purple ftuds. It was worn
by the Roman knights, as the laticlavia was by the
fenators.
ANHALT, an ifland of Denmark, in North Jut¬
land, lying in the Categut, eight miles from the coaft
of Jutland, ten from Zealand, and feven from Holland.
It is dangerous for feamen, for which reafon there is a
light-houfe.
Anhalt, a principality of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, is a long narrow tradf, fituated for
the moft part betwixt the rivers Elbe and Saal, about
90 miles in length from eaft to weft, but of unequal
breadth, the greateft being on the eaft fide, which is
but 35 miles. The houfe of Anhalt, from whence
the eledtors of Saxony and Brandenburg are faid to
derive their original, is a very ancient and honourable
family. The beft genealogifts deduce their origin from
Berenthobaldus, who made war upon the Thuringians
in the fixth century: it has produced many princes
who make a great figure in the German hiftory. Joa¬
chim Erneft, who died in 15S6, left five fons, who di¬
vided the principality among them. All of them ha¬
ving children, and being of equal authority, they un-
animoufly agreed to fubmit to the eldeft of the family,
who has the fupreme government, which is Anhalt-
Deffau. The others are, Anhalt-Bernburg,, Anhalt-
Schaumburg, Anhalt-Coethen, and Anhalt-Zerbfi. The
Saxons acknowledge that the inhabitants of thefe little
independent fovereignties live intheland of milk and ho¬
ney. Thefe petty princes poffefs lands fufficient for their
expences, the revenues being reckoned about half a mil¬
lion of dollars. The tax on lands is four per cent, which,
rating them at 20 years purchafe, is not quite one (hil¬
ling in the pound. Upon an emergency the ful^jedts
are able to raife half a million extraordinary. The
towns in thefe little ftates are not fo numerous in pro¬
portion to the extent of country as in Saxony, but
better peopled. It is bounded on the S. by the county
of Mansfield, on the W. by the duchy of Halberftadt,
on the E. by the duchy of Saxony, and on the N. by
the duchy ef Magdeburg. It abounds in corn, and is
watered by the Salde and Mulda j its principal trade Anhelatio
is in beer. j|
ANHELATIO, or Anhelitus, among phyfi- t Anima- t
clans, a (hortnefs of breath. —* -
ANIAN, the name of a ftrait formerly fuppofed
to lie between the north-eaft of Alia and the north-
weft of America ; but now found to exift only in ima¬
gination.
Anian is alfo the name of a barren fandy defart ly¬
ing on the eaft coaft of Africa. It is fo exceffively hot
and otherwife inhofpitable, that it contains but very
few inhabitants, except fome wandering Arabs who live
in camps.
ANIELLO, or Massaniello. See Hiftory of
Naples.
ANJENGO, a fmall town and faftory, with a fort,
on the coaft of Malabar, in the peninfula on this fide
the Ganges, belonging to the Eaft-India Company.
The fort is fmall, but neat and ftrong ; it is a fquare
with four baftions, having eight guns mounted on each,
carrying a ball of 18 pounds. Two of thefe baftions
face the fea, the other two the country. Befides thefe,
there is a line of i 8 or 2c guns pointing towards the
fea, of 18 and 24. pounders. About a piftol-lhot from
the back of the fort runs a river, which, befides beinga
fecurity to the fa&ory, adds much to the agreeable fitua-
tion of the place. This river has its fource in fome diftant
mountains; and, defcending in a courfe from the north
and eaft, it afterwards turns in feveral pleafing mean¬
ders fo far to the weft as to wafh the bottom of our
fadfory’s garden, and at laft winding to the fouth, it
empties itfelf into the fta. Several beautiful fmall
iflands too, which are waflied by its current, diverfify
the fcenery, and greatly heighten the beauty of the
profpeft. This fettlement fupplies our Eaft-India
Company with pepper; and its fituation is alfo very
convenient for giving proper intelligence to our (hips
touching here from Europe, or from any part of In¬
dia. E. Long, 76. 1. N. Lat. 7. o.
ANIL, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies of in-
digofera. See Indigofera.
ANIMA, among divines and naturalifts, denotes the
foul, or principle of life, in animals. See Soul.
Anima, among chemifts, denotes the volatile or
fpirituous patts of bodies.
Anima Hepatis, is a name by which fome call fal
martis or fait of iron, on account of its fuppofed ef¬
ficacy in difeafes of the liver.
Anima Mitndi, a certain pure ethereal fubftance or
fpirit, diffufed, according to many of the ancient phi-
lofophers, through the mafs of the world, informing,
a&uating, and uniting the divers parts thereof into
one great, perfeft, organical, and vital body-or ani¬
mal. Plato treats at large of the 4-vX’’ TV in his
Tinixus ; and is even fuppofed to be the author of the
dogma; yet are interpreters much at a lofs about his
meaning. Ariftotle, however, taking it in the com¬
mon and obvious fenfe, ftrenuoufly oppofes it. The
modern Platonifts explain their maftei’s anirna nmndi
by a certain univerfal ethereal fpirit, which in the hea¬
vens exifts perfeAly pure, as retaining its proper nature;
but on earth pervading elementary bodies, and inti¬
mately mixing with all the minute atoms thereof, it af-
fumes fomewhat of their nature, and becomes of a pe¬
culiar kind.—So the poet:
Spiritus
A N I [ 21 ] A N I
Anima Spiritus intus alit, totofque infufa per artus
II Mens agitat molem, et magno fe carpers mifcet.
Animal. They add, that this anima mundi, which more imme-
"■_ diately refides in the celeftial regions as its proper feat,
moves and governs the heavens in fuch maniter, as
that the heavens themfelves firft received their exiftence
from the fecundity of the fame fpirit: for that this
anima, being the primary fource of life, every where
breathed a fpirit like itfelf, by virtue whereof various
kinds of things were framed conformable to the divine
ideas.
Anima Saturni, a white powder obtained by pour¬
ing diftilled vinegar on litharge, of confiderable ufe in
enamelling. See Enamel.
ANIMADVERSION, in matters of literature, is
ufed to fignify, fometimes corre&ion, fometimes re¬
marks upon a book, &c. and fometimes a ferious con-
fideration upon any point.
ANIMAL, in natural hiftory, an organized and li¬
ving body, which is alfo endowed with fenfation: thus,
minerals are faid to grow or increafe, plants to grow
and live, but animals alone to have fenfation.
It is this property of fenfation alone that can be
deemed the eflential charafteriftic of an animal; and
by which the animal and vegetable kingdoms feem to
be fo effentially feparated, that we cannot even imagine
the leaft approximation of the one to the other. Thofe
naturalifts, indeed, who have fuppofed the diftin&ion
between animals and vegetables to confift in any thing
elfe than what we have already mentioned, have found
themfelves greatly embarralfed ; and have generally a-
greed, that it was extremely difficult, if net impoffible,
to fettle the boundaries between the animal and vege¬
table kingdoms. But this difficulty will be eafily feen
to arife from their taking the chara&eriftic marks of
the animal kingdom, from fomething that was evi¬
dently common to both. Thus Boerhaave attempted
to diftinguiffi an animal from a vegetable, by the for¬
mer having a mouth, which the latter has not: but
here, as the mouth of an animal is only the inftrument
by which nourifhment is conveyed to its body, it is
evident that this can be no eflential diftinftion, be-
caufe vegetables alfo require nourilhment, and have in-
ftruments proper for conveying it into their bodies;
and. where the end is the fame, a difference in the means
can never be eflential. The fixing the difference in an
animal’s having a gula, ftomach, and inteftines, as is
done by Dr Tyfon, is as little to the purpofe.
The power of moving from one place to another,
hath by many been thought to conftitute their, differ¬
ence ; and indeed, in moft cafes, it is the obvious mark
by which we diftinguiffi an animal from a vegetable :
but Lord Karnes hath given feveral very curious inftan-
ces of the locomotive power of plantsj fome of which,
as he fays, would do honour to an animal.—“ Upon
the flighteft touch, the fenfitive plant ffirinks back and
folds up its leaves, fimilar to a fnail; >vhich on the
flighteft touch retires within its ffiell. A new fpecies
of the fenfitive plant hath been lately difeovered. See
Dion^a. . If a fly perch upon one of its flower-leaves,
it clofes inftantly, and cruffies the infe'61 to death.
There is not an article in botany more admirable than
a contrivance, vifible in many plants, to take advan¬
tage of good weather, and to protedf themfelves againft
bad. They open and clofe their flowers and leaves in
different circumftances: fome clofe before funfet, fome Animal-
after : fome open to receive rain, fome elofe to avoid ^
it. The petals of many flowers expand in the fun ;
but contraft at night, or on the approach of rain. Af¬
ter the feeds are fecundated, the petals no longer con-
traft. All the trefoils may ferve as a barometer to the
huftandman ; they always contraft their leaves on an
impending ftorm. Some plants follow the fun, others
turn from it. Many plants, on the fun’s recefs, vary
the pofition of their leaves, which is ftyled the Jleep tf
plants. A Angular plant f was lately difeovered inf A fpecies
Bengal. Its leaves are in continual motion all day
long 5 but when night approaches, they fall down from ^tan'ide!,
an ereft pofture to reft.
“ A plant has a power of dire&ing its roots for pro¬
curing food. The red whortle-berry, a low evergreen
plant, grows naturally on the tops of our higheft hills,
among ftones and gravel. This ffirub was planted in
an edging to a rich border, under a fruit-wall. In two
or three years, it over-ran the adjoining deep-laid gra¬
vel-walk; and feemed to fly from the border, in which
not a Angle runner appeared. An effort to come a£
food in a bad fituation, is extremely remarkable in the
following inftance. Among the ruins of Newabbey,
formerly a monaftery in Galloway, there grows on the
top of a wall a plane-tree about 20 feet high. Strait¬
ened for nouriffiment in that barren fituation, it feveral
years ago dire&ed roots down the fide of the wall, till
they reached the ground ten feet below ; and now the
nouriffiment it afforded to thofe roots during the time
of their defeending is amply repaid, having every year
fince that time made vigorous ffioots. From the top of
the wall to the furface of the earth, thefe roots have not
thrown out a fingle fibre; but are now united in a Angle
root.
“ Plants, when forced from their natural pofition, are
endowed with a power to reftore themfelves. A hop-
plant, twilling round a ftick, directs its courfe from
fouth to weft, as the fun does. Untwift it, and tie
it in the oppofite direftion : it dies. Leave it loofe-
in the wrong direction : it recovers its natural direc¬
tion in a fingle night. Twill a branch of a tree fo as
to invert its leaves, and fix it in that pofition : if left
in any degree loofe, it untwifts itfelf gradually, till the-
leaves be reftored to their natural pofition. What bet¬
ter can an animal do for its welfare ? A root of a tree
meeting with a ditch in its progrefs, is laid open to the
air. What follows ? It alters its courfe like a rational
being, dips into the ground, furrounds the ditch, rifes
on the oppofite fide to its wonted diftance from the fur-
face, and then proceeds in its original diredlion. Lay
a wet fponge near a root laid open to the air ; the root
will direct its courfe to the fponge. Change the place
of the fponge; the root varies its direction. Thruft a.
pole into the ground at a moderate diftance from a.
fcandent plant: the plant dij-e&s its courfe to the pole,,
lays hold of it, and rifes on it to its natural height. A
honeyfuckle proceeds in its epurfe, till it be too long
for fupporting its weight; and then {Lengthens itfelf
by ffiooting into a fpiral. If it meet with another plant
of the fame kind, they coalefce for mutual fupport; the
one ferewiny, to the right, the other to the left. If a
honeyfufck^e twig meets with a dead branch, it ferews
from the right to the left. The clafpers of briony ffioot
into a fpiral,-and lay hold of whatever comes in their way-
AN! { 22 ] A N I
^Animal, for fupport. If, after completing a fpiral of three
L ""y"—/ rounds, they meet with nothing, they try again by al¬
tering their courfe.” 
By comparing thefe and other inftances of feeming
•voluntary motion in plants, with that fhare of life where¬
with fome of the inferior kinds of animals are endowed,
we can fcaree hefitate at afcribing the fuperiority to
the former ; that is, putting fenfation out of the que-
ilion. Mufcles, for inllance, are fixed to one place as
much as plants are; nor have they any power of mo¬
tion, befides that of opening and fhutting their {hells :
^nd in this refpeft they have no fuperiority over the
motion of the fenfitive plant; nor doth their a&ion dif-
x:over more fagacity, ,or even fo much, as the roots of
thp plane-tree mentioned by Lord Karnes.
Mr Buffon, who feems to be delirous of confound¬
ing the animal and vegetable kingdoms, denies fenfa¬
tion to be any effential diftinftion. “ Senfation (fays
be) more efl'entially difiinguifhes animals from vege¬
tables : but fenfation is a complex idea, and requires
fome explication. For if fenfation implied no more than
motion confequent upon a ftroke or an impulfe, the
fenfitive plant enjoys this power. But if, by fenfation,
we mean the faculty of perceiving and comparing ideas,
it is uncertain whether brute animals are endowed with
it. If it {hould be allowed to dogs, elephants, &c.
whofe aftions feem to proteed from motives fimilar to
thofe by which men are aftuated, it muft be denied to
many fpecies of animals, particularly to thofe which ap¬
pear not to polfefs the faculty of progrefiive motion. If
the fenfation of an oyfter, for example, differed only in
degree from that of a dog ; why do we not afcribe the
fame fenfation to vegetable^ though in a degree Hill
inferior? This diftinftion, therefore, between the ani¬
mal ‘ and vegetable, is neither fufficiently general nor
determined.
“ From this inveftigation, we are led to conclude,
that there is no abfolute and efiential diftin&ion between
the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; but that nature
proceeds, by imperceptible degrees, from the moft per-
feft to the moft imperfeft animal, and from that to the
vegetables ; and the frefh-water polypus may be regard¬
ed as the laft of animals and the firft of plants.”
It were to be wifted, that philofophers would on
fome occafions confider, that a fubje<ft may be dark as
well on account of their inability to fee, as when it really
affords no light. Our author boldly concludes, that
there is no effential difference between a plant and an
animal, becaufe we afcribe fenfation to an oyfter, and
none to the fenfitive plant; but we ought to remember,
that though we cannot perceive a diftindlion, it may
neverthelefs exift. Before Mr Buffon, therefore, had
concluded in this manner, he ought to have proved that
fome vegetables were endowed with fenfation.
It is no doubt, however, as much incumbent on thofe
who take the contrary fide of the queftion, to prove
that vegetables are not endowed with fenfation, as it
was incumbent on Mr Buffon to have proved that they
are. But a little attention will fhow us, that the difficul¬
ty here proceeds entirely from our inability to fee the
principle of fenfation. We perceive this principle in
ourfelves, but no man can perceive it in another. Why
then does every individual of mankind conclude, that
)iis neighbour has the fame fenfations with himfelf? It
can only be from analogy. Every man perceives bis
neighbour formed in a manner fimilar to himfelf; he a&s
in a fimilar manner on fimilar occalions, &c. Juft fo it
is with brute animals. It is. no more doubtful that
they have fenfations, than that wc have them ourfelves.
If a man is wounded with a knife, for inftahce, he ex-
preffes a fenfe of pain, and endeavours to avoid a repe¬
tition of the injury. Wound a dog in the fame man¬
ner, he will alfo exprefs a fenfe of pain; and, if you
offer to ftrike him again, will endeavour to efcape, be¬
fore he feels the ftroke. To conclude here, that the
aftion of the dog proceeded from a principle different
from that of the'man, would be abfurdand unphilofo-
phical to the laft degree.
We muft further take notice, that there are fenfations
effentially diftinft from one another; and in proportion
as an animal is endowed with more or fewer of thefe
different fpecies, it is more or lefs perfett as an animal:
but, as long as one of them remains, it makes not the
leaft approach to the vegetable kingdom ; and, when
they are all taken away, is fo far from becoming a ve¬
getable, that it is only a mafs of dead matter. The
fenfes of a perfedt animal, for inftance, are five in num¬
ber. Take away one of them, fuppofe fight, he be¬
comes then a Ids perfedt animal; but is as unlike a ve¬
getable as before. Suppofe him next deprived of hear¬
ing, his refemblance to a vegetable would be as little
as before; becaufe a vegetable can neither feel, tafte,
nor fmell; and we fuppofe him ilill to enjoy thefe three
fenfes. Let us, laftly, fuppofe him endowed only with
the fenfe of feeling, which, however, feems to include
that of tafte, and he is no more a vegetable than for¬
merly, but only an imperftdf animal. If this fenfe
is then taken away, we connedt him, not with the
vegetable kingdom, but with what Mr Buffon calls
brute-matter. It is to this kingdom, and not to the
vegetable, that animals plainly approximate as they
defcend. Indeed, to fuppofe an approximation between
the vegetable and animal kingdoms, is very abfurd : for,
at that rate, the moft imperfect animal ought to be the
moft perfedt plant; but we obferve no fuch thing. A ll
animals, from the higheft to the loweft, are polfeffed of
vegetable life ; and that, as far as we can perceive, in
an equal degree, whether the animal life is perfedt or
imperfedt: nor doth there feem to be the finalleft con-
nedtion between the higheft degree of vegetation and
the loweft degree of fenfation. Though all animals,
therefore, are poffeffed of vegetable life, thefe two feem
to be as perfedlly diftindt and incommenfurate to one
another as any two things we can poffibly imagine.
The power of vegetation, for inftance, is as perfedt
in an onion or leek, as in a dog, an elephant, or a man:
and yet, though yOu threaten a leek or an onion ever
fo much, it pays no regard to your words, as a dog
would do ; nor, though yon wound it, does it avoid a
fecond ftroke. It is this principle of felf-prefervation
in all animals, which, being the moft pOwerfol one in
their nature, is generally taken, and with very good
reafon, as the true charadteriftic of animal life. This
principle is undoubtedly a confequence of fenlation ;
and as it is never obferved to take place in vegetables,
we have a right to fay that the foundation of it, namely
fenfation, belongs not to them. • There is no animal,
which makes any motion in confiquence of external
impulfe where danger is threatenel, but what puts
itfelf in a pofture of defence? but fk> vegetable what¬
ever
Animal.
A N I [ 23 ] A N I
Animal, ever does fo. A mufcle, when it is touched, immedi-
—"V-'^ately ihuts its (hell; and as this a£tion puts it in a ftate
of defence, we conclude that it proceeded from the prin¬
ciple of felf«prefervation. When the fenfitive plant
contracts from a touch, it is no more in a Hate of de¬
fence than before ; for whatever would have dellroyed
it in its expanded Hate, will alfo do it in its contni£te4
ftate. We conclude, therefore, that the motion of the
fenfitive plant proceeds only from a certain property
Called by phyficians irritability; and which, though
pur bodies poffefs it in an eminent degree, is a charac-
teriftic neither of animal nor vegetable life, but be¬
longs to us in common with brute-matter. It is cer¬
tain, that an eledlrified'filk-thiead ftiows a much great¬
er variety of motions than any fenfitive plant. If a
bit of filk-thread is dropt on an ele&rified metal-plate,
it immediately erefts itfelf; fpreads out the fmall fibres
like arms; and, if not detained, will fly off. If a finger
is brought near it, the thread feems greedily to catch
at it. If a candle approaches, it claps clofc to the plate,
as if afraid of it.—Why do we not conclude that the
thread in this cafe is really afraid of the candle ? For
this plain reafon, That its feeming flight is not to get
away from the candle, but to get towards the electri¬
fied metal ; and, if allowed .to remain there, will fuf-
fer itfelf to be burnt without offering to ftir,—The
fenfitive plant, in like manner, after it has contra&ed,
will fuffer itfelf to be cut in pieces, without making the
leaft effort to efcape. The cafe is not fo with the mean-
eft animal. An hedge-hog, when alarmed, draws its
body together, and expands its prickles, thereby put¬
ting itfelf in a pofture of defence. Throw it into wa¬
ter, and the fame principle of felf-prefervation prompts
it to expand its body and fwim. A fnail, when touched,
withdraws itfelf into its (hell ; but if a little quicklime
is fprinkled upon it, fo that its ftiell is no longer a place
of fafety, it is thrown into agpnies, and endeavours to
avail itfelf of its locomotive power in order to efcape
the danger. In mufcles and oyfters, indeed, we can¬
not obferve this principle of felf prefervation fo ftrong-
ly, as nature has deprived them of the power of progref-
five motion : but, as we obferve them conftantly to ufe
the means which nature has given them for felf-prefer-
vation, we can have no reafon to think that they are
deftitute of that principle upon which it is founded.
But there is no need of arguments drawn from the in-
feripr creation. We ourfelves are poffeffed both of the
animal and vegetable life, and certainly muft know whe¬
ther there is any conneftion between vegetation and fen-
fation or not.—We are confcious that we exift; that we
hear, fee, &c.: but of our vegetation we are abfolutely
inconfcious. We feel a pleafure, for inftance, in grati¬
fying the calls of hunger and thirft ; but of the procefs
by which our aliment is formed into chyle, the chyle
mixed with the blood, the circulation of that fluid, and
the feparation of all the humours from it, we are alto¬
gether ignorant. If we, then, who are more perfeft
than other vegetables, are utterly infenfible of our own
vegetable life, why fliould we imagine that the lefs per-
feft vegetables are fenfible of it ?
To illuftrate our reafoning here by an example.—
The dire&ion of the roots of the plane-tree mentioned
by Lord Karnes, ftiows as much fagacity, if we are to
look only to the outward aftion, as can be obferved in
any motion of the moft perfeft animal whatever ; ne-
verthelefs, we have not the leaft fufpicion,- either that Animal,
the tree faw the ground at a diftance, or that it was in- y»«»*
formed of its being there by the reft of its roots. If
a wound is made in the body of a man, and a lofs of
fubftance is to be repaired, the fame fagacity rvill be
obferved in the arrangement of the fibres, not only as
if they were animated, but they will difpofe of them-
felves feemingly with a degree of wifdom far fuperior
to what we have any idea of; yet this is done without
our having the leaft knowledge either how it is done,
or of its being done at all. We have therefore in our¬
felves a demonftration, that vegetable life adts without
knowing what it does : and if vegetables are ignorant
of their moft fagacious adtions, why fliould we fufpedl
that they have a fenfation, let it be ever fo obfeure, of
any of their inferior ones, fuch as contradling from a'
touch, turning towards the fun, or advancing to meet
a pole ?
Thus we may eafily give Mr Buffon a reafon why
we aferibe fenfation to an oyfter, and none to a vege¬
table ; namely, becaufe we perceive the vegetable do-
nothing but what is alfo performed in our own bodies,
without our having the leaft fenfation of it; whereas
an oyfter puts itfelf in a defenfive pofture on the ap¬
proach of danger ; and this being an adtion fimilar to
our own upon a like occafion, we conclude that it pro¬
ceeds from the fame principle of fenfation. Here it
may alfo be obfevved, that though the inferior animals
are deficient in the number, they are by no means fo
in the acutenefs of their fenfations ; on the contrary,
though a mufcle or an oyfter is probably endowed with
no other fenfe than that of feeling, yet this fenfe is fo
exquifite, that it will contradl upon the flighteft touch,
fuch as we would be altogether infenfible of.
As to that power of contradfility, or irritability^
which is obferved in fame plants; our folids have it,
when deprived both of vegetable and animal life : for
a mufcle, cut out of a living body, will continue to con-
trad!, if it is irritated by pricking it, after it has nei¬
ther fenfation nor vegetation.
A very good moral reafon may alfo be adduced why-
we do not believe vegetables to be endowed with fern?-
fation. — Had they been fo, we muft fuppofe them to
fuffer pain when they are cut or deftroyed ; and if fo,
what an unhappy ftate muft they be iiv who have not
the leaft power to avoid the injuries daily offered them ?
In fad!, the goodnefsof the Deity is very confpicuous
in not giving to vegetables the fame fenfations as to
animals; and as he hath given them no means of de¬
fence, though we had not been told it by himfetf, we
might have known that he gave them for food to ani¬
mals ; and, in this cafe, to have endowed them with
fenfation would have been a piece of cruelty. Tho’
animals without number prey upon one another, yet
all of them have fome means of defence ; from whence
we may juftly conclude, that their mutual deftruftion
was not an original appointment of the Creator, but
what heforefaw would happen in a courfe of time, and
which he therefore >aVe everyone of them fome means
of uar.lin • againft. It may no doubt be here ob-
jefted, that the giving fome means of felf-defence to
every animal cannot be reckoned a fufficient proof that
it was not the original defi ;n of the Creator that they
fhould be deftroyed, feein _• thefe means are not always
effe&ual for their prefervation.—This obje&ion, how¬
ever, •
A N I [ 24 j A N I
ever, cannot be completely obviated without a folution
of the queftion concerning the origin i'f evil among
the works of a perfeftly good Being. But whatever
difficulty there may be in folving this qneftion, it is
certain, that, as fome means of felf-defence is given to
every animal, it has been the original defign of the
Creator, that in all cafes one ipecies of animals ffiould
not be deftroyed at the pleafure of ■ any other fpecies;
and as no means of felf-defence is given to any vege¬
table, it is plain that they have been deftined for a
prey to every fpecieg of animals that had accefs to them.
Philofophers have infilled much on the neceffity of one
animal’s devouring another, that there might be room
fufficient for all; but this, fo far from being a fyftem
worthy of the divine wifdom, feems to us to be a re-
fleftion upon it, as if the author of nature could not
have found means to preferve the life of one part of his
creatures, without thedeftruftion and miferyof the reft.
The facred writings leave us at no lofs to fee how this
carnivorous difpofition came in ; and in the next world,
this piece of perfe&ion (as the fanguinary philofo-
hers abovementioned would have it to be) feems to
e left out; for there, it is faid, “ They fliall not hurt
“ nor deftroy; the lion lhall eat ftraw like the ox, and
there lhall be no more pain.”
When fpeaking of the food of plants, we took occa-
fton to mention a certain power, totally different from
that of attraction or repulfion, by which the food of
a plant, after it was attracted, or otherwife brought to
it, was affimilated to its fubftance. This power which
we there diftinguilh by the name of tranfviutationy be¬
longs in a more eminent degree to animals. The ali¬
mentary fubftance is changed into two kinds of matter,
(t.) An excrementitious one, which palfes off through
the inteftines ; and (2.) A fluid, which is the direCt
pabulum of the animal. Different fubftances, how
ever, are not equally changeable by this procefs. The
human ftomach is not capable of aCting upon any a-
nimal fubllance till it has loft its vital principle : the
ftomachs of fome animals cannot aCt upon creatures of
their own fpecies : fome have an apparatus for grind¬
ing their food after it is fwallowed, &c. and there are
no animals but what are fubjeCt to death by taking cer¬
tain fubftances into their ftomach. Some fubftances al-
fo, though they refill the aCtion of the ftomach, and
pafs unchanged into the fyftem, produce no bad ef¬
fects. Thus,'madder will turn the bones of animals
red; rhubarb will communicate its purgative nature to
the milk, and its deep yellow colour to the urine.—All
thefe changes, however, feem to belong to the vegeta¬
tive part of our fyftem : for as every one of them are
performed without our knowledge of the manner how ;
and not only fo, but while we are abfolutely unconfcious
of their being done ; we can have no reafon to fuppofe,
that the a?iimal life, properly fo called, is at all con¬
nected with them, any farther than as they are at pre-
fent the means of preferving the creature alive, and ma¬
king the connection betwixt the principle of life and
this vifible creation.
The defeription and claffing of animals make a con-
fiderable part of Natural Hiltory, known by the name
of Zoology. See the article Zoology.
For particulars relating to different animals, their a-
nalogous ItruCture, fagacity, inftinCt, peculiarities. See.
fee Comparative Anatomy, Instinct, Migration,
N° 21.
Amphibious, Quadruped, Singing, Ornitho-
logy,Viviparous, Oviparous, Ichthyology, En- '
tomology, Sec.
An i m al, ufed adjeCtively, denotes any thing belong¬
ing to, or partaking of, the nature of animals. Thus,
animal aCtions, thole that are peculiar to animals ; fuch
are fenfation and mufcular motion.
ANiMAL-F/OTcer, in zoology, a name given to fe-
veral fpecits of animals belonging to the genus of
Actinia of Linnseus. They have likewife been di-
llinguilhed by the names of Urtica Marina, or Sea-
nettle, from their fuppofed property of Hinging ; and
Sea-anenmne, from their claws or tentacles being dif-
pofed in regular circles, and tinged with a variety
of bright lively "colours, refembling the petals of fomc
of our moll beautiful flowers. As to one fpecies parti¬
cularly, mentioned by Abbe Diequemarre, (Phil.Tranf.
for 1773, art. 37.) the pureft white, carmine, and ul¬
tramarine, are faid to be fcarce fufficient to exprefs
their brilliancy. The bodies of feme of them are he-
mifpherical, of others cylindrical, and of others lhaped
like a fig. Their fubftance likewife differs ; fome are
lliff and gelatinous, others flelhy and mufcular ; but all
of them are capable of altering their figure when they
extend their bodies and clavs in fearch of food. They
are found in many of the rocky coafts of the Weft In¬
dia illands, and likewife on fome parts of the coaft of
England.
They have only one opening, which is in the centre
of the uppermoft part of the animal; round this are
placed rows of flelhy claws ; this opening is the mouth
of the animal, and is capable of great extenfion. The
animals themfelves, though exceedingly voracious, will
bear long falling. They may be preferved alive a
whole year, or perhaps longer, in a veflel of fea-water,
without any vifible food ; but, when food is prefented,
one of them will fucceffively devour two mufcles in their
fliells, or even fwallow a whole crab as large as a hen’s
egg. In a day or two the crab-lhell is voided at the
mouth, perfeftly cleared of all the meat. The mufcle-
Ihells are likewife difeharged whole, with the two Ihells
joined together, but entirely empty, lb that not the
leaft particle of filh is to be perceived on opening them.
An anemone of one fpecies will even fwallow an indi¬
vidual of another fpecies ; but, after retaining it ten or
twelve hours, will throw it-up alive and uninjured.
Through this opening alfo it produces its young ones
alive, already furnifhed with little claws, which, as foon
as they fix themfelves, they begin to extend in fearch
of food.
One of the extremities of the fea-anemone refembles,
as we have faid, the outward leaves of that flower ;
while its limbs are not unlike the fhag or inner part of
it. By the other extremity it fixes itfelf, as by a fucker,
to the rocks or Hones lying in the fand ; but it is not
totally deprived of the power of progreffive motion, as
it can Ihift its fituation, though very llowly.
A particular fpecies of animal-flowers has been found
in fome of the iflands ceded to Britain at the laft treaty
of peace with France ; and the' following account of
them was publilhed in the Philofophical TranfaAions,
vol. 57. by Mr Ellis, in a letter to Lord Hilllborough.
“ This compound animal, which is of a tender flelhy
fubftance, confifts of many tubular bodies, fwelling
gently towards the upper part, and ending like a bulb
A N I f aj } A N I
itnimaJ'- or very ffnall onion ; on the top of each is its mouth,, fometimes paflecf through the animal; hut was gene- AnimaF-
flower, furrounded by one or two rows of tentacles, or claws,, tally thrown up again, confiderably changed^ as in the- Slower. ^
V—^ which when eon traded look like circles of heads. perfect fea^anemone. In about twa monthsytwo row-s
“ The lower part of all thefe bodies have a com- of limbs were perceived growing out of the part where
munication with a firm flefhy wrinkled tube, which the incifion was made. On offering food to this new
flicks faft to the rocks, and fends forth other flefhy
tubes, which creep along them in various direftions.
Thefe are full of different fizes of thefe remarkable
animals, which rife up irregularly in groups near to.
one another.
M This adhering tube, that fecures them fa-ff-to the
rock, or fhelly bottom, is worthy of our notice. The
mouth, it was laidrhold of and eat t and the limbs con¬
tinually increafing, the animal gradually became as
perfed as thofe which had never been cut. In feme
inftances, however, he found, that, when one of thefe
creatures was cut through, new limbs.would be produ¬
ced from the cut place, thofe at the mouth remaining;
as before ; fo that ar monftrous animal was the confe-
knobs that we obferve, are formed in feveral parts of quen.ee, having two mouths, and feeding at both
it by its infinuating itfeif into the inequalities of the ends. Having put fame of them into a pan of water,
coral rock, or by grafping pieces of fhells,. part of fet over a flow fire, he found that they loft their life
which ftill remain in it, with the flefhy fubftance grown at 50 degrees of Reamur’s thermometer. To avoid-
over them. the imputation of cruelty in thefe experiments, the
“ This fhows us the in Rind of nature, that directs- author argues the favourable confequences that have
thefe animals to preferve themfelves from the violence attended his operations on the fea-anemonies. which.
of the waves, not unlike the anchoring of mufcles, by
their fine filken filaments that end in fuckers ; or ra¬
ther like the fhelly bafis of the ferpula, or worm-fhell,
the tree-oyfter, and the flipper barnacle, &c. whofe ba-
fes conform to the fhape of whatever fuhftance they
fix themfelves to, grafping it faft with their teftaceoua
daws, to withstand the furv of a ftorm.
have been fo fortunate as to fall into bis hands ; as he
bath not only multiplied their exiftence, but alfo re¬
newed their youth ; which lait* be ards, “ is furely
bo fmall advantage.”
In Hughes>s Natural Hiftory of Barbadoes an ac¬
count is alfo given of feveral fpecies of animal-flowers-
They are there deferibed as only found in a bafon irr
“ When we view the infide of this animal diffeded. one particular cave; and of the mofl remarkable fpeciea
lengthwife, we find like a little tube leading from the mentioned by him we have the following defeription.
"In the
mouth to the ftomach, from whence there rife eight
wrinkled fmall guts, in a circular order, with a yel-
lowilh foft fubftance in them; thefe bend over in the
form of arches towards tire lower part- of the- bulb,
from whence they may be traced downwards, to the
narrow part of the upright tube, till they come to the
fiefliy adhering tube, where fome of them may be per-
iddle of the bafon, there is a fixed ftone,
or roek, which is always under water. Round its
fides, at different depths, feldom exceeding 18 inches*
are feen, at all times of the year, iffuing out of little
holes, certain fubftances that have the appearance of
fine radiated flowers, of a pale yellow, or a bright
ftraw colour, Sightly tinged with green, having a de¬
ceived entering into a papilla, or the beginning of an cular border of thick-fet petals, about the fixe of, and
animal of the like kind, moft probably to convey it much refembling, thofe of a Angle garden-marigold,
irourifhment till it is provided with claws : the re- except that the whole of this feeming flower is narrow-
maining part of thefe flender guts are continued on in er at the difeus, or fetting on off the leaves, than any
the flefhy tube, without doubt for the fame purpofe of flower of that kind.
producing and fupporting more young ones from the _ “ 1 have attempted, to pluck one of thefe from the
fame common parent. rock, to which they are always fixed ; but never coalcl
“ The many longitudinal fibres that we efi{cover effe6l it: for as foon as my fingers-came within two or
lying parallel to each other, on the infide of the femi- three inches of it, it would immediately contract clofc
tranfparent fkin, are all inferted in the feveral. claws together its yellow border, and shrink back iato the
round the animal’s mouth, and are plainly the tendons
of the mufeles for moving and directing the claws
at the will of the animal: thefe may be likewife traced
down to the adhering tube-
#< As this fpecimen has beeu preferred in fpfeits,
hole of the rock; but, if left undifturbed for about four
minutes, it would come gradually in fight, expanding,
though at firft very cautioufly, its feeming leaves, til1
at laft it appeared in its former bloom. However, it
wouldagaia recoil, with a furprifingquicknefs,when my
the colour of the animal, when living, cannot be certain- band came within a final! diftance of it. Having tried
ly known ; it is at. prefent of a pale yellowifli brown. the fame experiment by attempting to touch it with my
“ With regard to its name, it may be called AQinia cane, and a fmall flender rod, the effedt was the fame.
fociata, or the Clttftsr Aninial-flonuer ” “ Though I eould not by. any means contrive to,
The Abbe Dicquemarre, by many curious, though take or pluck from the rock one of thefe animals en-
cruel, experiments related in the Phil. Tranf. for 1773, tire; yet I once cutoff ^wdth a knife which I had held
has fhown that thefe animal's poflefs, in a mpft extra¬
ordinary degree, the power of reproduction.; fo that
fcarce any thing more is neceffary to produce as many
fea-anemonies as we pleafe, than to cut a Angle one in¬
to as many pieces. A fea-anemone being cut in two
by a fedtion through the body, that part, where the
Embs and mouth are placed, eat a piece of a mufcle
offered to it foon after the operation, and continued to
for a long time out of fight, near the mouth of an hole
out of which one of thefe animals appeared) two o£
thefe feeming leaves. Thefe, when out of the water,
retained their fhape and colour ^ but, being compofed
of a membrane-like fubftanee, furprifingly thin, it
foon fhrivelled up, and decayed.”
The reprodii&ive power of the Barbadoes animal-
flower is prodigious. Many people coming to fee
feed and grow daily for three months after. The food thefe ftrange creatures, and occafioaine fome inconve-
Vox.. II. Part L D
A N I [ z6 ] A N I
Animal- niencs to a pcrfon through, whole grounds they were
Food obliged to pals, he refolved to deilroy the obje&s of
. . their curiofity ; and, that he might do fo effeitually,
^nima cn ^catifed all the holes out of which they appeared, to be
^ carefully bored and drilled with an iron mftrument, fo
that we cannot fuppofe but their bodies muft have been
entirely crulhed to a pulp: neverthelefs, they again ap¬
peared in a few weeks from the very fame places.
Plate XXX. fig., i. reprefents the actinia fociata,
or cluttered animal flower, defcribed by Mr Ellis, with
its radical tube adhering to, a rock: (a) One of the ani¬
mals firetching out its claws. Fig. 2. A perpendicular
diiTedtion of one. of the bodies, to <how the gullet, in-
teilines, (lomach, and fibres or tendons that move the
claws: (a) A young one arifing out of the adhering
tube. Fig. 3. The aitinia after, or animal-flower of the
newly ceded iflands. Fig. 4. The aftinia anemone, or
fea anemone from the fame place Fig. 5. The under part
of the fame by which it adheres to the rocks. . Fig. 6.
The actinia helianthus, or the fea fun-flower from ditto.
Fig. 7. The under part of the fame. Fig. 8. The
actinia dianthus, or fea-carnation, from the rocks at
Haftings in Suffex This animal adheres by its tail, or
fucker, to the under part of the projecting rocks op
pofite to the town ; and, when the tide is out, has the
appearance of a long white fig : this is the form of
it when put into a glafs of fea-water. It is introduced
here as a new variety of this animal not yet defcribed.
, AtiiMAL-Food. See Food.
Animal-Qecotiomy* This fubjeCt is explained under,
Anatomy.
. Animal-Magnstifm. See Magnetism.
Animal Spirit. See Nervous Fluid.
. Animal Syjlem denotes the whole clafs of beings
endowed with animal life, otherwife called Animal
Kingdom.
, Animals, the preparation of, for collections or niu-
feums. See Quadrupeds, Birds, Reptiles,
j . Paring of Animals. See Pairing.
Common ANIMALCULE, in general, fignifies a little ani-
acceptation mal; and thus the term might be applied to every ani-
ofthevvord. mal which is confiderably inferior in fize to outfelves.
It hath been cuftomary, however, to diftinguifh by the
name of animalcules only fuch animals as are of a fize
fo diminutive, that their true figure cannot be difeerned
without the affiftance of glafies; and more efpecially it
is applied to fuch as are altogether invifible to the na¬
ked eye, and cannot even be perceived to exift but by
the afliftance of microfcopes.
By the help of magnifying glaffes, we are brought
into a kind of new world ; and numberlefs animals are
difcovered, which from their minutenefs muft otherwife
for ever have efcaped our obfervation : and how many
a kinds of thefe invifibles there may be, is ftill unknown;
Different as they are difeerned of all fizes, from thofe which are
fizes of am barely invifible to the naked eye, to fuch as refill the
malcules. a^jon 0f tbe microfcope, as the fixed liars do that of
the telefcope, and with the bell magnifiers hitherto in¬
vented appear only as fo many moving points.
The fmallell living creatures our inftruments can
(how are thofe that inhabit the waters : for though pof-
fibly animalcules equally minute, or perhaps more fo,
may fly in the air, or creep upon the earth, it is fcarce
poflible to bring fuch under our examination ; but wa¬
ter- being tranfparent, and confining the creatures in it,
we are able, by applying a drop of it toour glafles, to Animal-
difeover, to a certain degree of fmallnefs, all that it cule.
contains.—Some of the moll curious of thefe animal- 
cules, which have been defcribed by microfcopical ob-
fervers, we lhall here give an account of. 3
1. The Hair-like Infect. This is fo called by Mr Ba- Hair-like
ker on account of its lhape ; being extremely flender,
and frequently an hundred and fifty times as long as
broad. The body or middle part, which is nearly
llraight, appears, in fome, compofedof fuch rings as the
windpipe of land-animals is made up of; but in others, ,
feems rather fealed, or made up of rings that obliquely
crofs one another. Its two ends are hooked or bent,
pretty nearly in the fame degreF, but in a direftion op-
polite to one another; and as no eyes can be difeern¬
ed, it is difficult to judge which is the head or tail. Its
progreffive * motion is very Angular, being performed ‘Pl.XXXI.
by turning upon one end as a centre, and deferibing %• I-
almoll a quarter of a circle with.the other, as reprefented
in the figure. Its motions are very flow, and require 4.
much patience and attention in the obferver, Thefe Its extreme
creatures are fo final!, that millions of millions of them fmahne^s>
might be contained in an inch fquare. When viewed 6cc'
fingly, they are exceedingly tranfparent, and of a beau¬
tiful green colour ; but when numbers of them are
brought together, they become opaque, lofe their green
colour, and grow entirely black. 5.
Notwithftandiug the extreme minutenefs of thefe ani- Delights in
malcules, they feem to be fond of fociety; for, after fociety.
viewing for fome time a parcel of them taken up at
random, they will be feen difpoiing themfelves in a kind
of regular order f. If a multitude of them are put intot F‘g 2..
a jar of water, they will form themfelves into a regular
body, and afeend flowly to the top, where, after they
have remained for fome time expofed to the air, their
green colour changes to a beautiful Iky-blue. When
they are weary of this fituation, they form themfelves
into a kind of rope, which flowly deicends as low as
they intend ; but if they happen to be clofe to the fide
of the jar, they will defeend upon it. They are fo
nearly of the fpecific gravity of water itfelf, that they
will either remain at the bottom, float on the furface,
or be fufpended in the middle, according as they are
originally placed, or as they themfelves have a mind.
A fmall quantity of the matter containing thefe ani¬
malcules j; having been put into a jar of water, it fo hap- f Fig. 5.
pened, that one part went down immediately to the
bottom, whilft the other continued floating on the top.
When things had remained for fome time in this con¬
dition, each of thefe fwarms of animalcules began to
grow weary of its fituation, and had a mind to change
its quarters. Both armies, therefore, fet out at the fame
time, the one proceeding upwards, and the other down¬
wards ; fo that, after fome hours journey, they met in
the middle. A defire of knowing how they would be- Seems pof-
have on this occafion, engaged the obferver to watch °f a
them carefully ; and to his fiirprife he faw the
that was marching upwards, open to the right and left, ^
to make room for thofe that were defeending. Thus^
without confufion or intermixture, each held on its
way; the army that was going up, marching in two
columns to the top, and the other proceeding in one co¬
lumn to the bottom, as if each had been under the di-
re&ion of wife leaders.
The hair-like infedt was firll difcovered in a ditch at
Norwich,
riate XXX .
Akimal IliOWJ^nS.
Plate XXXI.
A N I M AJ, C Vl.K g .
Found in
prodigiou
quantity.
AN! [ 27 1 ANI
Norwich, one end of which communicates with the ri- the manner of the eei's in pafte, but always flower than Anima. -
ver there,.and the other end with a fecond ditch, into they, and with a great deal of lefsregularity. cule.
^ which feveral kennels empty themfelves. The length of If the grains of wheat are grown dry by keeping
this ditch, when Mr Baker wrote his account of this and in that condition are cut open, the fibrous matter
animalcule, was at lead 100 yards, and its-breadth ninei is very dillhigui(liable; and, on putting water to it, will
The bottom, for more than a foot thick, was covered feparate with great readinefs, and feera like hue tubes
with a blackifh green fubilance, in appearance like mud;
made up for the moft part of thefe infe&s ; but, fuppo-
iing only an half or a quarter part of it to be compo-
fed of them, according to the dimenlions we have gi¬
ven, their numbers muft exceed all imagination.
or threads tapering at both ends : but not the leaft mo¬
tion will be perceived till they have been in water for
feveral hours, and fometimes they will never move at all.
But if the fame grains are fteeped in water for three or
four hours, or buried for fome days in the earth,, till How dilbs-
2. £<?// in pafte, &c. When pafte is allowed to (land they are fully faturated with moifture, and then open-^eraMe,.
till it becomes four, it is then found to be the habita-
tior\of numberlefs animalcules, which may be difeern-
ed with a penknife.;, on taking out a fmall portion of
the white matter carefully, and fpreading it thin upon.
ed by the naked eye ; and though their form cannot be a flip of glafs, the animalcules will be feen bundledi
perfectly didinguifhed, their motion is very percep'
tible, and the whole pafte will feem to be animated,
g Fig. 4. reprefents one of thefe anguillae magnified.
Eelsinpafte The moft remarkable property of thefe infefts is, that
viviparous, they are viviparous. If one of them is cut through near
together, and extended longitudinally, but witliout mo¬
tion ; and though, upon the application of water, they
will not revive fo foon as thofe taken from frelh grains*
whole moifture has never been exhaled; yet, after re¬
maining an hour or two in water, they are conftantly
the middle, feveral oval bodies of different fixes will, be found alive apd vigorous, even though the grains have
feen to iffue forth. Thefe are young anguillae, each of been kept in a dry condition, for feveral years*—It is
them coiled up and inclofed in its proper membrane,
which is fo exquilitely fine, as fcaree to be dificernible
Similar
creatures
found in
blighted
wheat.
neceffary, however, to adapt, in fome meafurev, the Precaution*
time of continuing the grains in water or earth to. the acce&lI7 h*
by the greateft magnifier, while it inclofes the embryo age and drynefs of them : for if they are rk>t opened "Mkfcg th-i-
animal. The largeft and moft forward immediately before they are too much foftened, the animalcules will
* be dead; ami unlefs the bulks are opened to let thofe
creatures out after they have been fteeped* they ine¬
vitably perilli in them ; ©therwife, they will continue:
alive in.vvater for many months ; and,. Ihould the water-
dry away, may be revived again by giving themafrelhs
fupply* .
3* 'The Proteus. This anttnaleufe has been dfgnfffedprotcac,
by Mr Baker with the name of Proteus, on account c.i why & ctJ*
its affunjing a great number of different lhapes, fo. as.kd-
fearce to be known as the fame animal in its, various,
transformations ; and indeed, unlefs k- be carefully
watched while palling from, one lhape to another, it will
often become fuddenly invifible, as happened morethara
once to Mr Baker .
When water, wherein any fort of vegetable has been wher ,
infufed, or animals preferved, has flood quietly for fovni.'..
fome days, or weeks, in any glafs. or other veflel, a
llimy fubftance will be.collected about the lides : fome
^ ^ of which being taken uj> with the point of a pen-knife*
probable that they ever become placed on a Hip of glafs in a drop of water, and looked
at through the microfcope, will be found to harbour
feveral kinds b£ little animals: that are feldom found
fwimming about at large t among which the proteus is
one. Its lhape is better underllood from the figure, rts ftiape,
than from any defeription that could be given. Its colour,
fubftanee and colour, feems to refemble that of a fnail;
and its whole lhape feems to bear a eonfiderable refenv-
blance to that of a fwan. It fwims to and fro with-
break through this covering, unfold themfelves, and
wriggle about iri the water nimbly ; others get out, un¬
coil, and move themfelves about more flowly; and the
leaft mature continue entirely without motion. The
uterus, or veflel that contains all thefe oval bodies, is
compofed of many ringlets, not unlike the afpera arte-
ria of land-animals, and feems to be confiderably elaftic;
for as foon as the animalcule is cut in two, the oval
bodies are thruft out with fome degree of violence,
from the fpringing back or aftion of this bowel. An
hundred and upwards of the young ones have been feen.
to iflue from the body of one Angle eel, whereby the-
prodigious increafe of them may be accounted for; as
probably feveral fuch numerous generations are pro¬
duced in a lhart time. They feem to be all prolific t
and unlefs trial happens to be made upon one that has
brought forth all its young, or when the pafte has been
kept for a very long time, the experiment will always
fucceed.—This property of thefe eels being viviparous
renders it highly -" .1..   ,
flies.
Animalcules of a fimilar kind are likewife found in
vinegar ; and, like thofe already deferibed, are found
to be viviparous. But it is not only in acid matters that
fuch appearances are obferved. In fome fields of wheat,
many grains may be obferved, that appear blackilh out¬
wardly, as if fcorched; but when opened are found to
contain a foft white fubftance, which, attentively con-
fidered, appears to be nothing elfe than a congeries of great vivacity: but will now and then ftop fora minute
threads or fibres lying clofe to each other in a parallel
dire6tion, much refembling the unripe down of fome
thiftles on cutting open the flower-heads before they
or two; during which time its long neck is ufually em¬
ployed as far as it can reach, forwards, and on every
fide, with a fomewhat flow, but equable motion, like
begin to blow. This fibrous matter difeovers not the that of a fnake, frequently extending thrice the length
leaft fign of life or motion, unlefs water is applied ; but
immediately on wetting, provided the grains of wheat
have been newly gathered, the fuppofed fibres feparate,
and appear to be living creatures. Their motions at
firft are very languid; but gradually become more vi¬
gorous, twilling and wriggling themfelves fomewhat in
of its body, and feemingly in fearch of food.
There are no eye?, nor any opening in the head like
a mouth, to be difeerned ; hut its a&ions plainly prove
it to be an animal that can fee ; for though multitudes
of: different animalcules fwim about in the fame water,
and its own progrtffive motion is very fvvift, it never
D 2 ftrikes
A N- r F *8 T A N I
ifenimal- fc*5sesr Againil anyr of tlrem, but direfls its caurfe be-
cuk.-. tween them, with a dexterity wholly unaccountable,
v—fhould vvefuppofe it deftitute of fight.
if ^Vlien the proteus is alarmed, it fuddenly draws in
#tstrans£or-;ts long neck, reprefented in fig. 5. and 6. transform-
mat.ans- ing itfelf into the fhape reprefented in fig. 7. when it
becomes more opaque, and moves about very (lowly,
with the large end foremoll. When it has continued
fome time in this poflure, it will often, inftead of the
head and neck it had formerly, put forth a new one,
with a kind of wheel-machinery, reprefented fig. 8.
the motions of which draw a current of water to it from
a confiderable diftance. Having often pulled in and
thrull out this (hovt head, fometimes with and fome-
times without the wheel-work, the creature, as if
weary, will remain motionlefs for a while ; then its
head and long neck will be very ftbwly protruded, as
in fig. 9. and it foon refumes its former agility. Some¬
times it difpofes of its neck and head, as reprefented in
16 fig- i°-
Vorticella, 4. ?'/'<? Wheel-Animal, or Vorticella. This wonder-
where ful animalcule is found in rain-water that has Hood
io;ind. fome days in leaden gutters, or in hollows of lead on
the tops of houfes; or in the flime or fediment left by
hich water ; and perhaps may alfo be found in other
places : but if the water Handing in gutters of lead, or
the fediment left behind it, has any thing of a red co¬
lour in it, one may be almoH certain of finding them
therein. Though it difcovers no figns of life except
when in the water, yet it is capable of continuing alive
for many months after it is taken out of the water, and
kept in a Hate as dry as dull. In this Hate it is of a glo-
bidar fiiape, exceeds not the bignefs of a grain of fand,
and no figns of life appear : but, being put into water,
in the fpace of half an hour, a languid motion begins,
the globule turns itfelf about, lengthens itfelf by How
degrees, aflumesthe form of a lively maggot, and moH
commonly in a few minutes afterwards puts out its
wheels ; fwimming vigoroufly through the water, as if
in fearch of food; or elfe, fixing itfelf by the tail, works
the wheels in fuch a manner as to bring its food to it.
Fig. 23. and 24. fliow the wheel-animal in its glo¬
bular form ; fig. 11. and 12. in its maggot Hate ; and
fi'. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, and 22. fliow
the different appearances of its wheels, and alfo its va¬
rious intermediate changes between the globular and
'!7 maggot ftate.
It« wheel The mofi remarkable part of this animalcule is its
wotkde- wheel-work. This confifis of a couple of femicircular
fenbed. iuflruments, round the edges of which many little fi-
Brillae move themfelves very brifkly, fometimes with a.
kind of rotation, and fometimes in a trembling or vi¬
brating manner. When in this Hate, it fometimes un-
fallens its tail, and fwims along with a great deal of
fwiftnefs, feemingly in purfuit of its prey. Sometimes
the wheels feem to be entire circles, armed with fmall
teeth, like thofe of the balance-wheel of a watch, ap¬
pearing projedled forwards beyond the head, and ex¬
tending fideways fomewhat wider than its diameter.
The teeth or cogs of thefc wheels feems to Hand very
regularly at equal difiance : but the figure of them
varies according to their pofition, the degree of their
protrufion, and perhaps the will of the animal itfelf.
They appear fometimes like minute oblong fquares, ri¬
ling at right angles from the periphery of a circle, like
ancient battlements on a. round tower ; at other times Anlmaf-
they terminate in (harp points, and altogether referable c“le'
a kind of Gothic crown. They are often feen in a kind
of curvular direction, all bending the fame way, and
feeming like fo many hooks ; and nowand then the
ends of them will be perceived to be clubbed like mal¬
lets. . This figure, however, as well as the firfl, they
affume but rarely.
As thefe wheels are every where exceflively tranfpa-
rent, except about their circular rim or edge, where
the cogs are fet, it is very difficult to determine by
what contrivance they are turned about, or what their
real figure is, though they feem exadlly to referable 18
wheels moving round upon an axis. It is alfo hardly Shows all.
poffible to be certain whether thofe circular bodies inff*6 marks
which the teeth are fet, are of a flat form, or hollow °^^ealro*
and conical ; but they feem rather to he of a conical
figure. The difficulty of conceiving how an articula¬
tion could be contrived fo as to caufe a real rotation,
hath caufed many people imagine that there was a de¬
ception in this cafe : But Mr Baker affures us, that when
the wheels are fully protruded, they never fail to fliow
all the vilible marks of a regular rotation ; and, in fome
pofitions, the fame cogs, or teeth may be traced by the
eye during a complete revolution. 19
All the aftions of this creature feem to imply faga--Showsgreat
city and quicknefs of fenfatioh. At theleafi touch or
motion in the water, they inllantly draw in their wheels ; feufrtl0n>
and Mr Baker conjeftures, that their eyes are lodged
fomewhere about the wheels; becaufe, while in the
maggot Hate, its motions are How and blundering; but,
after the wheels are protruded, they are performed with
great regularity, fwiftnefs, and fleadinefs.
Notwithflanding the minutenefs of this animalcule,
the microfcope generally difcovers others in the fame
drop of water, compared with which the wheel-animal
may be faid to be a whale. The tranfparency of its bo¬
dy, therefore, allows its internal parts to be feen, which
cannot be perceived in the minutefl animalcules, on ac¬
count of the fmallnefs of their fize. a. Is the appearance Fig. 15.
of the head ; and though it is every where tranfparent, a?
a ring or circle, more particularly remarkable for ^tsoAumter-
clearnefs, is commonly perceived about the middle ofnajparts-
the forehead, a little above the mouth. This, Mr Ba¬
ker thinks, might jufily be called the feat of the brain.
Many veffels winch feem to take their origin from
thence are difcernible in the head, wherein fome tranf¬
parent fluid appears continually agitated by a kind of
fluctuating motion.
The thorax, b, is joined to the head by a very Ihort
neck, c, and appears to be about the fixth part of the
whole length of the animal. In the middle of the
thorax is placed the heart, d, where its fyftole and *dia-
ftole is plainly vifible. It is feen through the back of
the in fed, (hutting and opening alternately with great
regularity and exa&nefs. Its fize is proportionable to
the creature’s bignefs; and its (hape, during the fyltole,
is nearly circular, being compofed feemingly of two fe-
milunar parts, which then approach each other late¬
rally, and form between them a roundifh or horfe-fhoe
like figure, whofe upper fide is flat, and the under one
convex. The diaftole is performed by a feeming fe-
paration, or opening, of thefe two femilunar parts,
whereby the tranfverfe diameter of the heart is veiy
much enlarged. This reparation begins exadlly in the
middle
A N l f 29 I ANT
Animal* middre of the lower part next the tali'; and opens to
cule. fuch a confiderable width upwards, that the two parts,
-v* when at their utmoft diftention, feem only joined by an
arched veflel at their anterior end. The alternate mo¬
tions of contra&ion and dilatation are performed with
great ftrength and vigour, in pretty much the fame
time as the pulfation of the arteries of a man in health.
The motions of the heart are communicated to all the
internal parts of the thorax; and feem to extend a great
deal further ; for a ftridt examination difcovers, at the
fame time, throughout the whole animal, contractions
and dilatations going on, that are apparently corre-
fpondent thereto. .Thefe motions of the heart, how¬
ever, are fometimes fufpended, or imperceptible, for
two or three minutes: after which they are renewed,
and go on again with the fame regularity as before.
From the under part of the thorax proceeds a Imall
tranfparent horn reprefented at a fig. 11. and 12. It
is never vifible but when the animal turns on its back
or fide.
The blood or circulating fluid of the wheel-animal is
fo abfolutely colourlefs, that the current of it through
the veflels is indiitinguifliable by glafles. A fort of ir¬
regular agitation of fome fluid is indeed perceived,
which is perhaps a compound motion of currents-run¬
ning different ways, and forming fuch an appearance,
tho’ no Angle current is any where diltinClly vifible.
Immediately below the thorax is another annular di*
vifion, e, joining upwards to the thorax, and down¬
wards to the abdomen, the entrance whereof it ferves
occafionally to enlarge or diminifh. The abdomen, fy
is by much the largelt part of the animal, and contains
the itomach and intellines. When the infeCt is full of
food, thefe bowels appear opaque and of a blood-red
colour, extending quite through the belly and great
part of the tail, and exhibiting a variety of contractions
and dilatations. The belly is capable of ftretching out
greatly .in length, or being fhortened very much, and
widening its diameter. It aflumes many lhapes, and
becomes occafionally a cafe for all the other parts of
21 - the body.
Otherkinds Befides the abovementioned one, there are found in
of wheel- the waters feveral other fpecies of animals furnifhed
animals. with wheels, fome of which appear to have a rotatory,
and others a vibratory, motion. Fig. 25. reprefentsa
kind found in the ditch at Norwich, where the hair¬
like infed is produced. They differ from the forego-
' ing only in having very long tails.. Fig. 26, 27, and
28, reprefent a fpecies of wheel-animals, which are alfo
covered with {hells. The body of this fpecies confifts
of three parts, in like manner as the other; only the
thorax and abdomen, in this, are not feparated by any
gut, or intermediate veffel, but are joined immediately
together. The heart is plainly perceived, having a re¬
gular fyftele and. diattole, at a> as in the former fpe¬
cies. Thefe creatures occafionally draw themfelves en¬
tirely within their (hells ; and the fliell then appears
terminated by fix Ihort fpikes on one fide and two on
22 the other.
Manner of The young ones of this fpecies are carried in oval fac-
producing culi, or integuments, faftened externally to the lower-
then- youngpart 0f tfoe;r {hells fomewhere about the tail : thefe fac-
.•nes, cujj are fOIhet{mes 0paqUe only at one end, and feem-
ingly empty at the other ; fometimes they appear o-
paque in the middle, with a tranfparency allround, as
in fig. 26. When a young one is about to: Burff its in- Animar-
teguments, the parent afiifts it greatly, by wagging its cule.
tail, and ftriking the oval bag, fo that the young one’s v—*V**^
head becomes as it were forced into the water, though
the tail cannot be fo foon difengaged. In this condi-b.
tion the young one fets its wheel a-going, and exerts
all its endeavours to free itfelf from its confinement.
When it has got clear, it. fwims away, wagging its tail
as the old one does, and leaving the integument adhe¬
ring to the fliell of the parent. The old one then ufes
a number of efforts to get rid of this incumbrance, ftri¬
king againft it with her tail, fixing the end of her tail
upon it, and then darting her body forward ; with fe- aj
veral very odd motions not eafy to be defcribed. This Infeft the-
kind of wheel-animals are great tormentors of the vva-*,u*e.x
ter-flea, Pttlex aquaticus arborefcens of Swammerdam ; ^uatlcuSk'
of which a figure is given from that author '’Plate
XXXII.): fig. 2. fliows the natural fize of the flea ;
and fig. r. Ihows it magnified, with fome of the wheel-
auimals adhering to it. Thefe infers are often found
in great numbers in the fame water : and when that is
the cafe, it is not uncommon to difcover five or fix of
thefe cruftaceous wheel-animals faflened by their tail to
the ffiell or horns of the flea ; cauling it, feemingly, a
vaft deal of uneafinefs, nor can they be driven away, or
lhaken off, by all the efforts the flea can ufe for that
purpofe. 24
5. The Bell-flower Animal., or Plumed Polype. Thefe Bell-flowe;
animalcules dwell in colonies together, from ten to fif. animal,
teen (feldom falling fhort of the former number, or
exceeding the latter), in a flimy kind of mucilaginous
or gelatinous cafe ; which, out of the water, has no de¬
termined form, appearing like a little lump of llime j
but, when expanded therein, has lome refemblance to
the figure of a bell with its mouth upwards ; and is
ufually about half an inch long, and a quarter of an
inch in diameter. Thefe bells, or colonies, are to be
found adhering to the large leaves of duckweed, and
other aquatic plants. They may be moft eafily difeo-Where di£-
vered by letting a quantity of water, with duckweed in covered,
it, ftand quietly for three or four hours in glafs veffels
in a window, or other place whence a ftrong light
comes: for then, if any are about the duckweed, they
will be found, on careful infpeftion, extending them¬
felves out.of their cafes, and making an elegant ap¬
pearance.
The bell, or cafe, which thefe animals inhabit, being
very tranfparent, all the motions of its inhabitants may
be difeerned through it diftin&ly. It feems divided in¬
ternally into feveral apartments, or rather to contain fe¬
veral fmaller facculi, each of which inclofes one of thefe
animals. The openings'at the tops of thefe facculi, arc
but juft fufficient to admit the creature’s head and a
fmall part of its body to be thruft out beyond them,
the reft remaining always in the cafe. It can, how¬
ever, occafionally retire into its cafe altogether; and
never fails to do fo when alarmed by any hidden mo¬
tion of the water, or of the veffel which contains it. jg
Befides the particular andfeparate motion which each Motions of
of thefe creatures is able to exert within its own cafe h16 whole
and independent of the reft ; the whole colony together co^ony-
has a power of altering the pofition of the bell, or even
of removing it from one place to another ; and hence
this bell is lometimes found Handing perfectly upright,
as in fig. 29. and 33. and fijmetimes.bending the upper
garC
ANT l 30 1 A N I
Animal- part downward’s, as in fig. 30- As thefe animalcules
eule. feem not to choofe to ftay together in focieties whofe
number exceeds 15, when, the colony happens to in-
creafe in number, the bell may be obferved to fplit gra¬
dually, beginning from about the middle of the upper
or anterior extremity, and proceeding downwards to¬
wards the bottom* as in fig. 32. till they at laft fepa*
rate entirely, and become two complete colonies inde¬
pendent of each other, one of which fometimes removes
27 to another part of the vell'el.
Defeription arms 0f each individual of this colony are fet
*n<^~ round the head, to the number of 4c, having each the
figure of an Italic J, one of whofe hooked ends is fa-
ftened to the head ; and all together, when expanded,
compofe a figure fiia-ped fomewhat like a horfe’s fiipe,
convex on one fide next the body, but gradually open¬
ing and turning outwards, fo as to leave a confiderable
area within the outer extremities of the arms. When
the arms are thus extended, the creature,by giving them
a vibrating motion, can produce acurrent in the water,
which brings the animalcules, or whatever other mi¬
nute bodies are within the fphere of its a&ion,, with
great velocity to its mouth, fituated between the arms;
where they are taken in. if liked, or driven away by a
contrary motion. The food is conveyed immediately
from the mouth or opening between the arms, through
a narrow neck, into a paffage feemingly correfpondent
to the cefophagus inland animals ; down which it paf-
fes into the Itomach, where it remains for fome time,
and then is voided upwards, in fmali round pellets, thra*
a gut whofe exit is near the neck. The body confifts of
three divifions ; in the uppermoft of which are contain¬
ed all the abovementioned inteftines, which are only to
be difcerned when the creature is lull, at which time
they become opaque. The other two divifions, which
are probably fixed to the bell, feem to be of no other ufe
than to'give "the creature a power of contraftion and
extenfion. The aims are not able to eontrafl: like thofe
of the common polype ; but, when the animal retires
into its cafe, they are brought together in a clofe and
curious order, fo as to be eafily dr«wn in. Though
their general appearance when expanded is that of a
cup whofe bafe and top are of an horfe-lhoe form, they
fometimes feparate into four parts', and range themfelves
2$ as in fig. 36. fo as to refemble four feparate plumes of
Seem to feathers. Tho’their eyes cannot be difcovered, yet Mr
have a per- Baker thinks they have fome perception of the light:
ception of fpr when kept in the dark, they always remain con--
t’ trafted : but on being expofed to the light of the fun,
of of a candle, they conitantly extend their arms, and
Ihow evidentTigns of being pleafed.
Fig. 29. reprefents one complete colony or bell hand¬
ing ereft, with all the animals out of their kingdom,
and their arms' extended, exhibiting all together a very
pretty appearance, a reprefents two oval bodies, fup-
pofed by Mr Baker to be eggs.
Fig. ‘30. Ihows all the creatures withdrawn into their
cells, and the end of the bell hanging downwards.
Fig. 33. (hows the bell ereft, with only one of the
animals coming out, in order to Ihow its connection
with the bell.
Fig. 34. (hows the head and arms of a fingle polype
doling together, and difpofing themfdves in order to
be drawn into the bell.
yig. 35. Ihows one complete animal greatly magni¬
fied, to Ihow its feveral parts more diftinftly; viz. at AnimaE-
the head, refembling a-horfe-lhoe ; b b, the arms feen- “d6-
from one fide ; c. The narrow neck ; d, the oefophagus;
e, the ftomach ; f, the gut or laft inteftine thro* which*
the food paffes after being digefted in the ftomach ;
the anus, where the feces are difcharged in little pel¬
lets ',:h /, that part of the bell which furrounds the body
of the animal, and clofes upon it when it retires down.
Fig. 37. the head and arms feen in frpnt. 29
6- 'The Globe-animal- This animalcule, reprefented Globe-aniT-
fig. 38. feems exadtly globular, having no appearance111^-
of cither head, tail, or fins. It moves in all diredions^
forwards or backwards, up or down, either rolling o-
ver and over like a bowl, fpinniiqr horizontally like »
top, or gliding along fmoothly without turning itfelfi
at all. Sometimes its motions are flow, at other times-
very fwift; and, when it pleafes, it can turn round, as.
it were upon an axis, very nimbly, without removing
out of its place. The whole body is tranfparent, ex¬
cept where the circular black fpots are ihown in the
figure. Some of the animals have no fpots, and others
from one to feven. The lurface of the whole body ap¬
pears, in fome, as if all over dotted with points ; in
others, as if granulated like fhagreen : but their more
general appearance is, as if befet thinly round with
Ihort moveable hairs or briftles, which probably are
the inftruments by which their motions are performed.
Thefe animalcules may be feen by the naked eye, but
appear only like moving points.
7. The Pipe-animal. Thefe creatures are found on pipe-aai-
the coaft of Norfolk, living in fmali tubes or cafes ofmal,
fandy matter, in fuch multitudes as to compofe a mafs
fometimes of three feet in length. Fig. 39. Ihows a.
piece of fuch a congeries broke off, where a aa a repre-
fent the mouths or openings of the pipes wherein the
little animals make their abode. Fig. 40, Ihows one
fingle pipe, with its inhabitant, feparated from the reft,
and magnified nine or ten times in diameter. The
pipe or cafe b is made of fand, intermixed here and there
with minute Ihells, and all cemented together by a glu¬
tinous flime, probably iffuing from the animal’s owa
body c, which is compofed of mufcular ringlets like
thofe of a worm, capable of great extenfion or con-
tra&ion. The anterior end or head, d, is exceedingly
beautiful, having round it a double row of little arms
difpofed in a very regular order, and probably capable
of extenfion, in order to catch its food, and bring it
to its mouth. Some of thefe tubes are found petrified,.Sometimes
and conftitute one fpecies of fyringoides. foundpetri-
8. An Infeft with net-like arms. The properties and^et*'
fhape of this little animal are very extraordinary. It is,infe^*Wrth
found only in cafcades, where the water runs very fwift. net_iu.e
There thefe infedts are found in elufters, Handing e-arms,
reft on their tails ; and refembltng, when all together,
the combs of bees at the time they are filled with their
aureliae. On being taken out of the water, they fpin
threads, by which they hang exaftly in the fame man¬
ner as the garden-fpider. F’ig. 42. Ihows one of thefe
infcfts magnified. Its body appears curioufly turned
as on a lathe ; and at the tail are three Iharp fpines, on
which it raifes itfeif, and Hands upright in the water :
but the moft curious apparatus is about its head, where
it is furnifhed with two inftruments like fans or nets,
which ferve to provide its food. Thefe it frequently
fpreads out and draws in again ; and when drawn upthey
axe
Antm At ctHjE s
• Ila fe XXXII
. J/Ve/t'/eu/fl?
A N I [ 3‘ I A N I
Animal* are folded together with the utmofl nicety andexaftnefs,
cule. fo as to be indifcernible when brought clofe to the bo-
^dy. At the bottom of thefe fans a couple of claws
are faftened to the lower part of the head, which, every
time the nets are drawn in, conduct to the mouth of the
animal whatever is taken in them. When the creature
doth not employ its nets, it thrults out a pair of /harp
horns, as in fig. 41. where the infeft is /hown magnified
about 400 times.
Some of thefe creatures being kept with water in a
vial, molt of them died in two days 5 and the reit, ha¬
ving fpun themfelves tranfparent cafes (which were
fa/tened either to the fides of the glafs, or to pieces
of grafs put into it), feemed to be changed into a kind
of chryfalis : but before taking this form, they ap¬
peared as in fig. 43. which /hape they likewife affumed
when weary with catching their food, or when lying
in wait for it. None of them lived above three days ;
33 and though, fre/h water was given them two or three
Surprifing times a-day, yet in a few hours it would ftink to a
property ofjggi-e^ fCarce conceivable, and that too at feveral yards
water*’ difiance, though, in proportion to the water, all the
included infedfs were not more than as 1 to 1,150,000.
This makes it probable, that it is nece/Tary for them to
live in a rapid ftream, left they ftiould be poifoned by
the effluvia i/Tuing from their own bodies, as no doubt
they were in the vial.
An aquatic 9- ^ curious aquatic •worm. This animalcule is
worm. /hown, maynified, at fig. 31. It is found in ditch-
water ; and is of various fizes, from A to i§ an inch in
length. About the. head it has fomewhat of a ycllow-
i/h colour ; but all the reft of the body is perfectly co-
lourlcfs and tranfparent, except the inteftines, which
are confiderably opaque, and difpofed as in the figure.
Along its fides are feveral papillae, with long hairs
growing from them : it has two black eyes, and is very
Its horn or nimble. But the moft remarkable thing in this crea-
probofcis. ture is a long horn or probofcis; which, in the large ones,
may be feen with the naked eye, if the water is clear,
and is fometimes Vs °f an inch in length : this it waves
to and fro as it moves in the water, or creeps up the fide
of the glafs ; but it is not known whether it is hollow,
36 or of what ufe it is to the creature itfelf.
Spermatic 10. Spermatic Animals, and Animalcula Infuforia.
", The difcovery of living animalcules in the femen of
vered ”C0*m°ft an^ma^s i® claimed by Mr Lewenhoek and Mr Ni¬
cholas Hartfoeker; who both fay they publi/hed it
about the end of the year 1677 or beginning of 167^:
but Mr Lewenhoek having given the moft particular
defcription of, and made by far the greateft number of
experiments concerning them, the difcovery is com-
37 monly attributed to him.
General ap- According to this naturalift, thefe animalcules are
fhe^me i T°und in the femen mafculinum of; every kind of ani-
every ani- ma^ > ^ut t^eir general appearance is very much the
mal. fame, nor doth their fize differ in proportion to the
bulk of the animal to which they belong. The bodies
of all of them feem to be of an oblong aval form, with
long tapering /lender tails i/fuing from them; and as
by this /hape they re[zmb\e, tadpoles, they have been
frequently called by that name ; tho’the tails of them,
in proportion to their bodies, are muchjonger than the
tails of tadpoles are : and it is obfervable, that the ani¬
malcules in the femen of fifties have tails much longer
and more, /lender than the tails of thofe in other ani¬
mals ; infomuch, that the extremity of them is not to Animal-
be difcerped without the belt glafl'es, and the utmoft cule.
attention. Fig. 21. No f, 2, 3, 4, reprefent the fper-
matic animalcula of the rabbit ; and N° 5, 6, 7, 8, thofe P1,XXXI1'
of a dog ; according to Mr Lewenhoek. 38
The numbers of thefe animalcula are inconceivable. Inccuceiv-
On viewing with a microfcope the .milt or femen maf-
culinum of a living cod-fifti, innumerable multitudes of nut fg
animalcules were found therein, of fuch a diminutive fize,
that he fuppofed at leaft 10,000 of them capable of be¬
ing contained in the bulk of a grain of land ; whence
he concludes, that the milt of this /ingle fi/h contained
more living animalcules than there are to be’found peo¬
ple living in the whole world. To find the compara¬
tive /ize of thefe animalcules, Mr Lewenhoek placed
an hair o/ his head near them ; which hair, thro’ his
microfcope, appeared an inch in breadth ; and he was
fatisfied, that at leaft 60 fuch animalcules could eafily
lie within that diameter ; whence, their bodies being
fpherical, it follows, that 216,000 of them are but e-
qual to a globe whole diameter ,is the breadth of a
hair. He obferved, that when the water wherewith
he had diluted the femen ,pf a cod-fi/h was exhaled, the
little bodies of the animalcules burft in pieces; which
did not happen to thofe in the femen of a ram : and
this he imputes to the greater firmnefs and confiftency-
of the latter, as the fle/h of a land-animal is more
compaft than fi/h. 39
Thefe animalcules appear to be very vigorous, and Are conn,
tenacious of life ; for they may be obferved to move nua\!y *n'
long after the animal from which theyaretaken is dead. mot101’
They have this peculiarity alfo, that they are continu¬
ally in motion, without the leaft reft or intermiffion,
provided there is fluid fufficient for them to fwim about
in. Thefe animalcula are peculiar to the femen; nothing
that has the leaft token of life being difeovered, by the
beft ylaffes, either in the blood, fpittle, urine, gall, or
chyle. Great numbers, however, are to be found in
the whiti/h matter that /ticks between the teeth; fome
of which are of an oval figure, and others refemble eels. 40
The Animalcula Infufona, take their name from their Animalcul*
being found in all kinds either of vegetable or animal
infufions. Indeed, there is fcarce any kind of water,
unlefs impregnated with fome mineral fubftance, but
what will difeover living creatures.—Mr Lewenhoek 4i
fays, that at firft he could difeern no living creatures
in rain-water ; but after /landing fome days, he difco-count ot a_
vered innumerable animalcules, manythoufands of times nimalcules
lefs than a grain of fand, and in proportion to a mitein rain-wa-
as a bee is to a horfe.—In other rain-water, which hadter>
likewife flood fome time, he found the fmalleft fort he
had ever feen ; and, in a few days more, met with
others eight times as big as thefe, and almoft round.—
In another quantity of rain-water, that had been ex-
pofed like the former, he difeovered a kind of animal¬
cules with two little horns in continual motion. The
fpace between the horns was flat, though the body
was roundi/h, but tapering a little towards the end;
where a tail appeared, four times as long as the body,
and the thicknefs of a fpider’s web. He obferved fe-
veral hundreds of thefe within the fpace a grain of fand
would occupy. If they happened on the leaft filament
or firing, they were entangled in it; and then would
extend their bodies into an oblong round, and ftruggle
hard to difengage their tails. He obferved a fecond
fart
A N I r 32 J A N 1
Animal, fort of an’-oval figure^ and imagined' tfie Read to fland
cule. at the (harpeft end:. The body was flat, with feveral
fmall feet moving exceeding quick,, but not difcernible
without a great deal of attention. Sometimes they
changed their fhape into-a perfect round, efpecially
when the water began to dry away. He met alfo with
a third fort, twice as long as broad, and eight times
fmaller than the firfl r yet in thefe he difeerned little
feet, whereby' they moved very nimbly'-. . He perceived
likewife a-fourth fort, a thoufand times fin all er than a
loufe’s eye, and which exceeded all the reft in brifk-
nefs : he found thefe turning themfelves round, as it
were upon a point, with the celerity of a top. And
he fays, there were feveral other forts.
Surprifing The production of animalcule! infuforia is very fmr-
paxludtion prifing. In four hours time, an infufion of cantharides
ofthefeani-has produced animalcula lefs than even the tails of the
malcuks. fpermatic animal's we have already deferibed. Neither
do they feem to be fubjett to the fate of other animals ;
but, feveral kinds of them at leaft, by dividing them¬
felves in two, to enjoy a fort of immortality. Nor do
the common methods by which other animals are de-
ftroyed, feem to be effectual for deftroying their vital
principle. Hot mutton-gravy, feeured in a phial with a
cork, and afterwards fet among hot afhes to deftroy as.
effeAnally as poffibk every living creature that could
be fuppofed to exift in it, has neverthelcfs been found
Mr Edis’s f'varm*nK animalcules after Handing a few days,
account of In ^ie PhHofophrcal Tranfa&ions, Vol. LIX. we have
animalcules the following curious account, given us by Mr Ellis, of
from infafi-animalcules produced from an infufion of potatoes and
on of pota- 0f hempfeed.
“ On the 25th of May 1768, Fahrenheit’s thermo*
meter 70°, I boiled a potato in the New-River water
till it was reduced to a mealy confiftence. I put part
of it, with an equal proportion of the boiling liquor,
into a cylindrical glafs-vefiel that held fomething lefs
than half a wine-pint, and covered it clofe immediately
with a glafs-cover. At the fame time, I fticed an un¬
boiled potato and, as near as I could judge, put the
fame quantity into a glafs-veffel of the fame kind ; with
the fame proportion of New River water not boiled;
and covered it with a glafs cover ^ and placed both
veffels clofe to each other.
“ On the 26th of May, 24 hours afterwards, I ex¬
amined a fmall drop of each, by the fir ft magnifier of
Wilfon’s microfcope, whofe focal diftance is reckoned
at -j'oth part of an inch ; and, to my amazement, they
were both full of animalcula of a linear ftiape, very di-
ftinguilhable, moving to and fro with great celerity ;
fo that there appeared to he more particles of animal
than vegetable life in each drop.
“ This experiment I have repeatedly tried, and al¬
ways found it to fuceeed in proportion to the heat of
the circumambient air; fo that even in winter, if the
liquors are kept properly warm, at leaft in two or three
days the experiment will fucceed.
“ What I have obferved are infinitely fmaller than
fpermatic animals, and of a very different fhape: the
truth of which every accurate obferver will foon be
convinced of, whofe curiofity may lead him to compare
them ; and I am perfuaded he will find they are no
way akin.
“ At prefent I (hall pafs over many other curious
obfervations, which I have made on two years experi-
N° 21,
ments, in order to proceed’ to the explaining a hint Anima?-
which 1 received laft January from Mr De Sa.uffure of , cu^e'
Geneva, when he was here which is, that he found '
one kind of thefe animaleula infuforia that increafe by
dividing acrofs into nearly two. equal parts.
“ I had often feen this appearance in various fpccies
a year or two ago, as I found upon looking over the
minutes 1 had taken when I made any new obferva-
tion 5 but always fuppafed the animal, when in this
ftate, to be in coition.
“ Not hearing, till after M. De Sauffure left this
kingdom, from what kifufion he had made his obfer-
vation 5 his friend Dr dela Roche of Geneva informed
me, thedatter end of February laft, that k was from
hempfeed. 44
“ I immediately procured hempfeed from different From an in-
feedfmen in diftant parts of the town. Some of it lf®fi°o of
put into New-River water, fome into diftilled water, hemPfeeti-
and fome 1 put into very hard pump-water. The rc-
fult was, that in proportion to the heat of the weather,
or the warmth in which they were kept, there was an
appearance of millions of minute animalcula in all the
infufions ; and, fometime after, fome oval ones made
their appearance, as at fig. 3. Z>. c. Thefe were much
larger than the finl, which ftill continued; thefe wriggled
to and fro in an undulatory motion, turning themfelves 45-
round very quick all the time that they moved forwards. Divide-
I was very attentive to fee thefe animals divide them-jhemf<^ve>
felves; and at laft I perceived a few of the appearance111 two*'
of fig. 3. a, as it is reprefented by the firft magnifier
of Wilfon’s microfcope ; but I am fo well convinced
by experience that they would feparate, that 1 did not
wait to fee the operation : however, as the following
fieetches, whieh I have drawn from five other fpecies^
will very fully explain this extraordinary phenomenon,
there will be no difficulty in conceiving the manner o£
the firft. See fig. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
M The proportion of the number of thefe animal*
whicb I have obferved to divide in this manner, to the
reft, is fcarce 1 to 50; fo that it appears rather to a-
rife from hurts received by fome few animalcula among
the many, than to be the natural manner in which thefe
kinds of animals multiply ; efpecially if we confider the
infinite quantity of young ones which are vifible to us
through the tranfparent fleins of their bodies, and even,
the young ones that are vifible in thofe young ones
while in the body of the old ones.
“ But nothing more plainly fhows them to be zoo¬
phytes than this eircumftance, That when, by acci¬
dent, the extremity of their bodies has been ffirivelled
for want of a fupply of freffi water, the applying more
frefli water has given motion to the part of the animal
that was ftill alive ; by which means, this (hapelefs fi¬
gure has Continued to live and fwim to and fro all the-
time it was fupplied with frefti water.
“ 1 cannot finiflr this part of my remarks on thefe
animals, without obferving, that the excellent Linnaeus
has joined the foroi: with the vobvox, one of the animal- 46-
cula infuforia. The beroe is a marine animal, found Beroe do
on our coafts-; of a gelatinous tranfparent nature, and^cr^e^*
of an oval or fpherical form, about half an inch to an
inch diameter ; divided like a melon into longitudinal
ribs, each of which is furniftied with rows of minute
fins ; by means of which, this animal, like the animal¬
cula iafufbria, can fwim in all direftions with great
fwiftne i'%.
A N I [ 33 ] A N I
Animal- fwiftnefs. In the fame manner I have feen moft of
cule. thofe minute animals move fo fwift that we could not
account for it, without fuppofing fuch a provifion in na¬
ture, which is really true^ but cannot be feen till the
animals grow faint for want of water; then, if we
attend, we may with good glaffes plainly difcover
47 them.
Method of “ I have lately found out, by mere accident, a me-
difcovering thod to make their fins appear very diftin&ly, efpeci-
the fins of a|]y jn t}je larger kind of animalcula, which are com-
cuks*1 * mon to mo^: vegetable infufions ; fuch as th6 terrebella.
This has a longiih body, with a cavity or groove at one
end, like a gimlet: by applying, then, a fmall ftalk of
the horfe-fhoe geranium (or geranium zonale of Lin¬
naeus), frefh broken, to a drop of water in which thefe
animalcula are fwimming, we fliall find that they will
become torpid inllantly ; contracting themfelves into an
oblong oval lhape, with their fins extended like fo
many brillles all round their bodies. The fins are in
length about half the diameter of the middle of their
bodies. Before I difcovered this expedient, I tried to
kill them by different kinds of falts and fpirits ; but
though they were deftroyed by this means, their fins
were fo contracted, that I could not dillinguilh them
in the leaft. After lying in this Hate of torpidity
for two or three minutes, if a drop of clean water is
applied to them, they will recover their fhape, and
fwim about immediately, rendering their'fins again in-
vifible.”
Fig. 3,4, y, 6, 7,-8. reprefent different fpecies of ani¬
malcula infuforia, mentioned by Mr Ellis as belonging
to the genus of volvox of Linnaeus.
Fig. 3. reprefents the volvox ovalis, or egg-lhaped
volvox; at (b) and (c) it is expreffed in its natural
lhape ; at (a) the manner in which it becomes two ani¬
mals, by feparatir.g acrofs the middle. This was found
in the infufion of hempfeed ; but is found in other ve¬
getable infufions, particularly that of tea-feed.
Fig. 4. is the volvox torquilla, or wryneck. At (a)
is represented its divided ftate; at (b) and (c) its na¬
tural Hate : this is common to moft vegetable infufionsj
as is the following.
Fig. 5. is the volvox volutans, or the roller. At (a)
the animal is feparated, and becomes two diftinCt be¬
ings, each fwimming about and providing for itfelf:
this is often the prey of another fpecies of this genus,
elpecially while it is weak by this feparation, not being
fo aCtive for fome time till it can recover itfelf. At (c)
the animal appears to be hurt on one fide ; this impref
lion in a little time is fucceeded by another in the op-
pofite fide, as at (b), which foon occafions a divifion.
At (d) is the fide-view, and at (e) the front-view, of
the natural lhape of the animal.
Fig. 6. is the volvox onifcus, or wood-loufe. At (a)
is the natural lhape of it, as it appears full of little
hairs both at the head and tail; with thofe at the head,
it whirls the water about to draw its prey to it; the
feet, which are many, are very vifible, but remarkably
fo in a fide-view at (d). At (b) it is reprefented be¬
ginning to divide; and at (c) the animals are ready
to part: in this ftate, as if in exquifite pain, they
fwim round and round, and to and fro, with uncom¬
mon velocity, violently agitated till they get afunder.
This was found in an infufion of different kinds of pine-
branches.
Vol. II. Part I-
Fig. 7. is the volvox terrebella, or the gimlet. This is Animal-
one of the largeft of the kind, and is very vifible to the cule.
naked eye. It moves along fwiftly, turning itfelf round —y-'"*-'
as it fwims, juft as if boring its way. (a) and (b) are
two views of its natural lhape, (c) Ihows the manner
of its dividing. When they are feparated, the lower
animal rolls very awkwardly along, till it gets a groove
in. the upper part, (d) reprefents one of them lying
torpid, by means of the juice of the horfe-lhoe gera¬
nium, with its fins extended. This animal is found in
many infufions, particularly of grafs or corn.
Fig. 8. is the volvox vorax, or glutton. This ani¬
mal was found in an infufion of the Tartarian pine ; it
varies its lhape very much, contracting and extending
its probofcis, turning it to and fro, in. various direc¬
tions, as at a, b, c, d, e. It opens its probofcis un¬
derneath the extremity, when it feizes its prey. The
lefs aftive animal^, that have lately been divided, fuch
as thofe at fig. 3. (a), and at fig. 4. (a), _ferve it as
food, when they come in its way : thefe it fwallows
down inftantly, as it is reprefented at fig, 8. h and i.
At (f) it is ready to divide, and at (g) it is divided ;
where the hinder part of the divided animal has got a
probofcis or beak, to procure nourilhment for itfelf,
and foon becomes a diftinCt being from the fore-part.
Thus we have given as full an account as our limits
would admit, of the moft curious kinds of animalcules
that have hitherto been obferved. We cannot, how¬
ever, difmifs this fubjeCt, without taking notice of
fome of the moft remarkable hypothefes which have
been formed concerning their nature and origin. „
Before the invention of microfcopes, the doCtrinc of p0(4r;n(. 0j-
equivocal generation, both with regard to animals and equivocal
plants of fome kinds, was univerfally received: but generation,
this inftrument foon convinced every intelligent perfon, exPlodei1'
that thofe plants which formerly were fuppofed to be
produced by equivocal generation arofe from feeds,
and the animals, in like manner, from a male and fe¬
male. But as the microfcope threw light upon one
part of nature, it left another involved in darknefs: »
for the origin of the animalcula infuforia, or of the fper-
matic animals already mentioned,remains as yet as much
unknown as that of many other kinds was when the doc¬
trine of equivocal generation reigned in full force.
The difcovery.of fpermatic animalcules was thoughtguppofed
to throw fome lighten the myfterious affair of genera-difeovery
tipn itfelf, and thefe minute creatures were imagined toconcerning
be each of them individuals of the fame fpecies with the£enerati°n.
parent. Here the infinite number of thefe animalcules
was an objection, and the difficulty remained as great
as before ; for, as every one of thefe. animalcules beho¬
ved to be produced from a male and female, to explain
their origin by animalcular generation in the fame man¬
ner, was only explaining generation by itfelf.
This hypothefis, therefore, having proved unfatisfac-
tory, others have been invented. Mr Buffon, particularly,
hath invented one, by which he at once annihilates the
whole animalcular world; and in this he hath been follow¬
ed by feveral veryingenious philofophers. For a particu¬
lar account of this, fo far as it concerns generation, we
muft refer to that article; but as he gives fuch a par¬
ticular account of his having examined the human fe-
men, that we cannot doubt of his accuracy, we ftiall
here contrail his account with that of Mr Lewenhoeck
already mentioned.
E Having
A N I [ 34 j A N I
Animal- Having procured the feminal veflels of a man who
died a violent death, he extra&ed all the liquor from
them while they were Hill warm ; and having examined
M.Buffon’sa ^roP with a double microfcope, it had the ap-
experimentspearance fig. 9. Large filaments appeared, which in
on the hu- fome places fpread out into branches, and in others in-
man femen.termingled with one another. Thefe filaments clearly-
appeared to be agitated by an internal undulatory mo¬
tion, like hollow tubes, which contained fome moving
fubftance. He faw diitin&ly this appearance changed
for that fig. 10. Two of thefe filaments, which were
joined longitudinally, gradually feparated from each o-
ther in the middle, alternately approaching and rece¬
ding, like two tenfe cords fixed by the ends, and
drawn afunder in the middle. Thefe filaments were
compofed of globules that touched one another, and re-
femblcd a chaplet of beads. After this, he obferved
the filaments levelled in feveral places, and perceived
fmall globular bodies ifiue fr«m-tke fwejled papts, which
had a vibratory motion like a pendtfhtm. Thefe fmall
bodies were attached to the filaments by fmall threads,
which gradually lengthened as the bodies moved. At
laft, the fmall bodies detached themfelves entirely from
the filaments, drawing after them the fmall thread,
which looked like a tail. When a drop of the feminal
liquor was diluted, thefe fmall bodies moved in all di¬
rections very brilkly ; and had he not feen them fepa-
rate themfelves from the filaments, he would, he fays,
have thought them to be animals The feminal matter
was at firft too thick, but gradually became more fluid ;
and, in proportion as its fluidity increafed, the filaments
difappeared, but the fmall bodies became exceedingly
numerous. Each of them had a long thread or tail at¬
tached to it, from which it evidently endeavoured to
get free. Their progreffive motion was extremely flow,
during which they vibrated to the right and left, and
at each vibration they had a rolling unfteady motion
in a vertical direftion.
At the end of two or three hours, the feminal matter
becoming ftill more fluid, a greater number of thefe
moving bodies appeared. They were then more free of
incumbrances; their tails were fiiorter; their progreffive
motion was more direft, and their horizontal motion
greatly diminifhed. In five or fix hours, the liquor had
acquired almoft all the fluidity it could acquire, without
being decompofed. Moft of the fmall bodies were now
difengaged from their threads ; their figure was oval.
They moved forward with confiderable quicknefs, and,
by their Irregular motions backward and forward, they
had now more than ever the appearajice of animals.
Thofe that had tails adhering to them, Teemed to have
lefs vivacity than the others ; and of thofe that had no
tails, fome altered both their figure and their fize. In
twelve hours, the liquor had depofited at the bottom of
the vial a kind of afh-coloured gelatinous fubftance,
and the fluid at top was almoft as tranfparent as water.
The little bodies being now entirely freed from their
threads, moved writh great agility, and fome of them
turned round their centres. They alfo often changed
their figures,from oval becoming round, andoften break¬
ing into fmaller ones. Their a&ivity always increafed
as their fize diminifhed. In 24 hours, the liquor had de-
ofited a greater quantity of gelatinous matter, which,
eing with fome difficulty diluted in water, exhibited
an appearance fomewhat refembling lace. In the clear
femen itfelf only a few fmall bodies were now feen mo- Animal-
ving ; next day, thefe were ftill farther diminifhed ; and cule*
after this nothing was to be feen but globules, without
the leaft appearance of motion. Moft of the above-
mentioned appearances are fhown fig. 10, 11, 12, 13,
14, 15, 16. Fig. 17. and 18. reprefent an appearance
of the globules in another experiment, in which they
arranged themfelves in troops, and pafied very quickly
over the field of the microfcope. In this experiment
they were found to proceed from a fmall quantity of
gelatinous mucilage.
From thefe experiments, Mr Buffon concludes, that
what have been called fpermatic animals, are not crea¬
tures really ejidowed with life, but fomething proper •
to compofe a living creature ; and he diftinguifhes them
by the name of organic particles. The fame individual
kinds of animals he declares he has found in the fluids fe¬
parated from the ovaria of females ; and for the truth of
this appeals to the teftimony of Mr Needham, who was
an eye-witnefs of his experiments. He alfo brings an
additional proof of his doftrine from Mr Needham’s Needham’*
obfervations on the milt of the calmar, a fpecies of cut- experiments
tle-flefh. Here the fpermatic animals, at leaft what °" the milt
have the only appearance of life, are vaftly larger than e ca '
in any other creature, fo as to be plainly vifible to the
naked eye. When magnified, they appear as at fig. 19.
and 20. a. Their firft appearance is at fig. 19. a and b,
when they refemble fprings incloled in a tranfparent
cafe. Thefe fprings were equally perfeft at firft as af¬
terwards ; only in time they contracted themielves, and
became like a kind of fcrew. The head of the cafe is
a fpecies of valve which opens outward, and through
which every thing within may be forced out. It con¬
tains, befides, another valve bK a little barrel c, and a
fpongy fubftance d e. Thus the whole machine con-
fifts of an outer tranfparent cartilaginous cafe a, the fu- Fig. ac.
perior extremity of which is terminated by a round
head formed by the cafe itfelf, and performs the office
of a valve. This external cafe contains a tranfparent
tube : which includes the fpring, a pilton or valve, a
little barrel, and a fpongy fubftance. The fcrew occu¬
pies the fuperior part of the tube and cafe, the pifton
and barrel are fituated in the middle, and the fpongy
fubftance occupies the inferior part. Thefe machines
pump the liquor of the milt ; the fpongy fubftance is
full of this liquor ; and, before the animal fpawns, the
whole milt is only a congeries of thefe bodies which
have fucked up all the liquor of it. Whenever thefe
fmall machines are taken out of the body of the ani¬
mal, and put in water, or expofed to the air, they be¬
gin to aft, as reprefented fig. 19. and 20.; the fpring
mounts up, and is followed by the pifton, the barrel,
and the fpongy fubftance which contains the liquor:
and, as foon as the fpring and the tube in which it is
contained begin to iflue out of the cafe, the fpring
plaits, and the whole internal apparatus moves, till the
fpring, the pifton, and the barrel, have entirely efcaped
from the cafe. When this is effefted, all the reft in-
ftantly follow, and the milty liquor which had been
pumped in, and confined in the fpongy fubftance, runs
out through the barrel. ^
According to this account, the milt of the calmar Condufion
contains no animalcules ; and therefore we may from againft the
analogy conclude, that the fmall moving bodies which exiftence of
are to be feen in the femen of other animals, are notaniraal*
really cule5.
A N I [ 35 J A N I
Animal- really creatures endowed with life. Mr Buffon extends
cule. the analogy .ftill futther; and concludes, that all the mo-
■■•“v’*-"'-1 ving bodies which are to be found in the infufions ei¬
ther of animal or vegetable fubftances are of a fimilar
nature. “ To difcover, fays he, whether all the parts of
animals, and all the feeds of plants, contained moving
organic particles, I made infufions of the flefh of differ-
•ent animals, and of the feeds of more than 20,different
fpecies of vegetables ; and after remaining fame days in
clofe glaffes, I had the pleafure of feeing organic moving
particles in all of them. In fome they appeared fooner,
in others later; fome preferved their motions for months,
and others foon loft it. Some at firft produced large mo-
ving globules refembling animals, which changed their
figure, fplit, and became gradually fmaller. Others pro¬
duced only fmall globules, whofe motions were extreme¬
ly rapid ; and others produced filaments, which grew
longer, feemed to vegetate, and then fwelled and pour-
^ ed forth torrents of moving globules.”
Baron This laft obfervation gave rife to a new fyftem. Ba-
Munchan- ron Munchanfen, perceiving that the laft-mentioned
fen’s theory moving globules, after moving for fome time, began a-
54 gain to vegetate, concluded that they were firft animals
Difproved and then plants.—This ftrange hypothefis Mr Ellis has
byMrEllis.overturned in the paper already quoted ; in which he
afferts, that they are no other than the feeds of that
genus of fungi called mucqr or tnouldinefs, and that
their motion is owing to numbers of minute animalcules
attacking them for food. “ Having (fays he), at the
requeft of Dr Linnaeus, made feveral experiments on
the infufion of mufhrooms in water, in order to prove
the theory of Baron Munchanfen, that their feeds are firft
animals, and then plants (which he takes notice of in
his Syftem of Nature, p. 1326, under the genus of
chaos, by the name of chaos fungonm feminum), it ap¬
peared evidently, that the feeds were put into motion by
very minute animalcules, which proceeded from the pu-
trefaftion of the muftiroom; for, by pecking at thefe
feeds, which are reddifti, light, round bodies, they mo¬
ved them about with great agility in a variety of direc¬
tions ; while the little animals themfelves were fcarce
vifible, till the food they had eaten had difcovered them.
The fatisfaftion I received from clearing up this point,
led me into many other curious and interefting experi¬
ments.
“ The ingenious Mr Needham fuppofes thefe little
tranfparent ramified filaments, and jointed or coralloid
bodies, which the microfcope difcovers to u? on the
furface of moft animal and vegetable infufions when they
become putrid, to be zoophytes, or branched animals :
but to me they appear, after a careful fcrutiny with the
heft glaffes, to be of that genus of fungi called mucor,-
or rnouldinefs; many of which Michelius has figured,
and Linnaeus has accurately defcribed.
“ Their vegetation is fo amazingly quick, that they
may be perceived in the microfcope even to grow and
feed under the eye of the obferver.
“ Mr Needham has pointed out to us a fpecies that
is very remarkable for its parts of frudlification. (See
Philofophical Tranfa&ions, vol.xlv. tab.5. fig.3. a, A.)
This, he fays, proceeded from an infufion of bruifed
wheat.
“ I have feen the fame fpecies arife from the body of
a dead fly, which was become putrid by lying floating
for fome time in-a glafs of water, where fome flowers
had been in the month of Auguft 1768. This fpecies Animal-
of mucor fends forth a mafs of tranfparent filamentous cule-
roots; from whence arife hollow ftems, that fupport
little oblong oval feed-veffels, with a hole on the top
of each. From thefe I could plainly fee minute globu¬
lar feeds iffue forth in great abundance with an elaftic
force, and turn about in the water as if they were ani¬
mated.
“ Continuing to view them with fome attention, I
could juft difcover, that the putrid water which fur-
rounded them was full of the minutcft animalcula; and.
that thefe little creatures began to attack the feeds of
the mucor for food, as I have obferved before iu the
experiment on the feeds of the larger kind of fungi or
muftirooms. This new motion continued the appear¬
ance of their being alive for fome time longer: but,
foon after, many of them arofe to the furface of the
water, remaining there without motion ; and a fuccef-
fion of them afterwards coming up, they united toge¬
ther in little thin maffes, and floated to the edge of the
water, remaining there quite ina&ivc during the time
of obfervation.
“ As this difeovery cleared up many doubts which
I had received from reading Mr Needham’s learned dif-
fertation, I put into the glafs feveral other dead flies,
by which means this fpecies of mucor was propagated
fo plentifully, as to give me an opportunity of fre¬
quently trying the fame experiment to my full fatif-
fadtion.
“ Laftly, Thefe jointed coralloid bodies, which Mr
Needham calls chaplets and pearl necklaces, I have fee*
frequently very diftindlly. Thefe appfear not only on
an infufion of bruifed wheat when it becomes putrid,
but on moft other bodies when they throw up a vifeid
feum and are in a ftate of putrefaction. Thefe, then,
are evidently no more than the moft common mucor, the
feeds of which are every where floating in the air ; and
bodies in this ftate afford them a natural proper foil to
grow upon. Here they fend downwards their fine tranf¬
parent ramified roots into the moifture which they float
upon; and from the upper part of the feum, their joint¬
ed coralloid branches rife full of feed into little grove¬
like figures. When a fmall portion of thefe branches
and feeds are put into a drop of the fame putrid water
upon which the feum floats, many of thefe millions of
little animalcula with which it abounds, immediately
feize them as food, and turn them about with a variety of
motions, as in the experiments on the feeds of the com¬
mon mufhrooms, either fingly, or two or three feeds
conneHed togj^her ; anfwering exaftly to Mr Need¬
ham’s defeription, but evidently without any motion of
their own, and confequently not animated.” 55
Mr Buffon, however, is not content with denying life M.Buffon’s
only to thofe beings where the figns of it are the mofH'P'™011^
equivocal ; but includes in the fame rank of organ'cyn|jsofam-
particles, almoft every animal too fmall to be difcover-1Tlajcujes>
eft by the naked eye, and even fome of thofe whofe
motions are evidently perceptible to the eye. “ Al¬
moft all microfcopic animals,” fays he, “ are of the
fame nature with the moving bodies in the feminal
fluids and infufions of animal and vegetable fubftances.
The eels in pafte, in vinegar, &c, are all of the fame
nature, and derived from the fame origin. There are,
perhaps, as many beings that either live or vegetate,
produced by a fortuitous affemblage of organic parti-
E ? cks,
A N I [ 36 ] A N I
Animal- cles, as by a conftant and fucceffive generation. Some
cule. of them, as thofe of the calmar, are only, a kind of ma-
chines, which, though exceedingly fimple, are very ac¬
tive. Others, as the fpermatic animalcules, feem to imi¬
tate the movements of animals. Others refemble vege¬
tables in their manner of growth and extenfion. There
are others, as thofe of blighted wheat, which at pleafure
can be made alternately either to live or die, and it is dif¬
ficult to know to what they fhould be compared. There
are ftill others, and in great numbers, which are at firft
a kind of animals, then become a fpecies of vegetables,
and again return alternately to their vegetable ftate.
The eels in pafte have no other origin than the union
of the organic particles of the moft elfential part of the
grain. The firlt eels that appear are certainly not pro¬
duced by other eels ; but tho’ they are not propagated
themfelves, they fail not to engender other living eels.
By cutting them with the point of a lancet, we dif-
cover fmaller eels iffuing in great numbers out of their
bodies. The body of this animal feems to be only a
(heath or fac, containing a multitude of fmaller ani¬
mals, which perhaps are other (heaths of the fame kind,
in which the organic matter is aflimilated into the
form of eels.”
His reafon- Though we can by no means pretend to account for
ing incon- the appearance of thefe animalcules, yet we cannot help
clufive. obferving, that our ignorance of the caufe of any phe¬
nomenon is no argument againft. its exiftence. Though
we are not able to account in a fatisfa&ory manner for
the origin of the native Americans, we fuppofe Mr
Buffon himfelf would reckon it abfurd to maintain that
the Spaniards on their arrival there found only organic
particles moving about in diforder. The cafe is the
vei^ fame with the eels in pafte. They are exceeding¬
ly minute in comparifon with us; but, with the folar
microfcope, Mr Baker has made them affume a more
refpeftable appearance, fo as to have a diameter of an
inch and an half, Or two inches, and a length propor¬
tionable. They fwam up and down very brilkly ; the
motion of their inteftines was plainly vifible ; when the
water dried up, they died with apparent agonies, and
their mouths gaped very wide. Were we to find a crea¬
ture of thefize of this magnified eel, gafping in a place
where water had lately been, we certainly would never
conclude it to be an organic particle, or a fortuitous af-
femblage of them; but a fifh. Why then ftiould we con¬
clude otherwife with regard to the eel while in its natural
ftate, than that it is a little fifh ? In reafoning on this
fubjeft, we ought always to remember, that, however
effential the diftin&ion of bodies into great and fmall
may appear to us, they are not fo to the Deity ;
with whom, as Mr Baker well expreffes himfelf, “ an
atom is as a world, and a world but as an atom.”—
Were the Deity to exert bis power for a little, and
give a natural philofopher a view of a quantity of
pafte filled with eels, from each of whofe bodies the
light was refle&ed as when it paffes through a folar
microfcope; inftead of imagining them organic par¬
ticles, the pafte would appear like a little mountain,
he would probably look upon the whole as a monftrous
affemblage of ferpents, and be afraid to come near them.
Wherever, therefore, we difcover beings to appearance
endowed with the principle of felf-prefervation, or
whatever elfe we make the chara&eriftic of animals, nei¬
ther the fmallnefs of their fize, nor the impoffibility of
our knowing how the come there, ought to caufe us Animal-
doubt of their being really animated.—At the fame
time, it muft alfo be remembered, that motion is not^-■V"*"*
always a chara&eriftic of animal life, even though
the moving bodies fhould avoid one another, or any
feeming obftacle placed in their way. We know, that
inanimate bodies, when ele&rified, will avoid others
endowed with an ele&ricity of the fame kind, and ad¬
here to thofe which have the oppofite one. As we are
by no means acquainted with the utmoft powers of
ele&ricity, but on the contrary, from what we do know
of it have all the reafon in the world to conclude that
it can produce effefts utterly beyond our comprehen-
fion, it is impoflible for us to know what fhare it may
have in producing the motions obferved in vegetable-
infufions, or in the femen of animals.—We may alfo
further obferve, that though in Mr Ellis’s experiment
of the boiled potato he took it for granted that every
feed of animal life would be deftroyed by the boiling
water, yet even this cannot be proved; nay, on the
contrary, ithath been proved by undeniable experiments,
that the human body itfclf hath endured a heat of 240
degrees of Fahrenheit (28 degrees above that of boil¬
ing water) without injury. The eggs of thefe ani-
malcula might therefore be ftrong enough to refift the
heat hitherto ufed in Mr Ellis’s or any other experi-
ment. _ _ ^
A confiderable obje&ion to the exiftence of animal-Animals
cules in the femen, or any other part of animal bodies, fomctimes
muft arife from the total exclufion of air, which is found foundliving
fo neceffary to the life of larger animals. Some inftan-^?
ces, however, have been obferved of large animals being ie*’
found in fuch fituations as they coUld not poffibly have
enjoyed the leaft benefit from the air for a great num¬
ber of years; and in this ftate they have not only lived,
but lived much longer than they would otherwife have
done.
In Toulon harbour and the road, are found folidhard
Hones, and perfectly entire ; containing, in different
cells, fecluded from all communication with the air, fe-
veral living fhell-fifh, of an exquifite tafte, called Dac-
tyli, i. e. Dates : to come at thefe fifh, the (tones are
broken with mauls. Alfo, along the coaft of Anco-
nia, in the Adriatic, are ftones ufually weighing about
50 pounds, and fometimes even more; the outfide rug¬
ged, and eafily broken, but the infide fo hard, as to
require a ftrong arm and an iron maul to break them:
within them, and in feparate niches, are found fmall
fhell-fifh, quite alive, and very palatable, called Solenes
or Cappe lunghe. Thefe fads are attefted by Gaffendi,
Blondel, Mayol, the learned bifhop of Sulturara, and
more particularly by Aldrovandi a phyfician of Bo¬
logna. The two latter fpeak of it as a common fad
which they themfelves faw.
In the volume for 1719, of the Academy of Sciences
at Paris, is the following paffage :
“ In the foot of an elm, of the bignefs of a pretty
corpulent man, three or four feet above the root, and
exaftly in the centre, has been found a live toad,
middle-fized, but lean, and filling up the whole vacant
fpace: no fooner was a paffage opened, by fplitting the
wood, than it fcuttled away very haftily : a more firm
and found elm never grew; fo that the toad cannot be
fuppofed to have got into it. The egg whence it was
formed, 'muft, by feme very Angular accident, have
been
A N I
[ 37 ]
A N I
been lodged in the tree at its firft growth. There the pretends' to reduce all difeafes in general to the fame Animal-
creature had lived without air, feeding on the fubftance
* of the tree, and growing only as the tree grew. This
is attefted by Mr Hubert, profefibr of philofophy at
Caen.”
The volume for the year 1731 has a fimilar obferva-
tion, exprelfed in thefe words :
“In 1719, we gave an account of a faft, jjvhich,
though improbable, was well attefted; that a toad had
been found living and growing in the ftem of a mid-
principle. A late writer at Paris, who aflumed the
title of an Englilh phyfician, has done more. He not . . H
only accounts for all difeafes, but for the operations of. nimetta-
all medicines, from the hypothefis of animalcules. He
has peculiar animals for every difeafe ; fcorbutic ani¬
malcules, podagrical animalcules, variolous animal¬
cules, See. all at his fervice. Journ. des Sgav. tom.
Ixxxii. p. 535, Sec.
But as moft difeoveries in natural philofophy have
dling elm, without any way for the creature to come laid a foundation for the warm imaginations of feme
out or to have got in. M. Seigne, of Nantes, lays be- men to form vifionary theories, to the great prejudice
fore the academy a faft juft of the very fame nature,
except that, inftead of an elm, it was an oak, and lar¬
ger than the elm,, which ftill heightens the wonder. He
judges, by the time requifite for the growth of the
oak, that the toad muft have fubfifted in it, without
air, or any adventitious aliment, during 80 or 100
of real knowledge ; fo thofe relating to animalcula have
been drawn in, however improperly, to fupport the
moft whimftcal and chimerical fyftems.
Animalcules Invifible.—Naturalifts fuppofe another
fpecies or order of invifible animalcules, viz. fuch as e-
fcape the cognizance even of the beft microfcopes, and
years. M. Seigne feems to have known nothing of the give many probable conjc&ures in relation to them-
fa61 in 1719.” * Reafon and analogy give fome fupport to the exiftence
With the two foregoing may be clafled a narrative of infinite imperceptible animalcules. The naked eye,
of Ambrofe Pare, chief furgeon to Henry III. king of fay fome, takes in from the elephant to the mite ; but.
France, who, being a very fenfible writer, relates the there commences a new order referved only for the mi-
following fa&, of which he was an eye-witnefs : crofcope, which comprehends all thefe from the mite
“ Being (fays he) at my feat, near the village of to thofe 27 millions of times fmaller; and this order
Meudon, and over-looking a quarry-man whom I had cannot be yet faid to be exhaufted, if the microfcope
fet to break fome very large and hardftones ; in the be not arrived at its laft perfe&ion. See further on
middle of one we found a huge toad, full of life, and this fubjeft the article Microscope.
wfithout any vifible aperture by which it co^ild get there. ANIMATED, or Animate, in a general fenfe,
I began to wonder how it received birth, had grown denotes fomething endowed with animal-life. It alfa
and lived; but the labourer told me, it was not the imports a thing to be impregnated with vermin or ani-
firft time he had met with a toad, and the like crea- malcules.
tures, within huge blocks of ftone, and no vifible Animated Horfe-hairs. See HoRSE-Hairs.
opening or fiffure.” ANIMATION fignifies the informing an animal
Obfervations of living toads, found in very hard body with a foul.—The different hypothefes of phyli-
and entire ftones, occur in feveral authors, particularly cians and philofophers, concerning the time of anima-
Baptift Fulgofa doge of Genoa, the famous phyficians tion, have had their influence on the penal laws made
Agricola and Horftius, and lordVerulam : others give againft artificial abortions ; it having been made capital
very fpecious accounts of fnakes, frogs, crabs, and lob- to procure mifearriage in the one ftate, while in the
fters, being found alive, inclofed within blocks of mar¬
ble, rocks, and large ftones.
other it was only deemed a venial crime. The empe¬
ror Charles V. by a conftitution publilhed in 1532, put
An inftance fimilar to thefe, of the truth of which the matter on another footing; inftead of the diftinc-
tion of an animated and unanimated foetus,, he intro¬
duced that of a vital and non-vital foetus, as a thing of
we have no reafon to doubt, was obferved in this coun¬
try in the year 1773, where a large toad was found in
the middle of a piece of coal having not the leaft vifible more obvious and eafy decifion, and not depending on
58 crack or fiffure. any fyftem either of creation, traduftion, or infufion.
The fubjedt Upon the whole, therefore, though philofophers are Accordingly a foetus is faid, in a legal fenfe, to be
ftillobfcurc.not yet ab]e t0 difcover how thefe minute creatures are animated, when it is_ perceived to ftir in the womb ;
produced; yet, that there really are animals much which ufually happens about the middle of the term
fmaller than what we can difeern with our naked eye, of geftation.
feems to be indifputable. The fubjeft, however, is ftill ANIME, in heraldry, a term ufed when the eyes of
evidently obfeure, and will no doubt require the ut- a rapacious creature are borne of a different timfture
moft attention of philofophers, as well as further im- from the creature itfelf.
provements in the conftrudlion of microfcopes, fully to Anime, a refin exfuding from the trunk of a large
inveftigate it. American tree, called by Pifo jetaiba, by the Indians
Animalcula are faid to be the caufe of various dif- courbaril, (a fpecies of Hymen;ea). This refin is ofa-
orders. The itch, from feveral experiments, is affirm- tranfparent amber colour, a light agreeable fmell, and
ed to be a diforder arifing from the irritations ofafpe- little or no tafte. It diffolves. entirely, but not very
cies of animalcula found in the puftules of that ail- readily, in reftified fpiiit of wine; the impurities,
ment; whence the communication of it by contadl from which are often in large quantity, remaining behind-
one to another is eafily conceived, as alfo the reafon of The Brazilians are faid to employ anime in fumiga-
the cure being effefted by cutaneous applications. On tions for pains and aches proceeding from a cold caufe:
this foundation fome have attributed the fmall-pox with us, it is rarely, if ever, made ufe of for any medi»
and meafles, and infedlious difeafes ; others theepilep- cinal purpofes.
fy, Sec. to animalcules. Langius goes farther, and ANIMETTA, among ecclefiaftical writers, de¬
ne tea-
ANN [ 33 J AN N
Aninga notes-the cloth wherewith the cup of the eucharifl: is that the principal inhabitants of the city dwell. Every Anna
Anna covered. houfe has fome ground belonging to it ; and thefe 11
nna* , ANINGA, in commerce, a root which grows in the grounds are loaded with noble fruit-trees, as lemons, < Amian
“^ Antilles iflands, and is pretty much like the China oranges, citrons, quinces, figs, dates, pomegranates,
plant. It is ufed by fugar bakers for refining the olives, all very large and in great plenty. Some of
fugar. the flat grounds are fown with corn and other grain,
ANJOU, a province and duchy of France, bounded which yield likewife a confiderable crop. This city is
on the eaft bv Touraine. on the fouth bv Poiilou, on the common rendezvous of all the robbers that infeft
the weft by Bretagne, and on the north by Maine. It
is 70 miles in length, and in breadth 60. Through this
province run five navigable rivers : the Loire, which
divides it into two parts; the Vienne, the Toue, the
Maienne, and the Sarte.
The air is temperate, and'the country agreeably di-
-verfified with hills and meadows. There are 33 forefts
of oak-trees mixed with beech. The country produces
white-wine, wheat, barley, rye, oats, peafe, beans, flax,
hemp, walnuts, and fome chefnuts'. In lower Anjou
they make cyder. There are fruit-trees of all kinds,
and pafture proper for horfes. The greateft riches of
the province confifts in cows, oxen, and fheep. There
afe feveral coal and iron mines; and yet there are but
two forges in the whole province. There are quarries
of marble and of flate ; as well as quarries of white
{tone, proper for building, onthe fide of the river Loire.
Here are alfo feveral faltpetre-Work s and fome glafs-
houfes. The remarkable towns, befides Angers the
capital, are Saumur, Brifac, Pons dc Cea, La Fleche,
and Beaufort.
ANIO, (Cicero, Horace, Prifcian) ; Anien, (Sta¬
tius) ; now il Tever one : a river of Italy, which falls
into the Tiber, three miles to the north of Rome, not
far from Antemnse. It rifes in a mountain near Tre-
Ba, (Pliny) ; and, running through the country of the
iEquiculi, or iEqui, it afterwards feparated the Latins
from the Sabines ; but nearer its mouth, or confluence,
itdiad the Sabines on each fide. It forms three beau¬
tiful lakes in its courfe, (Pliny). In the territoiies of
Tibur it falls from a great height, and there forms a
very rapid cataradt; hence the epithet praceps, and
hence the ftearn caufed by its fall, (Horace). Anienus
is the epithet formed from it, (Virgil, Propertius) :
Anienus is alfo the god of-the river, (Propertius, Sta¬
tius).
ANISUM, or Anise. See Pimpinella.
ANKF.R, a liquid meafure at Amfterdam. It con¬
tains about 32 gallons Englifh meafure.
ANKLE, in anatomy, the joint which connefts the
foot to the leg.—We have an account of the menfes
being regularly evacuated at an ulcer of the ankle,
Edin. Med. Obf. vol. iii. art. 29.
ANN, or Annat, in Scots law, is half a year’s fti-
perid, which the law gives to the executors of mini-
fters of the. church of Scotland, over and above what
was due to the minifter himfelf, for his incumbency.
ANNA, one of the three principalities into which
Arabia Deferta is divided-
Anna, one of the chief cities of .the above principa¬
lity, and formerly a famed mart-town, is fituated in
Lat. 33. 57. and E. Long. 42. to. on the river Eu¬
phrates, in a fruitful and pleafant foil. It has two
ftreets, which are divided by the river. That on the
Mefopotamia fide is about two miles long, but thinly
peopled, and by none but tradefmen ; that on the op-
pofite fide is about fix miles in length, and it is there
the cBuntry, and from which they difperfe themfelves
into all parts of the Defart. Here they meet to con-
fult; here they hold their grand council, and deliberate
where to rob next with fuccefs. It is with great dif¬
ficulty that the Turkifh aga, and the janiffaries, who
are kept here, can levy the tribute impofed by the
Turks on all the commodities carried through this
city, which is one of the great thorough-fares for the
palling of the caravans that go to and from Aleppo,
Tripoli, Damafcus, Bagdad, and fome other parts of
the Turkilh empire.
Anna Comnena. See Comnena..
ANNABON. See Annobon.
ANNALE, in the church of Rome, a term applied
to the mafles celebrated for the dead during a who!?
year.
ANNAL1S clavus, the nail which the Praetor,
Conful, or Di&ator, drove into the wall of Jupiter’s
temple annually upon the Ides of September, to fhow
the number of years. But this cuftom was fuperfeded
by reckoning years by confullhips. The ceremony
was fometimes performed to avert the plague, See.
ANNALS, in matters of literature, a fpecies of hi-
ftory, which relates events in the chronological order
wherein they happened. They differ from perfeft hi-
ftory in this, that annals are but a bare relation of what
paffes every year, as a journal is of what paffes every
day ; whereas hiftory relates not only the tranfaftions
themfelves, but alfo the caufes, motives, and fprings of
a&ions. Annals require nothing but brevity ; hiftory
demands ornament.—Cicero informs us of the origin
of annals. To preferve the memory of events, the Pon-
tifex Maximus, fays he, wrote what paffed each year,
and expofed it on tables in his own houfe, where eve¬
ry one was at liberty to read; this they called annales
maximi ; and hence the writers who imitated this fim-
ple method of narrating fafts were called annalijls.
ANNAN, the capital of Annandale, a divifion of
Dumfriesftiire in Scotland; a fmall town, containing
500 or 600 inhabitants, and fituated on a river of the
fame name, in W. Long. 30. N. Lat. 54. 40. This
place, which is a royal borough, has fome.txade in wine,
and exports annually between 20 and 30,000 Win-
chefter bulhels (10 and 15,000 bolls) of corn. Veffels
of about 250 tons can come within half a mile of the
town ; and of 60, as high as the bridge ; which con¬
fifts of five arches, defended by a gateway A fabric
for carding and fpinning of cotton has lately been
erected, and the town begins to increafe. Here was
formerly a caftle'; which was built by the Bruces af¬
ter they became lords of Annandale. Upon the death of
David II. the fon of King Robert, in 1371, this caftle
(Lochmaben), and the lordftiip of Annandale, came to
Thomas Randolf Earl of Murray, and went with his
fifter Agnes to the Dunbars, Earls of March : after
their forfeiture it went to the Douglaffes, who alfo
loft it by the fame fate; and then having come to
Alex1
ANN [ 39 ] ANN
Alexander Duke of Albany, he, for rebelling againft
his brother King James III. and plundering the fair of
Lochmaben in 1484, was alfo forfeit. Since which
time it continued in the hands of the King, and be¬
came the great key of the weft border.
The ftewartry or diftridl of Annandale, of which
JLochmaben caftle was the chief fortalice, is a fertile
vale, 24 miles long, and about 14 miles broad y from
its vicinity to England, and the continual incurfions
and predatory wars of the borderers, the greateft part
of it was uncultivated and common : but fince the be¬
ginning of the prefent century, or rather within the
laft thirty years, all thefe waftes and commons have
been divided and brought into culture, and the country
has affumed a new appearance ; which may be afcribed
not only to the divifion of the commons, but likewife
to the improvement made in the roads, and particular¬
ly in the great weftern road from Edinburgh to Lon¬
don by Moffat, Gratney, and Carlille, running through
this vale, and carried on by fome gentlemen of the
country, after they had obtained an a£f of parliament
for levying a toll to defray the expence of making and
keeping it in repair.
Annandale formed a part of the Roman province of
Valentia; and Severus’s wall ending here, it abounds
with Roman ftations and antiquities. The camps at
Birrens in Middlebie, and on the hill of Burnfwork,
are ftill entire, and their form is preferred; and the
traces and remains of a military road are now vifible in
different parts of the country. The ruins of the houfe
or caftle of Auchincafs, in the neighbourhood of Mof¬
fat, once the feat of that potent baron, Thomas Ran¬
dolph, Earl of Murray, Lord of Annandale, and Re¬
gent of Scotland in the minority of David II. covers
above an acre of ground, and even now conveys an idea
of the plan and ftrength of the building. The ancient
caftle of Comlongan, formerly belonging to the Mur¬
rays, Earls of Annandale, and now to Lord Stormont,
is ftill in a tolerable ftate of prefervation ; but except
this caftle and that of Hoddom, moft of the other old
fortalices and towers are now taken down, or in ruins.
Annandale is a marquifate belonging to the John-
ftons, and the chief of the name.
ANN AND (William), dean of Edinburgh in Scot¬
land, the fon of William Annand minifter of Air, was
born at Air in 1633. Five years after, his father
was obliged to quit Scotland with his family, on
account of their loyalty to the king, and adherence
to the epifcopal government eftablifhed by law in that
countiy. In 1651, young Annand was admitted a
fcholar in Univerfity college in Oxford ; and though
he was put under the care of a prelbyterian tutor,
yet he took all occafions to be prefent at the fer-
mons preached by the loyal divines in and near Ox¬
ford. In 1656, being then bachelor of arts, he re¬
ceived holy orders from the hands of Dr Thomas Ful-
war, bilhop of Ardfert or Kerry in Ireland, and was
appointed preacher at Wefton on the green near Bi-
cefter in Oxfordfhire, where he met with great en¬
couragement from Sir Francis Norris, lord of that
manor. After he had taken his degree of mafter of
arts, he was prefented to the vicarage of Leighton-
Buzzard in Bedfordlhire ; where he diftinguifhed him-
felf by his edifying manner of preaching, till 1662,
when he went into Scotland, in quality of chaplain to
John Earl of Middleton, the king’s high-commiflioner Annand
to the church of that kingdom. In the latter end of II
the year 1663, he was inftituted to the tolbooth church Annapolis.
at Edinburgh, and from thence was removed fome '' * "J
years after to the trone church of that city, which is
likewife a prebend. In April 1676, he was nomi¬
nated by the king to the deanery of Edinburgh ; and
in 1689, he commenced Doftor of Divinity in the
univerfity of St Andrew’s. He wrote, 1. Fides Ca-
tholica; or. The Dodtrine of the Catholic Church in
eighteen grand Ordinances, referring to the word, fa-
craments, and prayer, in purity, number, and nature,
catholically maintained, and publicly taught, againft
heretics of all forts Lond. 1661-2, qto. 2. Solutions
of many proper and profitable queftions, fuitable to the
nature of each Ordinance, &c. printed with the Fidet
Catholica. 3. Panem $>uotidianem ; or, A (hort Dif-
courfe, tending to prove the legality, decency, and ex¬
pediency, of fet forms of prayers in the Churches of
Chrift, with a particularDefence of the Book of Com¬
mon Prayer of the Church of England. Lond. 1671,
qto. 4. Pater Nojier, Our Father ; or, The Lord’s
Prayer explained, the fenfe thereof, and duties there¬
in, from Scripture, Hiftory, and the Fathers, metho¬
dically cleared, and fuccinftly opened. Lond. 1670,
8vo. 5. Myjlerium Pietatis ; or, The Myftery of God-
linefs, &c. Lond. 1672, 8vo. 6. Doxologia ; or, Glory
to the Father, the Church’s Hymn, reduced to glo¬
rifying the Trinity. Lond. 1672, 8vo. 7. Dualitds;
or, A twofold fubjeft difplayed and opened, conduCe-
able to godlinefs and peace in order : Firft, Lex loquens,
the honour and dignity of magiftracy, with the duties
thereupon, &c.; Secondly, Duorum Unitas ; or. The
agreement of magiftracy and miniftry at the ele&ion ■
of the honourable magiftrates at Edinburgh, and open¬
ing of the Diocefan Synod of the Reverend Clergy
there. Edin. 1674, 4to. Dr Annand died the 13th
of June 1689, and was honourably interred in the Grey-
Friars church in Edinburgh.
ANNANO, a ftrong fort of Italy, in the duchy of
Milan. It has been twice taken by the French ; but
was reftored to the duke of Savoy in 1705. It isfeat-
ed on the river Tanaro, in E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat.
44. 40. j
ANNAPOLIS, the chief town in Maryland, in'
North America ; which as yet is but mean, becaufe the
people in this province choofe to live on their planta¬
tions, as in Virginia. St Mary’s was once the capital •
of the province of Maryland, and the town of Anna¬
polis was known by the name of Severn. It received
its prefent name in 1694, when it was made a port-
town, and the refidence of a colleftor and naval officer.
W. Long. 78. 10. N. Lat. 39. 23.
Annapolis Royal, a town of Nova Scotia, is feat-
ed in the bay of Fundy ; and, though a mean place,
was formerly the capital of the province- It has one
of the fineft harbours in America, capable of contain¬
ing 1000 veffels at anchor in the utmoft fecurity. The ■
place is alfo protefted by a fort and garrifon. At the
bottom of the harbour is a point of land, which divides
two rivers; and on each fide there are pleafant mea¬
dows, which in fpring and autumn are covered with all
forts of frefli-water fowl. There is a trade carried on
by the Indians with furs, which they exchange for Eu¬
ropean goods. W. Long, 64. 5. N* Bat. 45. 10.
ANNATES,
ANN [4° I ANN
Annates, ANNATES, among ecclefiaflical writers, a year’s
Annealing, income of a fpiritual living.
Thefe were, in anciynt times, given to the Pope
through all ChriRendom, upon the deceafe of any bi-
fhop, abbot, or pariflvclerk, and were paid by his fuc-
ceflbr. At the Reformation they were taken from the
Pope, and vefted in the king; and, finally, Queen Anne
reftored them to the church, by appropriating them to
the augmentation of poor livings.
ANNEALING, by the workmen called nealing,
is particularly ufed in making glafs : it confiRs in pla¬
cing the bottles, &c. tvhilR hot, in a kind of oven or
furnace, where they are fuffered to cool gradually;
they would other.wife be too brittle for ufe.—Metals
are rendered hard and brittle by hammering : they are
therefore made red hot, in order to recover their mal¬
leability ; and this is called nealing.
The difference between unannealed and annealed
glafs, with refpe& to brittlenefs, is very remarkable.
When an unannealed glafs-vefi'el is broken, . it often
flies into a fmall powder, with a violence ieemingly very
unproportioned to the ftroke it has received. In ge¬
neral, it is in greater danger of breaking from a very
flight ftroke than from one of fome confiderable force.
One of thofe veffels will often refift the effe&s of a
piftol-bullet dropt into it from the height of two or
three feet; yet a grain of fand falling into it will make
it burft into fmall fragments. This takes place fome-
times immediately on dropping the fand into it: but
often the veflel will Rand for feveral minutes after, feem-
ingly fecure ; and then, without any new injury, it will
fly to pieces. If the veffel be very thin, it does not
break in this manner, but feems to poffefs all the pro¬
perties of annealed glafs.
The fame phenomena are ftill more ftrikingly feen in
glafs drops or tears. They are globular at one end,
and taper to a fmall tail at the other. They are the
drops which fall from the mplted mafs of glafs on the
rods on which the bottles are made. They drop into
the tubs of water which are ufed in the work ; the
greater part of them burft immediately in the water.
When thofe that remain entire are examined, they dif-
cover all the properties of unannealed glafs in the high-
eft degree. They will bear a fmart ftroke on the
thick end without breaking ; but if the fmall tail be
broken, they burft into fmall powder with a loud ex-
plolion. They appear to burft with more violence,
and the powder is fmaller in an exhaufted receiver than
in the open air. When they are annealed, they lofe
thofe properties.
Glafs is one of thofe bodies which increafe in bulk
when pafiing from a fluid to a folid ftate.. When it is
allowed to cryftallize regfilarly, the particles are fo ar¬
ranged, that it has a fibrous texture : it is elaftic, and
fufceptible of long continued vibrations ; but when a
mafs of melted glafs is fuddenly expofed to the cold, the
furface cryftallizes, and forms a folid Ihell round the
interior fluid parts : this prevents them from expand¬
ing when they become folid. They, therefore, have
not the opportunity of a regular cryftallization ; but
are compreffed together with little mutual cohefion :
On the contrary, they prefs outward to occupy more
fpace, but are prevented by the external cruft. In
confequence of the effort of expanfion in the internal
parts, the greater number of glafs drops burft in cool-
N° 21.
ing ; and thofe which remain entire are not regularly Annealing,
cryftallized. A fmart ftroke upon them communicates
a vibration to the whole mafs, which is nearly fynchro-
nous in every part; and therefore the effort of expan¬
fion has little more efledl than if the body were at reft ;
.but the fmall tail and the furface only are regularly
cryftallized. If the tail be broken, this communicates
a vibra.tion along the cryftallized furface, without
reaching the internal parts. By this they are allowed
fome expanfion; and overcoming the cohefion of the thin
outer ihell, they burft it, and are difperfed in powder.
In an unannealed g\afs-vdfel, the fame thing takes
place. Sometimes the vibration may continue for a
confiderable time before the internal parts overcome
the refiftance. If the veffel be very thin, the regular
cryftallization extends through the whole thicknefs ;
or at lealt the quantity of compreffed matter in the
middle is fo inconfiderable as to be incapable of burfting
the external plate.
By the procefs of annealing, the glafs is kept for
fome time in a ftate approaching to fluidity; the heat
increafes the bulk of the cryftallized part, and renders
it fo foft, that the internal parts have the opportunity
of expanding and forming a regular cryftallization.
A fimilar procefs is now ufed for rendering kettles
and other veffels of caft-iron lefs brittle : of it the
fame explanation may be given. The greater number of
metals diminifli in bulk when they pafs from a fluid to
a folid ftate ; iron, on the contrary, expands.
When caft-iron is broken, it has the appearance of
being compofed of grain : forged or bar iron appears
to confift of plates. Forged iron has long been pro¬
cured, by placing a mafs of caft-iron under large ham¬
mers, and making it undergo violent and repeated com-
prefiion. A procefs is now ufed for converting caft-
iron into forged, by heat alone. The caft-iron is pla¬
ced in an air-furnace, and kept for feveral hours in a
degree of heat, by which it js brought near to a fluid
ftate. It is then allowed to cool gradually, and is
found to be converted into forged-iron. This procefs
is condinfted under a patent; although, if Reaumur’s
experiments upon caft-iron be confulted, it will appear
not to be a new difcovery.
By thefe experiments it is afcertained, that if caft iron
be expofed for any length of time to a heat confider-
ably below its melting point, the texture and proper¬
ties are not changed : but if it be kept in a heat near
the melting point, the furface foon becomes lamellated
like forged-iron ; and the lamellatqd ftru£ture extends
farther into the mafs in proportion to the length of
time in which it is expofed to that degree of heat.
When it is continued for a fufficient time, and then al
lovyed to cool gradually, it is found to poffefs the la-
mellated ftrufture throughout.
Caft-iron, then, is brittle, becaufe it has not had the
opportunity of cryftallizing regularly. When it is ex¬
pofed to cold while fluid, the furface becoming folid,
prevents the inner parts from expanding and arran¬
ging themfelves into regular cryftals. When caft-iron
is brought near to the melting-point, and continued for
a fufficient length of time in that degree of heat, the
particles have the opportunity of arranging themfelves
into that form of cryftals by which forged-iron is dif-
tinguifhed, and by which it poffeffes cohefion and all its
properties.
There
ANN [ 41 J ANN
There appears, therefore, to be no other effential
difference between forged and caft iron, except what
arifes from the cryftallization. Caft-iron is indeed oft¬
en not fufficiently purified from other fubftances which
are mixed with the calx. It appears alfo to contain a
confiderable quantity of calx unreduced ; for during
the procefs for converting it into forged-iron by heat
alone, a pale flame rifes from the metal till near the
end of the procefs. This is owing to fixed air which
the heat forces off from the calx. The expulfion of
this air reduces the calx, and thereby frees the metal
from that injurious mixture.
That this explanation of the annealing of iron is
probable, appears alfo from the well-known faft of
forged-iron being incomparably more difficult of fufion
than call-iron. A piece of forged iron requires a very
violent heat to melt it; but when it is reduced to a
fmall powder, it melts in a much lower degree of heat.
Iron diminifhes in bulk when it paffes into a fluid ftate,
while moft other metals increafe in volume. The ex-
panfion which heat occafions in bringing them to their
melting-point, will be favourable to their fluidity, by
gradually bringing the particles to the fame ftate of
reparation in which they are when the mafs is fluid;
but the expanfion of iron by heat removes it farther
from that ftate, and keeps it in the ftate which is fa¬
vourable to the continuance of it in a cryftallized form.
It will not melt till the heat expand it fo much that
the cohefibn of cryftallization be overcome. When
it is reduced to a minute powder before it be expofed
to the heat, it melts fooner. The cryftals having been
-deftroyed, that cohefion has no effed in preventing it
from palling into a ftate of fluidity.
Upon the fame principles may be explained the al-
ipoft peculiar property of welding pofTcfled by iron,
and the converfion of forged iron into fteel.
But perhaps they may alfo be applied to platina, a
metal which has lately gained much attention. It
poffefles fome of the properties of iron. It is ftill more
difficult of fufion than that metal. It is fufceptible of
being welded. The natural grains of it can fcarcely
be melted in the focus of the moft powerful burning
glafs ; but when it is diffolved in aqua regia, and pre¬
cipitated by the vegetable alkali, it has been melted in
fmall globules by the blow-pipe. When precipitated
by fal ammoniac, it has been melted in a confiderable
mafs in the heat of a furnace ; but it is faid to be hard
and brittle.
Many attempts have been made to procure a mafs of
it in a malleable ftate, but without fuccefs. It is faid _
that the procefs is now difcovered by a chemift in Spain.
The treatment of the metal is probably very fimple.
Perhaps it only confifts in precipitating it in a minute
powder from aqua regia, expofing it to a ftrong heat
which melts it, and keeping it for fome time in a ftate
nearly fluid, that it may, like iron, cryftallize regu¬
larly: by this it will poflefs all its metallic proper¬
ties.
ANNE, Queen of Great Britain, daughter of James •
II. when Duke of York, was born in 1664, and mar¬
ried to Prince George of Denmark in 1683, by whom
fhe had feveral children, but furvived them all. Upon
the death of William III. March 8, 1702, flie fuc-
ceeded to the throne, and to a war with France, which
was profecuted under her reign by the great Duke of
Vol. II. Part L &
Marlborough, with more glory than profit to this na¬
tion. She effe&ed the long wiftied-for union between
England and Scotland, which took place May ift,
1707; and dying Auguft ift, 1714, was fucceeded by
George Lewis Auguftus Ele&or of Hanover, as the
direft defcendant from James I. by his daughter Eli¬
zabeth queen of Bohemia.
St Ann's Day, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
celebrated by the Latins on the 26th of July, but by
the Greeks on the 9th of December. It is kept in ho¬
nour of Anne, or Anna, mother of the Virgin Mary.
ANNECY, a city of Savoy, feated between Cham-
berry and Geneva, on the banks of a lake of the fame
name, from whence runs feveral brooks, which flow¬
through the town, and uniting at length form a river.
There are piazzas in moft of the ftreets of the town,
which ferve to flrelter the inhabitants from rain. It has
feveral collegiate and parilh churches, as well as con¬
vents for men and women. The lake is about nine miles
long and four broad. E. Long. 6. 12. N. Lat. 45-. 53.
ANNESLEY (Arthur t, Earl of Anglefey, and lord
privy feal in the reign of King Charles II. was the fon
of Sir Francis Annefley, Bart. Lord Mount Norris, and
Vifcount Valentia, in Ireland •, and was born at Dublin
on the 10th of July 1614. He was for fome time at
the univerfity of Oxford, and afterwards ftudied the
law at Lincoln’s Inn. He had a confiderable fliare in
the public tranfaftions of the laft Oentury : for in the
beginning of the civil war he fat in the parliament held
at Oxford ; but afterwards became reconciled to the op-
polite party, and was fent commilfioner to Ulfter, to
oppofe the defigns of the rebel Owen Roe Oneal. He
engaged in feveral other affairs with great fuccefs. He
was prefident of the council of ftate after the death of
Oliver, and was principally concerned in bringing a-
bout the Reftoration: foon after which, King Charles 11.
raifed him to the dignity of a baron, by the title
of Lord Annefley, of Newport Pagnel, Bucks; and a
fliort time after, he was made Earl of Anglefey. Du¬
ring that reign he was employed in fome very import¬
ant affairs, was made treafurer of the navy, and after¬
wards lord privy-feal. In O&ober 1680, his lordlhip
was charged by one Dangerfield, in an information
delivered upon oath, at the bar of the houfe of com¬
mons, with endeavouring to ftilie evidence in relation
to the Popilh plot, and to promote the belief of a Pref-
byterian one. The uneafinefs he received from this at¬
tack did not prevent his fpeaking his opinion freely of
thofe matters in the houfe of lords, particularly in re¬
gard to the Popilh plot. About the fame time he an-
fwered the Lord Caftlehaven’s Memoirs, in which that
nobleman endeavoured to paint the Irilli rebellion in the
lighteft colours; and a fharp difpute was raifed, which
ended in the feals being taken from him. He was a
perfon of great abilities, had uncommon learning, and
was well acquainted with the conftitution and laws of
England. He wrote, befides his Animadverfions on
Caftlehaven’s Memoirs, 1. The Privileges of the Houfe
of Lords and Commons ftated. 2. A Difcourfe on
the Houfe of Lords. 3. Memoirs. 4. The Hiftory
of the Troubles in Ireland, from the rebellion in 1641
till the reftoration. 5. Truth unveiled, ip behalf of
the Church of England ;—and fome other works. He
died in April 1686, in the 73d year of his age ; and
was fucceeded by his fon James.
Annecy,
Annefley.
ANNEX-
ANN [ 42 I ANN
Annexa-
Annthila*
ANNEXATION, in law, a term ufed'to imply the
uniting of lands? or rents to the crown,
ANNIHILATION, the aft of reducing any crea¬
ted being into nothing.
Chriftians, Heathens, Jews, Siamefe, Perfians, di¬
vines, philofophers,. &c. have their peculiar fyftems,
fentiments, conjeftures, not to fay dreams, concerning
annihilation ; and we find great difputes among them
about the reality, the poffibility, the means, meafures,
prevention, ends, &c. of annihilation.
The firft notions of the produftion of a thing from,
or reduftion of it to, nothing, Dr Burnet (hows, arofe
from the Chriitian theology ; the words creation and
annihilation, in the fenfe now given to them, having
been equally unknown to the Hebrews, the Greeks,
and the Latins,
The ancient philofophers in effeft denied all annihi¬
lation as well as creation, refolving all the changes in
the world into new modifications, without fuppofing
the produftion of any thing new, or deftruftion of the
old. By daily experience, they faw compounds diffolved;
and that in their diffolution nothing perilhed but their
union or conneftion of parts: when in death the body
and foul were feparated, the man they held was gone,
but that the fpirit remained in its original the great foul
of the world, and the body in its earth from whence it
came; thefe were again wrought by nature into new
compofitions, and entered new ftates of being which
had no relation to the former.
The Perfian bramins hold, that after a certain period
of time, confiding of 71 joogs, God not only annihi¬
lates the .whole univerfe, but every thing elfe, angels,
fouls, fpirits, and all, by which he returns to the fame
ftate he was in before the creation ; but that, having
breathed a while, he goes to work again, and a new
creation arifes, to fubfift 71 joogs more, and then to be
annihilated in its turn. Thus they, hold there have been
alvnoft an infinite number of worlds : but how many
joogs are elapfed fince the laft creation, they cannot cer¬
tainly tell; only in an almanac written in the Sanfcript
language in 1670, the world is faid to be then 3,892,' 71
years old from the laft creation.
The Siamefe heaven is exaftly the hell of feme Soci-
nians and other Chriftian writers ; who, fhocked with
the horrible profpeft of eternal torments, have taken
refuge in the fyftem of annihilation. This fyftem feems
countenanced by Scripture ; for that the words death,
dejlrufiion, and perifbhig, whereby the puniihment of
the wicked is moft frequently expreifed in Scripture, do
moft properly import annihilation and an utter end of
being. To this Tillotfon anfwers, that thefe words, as
well as thofe correfponding to them in other languages,
are often ufed, both in Scripture and other writings,
to fignify a ftate of great mifery and fullering, without
the utter extinction of the miferable. Thus God is oft¬
en faid in Scripture to bring dejlruftion on a nation,
when he fends judgments upon them, but without exter¬
minating or making an end of them. So, in other lan¬
guages, it is frequent, by perijlnng, to exprefs a perfon’s
being made'miferable ; as in that known paffagein Ti¬
berius’s letter to the Roman fenate : Ita me dii, deaque
eemnes, pejus perdant, quam hodie perire me fentio. As to
tire word death, a ftate of mifery which is as bad or
*yorfe than death may properly enough be called by
that name; and thus the puniihment of wicked men
after the day of judgment is in the book of Revelations Annihila-
frequently called the fecond death. tion.
Some Chriftian writers allow a long time of the moft
terrible torments of finners ; and after that fuppofe
that there lhall be an utter end of their being. Of this
opinion Irenaeus appears to have been ; who, according
to M. du Pin, taught that the fouls, at leaft of the
wicked, would not fubfift eternally ; but that, after ha¬
ving undergone their torments for a certain period, they
would at laft ceafe to be at all. But Tillemont, Petit,
Didier, and others, endeavour to defend Irenaeus from
- this imputation, as being too favourable to the wicked.
It has been much difputed among divines, whether,
at the confummation of all things, this earth is to be an¬
nihilated, or only purified, and fitted for the habitation
of fome new order of beings. Gerard in his Common
Places, and Hakewil in his Apology, contend earneftly
for a total abolition or annihilation. Ray, Calmct,
and others, think the fyftem of renovation or reftitu-
tion more probable, and more confonant to Scripture,
reafon, and antiquity. The fathers who have treat¬
ed on the queftion are divided; fome holding that the
univerfe lhall not be annihilated, but only its external
face changed; others aflerting, that the fubftanee of it-
fhall be deftroyed.
How widely have the fentiments of mankind differ¬
ed as to the poffibility and impoffibility of annihila¬
tion ! According to fome, nothing fo difficult; it re¬
quires the infinite power of the Creator to effeft it :
fome go further, and feem to put it out of the power of
God himfelf. According to others, nothing fo eafy :
Exiftence is a ftate of violence; all things are continual¬
ly endeavouring to return to their primitive nothing;
it requires no power at all; it will do itfelf; nay, what
is more, it requires an infinite power to prevent it.
Many authors confider prefervation as a continual re-
produftion of a thing, which, fubfifting no longer of
itfelf, would every moment return into nothing. Gaf-
fendi on the contrary afferts, that the world may in¬
deed be annihilated by the fame power which firft crea¬
ted it, but that to continue it there is no occafion for
any power of prefervation.
Some divines, of which number the learned Bilhop
King feems to be, hold annihilation for the greateft of
all evils, worfe than even the utmoft torments of hell-
flames ; while others, wjth fome of the eaftern philo¬
fophers, acknowledge annihilation for the ultimatepitch
of happinefs human nature is capable of; that fove-
reign good, that abfolute beatitude, fo long vainly
fought for by the philofophers, is found here. No
wonder it had been fo long concealed ; for who would
have thought of looking for the fummum honuni, where
others have placed the fum of mifery ?
The faid prelate propofes it as a queftion. Whether
fuffering eternal torments be a greater evil than not ex-
ifting ? He thinks it highly probable, that the damned
will be fuch fools, that, feeling their own mifery in the
moft exquifite degree, they will rather applaud their
own conduft, and choofe to be, and to be what they
are, rather than not to be at all; fond of their condi¬
tion, however wretched, like people enraged, they will
perfift in their former fentiments without opening their
eyes to their folly, and perfevere by way of indignation
and revenge. Mr Bayle refutes him on this head ; but
might, one would think, have laved himfelf the troubles.
The
ANN [ 43 J ANN
Anni The Talapoins ho!4 it the tipreme degree of happi-
|| nefs to have the foul totally annihilated, and freed from
Annobon. tfie burden and flavery of tranfmigrations. They fpeak
**Jt-'*_ 1 - of three Talapoins, who, after a great number of trauf-
migrations,became gods; and when arrived at this ftate,
rocured this further reward of their merit to be anni-
ilated. The ultimate reward of the higheft perfection
man can arrive vX \s nieurepan, or annihilation ; which
at length is granted to thofe who are perfectly pure
and good, after their fouls have wandered many thou-
fand year« through various bodies.
ANNI nubiles, in law, denotes the marriageable
age of a woman, viz. after Ihe has arrived at twelve.
ANNIVERSARY, the annual return of any re¬
markable day. Anniverfary days, in old times, more
particularly denoted thofe days in which an office was
yearly performed for the fouls of the deceafed, or the
martyrdom of the faints was yearly celebrated in the
■church.
ANNOBON, a fmall ifland of Africa, on the coaft
of Loango, belonging to the Portuguefe. It lies in
E. Long. 5. to. S. Lat. 1. 50. and receives its name
from being difcovered on New-year’s day. According
to Pyrard, it is about five or fix French leagues in com-
pafs ; but Bandrand fays, it is ten leagues round. Here
are two high mountains, the tops of which being con¬
tinually covered with clouds, occafion frequent rains.
On the fouth-eaft of the ifland are two rocks; one of
which is low, and upon a level with the furface of the
fea; the other higher and larger, but both danger¬
ous in the night to dripping ; but between them the
channel is deep and clear. Thefe rocks are inhabited
by vaft numbers of birds, fo tame, that the failors fre-
jquently catch them with their hands. On the fame
fide of the ifland is a convenient watering-place at the
foot of a rivulet, which tumblesfrom the mountainsdown
to a valley covered with orange and citron trees, &c. and
affording a pleafant and refrdhing fhade ; but the road
on the north-weft fide is difficult and dangerous, though
moft frequented by fhips who have no intention of
touching upon the continent. In either place it is dif¬
ficult to take in a fufficient quantity of water, on ac¬
count of the violent breakings of the :fea, and a ftone
intrenchment eredted by the negroes, from which they
annoy all ftrangers that attempt to land. The true
road for dripping lies on the north-eaft fide, where
they may anchpr in feven, ten, thirteen, or fixteen fa¬
thoms, on a fine fand clofe to the land, oppofite to the
village where the negroes have thrown up their in-
trenchments.
The climate iswholefome, and the air clear and ferene
for the greateft part of the year. Every part of the
ifland is watered by pleafant brooks, and freflr-water
fprings, which, however, at the new and full moons,
or in all high tides, acquire a breakiflrnefs. The banks
of every rivulet are covered with palms, whence thejn-
habitants extratt their wine by incifion. Here are a
number of fertile valleys, which produce Turky-corn,
rice, millet, yams, potatoes, &c. and afford pafture
for abundance of oxen, fheep, goats, &c. Poultry
and fifh alfo abound here ; but the only mercantile pro-
dudtion is cotton, which is efteemed equal in quali¬
ty to any produced in India, though the quantity is
fmall.
In the year 1605, the Dutch admiral Matelief
found 200 negroes, and two Portuguefe, on Annobon, Anno
moft of them able to bear .arms, expert in the ufe of
them, and trained up in military difcipline. La Croix nnona.
fays, it has a town oppofite to the road that contains w J
above 100 houfes, the whole furrounded by a parapet.
Moft of their dwellings are cane-huts. In the whole
ifland there is not a Angle honfe built of ftone, and
only two of wood, which belong to the Portuguefe.
All the inhabitants are meanly clothed; the women
go bare-headed, and have alfo the upper part of the
body naked, modefty being defended by a piece of
linen wrapt under their ftomach, and falling down in
the form of a petticoat, or wide apron, to the knees.
As to the men, they wear only.a 'linen girdle round
the loins, with a fmall flap before. The women carry
their children on their backs, and fuckle them over
the flioulder. All the inhabitants are fubjeft to the
Portuguefe governor, who is the chief perfon in the
ifland; at the fame time that the negroes have their
own chief, fubordinate to him. They are all rigid ca¬
tholics,, having been either compelled or perfuaded by
the arguments of the Portuguefe to embrace, and, like
all other converts, they are bigotted in proportion to
the novelty of the belief, and their ignorance of the
true tenets. .
ANNO Domini, i. e. the year of our Lord ; the
computation of time from our Saviour’s incarnation.
ANNOMINATION, in rhetoric, the fame with
what is otherwife called paronomasia. See Parono¬
masia.
ANNONA, in Roman antiquity, denotes provilion
for a year of all forts, as of flelh, wine, &c. but efpe-
eially of corn. Annona is likewife the allowance of
oil, fait, bread, flefti, corn, wine, hay, and ftraw,
which was annually provided by the contradlors for the
maintenance of an army.
Annona, the Cujlard Apple: A genus of the po-
lygynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants.; and in the natural method ranking under the
52d order, Coadunatx. The chara&ers are: The
calyx is a triphyllous perianthium : The corolla confifts
of fix heart-ftiaped petals : The Jiamina have fcarcely
any filaments ; the antherae are numerous, fitting on
the receptaculum: The piJlHlum has a roundilh ger-
men; no ftyli; the ftigmata obtufe and numerous :
The pericarpium is a large roundifh unilocular berry,
covered with a fcaly bark: The feeds are numerous.
Species. 1. The reticulata, or cuftard-apple, is a
native of the Weft-Indies, where it grows to the height
of 25 feet, and is well furnifhed with branches on every
fide: the bark is fmooth, and of an a(h colour^ the
leaves are of a light green, oblong, and have feveral
deep tranfverfe ribs or veins, ending in acute points ;
the fruit is of a conical form, as large as a tennis-ball,
of an orange.colour when ripe, having a foft, fweet,
yellowiih pulp, of the confiftence of a cuftard, from
whence it has its name. 2. The muricata, or four-fop,
rarely rifes above 20 feet high, and it is not fo well fur-
nifhed vyithbranches as the other; the leaves are broad¬
er, have a fmooth furface without any furrows, and are
of a ftiining green colour : the fruit is large, of an
oval fhape, irregular, and pointed at the top, of a
greenifh yellow colour, and full of fmall knobs on the
outfide : the pulp is foft, white; and of a four and
fweet tafte intermixed, haying many oblong, dark co-
ANN [ 44 J ANN
Acnonse loured feeds. 3. The fquamofa, or fweet fop, feldom
If rifes higher than 15 feet, and well furnifhed with
Annota- branches on every fide. The leaves have an agreeable
, t>on‘ . feent when rubbed ; the fruit is roundifh and fcaly, and
* - when ripe turns of a purple colour, and hath a fweet
pulp. 4. The paluftris, or water-apple, grows to the
height of 30 or 40 feet. The leaves are oblong,
pointed, with fome flender furrows, and have a ftrong
feent when rubbed ; the fruit is feldom eaten but by
negroes. The tree grows in moift places in all the
Weil-India iflands. 5. The cherimola, with oblong
fcaly fruit, is a native of Peru, where it is much culti¬
vated for the fruit, and grows to be a very large tree
well furnifhed with branches. The leaves are of a
bright green colour, and much larger than thofe of any
of the other forts. The fruit is oblong, and fcaly on
the outfide, of a dark purple colour when ripe, and the
flefh is foft and fweet, intermixed with many brown
feeds which are fmooth and fhining. 6. The Africans,
with fmooth 'bluifh fruit. 7. The Afiatica, or purple,
apple. This grows in fome of the French iflands, as
alfo in Cuba, in great plenty. The trees rife to the
height of 30 feet or more. The fruit is efteemed by the
inhabitants of thofe iflands, who frequently give them
to fick perfons. 8. The triloba, or North-American
annona, called by the inhabitants papanu, is a native of
the Bahama iflands, and likewife of Virginia and Caro¬
lina. The trunks of the trees are feldom bigger than
the fmall of a man’s leg, and are about 10 or 12 feet
high, having a fmooth greenifh-brown bark. In
March, when the leaves begin to fprout, the bloffoins
appear, confifting of fix greenifh-white petals. The
fruit grows in cluflers of three, and fometimes of four
together: when ripe, they are yellow, covered with
a thin fmooth fkin, which contains a yellow pulp of a
fweet lufeious tafte. In the middle of this pulp, lie in
two rows twelve feeds, divided by as many thin mem¬
branes. All parts of the tree have a rank, if not a
fetid, fmell; nor is the fruit relifhed by many except
negroes. Thefe trees grow in low fhady fwamps, and
in a very fat foil.
Culture. The laft fort will thrive in the open air in
Britain, if it is placed in a warm and fheltered fitua-
tion ; but the plants fhould be trained up in pots, and
fheltered in winter for two or three years till they have
acquired flrength. The feeds frequently remain a
whole year in the ground ; and therefore the earth in
the pots ought not to be dillurbed, though the plants
do not come up the firft year. If the pots where thofe
plants are fown are plunged into a new hot-bed, they
will come up much fooner than thofe that are expo-
fed to the open air. All the other forts require to
be kept in a warm ftove, or they will not live in this
country.
ANNONiE prefectus, in antiquity, an extraor¬
dinary magittrate, whofe bufinefs it was to prevent a
fcarcity of provision, and to regulate the weight and
finenefs of breaA
ANNONAY, a fmall town of France, in the Up¬
per Vivarais, feated on the river Deunre. E. Long.
4. 52. N. Lat.- 45. 15.
ANNOT, a fmall city in the mountains of Provence
in France. E. Long. 7. c. N. Lat. 44. 4.
ANNOTATION, in matters of literature, a brief
commentary, or remark, upon a book or writing, in or¬
der to clear up fome paffage, or draw fome conclufion Annotta
from it. II
ANNOTTA. See Anotta. Annuity.
ANNUAL, in a general fenfe, an appellation given ~1 » *J
to whatever returns every year, or is always performed
within that fpace of time.
Annual Motion of the Earth. See Astronomy.
Annual Leaves, are fuch leaves as come up afrefh
in the fpring, and perifh in winter. Thefe Hand op-
pofed to Ever-greens.
Annual Plants, called alfo Amply annuals, are
fuch as only live their year, i. e. come up in the fpring
and die again in the autumn ; and accordingly are to
be recruited every year.
ANNUALRENT is ufed, in Scots law, to de¬
note an yearly profit due by a debtor in a fum of mo¬
ney to a creditor For the ufe of it.
Right of Annualrf.nt, in Scots law, the original
method of burdening lands with an yearly payment for
the loan of money, before the taking of intereft fbr
money was allowed by ftatute.
ANNUEL of Norway, of which mention is made
in the afts of parliament of King James III. was an
annual payment of an hundred marks Sterling, which
the kings of Scotland were obliged to pay to the kings
of Norway, in fatisfaftion for fome pretenfions which
the latter had to the Scottilh kingdom, by virtue of a
conveyance made thereof by Malcolm Kenmore, who
ufurped the crown after his brother’s deceafe. This
annuel was firft eftabliflied in 1266; in confideration
whereof the Norwegians renounced all title to the fuc-
ceflion to the ifles of Scotland. It was paid till the
year 1468, when the annuel, with all its arrears, was
renounced in the contratt of marriage between king
James III. and Margaret daughter of Chriftian I. king
of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden.
ANNUITY, a fum of money, payable yearly, half
yearly, or quarterly, to continue a certain number of
years, for ever, or for life.
An annuity is faid to be an arrear, when it continues
unpaid after it falls due. And an annuity is faid to be
in reverfion, when the purchafer, upon paying the price,
does not immediately enter upon pofleffion j the annuity
not commencing till fome time after.
Intereft on annuities may be computed either in the
way of fimple or compound intereft. But compound
intereft, being found moft equitable, both for buyer
and feller, the computation by fimple intereft is uni-
verfally difufed.
I. Annuities for a certain time.
Problem i. Annuity, rate, and time, given, to
find the amount, or fum of yearly payments, and in¬
tereft.
Rule. Make 1 the firft term of a geometrical feries,
and the amount of 11. for a year the common ratio ;
continue this feries to as many terms as there are years
in the queftion; and the fum of this feries is the a-
mount of 1 1. annuity for the given years; which, mul¬
tiplied by the given annuity, will produce the amount
fought.
Example. An annuity of 401. payable yearly, is
forborn and unpaid till the end of 5 years ? What will
then be due, reckoning compound intereft at 5 per cent.
on all the payments then in arrear ?
1 ; 1.05.
ANN [ 45 ] ANN
Annuity. I 5 5 4 5
U—v-«^ i : 1.03 : 1.1025 : 1.157625 : 1.21550625? whofe
fum is 5.52563125 1. ; and 5*25563125 x 40 =
221.02525=2211. os. 6d. the amount fought.
The amount may alfo be found thus : Multiply the
given annuity by the amount of 11. for a year ; to the
produdt add the given annuity, and the fum is the a-
mount in two years ; which multiply by the amount of
11. for a year; to the produft add the given annuity,
and the fum is the amount in 3 years, &c. The for¬
mer queftion wrought in this manner follows.
40 am. in 1 year. 126.1 am. in 3 years.
1.05 1.05
42.00
40
82 am. in 2 years.
1.05
132.405
40
172.405 am. in 4 years.
1.05
86.10 181.02525
40 40
126.1 am in 3 years. 221.02525 am. in 5 years.
If the given time be years and quarters, find the a-
mount for the whole years, as above ; then find the a-
mount of 11. for the given quarters ; by which multi¬
ply the amount for the yvhole years; and to the pro-
duA add fuch a part of the annuity as the given quar¬
ters are of a year.
If the given annuity be payable half yearly, or quar¬
terly, find the amount of 1 1. for half a year or a quar¬
ter ; by which find the amount for the feveral half-year^
or quarters, in the fame manner as the amount for the
feveral years is found above.
Pros. 2. Annuity, rate, and time given, to find
the prefent worth, or fum of money that will purchafe
the annuity.
Rule. Find the amount of the given annuity by
the former problem ; and then, by compound intereft,
find the prefent worth of this amount, as a fum due at
the end of the given time.
Examp. What is the prefent worth of an annuity
of 401. to continue 5 years, difcounting at 5 per cent.
compound intereft ?
By the former problem, the amount of the given an¬
nuity for 5 years, at 5 per cent, is 221.02525 ; and by
compound intereft, the amount of l 1. for 5 years,, at
5 percent, is 1.2762815625.
And, 1.2762815625)221.02525000(173.179 =
173l. 3 s. 7 d. the prefent worth fought.
The prefent worth may be alfo found thus: By com¬
pound intereft, find the prefent worth of each year by
ttfelf, and the fum of thefe is the prefent worth fought.
The former example done in this way follows.
1.2762815625 ) 40.000000000 f 31.3410
1.21550625)40.00000©© (32.9080
1.157625)40.00000 (34-5535
1.1025)40.000 (36.2811
1.05)40.0 (38.0952
Prefent worth, 173.1788
If the annuity to be purchafed be in reverfion, find
firft the prefent worth of the annuity, as commencing
immediately, by any of the methods taught above; and Annuity;
then, by compound intereft, find the prefent worth of'-
that prefent worth, rebating for the time in reverfion;
and this laft prefent worth is the anfwer.
Examp. What is the prefent worth of a yearly pen-
fion or rent of 75I. to continue 4 years, but not to com¬
mence till 3 years hence, difcounting at 5 per cent. P
.05 : 1 :: 75 : 1500
1.05x1.05x1.05x1.05=1.21550625
1.21550625)1500.00000(1234.05371
1500
I234-°537I
265.94629, prefent worth of the annuity, if it
was to commence immediately.
1.05x1.05x1.05=1.157625 L. s. d.
1.157625)265.94629(229.7344=229 14 Si
Pros. 3. Prefent worth, rate and time given, to
find the annuity.
Rule. By the preceding problem, find the prefent
worth of 11. annuity for the rate and time given; and
then fay, As the prefent worth thus found to 1 1. an¬
nuity, fo the prefent worth given to its annuity ; that
is, divide the given prefent worth by that of il. annuity.
Examp. What annuity, to continue 5 years, will
173 1- 3 s. 7 d. purchafe, allowing compound intereft at
5 per cent. ?
.05 : 1 :: 1 : 201.
1.05x1.05x1.05x1.05x1.05=1.2762815625
1.2762815625)20.00000000(15.6705.
20
15.6105.
4.3295 prefent worth of 1 1. annuity.
4-329)173.179(401. annuity. 4nf.
II. Annuities for ever, or freehold EJlates.
In. freehold eftates, commonly called annuities in fee~
Jimple, the things chiefly to be confidered are, 1. The.
annuity or yearly rent. 2. The price or prefent worth,.
3. The rate of intereft. The queftiona that ufually oc j
cur on this head will fall under one or other of the fol¬
lowing problems.
Prob. 1. Annuity and rate of intereft given, to find
the price.
As the rate of 11. to 11. fo the rent to the price.
Examp. The yearly rent.of a fmall eftate is 401.:
What is it worth in ready money, computing intereft at
3 i per cent. ?
As .035 : 1 :: 40 : 1142.857142=/,. 1142 17 if.
Prob. 2. Price and rate of intereft given, to find
the rent or annuity.
As 11. to its rate, fo the price to the rent.
Examp. A gentleman purchafes an eftate for 40001,
and has 4f per cent, for his money: Required the rent ?.
As 1 : .045 :: 4000 : 1 : 180I. rent fought.
Prob. 3. Price and rent given, to find the rate of
intereft.
As the price to the rent, fo 1 to the rate.
Examp. An eftate of 180L yearly rent is bought
for 40001.: What rate of intereft has the purchafer for
his money ?
As 4000 : 180 I : *045 rate fought.
Ekoej
ANN [ 46 j ANN
Annuity. Prob. 4. The rate of xntereft given, to find how,
U '-yw many years purchafe an eftate is worth.
Divide 1 by the rate, and the quot is the number of
years purchafe the eftate is worth.
Examp. A gentleman is willing to purchafe an e-
ftate, provided he can have zi percent, for his money :
How many years purchafe may he ofler ?
.025) 1.000(40 years purchafe. Anf,
Prob. 5. The number of years purchafe, at which an
eftate is boqght or fold, given, to find the rate of intereft.
Divide 1 by the number of years purchafe, and the
quot is the rate of intereft.
Examp. A gentleman gives 40 years purqhafe for
an eft^te : What in.tereft has be for his money ?
40)i.ooo(.025 rate fought.
The computations hitherto are all performed by a
fingle divifion or multiplication, and it will fcarcely be
perceived that the operations are conduced by the rules
of compound intereft ; but when a reverfion occurs, re-
courfe muft be had to tables of annuities on compound
intereft.
Prob. 6. The rate of intereft, and the rent of a
•freehold eftate in reverfion, given, to find the prefent
•worth or value of the reverfion.
By Prob. 1. find the price or prefent worth of the
eftate, as if pofteflion was to commence prefently ; and
■then, by the Tables, find the prefent value of the given
annuity, or rent, for the years prior to the -commence¬
ment ; fubtraft this value from the former value, and
the remainder is the value of the reverfion.
Examp. A has the poffeffion of an eftate of 1301.
per annum, to continue 20 years ; B has the reverfion
of the fame eftate from that time for ever: What is the
value of the eftate, what the value of the 20 years pof¬
feffion, and what the value of the reverfion, reckoning
compound intereft at 6 per cent. P
By Prob. 1. .06)130.00(2166,^666 value of the eftate.
By Tablec 149 j .0896 yah of the pofieffion.
675.5770 val. of the reverfion.
Prob. 7. The price or value of a reverfion, the time
prior to the commencement, and rate of intereft, given,
to find the annuity or rent.
By the Tables, find the amount of -the price of the
jreverfion for the years.prior to the commencement; and
then by Prob. 3. find the. annuity which that amount
will purchafe.
Examp. The reverfion of a freehold eftate, to com¬
mence 20 years hence, is bought for 675.577 1. com¬
pound intereft being allowed at 6 per cent.: Required
the annuity or rent i
By the Tables the amount of 67C.C77I. ) .
for 20 years, at 6 percent, is } 2l66^
By Prob. 2. 2i66.{tx.o6—i$o.o rent fought.
III. Li/e Annuities.
The value of annuities for life is determined from
obfervations made on the bills of mortality. Dr Hal¬
ley, Mr Simpfon, and Monf. de Moivre, are gentlemen
,of diftinguilhed merit in calculations of this kind.
Dr Halley had recourfe to the bills of mortality at Annuity.
Breflaw, the capital of Silefia, as a proper ftandard for ■. —w— t
the other parts of Europe, being a place pretty central,
at a diftance from the fea, and not much crowded with
traffickers or foreigners. He pitches upon 1000 per-
fons all born in one year, and obferves how many of
thefe were alive every year, from their birth to the ex-
tinftion of the laft, and confequently how many died
each year, as in the firft of the following tables ; which
is well adapted to Europe in general. But in the city
of London, there is obferved to be a greater difparity
in the births and burials than in any other place, owing
probably to the vaft refort of people thither, in the
way of commerce, from all parts of the known world.
Mr Simpfon, therefore, in order to have a table parti¬
cularly fuited to this populous city, pitches upon 1280
perfons all born in the fame year, and records the num¬
ber remaining alive each year till none were in life.
It may not be improper, however, to obferve, that
however perfeft tables of this fort may be in themfelves,
and however well, adapted to any particular climate,
yet the conclufions deduced from them muft always be
uncertain, being nothing more than probabilities, or
conjectures drawn from the ufual period of ftiuinan life.
And the praCtice of buying and felling annuities on
lives, by rules founded on fuch principles, may be juftly
confidered as a fort of lottery or chance-work, in which
the parties concerned muft often be deceived. But as
eftimates and computations of this kind are now be¬
come faftiionable, we {hall fubjoin fome brief account
of fuch as appear moft material.
Dr Halley’s Table on the bills of mortality at Breflaw»
•Mr
ANN
[ 47 1 ANN
Annuity. Mr Simpfon’s Table on the bills of mortality at London.
From the preceding tables the probability of the
continuance or extinction of human life is eftimated as
follows.
1. The probability that a perfon of a given age (hall
live a certain number of years, is meafured by the pro¬
portion which the number of perfons living at the pro-
pofed age has to the difference between the faid num¬
ber and the number of perfons living at the given age.
Thus, if it be demanded, what chance a perfon of
40 years has to live feven years longer ? from 445, the
number of perfons living at 40 years of age in Dr Hal¬
ley’s table, fubtraft 377, the number of perfons living
at 47 years of age, and the remainder 68, is the num¬
ber of perfons that died during thefe 7 years; and the
probability or chance that the perfon in the queftion
fhall live thefe 7 years is as 377 to 68, or nearly as yt
to 1. But, by Mr Simpfon’s table, the chance is fome-
thinglefs than that of 4 to 1.
2. If the year to which a perfon of a given age has
an equal chance of arriving before he dies, be required,
it may be found thus : Find half the number of per¬
fons living at the given age in the tables, and in the
column of age you have the year required.
Thus, if the queftion be put with refpecft to a per- Annuity,
fon of 30 years of age, the number of that age in Dr ^
Halley’s table is 531, the half whereof is 265, which
is found in the table between 57 and 58 years ; fo that
a perfon of 30 years has an equal chance of living be¬
tween 27 and 28 years longer.
3. By the tables, the premium of infurance upon
lives may in fome meafure be regulated.
Thus, the chance that a perfon of 25 years has to
live another year, is, by Dr Halley’s table, as 80 to
1 ; but the chance that a perfon of 50 years has to live
a year longer is only 30 to 1 ; and, confequently, the
premium for infuring the former ought to be to the pre¬
mium for infuring the latter for one year, as 30 to 80,
or as 3 to 8.
Prob. I. To find the value of an annuity of 11. for
the life of a Angle perfon of any given age.
Monf. de Moivre, by obferving the decreafe of the
probabilities of life, as exhibited in the table, compo-
fed an algebraic theorem or canon, for computing the
value of an annuity for life ; which canon we here lay
down by the way of
Rule. Find the complement of life; and, by the
tables, find the value of 11. annuity for the years de¬
noted by the faid complement; multiply this value by
the amount of 11. for a year, and divide the produft.
by the complement of life ; then fubtraft the quot from
1 ; divide the remainder by the intereft of 1 1. for a
year ; and this laft quot will be the value of the annuity
fought, or, in other words, the number of years pur-
chafe the annuity is worth.
Examp. What is the value of an annuity of 11. for
an age of 50 years, intereft at 5 J>er cent. ?
86
5° age given.
36 complement of life.
By the tables, the value is, 16.5468
Amount of 11. for a year, 1 .05
827340
165468
Complement of life, 36)i7.374i4o(.4826i5
From unity, viz. i.o@oooo
Subtradl .482615
Intereft of il. .o5).5I7385(io.3477 value fought.
By the preceding problem is conftrufted the follow¬
ing table.
The
ANN
Annuity.
The value of 11. annuity for a fingle“life.
slge. : 3 par c. 3 i perc. 4 per c. \\perc. 5 per c. 6 per
10 19.87
ill 19.74
7 = 12 19.60
13 I9*47
6=r4 19.33
15 19.19
16
5=17
18
J9
4=20
21
22
23
3—24
25
?—31
S2
33
3^
35
36
37
38
I—39
40
19.05
18.90
18.76
18.61
18.46
18.30
18.15
17.99
17-83
17.66
17.50
17.16
16.98
16.80
16.62
16.44
16.25
16.06
15.86
15.67
15.46
15.29
15.05
14.84
14.63
14.19
13.96
*3-73
I3-49
*3-25
13.01
12.76
12.51
12.26
12.00
"•73
11.46
n.18
10.90
10.61
10.32
!0.03
-9l2i.
18.27
‘ 16
17.46
16.96
16.83
16.69
16.56
28
l3
15.98
14.7
14.52
H-34
16
3-98
44
18
9.91
9.64
_9^
16.31
16.
16.
,99
5.89
15.78
15.67
>5-55
15-43
3
14.81
14.68
13.82
13.67
t 48 ] ANN
The value of 11. annuity for a fuigle life. Annuity.
14.60
14-53
I4-47
14.41
14-34
14.27
14.20
14.12
14.05
13-97
13.89
9.61
9-39
9.16
8.93
8.69
13.81
13-72
13.64
13-55
13.46
>3-37
13.28
1 3.18
13.09
12.99
12.78
12.67
12.56
12-45
12-33
12.21
12.09
11.96
11.83
11.70
"•57
"•43
11.29
11.14
10.99
10.84
10.68
10.51
i°-35
10.17
9-99
9.82
9-63
9.44
0.70
10.00
9.85
9-75
9.60
9-45
9.24
9.04
8.83
8.61
9-30
9.20
9.00
8.85
8.70
8.55
8-35
8.20
8.00
7.80
9.42
9.11
8.79
8.46
8.13
7-79
7-45
7.1.0
6.75
6.38
6.01
5*63
5-25
4-85
4-45
4-°5
3-63
3.21
2.78
2-34
3t perc.
9.08
8.79
8.49
8.19
7.88
7.56
7.24
6.91
6-57
6.22
5.87
5-5i
5.14
4-77
4-38
3-98
3-57
3.16
2.74
2-31
4. perc. 4i per c. .5 per c. 6 per c.
5.72
5-38
5-
4.66
29
8.44
8.19
7-94
7.67
7 39
7.12
6.83
6.54
6.23
5.92
8.16
7-93
7.68
7-43
7.18
6.91
6.64
6.36
6.07
5-77
5-47
5-'5
4.82
4-49
4.14
5-59
5.26
4.92
4-57
4.22
3.84 3-78
3-47 3-4'
3-°7 3-Q3
2.67 2.64
2.26 I 2.23
7.60
7.40
7.20
6.95
6.75
6.50
6.25
6.00
5-75
5.50
5.20
4.90
4.60
4-3°
4.00
3-65
3-3°
2-95
2-55
2-»5
The above table fhows the value of an annuity of one
pound for a fingle life, at all the current rates of inte-
reft ; and is efteemed the beft table of this kind extant,
and preferable to any other of a different conftruftion.
But yet thofe who fell annuities have generally one and
a half or two years more value, than fpecified in the
table, from purchafers whofe age is 20 years or up¬
wards.
Annuities of this fort arc commonly bought or fold
at fo many years purchafe; and the value affigned in the
table may be fo reckoned. Thus the value of "an annuity
of one pound for an age of 50 years, at 3 per cent, in-
tereft, is 12.31; that is, 12 1. 10 s. or twelve and a half
years purchafe. The marginal figures on the left of t^ie
column of age ferve to fhorten the table, and fignify,
that the value of an annuity for the age denoted by
them is the fame with the value of an annuity for the
age denoted by the numbers before which they ftand.
Thus the value of an annuity for the age of 9 and 10
years is the fame ; and the value of an annuity for the
, age of 6 and 14, for the age of 3 and 24, &c. is the
fame. The further ufe of the table will appear in the
queftions and problems following.
Quest, i. A perfon of 50 years would purchafe an
annuity for life of 2001.: What ready money ought
he to pay, reckoning intereft at 4J per cent. ?
L.
By the table the value of 11. is 10.8
Multiply by 200
Value to be paid in ready money, 2164.00 jlnf.
Quest. 2. A young merchant marries a widow lady
of 40 years of age, with a jointure of 300I. a-year, and
wants to difpofe of the jointure for ready money: What
fum ought he to receive, reckoning intereft. at 3t per
cent. ?
By
ANN
Ey the table the value of i 1. is 13.98
300
Value to be received in ready money, 4194.00 Anf
Prob. 2. To find the value of an annuity for the
joint continuance of two lives, one life failing, the an¬
nuity to ceafe.
Here there are two cafes, according as the ages of the
two perfons are equal or unequal.
1. If the two perfons be of the fame age, work by
the following
49 ] ANN
on the longeft of two liyes, the one perfon being 30, Annuity,
and the other 40 years pf age, interelt at 4 per cent. ?
By the table, 30 years is - - 14.68
40 years is - - 13.20
Value of their joint lives, by Prob.
Cafe 2. is -
18.26
Value fought,
If the annuity be any other than 11. multiply the
anfwer found as above by the given annuity.
If the two perfons be of equal age, find the value of
Rule. Take the value of any one of the lives from their joint lives by Cafe 1. of Prob. 2.
the table ; multiply this value by the interell of il. for
a year; fubtrail the product from 2 ; divide the forefaid
value by the remainder ; and the quot will be the value
of il. annuity, or the number of years purchafe fought.
Examp. What is the value of tool, annuity for the
joint lives of two perfons, of the age of 30 years each,
reckoning intereft at 4 per cent. ?
By the table, one life of 30 years is - 14.68
Multiply by - - .04
Subtract the produdt - 5872
From - - 2.0000
Remains - - 1.4128
And 1.4128)14.68(10.39 value of il. annuity.
And 10.39X100^=1039 the value fought.
2. If the two perfons are of different ages, work as
directed in the following
Rule. Take the values of the two lives from the
table; multiply them into one another, calling the re-
fult the firft produdt j then multiply the faid firft pro-
dudt by the intereft of il. for a year, calling the refult
the fecond product; add the values of the two lives,
and from their fum fubtraft the fecond product; divide
the firft product by the remainder,.and the quot will be
the value of 1 1. annuity, or the number of years pur¬
chafe fought.
Examp. What is the value of 701. annuity for the
joint lives of two perfons, whereof one is 40 and the
other 50 years of age, reckoning intereft at 5per cent.?
By the table, the value of 40 years is
And the value of 50 years is
Firft product.
Multiply by
Prob. 4. To find the value of the next prefentatioa
to a living.
Rule. From the value of the fucceflbr’s life fub-
tradf: the joint value of his and the incumbent’s life, and
the remainder will be the value of 1 1. annuity; which
multiplied by the yearly income, will give the fum to
be paid for the next prefentation.
Examp. A enjoys a living of tool, per annum, and
B would purchafe the faid living for his life after A^s
death : The queftion is, What he ought to pay for it,
reckoning intereft at 5 per cent. A being 60, and B 25
years of age i
By the table, B’s life- is
Joint value of both lives, by Prob. 2.
The value of 11. annuity,
Multiply by
I.
13.46
6.97
6.49
too
649.00
11.83
i°-35
122.4405
.05
Second produdl, 6.122025
Sum of the two lives, - - 22.180000
Second produiR deduft, - - 6.122025
Remainder, - 16.057975
And 16.057975)122.4405(7.62 value of 11. annuity.
70
533.40 value fought.
Prob. 3. To find the value of an annuity upon the
longeft of two lives ; that is, to continue fo long as ei¬
ther of the perfons is in life.
Rule. From the fum of the values of the Angle lives
fubtraR the value of the joint lives, and the remainder
will be the value fought.
Examp. What is the value of an annuity of 11. up-
Vol. II. Part I.
Value of next prefentation,
The value of a direift prefentation is the fame as that
of any other annuity for life, and is found for 11. by
the table ; which being multiplied by the yearly in¬
come, gives the value fought.
Prob. 5. To find the value of a reverfion for ever,
after two fucceflive lives; or to find the value of a living
after the death of the prefent incumbent and his fuc-
ceffor.
Rule. By Prob. 3. find the value of the longeft of
the two lives, andfubtraR that value from the value of
the perpetuity, and the remainder will be the value
fought.
Examp. A, aged 50, enjoys an eftate or living of
1001. per annum; B, aged 30., is intitled to his lifetime
of the fame eftate after A’s death ; and it is propofed
to fell the eftate juft now, with the burden of A and
B’s lives on it: What is the reverfion worth, reckoning
intereft at ^ per cent. ?
By the table, A’s life of 50 is - ti-34
B’s life of 30 is - 14.68
.Sum, 26.02
Value of their joint lives, found by I - 8.60
Prob. 2. Cafe 2. is - J  
Value of the longeft life, - - fut>.
From the value of the perpetuity, - 25.00
Remains the value of 11. reverfion,
Multiply by
Value of the reverfion,
7.58
100
758.00
Prop.
ANN [50
_ Annu.ty. ^ Prob. 6. To find the value of^he joint continuance
of three lives, one life failing, the annuity to ceafe. ,
Rule. Find the Angle values of the three lives from
the table ; multiply thefe fiugle values continually, call¬
ing the refult the product of the three lives ; multiply
that product by the intereft of 1 1. and that product
again by 2, calling the refult the double product; then,
from the fum of the feveral products of the lives, taken
two and two, fubtraft the double product; divide the
produft of the three lives by the remainder, and the
quot will be the value of the three joint lives.
Examp. A is 18 years of age, B 34, and C 56 ;
What is the value of their joint lives, reckoning interell
at 4 per cent. P
By the table, the value of A’s life is 16.1, of B’s
14.12, and of C’s ic.ot.
i6.iX'4-i2Xio 01=2275.6, produft of the three lives,
.04
91.024
182.048, double produft.
Produft of A and B, 16.1 Xi4**2X227.33
A and C, 16.1 Xio.oi=t6i >6
B and C, 14.12X10.00=141.34
Sum of all, two and two,
Double produdt fubtradt,
529.83
182.048
Remainder, - 347.782
And 347.782)2275.600(6.54 value fought.
Prob. 7. To find the value of an annuity upon the
longeft of three lives.
Rule. From the fum of the values of the three fingle
lives taken from the table, fubtradt the fum of all the
joint lives, taken two and two, as found by Prob. 2.
and to the remainder add the value of the three joint
lives, as found by Prob. 6. and that fum will be the
value of the longelt life fought.
Examp. A is 18 years of age, B 34, and C 56:
What is the value of the longeft of thefe three lives, in¬
tereft at 4 per cent. ?
By the table, the fingle value of A’s life is 16.1
fingle value of B’s life is 14.12
fingle value of C’s life is 10.01
Sum of the fingle values, 40.23
By Prob. 2. the joint value of A and B is 10.76
joint value of A and C is 8.19
joint value of B and C is 7.65
Sum of the joint lives, 26.60
Remainder,
By Prob. 6. the value of the 3 joint lives is
l5-63
6.54
Value of the longeft of the 3 lives, 20 17
Other problems might be added, but thefe adduced
are fufficient for moft purpofes. The reader probably
may wifh that the reafon of the rules, which, it muft be
owned, are intricate, had been affigned ; but this could
not be done without entering deeper into the fubjedt
than was practicable in this place. See Chances.
] ANN
Annuities [Borrowing upon); one of the methods Annuity,
employed by government for raifing fupplies. >—
Of this there are two methods ; that of borrowing
upon annuities for terms of years, and that of borrow¬
ing upon annuities for lives.
During the reigns of king William and queen Anne,
large fums were frequently borrowed upon annuities
for terms of years, which were fometimes longer and
fometimes fhorter. In 1693, an adt was palled for
borrowing one million upon an annuity of 14 per cent,
or of 140,000!. a-year for 16 years. In 1691, an adl
was palled for borrowing a million upon annuities for
lives, upon terms which in the prefent times would ap¬
pear very advantageous. But the fubfeription was not
filled up. In the following year the deficiency was
made good by borrowing upon annuities for lives at
14 per cent., or at little more than feven years pur-
chafe. In 1695, the perfons who had purchafed thofe
annuities were allowed to exchange them for others of
96 years, upon paying into the exchequer 63 pounds
in the hundred; that is, the difference between 14/er
cent, for life, and 14 per cent, for 96 years, was fold
for 63 pounds, or for four and a half years purchafe,
Sftich was the fuppofed inftability of government, that
even thefe terms procured few purchafers. In the
reign of queen Anne, money was upon different occa-
fions borrowed both upon annuities for lives and upon
annuities for terms of 32, of 89, of 98, and of 99 years.
In 1719, the proprietors of the annuities for 32 years
were induced to accept in lieu of them South Sea
ftock to the amount of eleven and a half years purchafe
of the annuities, together with an additional quantity
of ftock equal to the arrears which happened then to
be due upon them. In 1720, the greater part of the
other annuities for terms of years both long and Ihort
were fubferibed into the fame fund. The long annui¬
ties at that time amounted to 666,821/. 8/. ^d. a-
year. On the 5th of January, 1775, lhe remainder of
them, or what was not fubferibed at that time, amount¬
ed only to 136,453/. 12 s. 8d.
During the two wars which begun in 1739 and in
1755, little money was borrowed either upon annuities
for terms of years, or upon thofe for lives. An annu¬
ity for 98 or 99 years, however, is worth nearly as
much money as a perpetuity, and ftiould, therefore, one
might think, be a fund for borrowing nearly as much-
But thofe who, in order to make family-fettlements,
and to provide for remote futurity, buy into the public
ftocks, would not care to purchafe into one of which
the value was continually diminilhing ; and fuch people
make a very confiderable proportion both of the pro¬
prietors and purchafers of ftock. An annuity for a
long term of years, therefore, though its intrinfic value
may be very nearly the fame with that of a perpetual
annuity, will not find nearly the fame number of pur¬
chafers. The fubferibers to a new loan, .who mean
generally to fell their fubfeription as foon as pofilble,
prefer greatly a perpetual annuity redeemable by par¬
liament, to an irredeemable annuity for a long term of
years of only equal amount. The value of the former
may be fuppofed always the fame, or very nearly tha
fame; and it makes, therefore, a more convenient
transferable ftock than, the latter.
During the two laft-mentioned wars, annuities, either
for terms of years or for lives, were feldom granted but
ANN [ 51 ] ANN
Annuity, as premiums to the fubfcribcrs to a new loan, over and
above the redeemable annuity or intereft upon the cre¬
dit of which the loan was fuppofed to be made. They
were granted, not as the proper fund upon which the
money was borrowed ; but as an additional encourage¬
ment to the lender.
Annuities for lives have occafionally been granted
in two different ways; either upon feparate lives, or
upon lots of lives, which in French are called Tontines,
from the name of their inventor. When annuities are
granted upon feparate lives, the death of every indivi¬
dual annuitant dilburthens the public revenue fo far as
it was affected by his annuity. When annuities are
granted upon tontines, the liberation of the public re¬
venue docs not commence till the death of all the an¬
nuitants comprehended in one lot, which may fometimes
ednfift of twenty or thirty perfons, of whom the fur-
vivors fucceed to the annuities of all thofe who die be¬
fore them ; the laft furvivor fucceeding to the annui¬
ties of the whole lot. Upon the fame revenue more
money can always be raifed by tontines than by an¬
nuities for feparate lives. An annuity, with a right
of furvivorfhip, is really worth more than an equal an¬
nuity for a feparate life, and from the confidence which
every man naturally has in his own good fortune, the
principle upon which is founded the fuccefs of all lot¬
teries, fuch an annuity generally fells for fomething
more than it is worth. In countries where it is ufual
for government to raife money by granting annuities,
tontines are upon this account generally preferred to
annuities for feparate lives. The expedient which will
raife mofl money, is almoft always preferred to that
which is likely to bring about in the fpeedieft manner
the liberation of the public revenue.
In France a much greater proportion of the public
debts confifts in annuities for lives than in England.
According to a memoir prefented by the parliament of
Bourdeaux to the king in 1764, the whole public debt
of France is eftimated at twenty-four hundred millions
of livres ; of which the capital for which annuities for
lives had been granted, is fuppofed to amount to three
hundred millions, the eighth-part of the whole public
debt. The annuities themfelves-are computed to a-
mount to thirty millions a-year, the fourth part of one
hundred and twenty millions, the fuppofed intereft of
that whole debt. It is not the different degrees of
anxiety in the two governments of France and England
for the liberation of the public revenue, which ocea-
fions this difference in their refpejftive modes of bor¬
rowing ; it arifes altogether from the dift'erent views
and interefts of the lenders.
In Britain, the feat of government being in the
greateft mercantile-city in the world, the merchants
are generally the people who advance money to go¬
vernment. By advancing it they do not mean to di-
minifli, but, on the contrary, to increafe their mercan¬
tile capitals; and unlefs they expected to fell with
fome profit their -{hare in the fubfeription for a new
loan, they never would fubferibe. But if by advan¬
cing their money they were to purchafe, inftead of
perpetual annuities, annuities for lives only,' whether
their own or thofe of other people, they would not al¬
ways be fo likely to fell them with a profit. Annui¬
ties upon their own lives they would always fell with
h;fs ; becaufe no man will give for an annuity upon the
life of another whofe age and ftate are nearly the fame A\ unity
with his own, the fame price which he would give for li
one upon his own. An annuity upon the life of a
third perfon, indeed, is, no doubt, of equal value to
the buyer and the feller ; but its real value begins
diminiih from the moment it is granted, and continues
to do fo more and more as long as it fubfifts. It can
never, therefore, make fo convenient a transferable
ftock as a perpetual annuity, of which the real value
may be fuppofed always the fame, or very nearly the
fame.
In France, the feat of government not being in a
great mercantile city, merchants do not make fo great
a proportion of the people who advance money to go¬
vernment. The people concerned in the finances, the
farmers-general, the receivers of the taxes which are
not in farm, the court-bankers, &c. ma&e the greater
part of thofe who advance their money in all -public ex¬
igences. Such people are commonly men of mean
birth, but of great wealth, and frequently of great
pride. They are too proud to marry their equals, and
women of quality difdain to marry them. They fre¬
quently refolve, therefore, to live bachelors; and having
neitlier any families of their own, nor much regard for
thofe of their relations, whom they are not always very
fond of acknowledging, they defire only to live in
fplendor during their own time, and are not unwilling
that their fortune fhould end with themfelves. The
number of rich people, befidec, who are either averfe
to marry, or whofe condition ?>f life renders it either
improper or inconvenient for them .to do fo, is much
greater in France than in England. To fuch people,
who have little or no care for pofterity, nothing can
be more convenient than to exchange their capital for
a revenue, which is to laft juft as long, and no long¬
er than they wifli it to do.
ANNUITY of Teinds, in Scots law, a certain pro¬
portion of the tiends of eredted benefices formerly pay¬
able to the crown, but now gone into difufe. t
ANNULAR, in a general fenfe, fomething in the
form of, or tefembling, a ring. It is alfo a peculiar
denomination of the fourth finger, commonly called
the ring-finger.
ANNULET, in architedbure, a fmall fquare mem¬
ber in the Doric capital, under the quarter-round.
Annulet is alfo a narrow flat moulding, which is
common to divers places of the columns, as in the ba-
fes, capitals, &c. It is the fame member which Vi¬
truvius calls a fillet; Palladio, a UjJil or cinfiure ; Sca-
mozei, and Mr Brown, a fnpercilium, lifi, tinea, eye¬
brow, fquare, rabbit. -See Architecture.
Annulet, a little circle, borne as a chargeincoats-of-
arms, as alfo added to them as ^.difference. Among the
Romans it reprefented liberty and nobility. It alfo de¬
notes ftrength and eternity, byreafon of itscircularfonru
When this figure is added as a difference, fume au¬
thors aflert, that it ferves to remind the bearer to at-
chieve great adbions.
ANNULLING, a term fometimes ufed for cancel¬
ling or making void a deed, fentence, or the like.
ANNUNCIADA, Annuntiada, or Annuntia-
ta, an order of knighthood in Savoy, firft inftituted by
Amadeus I. in the year 14C9 : their collar was of 15
links, interwoven one with another, in form of a true-
lover’s knot ; and the motto, E. E. R. T. fignifying,
-G 2 Fartitudo
A N O [ 52 1 A N O
.Annnn- Fertitudo ejus Rbodum tenuit. Amadeus VIII. gave the whom the Ellans were at that time reduced very low : AnomalHh-
ciada name Ammnciada to this order, which was formerly this, as well as thofe managed by the inhabitants of cal
known by that of the knot of love ; changing at the fame Pifa, they called avoM/^snccfar, that is, “ unlawful Olym- II
j>iaie»r t‘me t^ie >mage St Maurice patron of Savoy, which piads and left them out of their annals, wherein the 'A'na0I^oe*
» _ 1 hung at the collar, for that of the Virgin Mary ; and, names of their victors and other occurrences were re- , j
inilead of the motto above-mentioned, fubllituting the giftred.
words of the angel's falutation.
ANOMALISTICAL year, in aftronomy, the
Annunciada is alfo the title of fcveral religious or- time that the earth takes to pafs through her orbit: it
ders, inftituted at different times, and at different places,
in honour of the annunciation. See the next article.
alfo called the Periodical Tear. The fpace of time
belonging to this year is greater than the tropical year,
ANNUNCIATION, the tidings brought by the on account of the proceflion of the equinoxes. See
gel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary of the incarnation Astronomy.
‘A ANOMALOUS, a term applied to whatever is ir-
■egular, or deviates from the rule obferved by other
of Chrift.
Annunciation is alfo a feftival, kept by the church
on the 25th of March, in commemoration of thefe ti- things of the like nature,
dings. This feftival appears to be of very great anti- Anomalous Verbs, in grammar, fuch as are not
quity. There is mention made of it in a fermon which conjugated conformably to the paradigm of their con-
goes under the name of Athanafus. Others carry it jugation. They are found in all languages. In Latin,
up to the time of Gregory Thaumaturgus, becaufe the verb lego is the paradigm of the third conjugation ;
there is a fermon likewife attributed to him upon the and runs thus, lego, legis, legit: By the fame rule it
fame fubjedl. But the beft critics rejeft both thefe fhould be fero,feris,ferit; but we fay fero, fers, fert:
writings as fpurious. However, it is certain, this fe- fero, then, is an anomalous verb. In Englifti the irre-
ftival was obferved before the time of the council of gularity relates often to the preter tenfe and paffive
Trullo, in which there is a canon forbidding the cele- participle : for example,were it formed according
bration of all feftivals in Lent, excepting the Lord’s to rule, would make gived in the preter tenfe and paf-
day, and the feaft of the annunciation : fo that we may five participle ; whereas, in the former, it makes gave,
date its original from the feventh century.
In the Romifh church, on this feaft, the pope per¬
forms the ceremony of marrying or cloyftering a cer-
‘ 1 number of maidens, who are prefented to him in
and in the latter
ANOMALY, in aftronomy, an irregularity in the
motion of the planets, whereby they deviate from the
iphelion or apoeee.
the church, clothed in white ferge, and muffled up ANOMIA, in zoology, a genus of infe&s belong-
from head to foot: An officer Hands by, with purfes
containing notes of 50 crowns for thofe who make
hg to the order of vermies teftacea. The {hell is bi¬
valve, and the valves are unequal. One valve is per-
choice of marriage, and notes of a hundred for thofe forated near the hinge; affixed by that perforation to
who choofe to veil.
fome other body. There are 2 5 fpecies of the ano-
Annunciation is likewife a title given by the Jews mia; of which only two are natives of the Britifti
to part of the ceremony of the paffover.
feas, viz. 1. The ephippium, with the habit of an
ANNUNCIATOR, the name of an officer in the oyfter ; the one fide oonvex, the other flat; perforated^
church of Conftantinople. It was his bufinefs to inform adherent to other bodies, often to oyfter-ftiells, by a
the people of the feftivals that were to be celebrated.
ANODYNE (from a privative, and atom, doleo
ftrong tendinous ligature ; colour of the infide perla
ceous. Size, near two inches diameter. 2 The fqu:
a neg. and Ktwn, pain J ; a term applied to medicines mula, with ftiells refembling the feales of fiflr; very
which eafe pain, and procure fleep. They are divid¬
ed into three forts, viz. i. Paregorics, or fuch as af-
fuage pain. 2. Hypnotics, or fuch as relieve by procu-
delicate, and filvery ; much flatted ; perforated ; very
fmall. Adheres to oyfters, crabs, lobfters, and {hells.
The fpecies of this genus are commonly called Beaked
ring fleep. 3. Narcotics, or fuch as eafe the patient by cockles. No name has been given to the fifh that inha-
ftupifying him.
bit it; for the recent {hells of this kind are fo very
Opiates and narcotics deftroy fenfatiom Some hyp- rare, that there is fcarcely one to be found perfeft.
notics and paregorics, as nitre, camphor, &c. procure They are perhaps, as well as that which has given its
eafe and fleep by removing the offending caufe. Cam- form to the cornu amonis, inhabitants of the deepeft
phor is faid to be the beft anodyne in nervous cafes and parts of the ocean ; confequently it muft be fome ex-
at the decline of fevers. The dofes of thefe medicines traordinary agitation of that great body of water that
are generally regulated by the pulfe. can bring them at all to our knowledge in their recent
ANOINTERS, a religious fed! in fome parts of ftate.
England, fo called from the ceremony they ufed of a- The foffile fpecies of the Aneonia genus are uncom-
nointing all perfons before they admitted them into monly numerous in this ifland, in cur chalk-pits and
their church. They founded their opinion of anoint- limeftone-quarries 5 and, in Gloucefterftiire, they are
ing upon the fifth of James, verfes 14. and 15. as common on the ploughed lands as pebbles in other
ANOLYMPIADES, in antiquity, a name given places,
by the Elians to thofe Olympic games which had been ANOMOEANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the name
celebrated under thedireftion of the Pifceans and Ar- by which the pure Arians were called in the fourth
cadians. The Elians claimed the foie right of ma- century, in contradiction to the Semi-Arians. The
naging the Olympic games, in which they fometimes word is formed from the Greek, different,
met with competitors. The hundred and fourth Olym- diffimilar: For the pure Arians afferted, that the Son
piadwas celebrated by order of. the Arcadians, by was of a nature different from, and in nothing like,
that
ANO [53] ANO
Anomor- that of the Father : whereas the Semi-Arians acknow-
homboidia [ecjgecj a Hhenefs of nature in the Son ; at the fame
Anorexia. ^me t^iey denied, with the pure Arians, the con-
. —■ fnhftantiality nf the World.—The Semi-Arians con¬
demned the Anomoeans in the council of Seleucia ; and
the Anomoeans in their turn condemned the Semi-
Arians in the councils of Conllantinople and Antioch,
eraflng the word like, out of the Formula of
Rimini and that of Conllantinople.
ANOMORHOMBOIDIA., in natural hiftory, the
name of a genus of fpars ; the word is derived from
the Greek irregular, and roftGnSn; a rhom-
boidal figure. The bodies of this genus are pellucid
cryltalline fpars of no determinate or regular external
form, but always breaking into regularly rhomboidal
malfes; eafily fiffile, and compofed of plates running
both horizontally and perpendicularly thro’ the mafles,
but cleaving more readily and evenly in an horizontal,
than in a perpendicular direction ; the plates being
ever compofed of irregular arrangements of rhomboidal
concretions. Of this genus there are five known fpe-
cies. 1. A white, bright, and firattery one ; found in
great quantities in the lead mines of Derby (hire, York-
Ihire, and Wales. 2. A milk-white, opake, and Ihat-
tery one, found in fome parts of France, and very
plentifully in Germany, and fometimes in Wales and
Scotland, and in the hills of Yorkfhire. 3. A hard,
dull, and fnow-white one, found in fome of the mines
in Derbyfiiire, and in many of our northern countries.
4. A hard gray and pellucid one, found in the lead-
mines of Yorkfhire, and very common in Germany.
And, 5. A pellucid and colourlefs one ; this is found in
the lead-mines of Derbyfhire and Yorkfhire. All thefe
in fome degree have their double refraction of the ifland
cryftal. See Island-Cryftal.
ANONIS, in botany. See Ononis.
ANONYMOUS, fomething that is namelefs, or of
which the name is concealed. It is a term ufually ap¬
plied to books which do not exprefs the author’s name,
or to authors whofe names are unknown.
Anonymous in Commerce. Partnerfhips in
trade in France are ftyled anonymous, when they are
not carried on under any particular name, but wherein
each of the partners trades vifibly on his own account,
and in his own name ; after which all the partners give
one another an account of their profit or lofs in trade.
Thefe forts of partnerfhips are concealed, and known
only to the parties themfelves.
Anonymous Partnerfhips in Trade, are alfo in France,
fuch, wherein perfons of fortune and quality depofit
fums of money, in order to (hare of the profits and lofs.
To this end thofe who furnifh the capital have no
trouble in carrying on the trade, nor do their names
appear to be any way interefted therein.
, Anonymous, inlaw. The fending anonymous let^
ters demanding money, &c. is felony by the Black*
Aft, 9. Geo. L cap. 22.
ANOREXIA, Anorexy, (from « neg. and
“?«?'«•> appetite) ; Q. want of appetite, or a loathing of
food. The diforder is either original or fymptomatic.
When it is original, its caufes are, bad diet, too free
drinking, voracioufnefs, &c. : In which cafes, a vomit
or two of ipecacuanha may be taken ; and temperance,
a light but cordial nourifhing diet, and daily exercife,
psrfifled in, will generally tffeft a recovery. But it is
more frequently a fymptom of fome other diforder :
and then the cure depends on the removal of the ori¬
ginal one.
ANOSSI, a province of the ifland of Madagafcar,
lying between Lat. 230 18' and 26° S. It is watered
by many rivers, moft of which run into the Franchere,
Ramevatte, or humour, the fpring of which is in a moun¬
tain called Mangbage, and difcharges itfelf into the
fea in Lat. 25. 18. S. The mouth of this river is of¬
ten flopped, and the courfe to the fea interrupted, un-
lefs kept open by the overflowings of great rains and
high tides. The water runs fait one league above the
mouth, particularly in a free communication with the
fea. A lake, called Ambou, is formed at the mouth,
half a league wide, with depth fufficient for any fhip
if the mouth of the river was kept open. Next in
bignefs to the Franchere is theManghafia, which fprings-
from a mountain called Siliva, and empties itfelf into
the fea, where large fhips may ride at anchor. Croco¬
diles breed in thefe and all the other rivers of the ifland.
Between the two rivers above mentioned lies Cape
St Remain, half a mile dillant from the mouth of the
Franchere, and which runs from the north-weft fix or'
feven leagues into the fea. When the Cape is palled
the coaft forms a great bay, in the fhape of a crofs,.
which extends to the mouth of a river called Dian
Panouge, or Pitorab. In the middle of this bay the
land runs out, and almoft forms a peninfula* called Tbo-
langare. Fort Dauphin lies to the north of this pe-
niniula, and Port Dauphin over againft it. This pro¬
vince has feveral other peninfulas and fmall iflands be¬
longing to it. The country is beautiful ; abounds in
fruit-trees : is fertile in pafture for cattle ; and, if care¬
fully cultivated, would produce all the neceflaries of life.
It is furrounded by high mountains, which are covered
with woods and ftiruhs; but, about four miles diftant
from Fort Dauphin, the adjacent hills are quite defti-
tute of verdure. The French often dug in this neigh¬
bourhood, expefting to meet with mines of gold and
filver, particularly in one mountain where feveral fprings
flow near each other and empty themfelves into a neigh¬
bouring river. In this river they found feveral ftones
and heaps intermixed with yellow clay, with a great
quantity of black and white fpangles fliining like filver,
which they carefully pounded and waftied, but without
effeft. About 60 yards above thefe fprings the grafs,
and every fort of vegetable, appears half dried and yel¬
low, from a metalline fulphur, which gives that afpeft;
but the top of the mountain is covered with a freih and
beautiful verdure. It is faid that the Portuguefe found
gold at the foot of this monntain on the north fide,
but that the place they had dug was filled up by the
chiefs of the country after the Portuguefe had been
driven out.
The province of Anoffi is inhabited by three diffe¬
rent forts of whites, and four forts of negroes. The
whites are diftinguiftied by the names of Rohandriaus,
Atiacandrians, and Ondzatji. The whites are diftin-
guiflted from the negroes by the general name of Za-
feramini, or Rahimini; and the Rohandrians are di-
llinguiflied above the other whites. When they pro¬
ceed to an eleftion of a fovereign, whom they call Om-
piandrian, or Dian Bahouacbe ; he is chofen from the
Rohandrian face. Next to him the others hold the
rank of princes, and are honoured as fuch by all the.
ANO { 54 ] ANO
Anoffi. reft of the fubjefts. The Anacandrians are defcendants
of the chiefs, but who have degenerated, and are ac¬
counted the baftards of princes, or thofe who are de-
fcended from a Rohandrian and any inferior white or
black woman. Thefe are Hkewife called by the name
of Ontempaffemaca, or people from the fandy parts
of Mecca, from whence, they fay, came the Rohan-
drians. J>oth the Rohandrians and Anacandrians wear
longihair, which hangs down in .eurls; and enjoy the
privilege of killing beafts. The Ondzatfi, or loweft
clafs of whites, are defeended from the baftards of the
Anacandrians. Thefe are all fiftiermen, and are al¬
lowed to kill no land animal except a chicken.
The four dalles of negroes are named Vvadziri, 1 <?-
havohits, Ontfoa, and Ondeves. The Voadziri, the moft
. powerful and the richeft, are mafters of feveral villages,
aird defeended from the original lords of the country.
They enjoy .the privilege pf killing beafts, when at a
diilance from the whites, and no Rohandrian or Ana-
candrian in the village. The Lohavohits are defcend¬
ants from theVoadziri, and alfo lords ; but with this dif¬
ference, that the one commands a whole diftrid, and
•the jurifdi&ion of the others extends only to their own
village and family. They' are alfo permitted to kill
thofe beafts they intend to eat, when at a diltance from
the whites. The Ontfoa are next to the Lohavohits,
and are their near relations. The Ondeves are the loweft
of all, being originally flaves by father and mother.
TheVoadziri, Lohavohits, and Ontfoa, enjoy the pri¬
vilege of fubmjtting themfelves, on the death of their
lord or king, to any chief they pleafe. In return for fuch
homage, the new lord makes them a prefent, in confe-
quence of which he becomes heir to all their pofleffions.
Hence the lower claffes both of whites and blacks,
when* death approaches, are under the greateft concern
and anguifh of mind, well knowing that their lords
will not fail to deprive their children of every thing
they poflefs. The Ondeves have not the fame liberty
with the others; but, in times of famine, the chiefs
are obliged to.fupply them with neceffaries ; which if
they fail,to do, they have the liberty of fubmitting
themfelyes to new mafters. The inhabitants of this
province have no temples, and very little appearance
of religion ; only they keep up a cuftom of immolating
beafts upon particular occafions, as in ficknefs, plant¬
ing 'yams or rice, on aflemblies, &c. They offer the
firft-born beaft to the devil and to God, naming the
devil firft, in this manner, Dianlilis Aminbanhabare, or
** Lord Devil and God.”—There are feveral towns on
the river Franchere ; and near this river the Portuguefe
bad a fort built upon a fteep rock, and feveral build¬
ings below, with inclofures, which furniftied all forts
pf neceffaries for their fubfiftence; but they were all
maffacred by the natives.
This province feems originally to have been inhabited
by negroes. The whites or Zaferamini fettled in k
about 200 years ago, and conquered the negroes. But
they themfelves were conquered by the .Frepch, though
under the government of a king whom they honoured
as a god. In 1642, Captain Rivault obtained a permif-
fion to eftabliih a colony in this part of the ifland; and
accordingly he took poffeffion of it in the name of the
king of France, in the month of September, that fame
year. The French landed 200 men, well armed, and
provided with ftore of ammunition and other neceffaries
for building a fort, which they immediately fet about; Anotta.
but no fooner did the natives obferve their intention, '-■—y—J
than they ufed their utmoft art to prevent their defign
from taking effeft. This created a war, in which the
French were vi&ors ; and, the natives becoming in time
much better reconciled to them, they intermarried,
and lived up and down in feveral towns at feme diftance
from one another, not above five or fix in a place. This
tranquillity lafted for fome years ; but at laft the na¬
tives, growing jealous, refolved to free themfelves from
a foreign yoke ; and accordingly formed a confpiracy
to cut off all the French in one day ; which they foon
after effefted, not leaving a fingle perfon alive. In 1644
the above-mentioned Fort Dauphin was erefted in Lat.
2£. 6. S. Many, buildings were erefted, behind the
Fort, adjoining to the governor’s houfe, with great in¬
clofures that produced every fort of fruit and kitchen -
herb. In 1656 this fort was accidentally deftroyed by
fire ; but was foon after repaired, and ftill continues,
notwithftanding the cataftrophe above mentioned, and
its garrifon carries on frequent wars with the natives.
ANOTTA, or Arnotta, in dyeing, an elegant
red colour, formed from the pellicles or pulp of the
feeds of the Bixa, a tree common in South America.
It is alfo called Terra Qrlcana, and Roucou.
The manner of making anotta is as follows : The
red feeds, cleared from the pods, are fteeped in water
for feven or eight days, or longer, till the liquor begins
to ferment; then ftrongly ftirred, ftamped with wooden
paddles and beaters, to promote the reparation of the
red fkins : this procefs is repeated feveral times, till the
feeds are left white. The liquor, paffed through clofe
cane-fieves, is pretty thick, of a deep red colour, and
a very ill fmell; in boiling, it throws up its colouring
matter to the furface in form of feum, which is after¬
wards boiled down by itfelf to a due confiftence, and
made up while foft into balls. The anotta commonly
met with among us, is moderately hard and dry, of a
brown colour bn the outfide, and a dull red within. It
is difficultly a&ed upon by water, and tinges the liquor
only of a pale brownilh-yellow colour. In reftified
fpirit of wine, it very readily diffolves, and communi¬
cates a high oyang.e or yellowifh red. Hence it is ufed
as an ingredient in varnifties, for giving more or lefs of
an orange-caft to the fimple yellows. Alkaline falls
render it perfeftly foluble in boiling water, without al¬
tering its colour. Wool or filk boiled in the folution
acquire a deep, but not a very durable, orange-dye.
Its colour is not changed by alum or by acids, any
more than by alkalis : but when imbibed in cloth, it
is difeharged by foap, and deftroyed by expofure to
the air. It is faid to be an antidote to the poifonous
jpice of manioc or caffava.—Labat informs us, that
the Indians prepare an anotta greatly luperior to that
which is brought to us, of a bright ffiining red colour,
almoft equal to carmine : that, for this purpofe, in-
ftead of fteeping and fermenting the feeds in water,
they rub them with the hands, previoufly dipt in oil,
till the pellicles come off, and are reduced into a clear
pafte; which is feraped off from the hands with a
knife, and laid on a clean leaf in the lhade to dry.
De Lae-t, in his notes on Margraves’s natural hiftory of
Brazil, mentions alfo two kinds of anotta; one of a
permanent crimfon colour, ufed as a fucus or paint for
the face; and another which gives a colour inclining;.
more
A N S f 55 J A N S
Anout more to that of faffron. This laft, which is our anot-
|| ta, he fuppofes to be a mixture of the firil fort with
Anfanans. certain refinous matters, and with the juice of the root
v—-V-1-'of the tree. The wax or pulp in which the feeds are
inclofed is a cool agreeable rich cordial, and has been
long in ufe among the Indians and Spaniards in Ame¬
rica, who ft ill mix it with their chocolate, both to
heighten the flavour and raife the colour. It is faid to
be a' fuccefsful remedy in bloody-fluxes. The roots
have much the fame properties with the wax ; but
thefe are obferved to work more powerfully by the uri¬
nary paflages : they are ufed by fame people in their
broths, and feem to anfwer all the purpofes of the pulp,
but in a more faint degree. See Bixa.
ANOUT, a fmall ifland in the Schagerrack, or that
part of the fea of Denmark which has Norway on the
north, Jutland on the weft, and the ifle of Zealand on
the fouth ; it lies in 130 E. Long, and 56° 36' N. Lat..
ANSZE, in aftronomy, implies the parts of Saturn’s
ring proje&ing beyond the dilk of the planet.—The
word is Latin, and properly fignifies handles : thefe
parts of the ring appearing like handles to the body of
the planet.
ANSARIANS, a people of Syria, fo called in the
country, but ftyled in Delifle’s maps Enfarians, and
in thofe of Danville, Najfaris. The territory occupied
by thefe Anfaria is that chain of mountains which ex¬
tends from Antakia to the rivulet called iVaZr-eZ-A'^Z/r,
or the Great River. The hittory of their origin,
though little known, is yet inftruftive. The follow¬
ing account is from the Bibliotheque Orientale of Afie-
mani, a writer who has drawn his materials from the
belt authorities.
“ In the year of the Greeks 1202 (A. D. 891),
there lived at the village of Nafar, in the environs of
Koufa, an old man, who, from his fallings, his conti¬
nual prayers, and his poverty, palled for a faint: feve-
ral of the common people declaring themfelves his par-
tizans, he felected from among them twelve difciples
to propagate his do&rine. But the commandant of
the place, alarmed at his proceedings, feized the old
man, and confined him in prifon. In this reverfe of
fortune, his fituation excited the pity of a girl who
was Have to the goaler, and Ihe determined to give
him his liberty : an opportunity foon offered to effedt
her defign One day when the goaler was gone to bed
intoxicated, and in a profound lleep, Ihe gently took
the keys from under his pillow, and after opening the
door to the old man, returned them to their place un¬
perceived by her mailer: the next day when the goal¬
er went to vifit his prifoner, he was extremely allonilh-
ed at finding he had made his efcape, and the more fo
fince he could perceive no marks of violence. He
therefore judicioully concluded he had been delivered
by an angel, and eagerly fpread the report, to avoid
the reprehenfion he merited-; the old man, on the other
hand, afferted the fame thing to his difciples, and
preached his dodlrines with more earneftnefs than ever.
He even wrote a book, in which, among other things,
he fays, ‘ I, fuch a one, of the village of Nafar, have
feen Chrift who is the word of God, who is Ahmad,
fon of Mohammad, fon of Hanafa, of the race of Ali;
who alfo is Gabriel: and he faid to me, Thou art he
who readeth (with underftanding) : thou art the man
who fpeaketh truth j thou’ art the camel which pre-
ferveth the faithful from wrath; thou art the beaft Anfatfans
which carrieth their burden; thou art the (Holy) II
Spirit, and John, the fon of Zachary. Go, and preach Arfelm.
to men that they make four genuflexions in praying ; ’ -
two before the riling of the fun, and two before his
fetting, turning their faces towards Jerufalem : and let
them fay, three times, God Almighty ! God Molt
High ! God Molt Great! Let them obferve only the fe-
cond and third feftival ; let them fall but two days an¬
nually ; let them not wafh the prepuce, nor drink beer,
but as much wine as they think proper; and laftly,
let them abftain from the flelh of carnivorous animals.’
This old man paffing into Syria, propagated his opi¬
nions among the lower orders of the country-people,
numbers of whom believed in him : And after a few
years he went away, and nobody ever knew what be¬
came of him.”
Such was the origin of thefe Anfarians, who are, for
the moll part, inhabitants of the mountains before men¬
tioned.
The Anfaria are divided into feveral tribes or feXs ;
among which are diftinguilhed the Shamfia, or adorers
of the fun ; the Kelbia, or worlhippers of the dog ; and
the Kadmoufia, who are faid to pay a particular ho¬
mage to that part in women which correfponds to the
priapus.
Many of the Anfaria believe in the metempfycho-
fis ; others rejeX the immortality of the foul ; and in
general, in that civil and religious anarchy, that igno¬
rance and rudenefs which prevail among them, thefe
peafants adopt what opinions they think proper, fol¬
lowing the feX they like bell, and frequently attaching
themfelves to none.
Their country is divided into three principal df-
ftriXs farmed by the chiefs called Mokaddamitn. Their
tribute is paid to the Pacha of Tripoli, from whom they
annually receive their title. Their mountains are in
general not fo fleep as thofe of Lebanon, and confe-
quently are better adapted to cultivation; but they are
alfo more expofed to the Turks, and hence doubtlefs,
it happens, that with greater plenty of corn, tobacco,
wines, and olives, they are more thinly inhabited than
thofe of their neighbours the MaronitEs and the
Druzes.
A.NSE, an ancient town of France, in the Lyonois,
ten miles north of Lyons, Long. 6. 55. N. Lat. 4.5. 55.
ANSELM, archbiihop of Canterbury, in the reigns
of Willium Rufus and Henry I. He was born in the
year 1033, at Aoft, a town in Savoy at the foot of the
Alps. He became a monk in the Abbey of Bee in
Normandy; of which he was afterwards chofen prior,
and then abbot. In the year 1092, he was invited over
to England by Hugh Earl of Cheiler; and in the year
following was prevailed on, as we are told, with great
difliculty, to accept the archbifhopric of Canterbury,
fie enjoined celibacy on the clergy ; for which he was
banifhed by king Rufus, but recalled by Henry at his
coming to the crown. He refufed to confecrate fuch
biftrops as were invefted by the king, according to pope
Urban’s decree ; flatly denying it to be the king’s pre¬
rogative : for this he was outed ag'ain ; till, the pope and
king agreeing, he was recalled in 1107. In firort, from
the day of his confecration to that of his death, he was
continually employed in fighting the prerogative of the
church againll that of the crown; and for that purpofe
A N S [ 56 ] A N S
Anfa 'fpent muc’i of his time in travelling backwards and for-
ii .. wards between England and Rome, for the advice and
^Aniibarn. djreCfcion 0f his Holinefs. At the council of Bari, in
the kingdom of Naples, the pope being puzzled by
the arguments of the Greeks againft the Holy Ghoft’s
proceeding from the Father, he called upon Anfelm,
who was prefent, and he difcufled their objeftions with
great applaufe. Priefts call him a refolute faint; to
other people he appears to have been an obllinate and
infolent prieft. He wrought many miracles, if we be¬
lieve the author of his life, both before and after his
death, which happened at Canterbury, in the 76th year
-of his age, anno 1109. He was canonifed in the reign
of Henry VII. Anfelm, though we may difregard him
as a faint, deferveS" to be remembered as one of the
principal revivers of literature, after three centuries of
profound ignorance.
His works have been printed in different years, and
at different places, viz. Nuremb. 1491. Paris 1544
and 1549. Venice 1549. Cologn 1573 and 1612.
Lyons 1636. But the bed is that of father Gerberon,
printed at Paris 167J. It is divided into three parts ;
the firft contains dogmatical tracts, and is intitled Mor
nologia; the fecond contains praftical and devotional
trads ; the third part confrfls of letters, in four books.
ANSER, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpe*
cies of anas. See Anas.
Anser, in aftronomy, a fmall ftar, of the fifth or
•fixth magnitude, in the milky way, between the fwan
and eagle, firft brought into order by Hevelius.
ANSERES, the name which Liniueus gives to his
third order of birds. See Zoology, n° 8.
ANSIBARII, oi-Ansivarii, an ancient people of
Germany', fituated fomewhere in the neighbourhood of
the Chauci. All we know of their hiftory is, that, in
the reign of the Emperor Nero, they were driven from
their own poffeffions by the Chauci. Being then in a
forlorn condition, they took poffeffion of fome uninha¬
bited lands, which had been ufed as pafture for the
horfes of the Roman foldiers. They were led by one
Boiocalus, a man of great valour, and of known fidelity
to the Romans. He remonftrated to the Romans, who
objeded to their taking poffeffion of thefe lands, That
the territory in difpute was large; and requefted, that
it might be allowed to an unhappy people, driven from
* their own Eabitations: that, at the fame time, wide
trads might be retained for the horfes and cattle of
the foldiers to graze in : that it was inconfiftent with
humanity to familh men in order to feed beafts, &c.
and at laft, lifting up his eyes to heaven, he allied the
celeftial luminaries how they could behold a defolate
foil, and if they' would not more juftly let loofe the fea
to fwallow up ufurpers, who had engrolfed the whole
earth? To this the Roman commander, Avitus, replied,
that the weakeft muft fubmit to the ftrongeft; and
that fince the gods, to whom they had appealed, had
left the fovereign judgment to the Romans, they were
refolved to fuffer no other judges than themfelves. To
Boiocalus himfelf, however, he privately offered lands
as a reward for his long attachment to the Romans :
but this offer the brave German rejeded, as a price for
betraying his people ; adding, “ A place to live in we
may want, but a place to die in we cannot.” The An-
fibarii now invited the neighbouring nations to join
them againft the Romans ; but they, dreading the
N° 22.
power of that nation, refufed to give them any aflift- Anfiko.
ance : upon which they applied to the neighbouring -y—
nations, begging leave to fettle in their territories ;
but being every where driven out as enemies and in¬
truders, thefe unhappy people were reduced to wander
up and down till every one of them perifhed.
ANSIKO, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on the
weft by the river Umbre which runs into the Zaire,
the kingdom of Wangua, and the Amboes who bor¬
der on Loango ; on the north, by fome defarts of Nu¬
bia ; and on the fouth, by Songo and Sonda, pro¬
vinces xjf Congo. Here are great numbers of wild
beafts, as lions,, rhinocerofes, &c. and many copper
mines. The king of Anfiko, or the great Macoco,
commands 13 kingdoms, and is efteemed the moft
powerful monarch in Africa. The inhabit«nts of An¬
gola have a tradition, that this is the proper country of
the Giagas, who came originally from .Sierra Leona,
and over-ran like a torrent the whole coaft as far as
Benguela ; that, being weakened by numerous battles,
and unable to force the defiles in order to return to Si¬
erra Leona, they arrived on the borders of Monomo-
tapa, where being'defeated, they were forced to remain
in the provinces of Anfiko. Be this as it will, the An-
fikans yield not in the leaft to the Giagas in fiercenefs
and barbarity. They are fo accuftomed to the eating
of human flefh, that it is afferted they have markets
where it is publicly fold, and that there are no other
graves for the dead than the bellies of the living* They
try the courage of their prifoners of war by (hooting
at them as at marks, dire&ing their arrows above or
around their heads ; and whoever difcovers the lead
figns of fear, is immediately devoured without remedy.
Thofe who appear intrepid and refolute, have their
nofes and ears bored, and two fore-teeth of the upper
jaw drawn. They are then improved in barbarity, by
accuftoming them to the moft horrid cruelties.
The Anfikans are neat, well-proportioned, and
ftrong ; wandering about from place to place, without
either fowing or reaping. They are dreaded for their
extreme brutality, and never traded with by the Euro¬
peans. Their language is barbarous, and difficult to be
learned, even by the inhabitants of Congo. The moft
diftinguiftied among them wear red and black caps of
Portuguefe velvet: the lower ranks go naked from the
waift upwards; and, to preferve their health, anoint
their bodies with a compofition of pounded white fan-
dal-wood and palm-oil. Their arms are battle-axes,
and fmall but very ftrong bows adorned with ferpents
(kins. Their ftrings are made of fupple and tender
(hoots of trees, that will not break, and their arrows of
hard and light wood. Thefe people, who kill birds
flying, (hoot with fuch furprifing fwiftnefs, that they
can difeharge 28 arrows from the bow before the firft
falls to the ground. With equal dexterity they ma¬
nage their battle-axes; one end of which is (harpened
and cuts like a wedge, and the other flattened like
a mallet, with a handle fet betvyeen, about half the
length of the iron, rounded at the end like an apple,
and covered with the (kin of a ferpent.—The current
money in this country is the zimbis or (hell, which is
fifhed for, and paffes among feveral African nations.—
They worftiip the fun as their chief deity; whom they
reprefent by the figure of a man, and the moon by
that of a woman. They have alfo an infinite number
A N S [ 57 ] ANT
Anflo, of inferior deities, each individual having a particular
Anfon. idol whom he addrefies on certain occafions.
' ANSLO, a fea-port town of Norway, in the pro¬
vince of Aggerhuys, with a bilhop’s fee. The fu-
preme court of juftice is held here for Norway. It is
feated on a bay of the fame name. E. Long. 10. 14.
N. Lat. 50. 24.
ANSON (George), a gentleman whofe merit and
good fortune, as a naval commander, exalted him to the
rank of nobility.' He was the fon of William Anfon,
Efq; of Huckborpugh, in Staffbrdlhire ; and, fhowing
an early inclination for the fea, received a fuitable edu¬
cation. The firft command he enjoyed was that of the
Weazle floop in 1722 ; but the moft memorable aftion
of his life, and the foundation of his future good for¬
tune, took place on his receiving the command of five
/hips, a (loop, and two viftuallers, equipped to annoy
the Spaniards in the South Seas; and to co-operate with
admiral Vernon acrofs the iilhmus of Darien ; an ex¬
pedition the principal objett of which failed by the
unaccountable delay in fitting him out. He failed,
-however, in Sept. I740 4 doubled Cape Horn in a dan¬
gerous feafon ; loft moft of his men by the fcurvy ; and
with only one remaining (hip, the Centurion, crofted
the greatdPacific Ocean. If no confiderable national
advantage refulted from this voyage, Commodore An¬
fon made his own fortune, and enriched his furviving
companions, by the capture of a rich galleon on her
paflage from Acapulco to Manilla ; with which he re¬
turned home round the Cape of Good. Hope. If he
was lucky in meeting this galleon, he was no lefs for¬
tunate in efcaping a French fleet then cruifing in the
channel, by failing through it during a fog. He ar¬
rived at Spithead in June 1744. In a fhort time after
his return, he was appointed rear-admiral of the blue^
and one of the lords of the admiralty. In April 1745,
he was made rear-admiral of the white, and the fol¬
lowing year vice-admiral of the blue; at which time
he was chofen to reprefent the borough of Heydon in
parliament. In 1747, being on board the Prince
George of 90 guns, in company with Admiral War¬
ren, and 12 other fhips, he intercepted, off Cape Fi-
nifterre, a powerful fleet, bound from France to the
Eaft and Weft Indies ; when, by his valour and con-
dudt, he again enriched himfelf and his officers, and
at the fame time ftrengthened the Britifh navy, by ta¬
king fix men of war and four Eaft-Indiamen, not one
of them efcaping. The French admiral, M. Jonquiere,
on prefenting his fword to the conqueror, faid, Mon-
Jieur, vous avez •daincu VInvincible, el la Gloire vans
fail: “ Sir, you have conquered the Invincible; and
Glory follows you pointing to the fliips, named the
Invincible and the Glory, he had taken. For his fignal
fervices, his late majefty created him Baron of Soberton
in Hants. The fame year he was appointed vice-admiral
of the red; and, on the death of Sir John Norris, was
made vice-admiral of England. In 1748 he was made
admiral of the blue : he was afterwards appointed firft
lord of the admiralty, and was at length made admi¬
ral and commander in chief of his majefty’s fleet; in
which rank he continued, with a very Ihort interval,
until his death ; and the laft fervice he performed was
to convoy queen Charlotte to England. He died in
June 1762. No performance ever met with a more
favourable reception, than the account of Anfon’s
Von. II. Part I.
voyage round the world. Though it is printed under Anfpach
the name of his chaplain, it was compofed under his !!
lordlhip’s own infpeftion, and from the materials he •Ant'
himfelf furnifhed, by the ingenious Mr Benjamin Ro- 'IJ
bins.
ANSPACH (the marquifate of), a fmall territory
of Franconia, in Germany, bounded on the north by
the bifhoprics of Wartlburg and Bamberg, which laft
likewife lies to the weft ; by the earldoms of Flolach
and Oeting, with the bilhopric of Aichftet, on the
fouth ; and the palatinate of Bavaria and the territory
of Nuremberg on the eaft. The country is fruitful, and
interfperfed with woods, which render it agreeable for
bunting. Befides the city Anfpach, which is the capi¬
tal, the chief towns are Kreglin, Swalbach, Kreilflieim,
Rot, and Waffer-Truding.
Anspach is a fmall but pretty town, very' well built,
and has feveral churches. It is walled round, but has
no other fortifications. In the palace there is a remark¬
able cabinet of curiofities. It is feated on a river of the
fame name, and belongs to the houfe of Brandenburg.
E. Long. 10.42. N. Lat. 49. 14.
ANSPESSADES, in the French armies, a kind of
inferior officers in the foot, below the corporals, but
above the common centinels. There are ufuaily four
or five of them in a company.
ANSTRUTHER Eajler and Wefter, two royal
boroughs of Scotland, fituated on the fouth-eaft coaft
of the county of Fife, in W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat.
56. 20.
ANT, in zoology'. See Formica and Termes.
AnT-Bear, or Ant-eater, in zoology. See Myr-
MECOPHAGA.
Anr-Eggs, a name popularly given to a kind of
little white balls found in the banks or nefts of ants,
ordlpnly fuppofed to be the ova of this infeft.
I e naturalifts have obferved, that thefe are not
properly the ants eggs, but the young brood them-
felves in their firft Itate; they are fo many little vermi-
culi wrapped up in a film, or Ikin, compofed of a fort
of filk, which they fpin out of themfelves as filk-worms
and caterpillars do. At firft they are hardly obferved
to ftir : but, after a few days continuance, they' exhibit
a feeble motion of flexion and extenfion ; and begin to
look yellowifh and hairy, ftiaped like fmall maggots,
in which ftiape they grow up till they are almoft as
large as ants. When they pafs their metamorphofis, '
and appear in their proper fhape, they have a fmall
black fpeck on them clofe to the anus of the included
ant, which M. Lewenhoeck probably enough imagines
to be the feces voided by it. Dr Ed King opened
feveral of thefe vulgarly reputed eggs ; in fome of which
he found only a maggot in the circumftances as above
defcribed; while in another the maggot had begun to
put on the ftiape of an ant about the head, having two
little yellow fpecks, where the eyes were to be. In
others, a further progrefs was obferved, the included
maggots being furniftied with every thing to complete
the fhape of an ant, but wholly tranfparent, the eyes
only excepted, which were as black as bugles. Laftly,
in others, he took out every way perfeft and complete
ants, which immediately crept about among the reft.
Thefe fuppofed ants eggs are brought up every morning
in fummer, near the top of the bank, where they are
lodged all the warm part of the day, within reach of
H the
ANT [ 58 ] ANT'
Ant-hiils the fun’s influence. At night, or if it be cool, or like
I! to rain, they carry them down to a greater depth ; fo
Anu. y0U may jjg a f00|- depth e’er you come at them.
u The true ants eggs are the white fubftance which, up¬
on opening their banks, appears to the eye like the
fcatterings of fine white fugar, or fait, but very foft
and tender. Examined by a microfcope, it is found to
confill of feveral pure, white appearances, in difiinft
membranes, all figured like the leffer fort of birds eggs,
and as clear as a fifti’s bladder. The fame fubftance
is found in the bodies of the ants themfelves. On this
fpawn, when emitted, they lie in multitudes, to brood,
till in fome time it is turned into little vermicles as finall
as mites, commonly called ants eggs.
Ant-Hills, are little hillocks of earth, which the
ants throw up for their habitation and the breeding of
their young. They are a very great mifchief to dry
paftures, not only by wafting fo much land as they co¬
ver, but by hindering the fcythe in mowing the grafs,
and yielding a poor hungry food pernicious to cattle.
The manner of deftroying them is to cut them into four
parts from the top, and then dig into them fo deep as
to take out the core below, fo that, when the turf
is laid down again, it may lie fomewhat lower than
the level of the reft of the land: by this means it will
be wetter than the reft of the land; and this will pre¬
vent the ants from returning to the fame place, which
otherwife they would certainly do. The earth that is
taken out muft be fcattered to as great a diftance every
way as may be, otherwife they will colleft it together
and make another hill juft by. The proper time for
doing this is winter; and if the places be left open,
the froft and rains of that time of the year will deftroy
the reft : but in this cafe care muft be taken that they
are covered up early enough in the fpring, otherwife
they will be lefs fertile in grafs than the other places.
In Hertfordftiire they ufe a particular kind of fpade
for this purpofe. It is very fharp, and formed at the
top into the fhape of a crefcent, fo that the whole edge
makes up more than three-fourths of a circle ; this cuts
in every part,, and does the bufinefs very quickly and
effe&ually. Others ufe the fame inftruments that they
do for mole-hills. Human dung is a better remedy
than all thefe, as is proved by experiment; for it will
kill great numbers of them, and drive all the reft away,
if only a fmall quantity of it be put into their hills.
Acid of Ants, an acid produced by diftilling mil¬
lions of thefe infefts, either without addition, or with
water. It refembles vinegar in many refpe&s; but
differs from it in forming cryftals with magnefia, iron,
and zinc. Its attraftions are not yet determined, but
are fuppofed to coincide with thofe of vinegar.
ANT A, in the ancient architefture, a fquare pila-
fter, placed at the corners of buildings.
Anta, or Ante, a fmall kingdom on the gold-coaft
of Africa, extending about ten leagues in length.—
The country is covered with large trees, among which
ftand a number of fine villages. The foil is exceeding¬
ly rich, and the face of the country beautiful. The
air is alfo much more falubrious than in other places of
the gold-coaft ; it being obferved by all writers, that
the number of deaths here bears no proportion to that
on any other part on the coafts of Guinea. This coun¬
try contains the following villages, which deferve a
particular defcription on account of the commerce they
drive; viz. Bourtrey, Tohrari Sukoada, and Santa; Antacids,
for which, fee thofe articles.—Formerly Anta was po- Antaeus,
tent and populous, inhabited by a bold and rapacious v’—
people, who greatly annoyed the Europeans by their
frequent incurfions ; but by continual wars with their
neighbours they are now greatly enfeebled, and the
country in a manner depopulated. The fpirit of the
few remaining inhabitants is fled: they are defponding,
difpirited,andabje<ft, feeking proteftion from the Dutch
and other Europeans who have forts on this coaft, and
looking upon them as their heft friends.
ANTACIDS, in pharmacy, an appellation given
to all medicines proper to corredl acid or four humours.
Under the clafs of Antacids come, 1. Abforbents ;
as chalk, coral, fea-fhells, hsematites, and fteel-filings.
2. Obtundents; as oils and fats. 3. Immutants ; as
lixivious falts, and foaps.
ANTiEUS, in fabulous hiftory, a giant of Libya,
fon of Neptune and Terra. Defigning to build a tem¬
ple to his father, of mens fculls, he flew all he met;
but Hercules fighting him, and perceiving the affiftance
he received from his mother (for by a touch of the
earth he refrelhed himfelf when weary), lifted him up
from the ground, and fqueez.ed him to death.
Antaeus was king of Mauritania; and from feve¬
ral circumftances, with which we are fupplied by va¬
rious authors, it appears extremely probable that he
was the fame perfon with Atlas: they were both of
them the fons of Neptune, who reigned over Maurita¬
nia, Numidia, and a great part of Libya ; as may be
naturally inferred from his having fuch particular marks
of diftinftion conferred upon him by the inhabitants of
thofe regions. They both ruled with abfolute power
over a great part of Africa, particularly Tingitania.
Hercules defeated and flew Antasus in the fame war
wherein he took the Libyan world from Atlas: both
Atlas and Antaeus invaded Egypt, and contended with
Hercules in the wars with the gods, and were both
vanquiftied by him. Antaeus, as well as Atlas, was
famed for his knowledge in the celeftial fciences : from
whence we may fairly conclude them to have been the
fame king of Mauritania.
Antaeus, in his wars with Hercules, who command¬
ed an army of Egyptians and Ethiopians, behaved with
great bravery and refolution. Receiving large rein¬
forcements of Libyan troops, he cut off vaft numbers
of Hercules’s men : but that celebrated commander
having at laft intercepted a ftrong body of Mauritanian
or Libyan forces fent to the relief of Antaeus, gave
him a total overthrow, wherein both he and the beft
part of his forces were put to the fword. This deci-
five aftion put Hercules in poffeffion of Libya and
Mauritania, and confequently of all the riches in thofe
kingdoms: hence arofe the fable, that Hercules find¬
ing Antaeus, a giant of an enormous fize, with whom
he was engaged in Angle combat, to receive frefti
ftrength as often as he touched his mother earth when
thrown upon her, at laft lifted him up in the air and
fqueezed him to death. Hence likewife may be de¬
duced the fable, intimating, that Hercules took At¬
las’s globe upon his own Ihoulders, overcame the dra¬
gon that guarded the orchards of the Hefperides, and
made himfelf mafter of all the golden fruit. The gol¬
den apples, fo frequently mentioned by the old my-
thologifts, were the treafures that fell into Hercules’s
hands
ANT
[ 59 1
ANT
Antago- hands upon Antaeus’s defeat, the Greeks giving the let into one another in fuch form as there is exprefledjAnteambu-
Oriental word ‘we, riches, the fignification affixed to
their own term, /“»*«> apples. After the moft diligent
^ and impartial examination of .all the different hypo-
thefes of hiftorians and chronologers, relating to Atlas
and Antaeus, we find none fo little clogged with diffi¬
culties as that of Sir Ifaac Newton. According to
that illuttrious author, Ammon, the father of Sefac
was the firil king of Libya, or that vaft traft extend¬
ing from the borders of Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean ;
the conqueft of which country was effefted by Sefac
in his father’s life-time. Neptune afterwards excited
the Libyans to a rebellion againfl: Sefac; flew him ; and
then invaded Egypt under the command of Atlas or
Antaeus, the fon of Neptune, Sefac’s brother and ad¬
miral. Not long after, Hercules, the general of The-
bais and Ethiopia for the gods or great men of Egypt,
reduced a fecond time the whole continent of Libya,
having overthrown and flain Antaeus near a town in
Thebais, from that event called Antaea or Antasopo-
lis : this, we fay, is the notion advanced by Sir Ifaac
Newton, who endeavours to prove, that the firfl re-
duftion of Libya by Sefac happened a little above a
thoufand years before the birth of Chvift,
by Hercules did fome few years after.
for inftanoe, by dove-tails, rounds, fwallow-tails, or Jones,
the like. • II
ANTEAMBULONES, in Roman antiquity, fer- A"j^lu*
vants who went before perfons of diftinffion to clear the. Vian‘ .
way before them. They ufed this formula. Date locum v ^
domino tneo, i. e. Make room or way for my mailer.
ANTECEDENT, in general, fomething that goes
before another, either in order of time or place.
Antecedent, in grammar, the words to which a
relative refers.
Antecedent, in logic, is the firil of the two pro-
pofitions in an enthymeme.
Antecedent, in mathematics, is the firil of two
terms of a ratio, or that which is compared with the
other.
ANTECEDENCE, in aitronomy, an apparent mo¬
tion of a planet towards the weft, or contrary to the
order of the figns.
ANTECESSOR, one that goes before. It was an
appellation given to thofe who excelled in any fcience.
Juitinian applied it particularly to profeffors of civil
law; and, in the univerfities of France, the teachers of
the laft law take the title antecejfores in all their thefes.
ANTECURSORES, in the Roman armies, a party
ANTAGONIST, denotes an adverfary, efpecially of horfe detached before, partly to get intelligence, pro¬
in fpeaking of combats and games,
Antagonist mufcles, in anatomy, thofe which have
oppofite funiftions ; as flexors and extenfors, abduflors
and adductors, &c.
ANTANACLASIS, inrbetoric, a figure vrdiich re¬
peats the fame word, but in a different fenfe; as, dum
vivimus, vivamus.
ANTAGOGE, in rhetoric, afigureby which, when
the accufation of the adverfary is unanfwerable, we
load him with the fame or other crimes.
ANT ANDROS, (anc. geog.) a town of Myfia, on
the fea-coaft, at the foot of mount Alexandrea, a part
of mount Ida, (Strabo, Ptolemy): it was a town of the
Leleges, (Strabo); anciently called Edon'ts, then Cim-
vifions, &c. and partly to choofe a proper place to e
camp in. Thefe were otherwife called antecejfores, and
by the Greeks prodromi.
ANTEDATE, among lawyers, a fpurious or falfe
date prior to the true date of a bond, bill, or the like.
ANTEDILUVIAN, in a general fenfe, implies
fomething that exifted before the flood.
Antruiluvian World; the earth as it exifted before
the flood. See Earth.
ANTEDILUVIANS, a general name for all man¬
kind who lived before the flood, and fo includes the
whole of the human race from Adam to Noah and his
family.
As Mofes has not fet down the particular time ofchronclo-
meris, (Pliny, Stephanus.) It takes its name from An- any tranfaflion before the flood, except only the yearsgy of the
Xandros, a general of the Atoleans : it is now called S.
Dimitri.
ANT APHRODISIACS, in pharmacy, medicines
proper to diminilh the femen, and confequently extin-
guifli or leffen all defires of venery.
ANTARCTIC, in a general fenfe denotes fome¬
thing oppofite to the anftic or northern pole. Hence
antanftic circle is one of the leffer circles of the fpheres,
and diftant only 230 30' from the fouth pole, which is
Jikewife called antar&ic for the fame reafon.
of the fathers age wherein the feveral defcendants offirft ages.
Adam in the line of Seth were begotten, and the
length of their feveral lives; it has been the bufinefs
of chronologers to endeavour to fix the years of the
lives and deaths of thofe patriarchs, and the diftance of
time from the creation to the. deluge. In this there
could be little difficulty were there no varieties in the
feveral copies we now have of Mofes’s writings ; which
are, the Hebrew, the Samaritan, and the Greek ver-
fions of the Septuagint; but as thefe differ very confi-
ANTARES, in aftronomy, the name of a ftar of derably from one another, learned men are much di-
the firft magnitude, called alfo the fcorpion’s heart.
Its longitude is 66° 13' 14" of Sagittarius ; and j.ts
latitude 40 3 1' 26" S.
ANTAVARE, a province of the ifland of Mada-
gafear, lying about 210 30' S. Lat. and bounded by
the province and cape of Manoufi. The greateft part
of it is watered by the river Mananzari, whofe fource
is in the red mountains of Ambohitfmene.
ANTE', in heraldry, denotes that the pieces are
vided in their opinions concerning the chronology of
the firft ages of the world; fome preferring one copy,
and fome another.
That the reader may the better judge of the varia¬
tions in the three copies in this period, they are exhi¬
bited in the following table, with the addition of thofe
of Jofephus as corredled by Dr Wells and Mr Whi-
fton.
ANT
[ 60 ]
ANT
A Table of the Tears of the Antediluvian Patriarchs.
Length of
their lives.
Their ages at their fons birth.
2}
Heb.
130
105
90
70
65
162
65
187
182
600
Adam,
Seth,
Enos,
Cainan,
Mahalaleel,
Jared,
Enoch,
Methufelah,
Lamech,
Noah was aged
at the Flood,
To the Flood, 1656 1307 2262 1556
Sam. Sept.
130 230
105 205
90 190
70 170
65 165
62 162
65 165
67 167
53 188
600 600
Years they li
ved after their
fons birth.
Sam. Sept.
800 700
807 707
815 715
840 740
830 730
785 800
300 200
653 802
600 565
Sam. Sept.
930 930
912 912
905 905
910 910
895 89S
847 962
36? 365
720 969
653 753
Antedilu¬
vians.
To this table it •will be neceffhry, in order to explain temporaries the birth and death of each patriarch hap-
the confequences of thefe variations, to add feparate pened, according to the computation of each of the
chronological tables, ftiowing in what year of his con- faid three copies.
A Chronological Table of the Tears of the Patriarchs according to the Computation of the Hebrew.
Adam created,
Seth born,
Enos born,
Cainan born,
Mahalaleel born,
Jared born,
Enoch born,
Methufelah born,
Lamech born,
Adam dies,
Enoch tranflated,
Seth dies,
Noah born,
Enos dies,
Cainan dies,
Mahalaleel dies,
Jared dies,
Japhet born,
Shem born,
Lamech dies,
Methufelah dies,
£ £
3 3
S, 0
H O
130 •
235 105
3*5 195
395 265
460 330
622 492
687 557
874 744
930 800
987 857
1042 912
1056
1140
I23J
1290
1422
1556
1558
1651
1656
90
160 70
225 135
387 297
452 362
639 549
695 605
752 662
807 717
821 73*
905 817
910
65 *
227 162
292 227
479 4'4
535 470
592 527
647 582
661 596
745 680
840 775
895 830
962
The Flood,
65 o
252 187
308 243
365 300
355
369
453
548
603
735
869
871
964
- 969
56
1'3
168
182
266
36*
416 234
548 366
682 500
684 502
777 595
600
84
'79
A
A N T
ANT
[ 61 ]
S? Chronological Table of the Tears of the Patriarchs according to the Computation of the Septuagint.
Adam created,
Seth born,
Enos born,
Cainan born, -
Mahalaleel born,
Adam dies,
Jared born,
Enoch born, -
Seth dies,
Methufelah born,
Enos dies,
Eamech born,
Enoch tranflated,
Cainan dies, -
Noah born,
Mahalaleel dies,
Jared dies,
Japhet born, -
Shem born,
Lamech dies,
Methufelah dies,
The Flood,
230
435 205
625 395
795 565
930 700
960 730
1122 892
1142 912
1387
1340
1474
1487
1535
1662
1690
1922
2162
2164
2227
2256
2262
2, o
? Q
190 c-
360 170
495 3°5 !35
525 335 i65
687 497 327
707 517 347
852 662 492
905 715 545
849 679
862 692
910 740
867
895
0- W
o
162 p-
182
327 165
380 2x8
5,4 352
527 365
575
702
73°
962
187 ^ 5
200 c>
248 61 CT*
375 »88
403 216 28
63^ 448 260
875 688 500
877 690 502
940 753 565
696■ 594
600
Antedilu¬
vians.
Chronological Table of the Tears of the Patriarchs, according to the Computation of the Samaritan Pentateuch.
p'k; S k; k-
o » 0 2 3 «
Adam created,
Seth born,
Enos born,
Cainan born,
Mahalaleel born,
Jared born,
Enoch born,
Methufelah born,
Lamech born,
Noah born,
Enoch tranflated,
Adam dies,
Seth dies,
Enos dies,
Japhet born,
Shem born,
Cainan dies,
Mahalaleel dies,
Jared, Methu- )
felah, and La- >■
mech, die, J
130
235 105
325 195
395 265
460 330
522 392
587 457
654 524
707 577
887 757
930 800
1042 912
1140
1207
1209
”35
1290
r e l
90
-160 70
225 135
287 197
352 262
419 329
472 382
652 562
695 605
807 717
905 815
882
884
910
65
127 62
192 127
259 «94
312 247
497 427
535 470
647 582
745 680
812 747
814 749
840 775
895 830
» °
w | o £
^ £ 3 2,
65 ■ ^ g5
132 67 r
185 120 53
365 3OO 233 ISO
343 276 323
462 388 335
553 486 433
620 553 500
622 555 502
648 581 528
703 636 583
1307 The Flood, 847 720 653 600
To the varieties exhibited in the two laft tables, o-
thers might be added, by admitting the various read¬
ings of fome numbers in the Samaritan and Septuagint:
for as to the Hebrew copies, there is here a conftant
agreement among them.
The manufcript from which the Samaritan Penta¬
teuch was published, agrees exa&ly with the Samari¬
tan numbers given by Eufebius. But St Jerom tells
us, that, in his time, there were fome Samaritan co¬
pies which make Methufelah 187 years old at the birth
of Lamech, and Lamech 182 at the birth of Noah,
juft as the Hebrew does. Now if thefe numbers be
approved as the true original numbers, the interval from
the creation to the flood will be 1556 years j differing
from
ANT [62
Antedilu- from the Hebrew computation but IOOyears in the
vians. age of Jared at the birth of Enoch : and if this laft be
allowed to be a miftake of the tranfcriber, by his drop¬
ping a number, and writing 62 inltead of 162, as has
been fufpe&ed, the Samaritan will be perfe&ly recon-
.ciled with the Hebrew, and all difference between them
vanifh.
Scaliger, on the authority of an old Samaritan chro¬
nicle, having at the end a table of the years of the pa¬
triarchs to the time of Mofes, -would correft two of
the Samaritan numbers in Eufeb.ius; viz. inflead of 65,
the age of Mahalaleel when he begat Jared, he thinks
itfhouldbe ; andinftead of 67, the age of Methu-
felah when he begat Lamech, he would have it 77.
By which alterations he reckons 20 years more to the
flood than Eufebius apd the manufeript *, that is, 1327.
But as he acknowledges the table, whereon he grounds
thefe corredfions, contains fome great abfurdities, it
Xeems unreafonable to.oppofe it to the joint authority
of Eufebius and the Samaritan manufeript.
As to the Septuagint, in the common editions of
that veriion, the age of,Methufelah at the birth of La-
mech is 167 ; and confequently the fum of this period,
according to them, is no more than 2242. ;But in
this cafe Methufelah will outlive the flood 14 years ;
and we may well wonder, with Eufebius, where he was
.preferred. To obviate this objedlion, we are told,
that, in fome copies, Methufelah is faid -to have lived
but 782 (not 802) years after the birth of Lamech,
and no more than 949 in all. Eut the Alexandrian
manufeript entirely takes away the difficulty, by gi¬
ving the fame number in this place with the Hebrew.
Pezron is of opinion, that the age of Lamech at the
birth of Noahfhould be but 182, as it is both in the
Hebrew and in Jofephus, fuppofing, with St Auftin,
that the prefent number is the error of the feribe who
:firft copied the original Septuagint manufeript in Pto¬
lemy’s library. So that he computes 2256 years to the
flood. And, if this correftion be admitted, and one
more mentioned alfo by St Auftin, viz. that Lamech
lived 595 years rriter the birth of Noah, and not 565,
as in the prefent copies, there will then remain no o-
ther difference between the Septuagint and the Hebrew
than 600 years added to the ages of the fix patriarchs
when they begat their fons, and Methufelah will, con¬
formably to the Hebrew and Samaritan, die in the
year of the flood.
Having premifed this chronological view, we fhall
a proceed to the hiftory of the antediluvian patriarchs.
X>f Adamln Of the great progenitor we are told, that “ the
Paiadife. Lord God took the man and put him into the gar¬
den.” - Thefe words plainly indicate, that Adam was
not created within the precin&s of Paradjfe j and it
is afterwards faid, upon his being turned out of the
garden, “ He was lent to till the ground whence he
was taken.”—As to the fituation of this garden, con¬
cerning which there has been fo much learned but un¬
certain inquiry, fee the article Paradise.
Adam was doubtlefs created in the prime of his life,
.with all his powers and faculties in the higheft degree
of ftrenith and vigour. His body would be graceful,
and well proportioned; while his countenance was
comely, and glowed with all the luftre of youthful in¬
nocence. The poet thus deferibes pur firft parents :
] ANT
Adam the goodlieft man, of men fince born Antedllu-
His fons; the faireft of her daughters Eve. vians.
 for in their looks divine W—v ■/
The image of their glorious Maker ftione. Milton.
Many have entertained an opinion (as mentioned
under the article Adam), that our firft parent was
created an adept in knowledge and in fcience, a con-
fummate philofopher, and an accomplilhed divine.
But the very reverfe of this muft be true, providing
we give credit to the account which Mofes gives of
him. If Adam was created with intuitive knowledge,
for what end was he endowed with the fenfes of a man,
through which ideas might be conveyed to his mind,and
make him capable of fuch improvements as arife from
experience and obfervation ? And if he originally pof-
feffed fuch a fund of valuable knowledge, why had he
fuch an ardent thirft for an unwarrantable portion of
more, and for the fake of this additional pittance for¬
feited his happinpfs and life ? Befides, if Adam was at
firft all light and knowledge, and was foon after re¬
duced to a ftate of ignorance and error, this tranfition
would make a retrograde in the fyftem of nature, quite
diflimilar to that uniformity which obtains through¬
out the whole of the divine government and cecono-
my. Mofes introduces our firft parents into life in the
moft natural manner, as having capacities to acquire
knowledge, fenfes to receive impreflions from obje&s
around them, and a fuffic'ient degree of reafon to form
a judgement of the things perceived : yet all thefe fa¬
culties can only be confidered as fo many inftruments,
by the exercife of which they might be enabled to dif-
chargp the duties of their future life.
The following portrait of our firft progenitor when Smellh's
he firft came into life, drawn by the inimitable pencil ^anflatUn,
of Buffon, is extremely beautiful, while it is diffonant p°
from no part of the Mofaic hiftory. “ Let us fuppofe (thepaffage
a man in the fame fituation with him who firft received here a-
exiftence ; a man whofe organs were perfeftly formed, bridged),
but who was equally new to himfelf, and to every
objeft which furrounded him. Were he to give a hi¬
ftory of his thoughts, and of the manner in which
he received impreffions, he might give fome fuch in¬
formation as this. I remember the moment when my
exiftence commenced. It was a moment replete with
joy, with amazement and anxiety. I neither knew
what I was, where I was, nor whence I came. I opened
my eyes. But what an amazing increafe offenfation!
The light, the celeftial vault, the verdure of the earth,
the tranfparency of the waters, gave animation to
my fpirits, and conveyed pleafures which exceed the
powers of expreflion. At firft I believed that all thefc
objects exifted within me, and formed a part of my-
felf. When, turning mine eyes to the fun, his fplen-
dor overpowered me. I voluntarily Ihut out the
light, and felt a fmall degree of pain. During this
mopient of darknefs, l imagined that I had loft the
greateft part of my being. I was then roufed with
a variety of founds. The finging of birds and the
murmuring breezes formed a concert, which excited the
moft fweet and inchanting emotions. I liftened, and
was convinced that thefe harmonious founds exifted
within me.—I made a ftep forwards ; and afterwards
renewing my motion, I walked with my face turned
towards
ANT [ 63 ] ANT
AnteJilu* towards the Heavens; till 1 ftruck againfl a palm-tree,
vians. and felt fome degree of pain. Seized with terror, I
ventured to lay my hand upon the objeft, and per¬
ceived it to be a being diftinft from myfelf, becaufe it
did not, like touching my own body, give me a double
' fenfation. I refolvcd then to feel every objeft I faw,
and had a ftrong defire to touch the fun ; but ftretch-
ing out my hands to embrace the Heavens, they met
without any intermediate objeA. All obje&s appear¬
ed to me equally near ; and it was not till after many
trials that I learned to ufe my eye as a guide to my
hand. At laft the train of my ideas was interrupted,
and I loft the confcioufnefs of myexiftence. My deep
was profound ; but having no mode of meafuring time,
1 knew nothing of its duration. When I awakened,
I was aftonilhed to find by my fide another form, per-
feflly fimilar to my own. I conceived it to be another
felf; and inftead of lofing by my deep, I imagined my¬
felf to be doubled. I ventured to lay my hand upon
this new being. With rapture and aftonidiment, I per¬
ceived that it was not myfelf, but fomething much
more glorious and defirable.”
This philofopliical detail coincides with the opinion,
that, excepting what portions of knowledge Adam
might acquire by the exercife of his fenfes, his Maker
taught him every thing that was neceffary for his com¬
fort and fubfiftence. But before the Almighty gave
any inftru&ions to our firft parents, we muft fuppofe
he inspired them with the knowledge of the mean¬
ing of every word which they heard him fpeak ; other-
wife it would have been impoffible that he could have
had any fuch communication with them. The words
which they heard, and were made to underftand, be¬
ing imprinted upon their memories, would ferve as
the foundation of a language, which they would af¬
terwards increafe and enlarge as new obje^ls began to
- multiply, and hence give rife to new terms and defini¬
tions.
One of the firft leffons taught to Adam by his in¬
fallible Director, would be the neceffity of food for
the fupport of his life. Accordingly Mofes informs us,
that for this purpofe a grant was made him to eat of
every tree of the garden, excepting one. At the fame
time it was made known to him, in what manner he
was to repair the decays of nature, namely, by eating
oi the tree of life. Then, in order to qualify him for
focial intercourfe, he was ordered to exercife his fa¬
culty of fpeech, by giving names to different creatures.
The author of the book of Ecclefiafticus fays of our
firft parents, “ They received the ufe of the five ope¬
rations of the Lord; and in the fixth, he imparted to
them underftanding ; and in the feventh, fpeech to in¬
terpret the cogitations thereof." The meaning can¬
not be, that he gave them every word they were to;
pronounce, more than every idea which their fenfes
were to convey to their underftanding. Our talents,
and the exercife of them, may be both faid to be
given us of God ; but whatever capacities we receive
from him, it is fuppofed that we ourfelves muft im¬
prove them, before we can attain to any acquirements
whatever. Although Adam had heard and underftood
the words of God, yet Mofes does not give the leaft
hint that he ever attempted to fpeak before this time.
For if he had, as fome imagine, innate knowledge and
proper terms for every thing prefented to him,, what
occafion was there to bring animals before him to fee Antedilu*
what names he would impofe upon them ? Some wri- vians.
ters have endeavoured to turn into ridicule the whole V—-y—wj
of this tranfaftibn, and have allied, how could all
creatures upon earth appear at one time before Adam ?
not only one, but many days would have elapfed be¬
fore he could give each a name. But this objection
arifes from not underftanding the words of Mofes.
What our tranllators render, to fee what he would call
them, is in the original, to fee what name he would
call it. “ And whatfoever Adam called it, (viz. the
living creature), that was the name of it." The
meaning feems to be no more than this : God
brought a few creatures to Adam, to make him try
to name them ; and whatever he called any of them,,
that continued to be its name. And no doubt he
would denominate every animal before him, from its
external appearance, from its fize, its colour, or its
voice : And in procefs of time, he would give names
to all thofe creatures which Providence brought with¬
in his view, or with which he became afterwards ac¬
quainted.
The next thing in which God inftrudted Adam,,
though probably in a trance or vifion, was his near re¬
lation to Eve, as being part of his own body. This
piece of knowledge was imparted to him, in order to
cement the greater love and affeftion between the two
during the remaining period of their lives.
Thefe, according to Mofes, are all the tranfaftions
in which our firft parents were interefted during their
abode in Paradife, till they loft their innocence, and
forfeited the enjoyments of their happy fituation.
And nothing can be more evident, than that the in-
ftru&ions which they received, befpoke the infantile
ftate of their minds; tho’ there is no doubt but further
and higher difpenfations of knowledge would have
been communicated to them, as they became able to
bear them, and had their minds matured by experience
and refle&ion. ^
How long our firft parents retained their innocence, How long;
we are po where told. Many affert that they fell on our firft pa-
the very firft day of their creation. But Mofes men-re.nts .
tions fo many tranfaftions on that day, as muft have.^'^^ew
ingroffed the whole of their attention, and prevented
them from falling into fuch temptations as arife from
indolence and want of reflexion. Bclides, if, in fuch
circumftances as they were placed, they could not re¬
frain from an open violation of the Divine law for the
fpace of one day, it would befpeak a deceitfulnefs of
heart in them greater than in molt of their pofterity.
It is fomewhat lingular, that many of the great trials
recorded in facred writing were limited to 40 days;
which in prophetic ftyle is fometimes equivalent to 40
years. This appears from the hiftory of Mofes, of Eli¬
jah, of Nineveh, and of ti e Jewilh nation after the
death of Chrift. And, what is very remarkable, he,
of whom Adam was a type, was tempted 40 days in*
the wildernefs. Agreeable to this part of the Divine
ceconomy, perhaps the trial of our firft parents lafted
fo long However, that they remained for a confider-
able time in the garden, appears highly probable from
this confideration, that their indulgent Creator, who
had mauifefted his tender concern for them while in¬
nocent, and extended his mercy to them when fallen,
would never have turned them out of paradife, and
ANT
[
_ Antedilu- fent them into an uncultivated world, before they had
vians. acquired the arts of living, and were capable of provi-
ding againft the viciflitudes of their future lot. The
particulars of this memorable tranfa&ion are confidered
under the article Falu.
Mofes gives us no further account of Adam’s life
after leaving the garden, but that he begat fome chil¬
dren, and died at fuch an age. Yet we have no reafon
to doubt, but the venerable patriarch ever after led a
life of penitence, and of the ftridtell piety. The va¬
rious communications which he had enjoyed with his
Maker in paradife, and which were probably renewed
-to him after his fall, could not fail to make the deepeft
impreflions upon his mind. The gracious refpite he
had met with, from the execution of the fentence de¬
nounced againft him, would make him cautious of of¬
fending for the time to come ; left the next violation
of the Divine authority fhould put an end to his exitt-
ence. The cherubim and flaming flword, or the devour¬
ing flame, on the eafl of Eden, (which might continue
burning all his life), would be to him what the veftiges
of the ark were to Noah a,nd his fons, an awful memo¬
rial of the danger of incurring the Divine difplea-
fure. Befides, his worldly comforts being in a great
meafure withdrawn, his mind would be naturally dif-
64 ] ANT
pofed for reliflnng thole pleafures which flow from piety Antedilu-
and religion. vians.
The firft thing which we hear of Adam in his new
fituation was, that he knew Eve his wife, and fee con-
ceived and bare Cain. Afterwards, we are told, ftie^.
bare Abel. When the brothers were grown up, they
betook themfelves to diftinft employments; the former
to hufttandry, and the latter to the keeping of flteep.
Their inward difpofitions were ftill more different; Cain
being wicked and avaricious, but Abel juft and virtuous.
In procefs of time they brought their refpeftive of¬
ferings to God ; Cain of the fruit of the ground, and
Abel of the firftlingS of his flock : but they met with
very different fuccefs ; for God accepted the offering
of Abel, but Cain’s he did not accept; the confequen-
ces of which are related under the articles Abel and
Cain.
Soon after the murder of Abel, his lofs was made up
to his parents in another fen they had, whom Eve na¬
med Seth, that is, “ appointed;” becaufe he was ap¬
pointed inftead of Abel, whom Cain flew.
As the whole progeny of Adam, of whom we have
any mention in Scripture, were the defendants of Cain
and Seth, it may be proper to give the following ge¬
nealogical table of the Antediluvians.
N° 22.
The
ANT
Antedilu- The facred hiftorian, confining himfelf chiefly to the
vians. line of Seth, from whence Noah was defcended, has
- acquainted us with very few particulars relating to
5 that of Cain : nor can we thus form any conjeftures
Of the line how long he or any of his defcendants lived. we
of Cain. know is, that Lamech, the fifth in defcent from him,
married two wives, Adah and Zillah, the firfl: known
inftance of polygamy : that by the former he had two
fons, Jabal, who was the firft that dwelt in tents, and
65 ] ant
which exemplary behaviour in fo corrupt an age, he Antedilu-
was taken up by God into heaven, without tailing vians.
death. See Enoch. —
Mofes afterwards informs us, When men began to 7 .
multiply, i. e. when the earth was filled with inhabit-
ants, and tribes formerly living remote began to ap- mail race>
proach nearer to one another, Daughters were born un¬
to them ; meaning, in greater abundance than formerly :
which feems to hint, that at this period there were
fed cattle ; and Jubal, the inventor of mufic ; and by confiderably more females than males born into the
the other, a fon named Tubal-Cain, who found out the world. Some think that Mofes, being now about to
art of forging and working metals. Zillah likewife
brought him a daughter named Naamah, fuppofed to
have invented fpinning and weaving : and we are told
that, on fome occafion or other, Lamech made a fpeech
to his wives, the explication of which has greatly puz-
6 zled the interpreters. See Lamech.
The line of Mofes proceeds to tell us, that Seth had a fon born
PI t0 called Enos, and that then began men to call upon
* the name of the Commentators onve ns three
mention the wickednefs of the Antediluvians, intro¬
duces the pofterity of Cain as being the chief caufe of ■
their corruption ; and that he llyles them 7nen and
daughters of men, becaufe they were fenfual and earthly ;
in which fenfe the word men is fometimes ufed in the
fcriptures.
The fons of God faw the daughters of men that they
were fair; and they took them wives of all that they
fico-Thtoloz name °f ^e Lord. Commentators give us three chofe. Thefe words have given rife to many abfurd
Ledum, “ different fenfes of thefe words. Some think the words and ridiculous comments both of Jews and Chrillians.
p. 343, t^.lhould be rendered, Then men prophaned in calling on the
name of the Lord; and that even Enos arrogated to
himfelf a power, as if he had been a god. But this
fenfe feems harfh and unnatural. There is nothing
more unlikely, than that Adam’s grandchildren, who
lived under his own eye, would fo foon (hake off pa¬
rental authority, and apoftatife from the belief and
worfhip of the one true God. Others think, that tho’
There are two meanings affixed to them, which may
be mentioned as the moil probable. Whenever the.
name of God is added to any thing, it not only de¬
notes God’s being the efficient caufe, but it heightens
and increafes its ufual meaning. For which reafon
any thing that is excellent in its kind, or uncommonly
lofty and magnificent, was by the Jews faid to be of
God, or of the Lord. Thus the angels are called the
men had hitherto worfhipped God in private, yet they foils of God. And Adam being created with a nobler
now inftituted public affemblies, met in larger focieties :   n** ^
for folemn and focial worfhip, and introduced liturgies
and forms for more effedtually paying their homage to
the Almighty. This indeed is a very natural com¬
ment from thofe who place religion in modes and fet
forms of worfhip. But it is fcarcely credible, that
Adam and his family had never met together to wor¬
fhip God till now, when we are told that Cain and
Abel, and probably both their families along with
them, brought their offerings to the Lord: this they no
doubt did every fabbath-day. Others, therefore, put
a more confiften.t interpretation upon the words, name'
image than any other creature, is raid to be made i
the image of God. The cedars of Lebanon are cal¬
led the cedars of the Lord; and great mountains, the
mountains of God. Therefore by the fons of God in
this place are meant men of great opulence, power,
and authority. And by way of contraft, the hiflorian
introduces thofe of poor and me&n circumflances in
life, and calls them the daughters of men. The words
thus explained, are notan unlikely defeription of that
diffolute age. The great and mighty in this world
are commonly moll additled to fenfual gratifications,
becaufe they have fo many incentives to inflame their
ly, that men now called themfelves by the name of the paffions, and fo few reflraints to curb them ; and, in-
\-ord. The meaning of which is, that about this pe- Head of ufing their power to punifh and difcountenance
riod, the family of Seth, who adhered to God . and vice, are too often the greateil examples and promoters
his worfhip, began to give themfelves a denomination, of lafeivioufnefs and debauchery. Thus, thefe fons of
expreffive of their relation and regards to him. They God, thefe great men, when they happened to meet
diilinguifhed themfelves from the irreligious family of with the daughters of their inferiors, gazed upon them.*
Cain, and affumed the title of the fons or children of as fit objects to gratify their lull; and from among
God : whicji defignation was afterwards applied to thefe they took to themflves, in a forcible manner,
them by Mofes; it was eyen ufed after the flood, and
adopted by the writers of the New Teflament.,
Of the three next defcendants of Seth, Cainan, Ma-
halaleel, and Jared, and of Methufelah and Lamech,
the grandfather and father of Noah, Mofes has record¬
ed no more than their feveral ages. The oriental au-
ives, or (as it may be rendered) concubines, of all that
they chofe, whether married or unmarried, without ever
afking their confent. No wonder, then, that the earth
fhould be filled with violence, when the highcil rank of
men were above the reflraint of law, of reafon, and
religion, and not only oppreffed the poor, but with im-
thors commend them, as they do Seth and Enos, for punity treated them and their children in fuch a bafo
their piety, and the falutary injunftions they left be- and cruel manner
hind them, forbidding their children all intercourfe
with the race of curfed Cain..
Enoch, the fon of Jared, and father of Methufelah,
was a perfon of molt extraordinary piety, walking
with God, as the feripture expreffes it, for at leaft the
laft three hundred years of his life; as a reward for
Vol. II. Part I.
But there are other writers who cannot relifh tire
above opinionj becaufe they think it a harfn and un¬
natural conflrudtion, to call great and powerful perfons
the fens of. God, and all mean and plebeian women the
daughters -of men. Bcfides, the text dees not fay, that
the fons of God offered any violence to thefe inferior
ANT r 66 1 ANT
Antedilu- women ; but that they faw that they were fair* and
vians. made choice of them for wives. And wherein is the
~ heinoufnefs of the offence, if men of a fuperior rank
marry their inferiors, efpecially when an excefs of
beauty apologifes for their choice ? Or why fhould a
few unequal matches he reckoned among the caufes of
bringing upon the world an univerfal deftruftion ? For
thefe reafons many are of opinion, that the defcendants
Miln, p. of Seth, who were ftyled the fins of God on account of
their near relation to him, faw the daughters of men, i. e.
the impious progeny of Cain, and by intermarriages
became affociated with them ; and furrendering to thofe
inchantreffes their hearts and their freedom, they furren-
dered at the fame time their virtue and their religion.
From this union proceeded effefts fimilar to what has
happened ever fince. When a pure fociety mixes with
a profane, the better principles of the one become foon
tainted by the evil practices of the other ; which veri¬
fies the old adage, Evil communication corrupts good
manners- Thus it appears, that the great fource of
univerfal degeneracy, was owing to the pofterity of
Seth mingling with the progeny of Cain, in oppofition
to what their pious fathers had ftriftly charged them.
It is afterwards faid, There were giants in the earth
in thofe days : and alfo after that, when the fans of God
came in unto the, daughters of men, and they bare children
to them, the fame became mighty men, which were of old
vien of renown. Tranflators are not agreed about the
meaning of the wrord giants. Some render the word,
violent and cruel men ; others, men who fall upon and
rujh forward, as a robber does upon his prey : the
meaning then is, that they were not more remarkable
for their ftrength and ttature, than for their violence
and cruelty. It is generally agreed, that in the firft
ages of the world, men were of a gigantic ftature;
though Mofes does not mention them as giants till af¬
ter the union of the families of Seth and Cain, when
men ufed their fuperiority in bodily ftrength for the
purpofes of gr atifying their unhallowed paffions.
At this period of the world, and long after, political
power and bodily ftrength went hand in hand together.
Whoever was able to encounter and kill a fierce and
dangerous wild beaft, and clear the country of noxious
animals, or who was able in the day of battle to de-
ftroy moft of his enemies, was looked up to by the
reft of his companions as the fitteft to be their leader
and commander. Thus, Nimrod, from being a mighty
hunter, became a great king, and, grafping at power,
was never fatisfied till every obftacle to his ambition
was removed. And it appears from hiftory, that all
his fucceffors have pretty nearly trodden in the fame
path. Thefe giants then, or fins of God, might be
the chief warriors, who formed themfelves into chofen
bands, and living among a cowardly and effeminate
people, had no curb to their cruelty and lull From
them might fpring an illegitimate race, refembling their
fathers in body and mind, who, when they grew up,
having no inheritance, would be turned loofe upon the
world, and follow no other employment but theft, ra¬
pine, and plunder. Thus they became mighty men and
men of renown, and procured themfelves a name : but
this was owing to the mifchief they did, and the feats
g of favage cruelty which they performed.
Cod’s for- Mankind running thus headlong into all manner of
bcarance. vice, were admouifhed to repent; and God, out of his
great mercy, was pleafed to grant them a convenient Antedilu-
time for that purpofe ; no lefs than 120 years, during vians.
which fpace, but no longer, he declared his Spirit
ftionld “ ftrive with man,” or endeavour to awaken and
reclaim them from their wicked courfe of life.
Amidft this general corruption, one man, however,
was found to be juft and perfeft in his generation,
walking,with God. Tins extraordinary perfon was
Noah, the fon of Lamech ; who, not thinking it fuffi-
cient to be righteous himfelf, unlefs he did his utmoft
to turn others likewife to righteoufnefs by admonition 9
as well as example, became a preacher to the abandon- Preaching
ed race among which he lived, employing both his Noa *
counfel and authority to bring them to a reformation
of their manners, and to reftore the true religion a-
mong them. But all he could do was to no purpofe;
for they continued incorrigibly obttinate : fo that at
length, < as Jofephus tells us i, finding himfelf and family
in imminent danger of fome violence in return for his
good will, he departed from among them, with his wife
and children. I0
On his departure, it is probable they fell into great-Mankind
er diforders than before ; having now' none to control, incorrigible
or even to trouble them with umvelcome advice. Mo¬
fes affures us, “ that the wickednefs of man wras great
in the earth, and that every imagination of the thoughts
of his heart was continually eviland that “ the
earth w'as corrupt and filled wdth violence, all flelh ha¬
ving corrupted his wray upon the earth.” Thefe words
leave no room to inquire into the particular crimes of
the Antediluvian world, wdiich feems to have been over¬
run with a complication of all manner of debauchery
and wickednefs, and above all with violence and inju-
ftice towards one another. u
Things being in this ftate, God, as the facred hifto- The wholt
rian pathetically expreffes it, “ repented that he had ,^er
made man on earth, and it grieved him at his heart.”a^
And the time of forbearance being elapfed, he paffedcept
the fentence of their utter deftruftion by a flood of wa- and his fa-
ters ; a fentence which likewife included the beafts of mily.
the earth, and every creeping thing, and the fowls of
the air. But “ Noah found grace in the eyes of the
Lord ;” who had before acquainted him with his de-
fign of bringing a deluge on the earth, and diredted
him to make an ark, or veffel, of a certain form and
fize, capable of containing not only himfelf and family,
but fuch numbers of animals of all forts as would be
fufficient to preferve the feveral fpecies, and again re-
plenilh the earth, together with all neceffary provifions
for them. All thefe injunffions Noah performed ; and,
by God’s peculiar favour and providence, he and thofe
that were with him furvived this tremendous calamity.
See the article Deluge. m
As to any further tranfa&ions before the flood, we Traditional
are left entirely in the dark by the facred hiftorian. biftory of
The Jews and eaftern nations, however, have made*ke.-Ante<**"
ample amends for the filence of Mofes, by the abun- uvians*
dance of their traditions. The only part of thefe,
which can be connedfed in any thing like hiftory, is
what follows. After the death of Adam, Seth,
with his family, feparated themfelves from the profligate
race of Cain, and chofe for their habitation the moun¬
tain where Adam was buried, the Cainites remaining
below, in the plain where Abel was killed ; and, ac¬
cording to our hiftorians, this mountain was fo high.
ANT t 67 ] ANT
Afltedilu- that the Inhabitants could hear the angels finging the
t vian»- praifes of God, and even join them in that fervice.
Here they lived in great purity and fanftity of man¬
ners. Their conftant employment was praifing God,
from which they had few or no avocatiorts ; for their
only food was the fruits of the trees which grew on the
mountain, fo that they had no occafion to undergo any
fervile labours, nor the trouble of fowing and gather¬
ing in their harveft. They were utter ftrangers to en¬
vy, injuilice, or deceit. Their only oath was, “ By
the blood of Abel and they every day went up to the
top of the mountain to worfhip God, and to vifit the
body of Adam, as a mean of procuring the Divine
bleffing. Here, by contemplation of the heavenly bo¬
dies, they laid the foundations of the fcience of aftro-
nomy; and, leaft their inventions fhould be forgotten, or
loft before they were publicly known, underftanding,
from a prediftion of Adam’s, that there would be a
general deftruftion of all things, once by fire, and once
by water, they built two pillars, one of brick, and the
other of ftone, that if the brick one happened to be
overthrown by the flood or otherwife deftroyed, that ef
ftone might remain. This laft, Jofephus fays, was to
be feen in his time in the land of Syriad, (thought to
be in Upper Egypt).
The defcendants of Seth continued in the prafliceof
virtue till the 4Cth year of Jared, when an hundred of
them hedring the noife of the mufic and the riotous
mirth of the Cainites, agreed to go down to them from
the holy mountain. On their arrival in the plain, they
were immediately captivated by the beauty of the wo¬
men ; who were naked, and with whom they defiled
themfelves ; and this is what is meant by the intermar¬
riage of the fons of God with the daughters of men,
mentioned by Mofes. The example of thefe apoftate
fons of Seth was foon followed l>y others; and from
time to time great numbers continued to defcend
from the mountain, who in like manner took wives
from the abandoned race , of Cain. Frbm thefe mar¬
riages fprung the giants (who, however, according
to Mofes, exifted before) ; and, thefe being as remark¬
able for their impiety as for their ftrength of body,
tyrannized in a cruel manner, and polluted the earth
with wickednefs of every kind. This defection be¬
came at laft fo univerfal, that none were left in the
holy mountain, except Noah, his wife, his three fons
X3 and their wives.
Profane hi- Berofus, a Chaldean hiftorian, who fiourifhed in the
ftory. .fir-time of Alexander the Great, enumerates ten kings
wfus s Ba- jyjjQ feigned in Chaldea before the flood ; of whom the
tiquitlts'. called Alorus, is fuppofed to be Adam, and Xi-
futhrus, the laft, to be Noah.—This Alorus declared
that he held his kingdom by divine right, and that God
himfelf had appointed him to be the pallor of the
people. According to our hiftorian, in the firft year of
the world, there appeared out of the Red Sea, at a
place near the confines of Babylonia, a certain irra¬
tional animal called Oannes. He had his whole body
like that of a filh ; but beneath his filh’s head grew
another of a different fort, (probably a human one).
He had alfo feet like a man, which proceeded from his
filh’s tail, and a human voice, the picture of him be
ing preferved ever after. This animal converfed with
mankind in the day-time, without eating any thing :
he delivered to them the knowledge of letters, fciences,
and various art* : he taught them to dwell together in
cities, to ere& temples, to introduce laws, andinftruc-
ted them in geometry : he likewife Ihowed them how
to gather feeds and fruits, and imparted to them what¬
ever was neceffary and convenient for a civilized life ;
but after this time there was nothing excellent invent¬
ed. When the fun fet, Oannes retired into the fea,
and continued there all night. He not only delivered
his inftru&ions by word of mouth, but, as our author
affures us, wrote of the origin of things, and of political
ceconomy. This, or a fimilar animal, is alfo mention¬
ed by other authors.
Of Alafporus, the fecond king, nothing remarkable
is related. His fucceffor, Amelon, or Amillarus, was
of a city called Pantabibla. In his time another ani¬
mal refembling the former appeared, 260 years after
the beginning of this monarchy. Amelon was fucceed-
ed by Metalarus ; and he by Daonus, all of whom were
of the fame city. In the time of the latter, four animals
of a double form, half man and half fifh, made their ap¬
pearance. Their names were Euedocus, Eneugamus,
Encubulus, and Anementus. Under the next prince,
who was likewife of Pantabibla, appeared another ani¬
mal of the fame kind, whofe name was Odacon. All
thefe explained more particularly what had been con-
cifely delivered by Oannes.
In the reign of the tenth king, Xifuthrtis, happened
the great deluge, of which our author gives the follow¬
ing account: Cronus, or Saturn, appeared to Xifu-
thrus in a dream, and warned him, that on the fifteenth
of the month Dsefius mankind would be deftroyed by
a flood ; and therefore commanded him to write down
the original, intermediate ftate, and end of all things,
and bury the writings under ground in Sippara, the
city of the fun ; that he fttould alfo build a Ihip, and
go into it with his relations and deareft friends, having
firft furnilhed it with provifions, and taken into it fowls
and four-footed beafts; and that, when he had provided
every thing, and was alked whither he was failing, he
fhould anfwer, To the gods, to pray for happinefs to man¬
kind. Xifuthrus did not difobey ; but built a veffel,
whofe length was five furlongs, and breadth two fur¬
longs. He put on board all he was dire&ed; and went
into it with his wife, children, and friends. The flood
being come, and foon ceafing, Xifuthrus let , out cer¬
tain birds, which finding no food, nor place to reft up¬
on, returned again to. the fhip. Xifuthrus, after fome
days, let out the birds again; but they returned
to the fhip, having their feet daubed with mud:
but when they were let go the third time, they came
no more to the fhip, whereby Xifuthrus underftood
that the earth appeared again ; and thereupon he made
an opening between the planks of the fhip, and feeing
that it refted on a certain mountain, he came out with
his wife, and his daughter, and his pilot; and having
worfhipped the earth, and raifed an altar, and facrifi-
ced to the gods, he and thofe who went out with him
difappeared. They who were left behind in the fhip,
finding that Xifuthrus and the perfons that accompanied
him did not return, went out themfelves to feek for
him, calling him aloud by hrs name ; but Xifuthrus was
no more feen by them : only a voice came out of the
air, which enjoined thein, as their duty was, to be re¬
ligious ; and informed them, that on account of his
own piety he was gone to dwell with the gods, and
I 2 that
Antcdilu-
ANT [ 68 ] ANT
AntecUlu- that his wife and daughter and pilot, were partakers
vians. of the fame honour. It alfo directed them to return to
'"■“'•"V""**' Babylon, and that, as the fates had ordained, they
ihould take the writings from Sippara, and communi¬
cate them to mankind ; and told them, that the place
where they were was the country of Armenia. When
they had heard this, they offered facriiice to the gods,
and unanimoufly went to Babylon; and when they came
thither, they dug up the writings at Sippara, built
14 many cities, railed temples, and rebuilt Babylon.
Antedilu- The Egyptians, who would give place to no nation
vian tings jn p0jnt 0f antiquity, have alfo a feries of kings, who,
’ as is pretended, reigned in Egypt before the flood 5
and, to be even with the Chaldeans,'began their ac¬
count the very fame year that theirs does according to
Berofus.
There was an ancient chronicle extant among the
Egyptians, not many centuries ago, which contained
30 dynafties of-princes who ruled in that country, by
a feries of 113 generations, through an immenfe fpace
of 36,525-years, during which Egypt was fucceffive-
ly governed by three different races ; of whom the firft
were the Auritss, the fecond the Meftrsei, and the third
the Egyptians.
But this extravagant number of years Manetho (to
whofe remains we muft chiefly have recourfe for the an¬
cient Egyptian hiflory ) has not adopted, however in
other relpe&s he is fuppofed to have been led into
errors in chronology by this old chronicle, which
yet feems to have been a compoiition fince Manetho’s
U t!me' . . •
Satichtmia- The account given by Berofus is manifeftly taken
tho’sPhoe- from the writings of Mofes ; but we have another ac-
nician hi- count of the firit ages of mankind, in which no men-
ftory* tion is made of the flood at all. This is contained in
fome fragments of a Phoenician author called Sancho-
niatho, who is by fome faid to have been cotemporary
with Gideon, by others to have lived in the days of king
David ; while fome boldly aflert there never was fuch
a perfon, and that the whole is a fidtion of Philo-Bib-
lius, in oppofition to the books of Jofephus written a-
gainft Apion. To gratify the reader’s curiofity, how¬
ever, we have fubjoined an account of the firft ten ge¬
nerations mentioned by him, which are fuppofed by
the compilers of the Univerfal Hiflory to correfpond
to the generations mentioned by Mofes before the
flood.
Sanchoniatho having delivered his cofmogony, or
generation of the other parts of the world, begins his
biftory of mankind with the production of the firfl
pair of mortals, whom Philo, his tranflator, calls Pro-
togonus and Mon ; the latter of whom found out the
food which was gathered from trees.
Their iffue were called Genus and Genea, and dwelt
in Phoenicia : but when the great droughts came, they
flretched forth their hands to heaven towards the fun ;
for him they thought the only God and Lord of hea¬
ven, calling- him Beelfamen, which in Phoenician is
Lord of heaven, and in Greek Zeus.
Afterwards from Genus, the fon of Protogonus and
iEon, other mortal iflue was begotten, whofe names
were Phos, Pur, and Phlox ; that is. Light, Fire, and
Flame. Thefe found out the way of generating fire,
by the rubbing of pieces of wood againfl each other,
and taught men the ufe thereof. They begat fons of
vaft bulk and height, whofe names were given to the
mountains on which they feized : fo from them were Antedilu-
named mount Cajfms, Libanus, Antilibanus, and Bra- vians.
Of thefe lafl; were begotten Memrumus, and Hypfu-
ranius; but they were fo named by their mothers, the
women of thofe times, who w-ithout ihame lay with any
man they could light upon. Hypfuranius inhabited
Tyre, and he invented the making of huts of reeds and
ruflres and the papyrus. He alfo fell into enmity with'
his brother Ufous, who firit invented a covering lor his
body out of the fltins of the wild bealts which he could
catch. And when violent tempelts of winds and rains
came, the boughs in Tyre, being rubbed againlt each
other, took fire, and burnt the wood there. And U*
fous, having taken a tree, and broke off its boughs,
was fo bold as to venture upon it into the lea. He
alfo confecrated two rude Hones, or pillars, to fire and
wind; and he worlhipped them, and poured out to
them the blood of fuch wild bealts as had been caught
in hunting. But when thefe were dead, thofe that re¬
mained confecrated to them (tumps of wood and pil¬
lars, worlhipping them, and kept anniverfary fealts un¬
to them.
Many years after this generation came Agreus and
Halicus, the inventors of the arts of hunting and fiflv-
ing, from whom huntfmen and filhermen are named.
Of thefe were begotten two brothers, the inventors
of iron and of the forging thereof: one of thefe, cal¬
led Chryfor, the fame with Hephellus or Vulcan, ex-
ercifed himfelf in words and charms and divinations ;
found out the hook, bait, and fifhing-line, and boats
llightly built; and was the firft of all men that failed.
Wherefore he alfo was worlhipped after his death for a
god ; and they called him Zeus Michius, or Jupiter the
engineer; and fome fay his brothers invented the way
of making walls of brick.
Afterwards from this generation came two brothers;
one of whom was called Technites, or the Ai tilt; the
other, Gienus Autochthon, [the home-born man of the
earth.] Thefe found out to mingle Hubble, or fmall
twigs, with the brick earth, and to dry them in the
fun, and fo made tyling.
By thefe were begotten others ; of which one was
called Agrus [ Field] ; and the other Agrouerus, or A-
grotes, [Hufbandmen], who had a ftatue much wor¬
lhipped, and a temple carried about by one or more
yoke of oxen, in Phoenicia, and among thofe of Byblus
he is eminently called the greatejl of the gods, Thefe
found out how to make courts about mens houfes, and
fences and caves, or cellars. Hufbandmen, and fuch
as ufe dogs in hunting, derive from thefe ; and they are
alfo called Aleta and Titans.
Of thefe were begotten Amynns and Magus, who
Ihowed men to conftitute villages and flocks.
In thefe mens age there*was one Eliun, which im¬
ports in Greek Hypfjlus [the molt highj, and his wife
was named Beruth, who dwelt about Byblus : and by
him was begot one Epigerus, or Autochthon, whom
they afterwards called Uranus [heavenj ; fo that from
him that element which is over us, by reafon of its ex¬
cellent beauty, is called heaven: and he bad a filter of
the fame parents called Ge, [the earth] ; and by rea¬
fon of her beauty the earth had her name given to it.
Hypfiftus, the father of thefe, dying in fight with
wild beafts, was coniecrated, and his children offered
facrifices and libations to him.—But Uranus taking the
kingdom
ANT [ 69 ] ANT
Autedilu* kingdom of his father,, married his After Ge, and had
vians. by her four fons ; Ilus,s who is called Cronus, [or Sa-
turn] ; Betylus; Dagon, who is Siton, or the god of
corn; and Atlas : but by other wives Uranus had much
iffue.
As to the cuftoms, policy, and othei: general circum-
ftances of the Antediluvians, we can only form conjec¬
tures.
The only thing we know as to their religious rites
is, that they oftered facriftces, and that very early,
both of the fruits of the earth, and of animals ; but
whether the blood and flefli of the animals, or only
their milk and wool, were offered, is a difputed point.—
Arts, &c.of Of their arts and fciences, we have not much more
the Antedi- to fay. The Antediluvians feem to have fpent their
luvians. time rather in luxury and wantonnefs, to which the a-
bundant fertility of the firft earth invited them, than in
difcoveries or improvements, which probably they ftood
much lefs in heed of than their fucceffors. The art of
working metals was found out by the laft generation of
Cain’s line; and mufic, which they might be fuppofed
to pradtife for their pleafure, was not brought to any
perfection, if invented, before the fame generation.
Some authors have fuppofed aftronomy to have been
cultivatedby the Antediluvians, though this is probably
owing to a miltake of Jofephus : but it is to be pre¬
fumed, the progrefs they made therein, or in any other
fcience, was not extraordinary ; it being even very
doubtful whether letters were fo much as known before
the flood See Alphabet, n° 13.
As to their politics and civil conftitutions, we have
not fo much as any circumftances whereon to build con-
jedture. It is probable, the patriarchal form of go¬
vernment, which certainly was the firft, was fet afide
when tyranny and oppreffion began to take place, and
much fooner among the race of Cain than that of Seth.
It feems alfo, that their communities were but few, and
confifted of vaitly larger numbers of people than any
formed fince the flood ; or rather, it is a queftion, whe¬
ther, after the union of the two great families of .“ieth
and Cain, there were any diftindtion of civil focieties, or
diverfity of regular governments, at all. It is more like¬
ly, that all mankind then made but one great nation,
though living in a kind of anarchy, divided into feveral
diforderly affociations ; which, as it was almoft the
natural confequence of their having, in all probability,
but one common language, fo it was a cireumftance
which greatly contributed to that general corruption
which otherwife perhaps could not have fo univerfally
overfpread the Antediluvian world. And for this rea-
fon chiefly, as it feems, fo foon as thepofterity of Noah
were fufliciently increafed, a plurality of tongues was
miraculoufly introduced, in order to divide them into
diftindl focieties, and thereby prevent any fuch total
depravation for the future. See Confusion of Tongues.
Of the condition of the Antediluvians, MrWhitehurft,
* P. a?a, in his Inquiry into the original Jlate and formation of the
*83. earth *, has given us the following pidlure : “ Under a
mild and ferene (ky, and when the fpontaneous pro-
dudtions of the earth were more than fufficient for the
calls of nature, without art or labour, mankind had
no need of any other prote&ion from the inclemency
of the feafons, nor of barns for winter’s ftore, than
the benevolent Author of nature had plentifully pro¬
vided for them. Confequently, in a ItatC of nature like
this, there was no temptation to ads of- violence, in-
juftice, fraud, See. every one having plenty and enough, Antedilu-
each equally partook of the numerous blelfings thus vians.
amply provided for him. Power and property being
equally diffufed, men lived together in perfed peace
and harmony, without law, and without fear ; there¬
fore it maybe truly faid of the Antediluvians, .that
they flept away their time in fweet repofe on the ever-
verdant turf. Such apparently was the Hate of nature
in the firft ages of the world, or from the creation to
the firft convulfion in nature, whereby the world was
not only univerfally deluged, but reduced to a heap of
ruins.” But our ingenious author, whofe Inquiry is
not profeffedly repugnant to revelation, feems here to-
h$ive loft himfelf in a pleafing reverie. At leaft he has
forgot to inform us, For what purpofe, under fuch
circumftances, he fuppofes the deluge to have been fent
upon the earth ; and, How we are to underftand the
account given by Mofes, who reprefents the Antedilu¬
vians, not as an innocent race, quietly repofing on the
ever-verdant turf, but as a corrupt generation, by
whom “ the earth was filled with violence.” jy
One of the moft extraordinary circumftances which of the lori»-
occurs in the Antediluvian Kiftory, is the vaft length ofgevity of
human lives in thofe firft ages, in comparifon with our the.Ante<fi*
own. Few perfons now arrive to eighty or an hun-^uv‘an’'
dred years ; whereas, before the flood, they frequently
lived to near a thoufand : a difproportion almoft incre¬
dible, though fupported by the joint teftimonies of fa-
cred and prophane writers. Some, to reconcile the
matter with probability, have imagined that the ages
of thofe firft men might pofiibly be computed, not by
folar years, but months; an expedient which reduces
the length of their lives rather to a fhorter period than
our own. But for this there is not the lead founda¬
tion ; befides the many abfurdities that would thence
follow, fuch as their begetting children at about fix
years of age, as fome of them in that cafe mult have
done, and the contradtion of the whole interval be¬
tween the creation and the deluge to confiderably lefs
than two hundred years, even according to the larger
computation of the Septuagint.
Again: Jofephus, thejewilh hiftorian, and fome
Chriftian divines, are of opinion, that before the flood,
and fome time after, mankind in general did not live
to fuch a remarkable age, but only a few beloved of
God, fuch as the patriarchs mentioned by Mofes.
They reafon in this manner : Though the hittorian re¬
cords the names of fome men whofe longevity was An¬
gular, yret that is no proof that the reft of mankind
attained to the fame period of life, more than that
every man was then of a gigantic ftature, becaufe he
fays, in thofe days there •were giants upon the earth.
Befides, had the whole of the Antediluvians lived fo
veiy long, and increafed in numbers in proportion to
their age, before the flood of Noah, the earth could
not have contained its inhabitants, even fuppofing no
part of it had been fea. And had animals lived as-
long, and multiplied in the fame manner as they have
done afterwards, they would have confumed the whole
produce of the globe, and the llronger would have ex-
tinguifhed many fpecies of the weaker. Hence they
conclude, that, for wife and good ends, God extended
only the lives of the patriarchs, and a few befide, to
fuch an extraordinary length.
But moft writers maintain the longevity of man¬
kind in general in the early world, not only upon the
authority.
ANT [ ] ANT
.Antedilu- authority of facred, but likewife of profane hiftory.
vians. And for fuch a conftitution, the moral reafons are
v——v-'-"' abundantly obvious. When the earth was wholly un-
Moraf ea PeoP^e<^» except by one pair, it was neceflary to endow
fonTfor thUm€n w't^1 a hronger frame, and to allow them a longer
longevity, .continuance upon earth for peopling it with inhabi¬
tants. In the infant ftate of every mechanical art, re¬
lating to tillage, building, clothing, &c. it would re¬
quire many years experience to invent proper tools and
inftruments to eafe men of their labour, and by mul-
.tiplied effays and experiments to bring their inventions
to any degree of maturity and perfection. Every part
of their work rnuft have been exceedingly arduous from
fuch a penury and coarfenefs of tools, and muft have re¬
quired longer time and more ftrength of body than af¬
terwards, when mechanical knowledge was introduced
into the world. If parents at this period had not
continued long with their children, to have taught
them the arts of providing for themfelves, and have
defended them from the attacks of wild beafts, and
from other injuries to which they were expofed, many
families would have been totally extinguifhed. But
one of the beft and.mofl: valuable ends which longevity
would anfwer was, the tranfmitting of knowledge, par¬
ticularly of religious knowledge, to mankind. And
thus, before writing was invented, or any fuch eafy
'• and durable mode of conveyance was found out, a very
few men ferved for many generations to inftruCl their
pofterity, who would not be at a lofs to confult living
and authentic records.
Natural The natural caufes of this longevity are varioufly af-
caufes of it. figned. Some have imputed it to the lobriety of the
Antediluvians, and the fimplicity of their diet; alleging
that they h?d none of thofe provocations to gluttony,
which wit and vice have fince invented. Temperance
might undoubtedly have.fome effeCf, but not pofiibly
to fuch a degree. There have been many temperate
and abftemious p.erfons in later ages, who yet feldom
have exceeded the ufual period.—Others have thought,
that the long lives of thofe inhabitants of the old world
proceeded from the ftrength of their ftamina, or firft
principles of their bodily conftitutions: which might,
indeed, be a concurrent, but not the foie and adequate
caufe of their longevity ; for Shem, who was born be¬
fore the deluge, and had all the virtue of the antedilu¬
vian conftitution, fell three hundred years ftiort of the
age of his forefathers, becaufe the greateft part of his
life was paffed after the flood.—Others have imputed
the longevity of the Antediluvians to the excellency of
their fruits, and fome peculiar virtue in the herbs and
plants of thofe days. But to this fuppofitjon it has
been objected, that as the earth was curfed immediately
after the fall, its produftions we may fuppofe gradually
decreafed in their virtue and goodnefs till the flood;
and yet we do not fee the length of mens lives decreafed
confiderably, if at all, during that interval. Waving this
obje&ion, as the import of the curfe is varioufly inter¬
preted, it appears certain that the produ&ions of the
earth were at firft, and probably continued till after
the deluge, of a different nature from what they were
in future times. Buffon fuppofes this difference may
have continued gradually to diminiflr for many ages
fubfequent to that cataftrophe. The furface of the
globe (according to his theory) was in the firft ages
,of the world lefs folid and compadf j becaufe, gravity
having afted only for a ftiort time, terreftrial bodies Antedilu-
had not acquired their prefent denfity and confiftence. vians.
The produce of the earth, therefore, muft have been
analagous to its condition. The furface being more
loofe and moift, its produftions would of courfe be
more duftile and capable of extenfion : Their growth,
therefore, and even that of the human body, would re¬
quire a longer time of being completed. The foftnefs
and du&flity of the bones, mufcles, &c. would proba¬
bly remain for a longer period, becaufe every fpecies of
food was more foft and fucculent. Hence, the full
expanfion of the human body, or when it was capable
of generating, muft have required 120 or 130 years;
and the duration of life would be in proportion to the
time of growth, as is uniformly the cafe at prefent:
For if we fuppofe the age of puberty, among the firft
races of men, to have been 130 years, as they now ar¬
rive at that age in 14 years, the age of the Antedilu¬
vians will be in exaft proportion to that of the prefent
race; fince by multiplying thefe two numbers by feven,
for example, the age of the prefent race will be 90,
and that of the Antediluvians vyill be 910. The pe¬
riod of man’s exiftence, therefore, may have gradually
diminiftied in proportion as the furface of the earth ac¬
quired more folidity by the conftant aiftion of gravity :
and it is probable, that the period from the creation,
to the days’ of David, was fufficient to give the earth
all the denfity it was capable of receiving from the in¬
fluence of gravitation ; and confequently that the fur¬
face of the earth has ever fince remained in the fame
ftate, and that the terms of growth in the produftions
of the earth, as well as the duration of life, have been
invariably fixed from that period.
It has been further fuppofed, that a principal caufe
of the longevity under confideration was the wholefome
conftitution of the Antediluvian air, which, after the
deluge, became corrupted and unwholefome, breaking,
by degrees, the priftine crafis of the body, and flior-
tening men’s lives, in a very few ages, to near the pre¬
fent ftandard.
The temperature of the air and feafons before that
cataftrophe are upon very probable grounds fuppofed
to have been conftantly uniform and mild: the burn¬
ing heats of fummer and the feverities of winter’s cold
were not then come forth, but fpring and autumn
reigned perpetually together : And indeed, the cir-
cumftance above all others moft conducive to the pro¬
longation of human life in the poftdiluvian world ap¬
pears to be an equal and benign temperature of cli¬
mate (fee the article Longevity); whence it feems
r.eafonable to infer, that the fame caufe might have
produced the fame effedl in the Antediluvian world. ao
Whether flefh was permitted to be eaten before the Whether
deluge, is a queftion which has been much debated. an.y
By the permiflion exprefsly given to Noah for that™1^1^
purpofe, after the flood, and God’s affigning vegetables fofe ^
only for food to man, as well as beaft, at the creation,flood,
one would imagine it was not lawful before i yet others
have fuppofed, that it was included in the general
grant of power and dominion given to Adam by God
over the animal creation ; and the diftin&ion of beafts
into clean and uncledn, which was well known before
the flood, is infifted on as a ftrong argument on this
fide.
But in anfwer to this it has been obferved, that if
fo.
ANT
Aflt'edilu- fo, it doth not appear what occafion there was to re-
vians. new this grant after the flood, and to add, “ Every
- — —1 moving thing that liveth fliall be meat for you, even as
the green herb have I given you all things.” This
furely implies that the green herb and fruits of the
trees were all that was granted to man at firlt; but
[ 7' 1
a n r
ed in facrifice; therefore numbers would be kept for .
this very purpofe. Their fkins, befides ferving mei
as garments, might anfwer many other valuable inten- ^
tions. Veftments of hair and wool foon fucceeded the
ruder coverings of /kins; confequently great profit
’ould be derived from fuch animals as could be (horn.
now, over and above that, was added the grant of efpecially in countries where the inhabitants led a pa-
animal food : for in a deed or gift, all is fpecified that floral life and dwelt in tents. And we afterwards find
Is given or granted, and whatever is not exprefsly men¬
tioned is excluded or not given. Here man’s food is
appointed and fpecified ; what is not exprefsly men¬
tioned is therefore referved and not granted. Befides,
this grant or appointment of man’s food refpefted, not
Adam only, but all his pofterity, till an additional
grant was made.
To the animals no further grant was made than at
firft; but to man another was made immediately after
his fall and expulfion from Paradife, implied in thefe
words : “ In the fweat of thy face {halt thou eat
bread, till thou return unto the ground.” This was in
truth a punifliment for his tranfgreflion, as well as a
grant of other food, but yet what was now become
neceffary to him. Paradife was no doubt planted
with the moft excellent fruits, fufficient to have fu-
that Abel’s facrifice was of this kind They might
ufe feveral.of thefe animals, as they flill do in fome
parts of the world, for bearing of burdens and drawing
of carriages : for we may take it for granted that the
firft inventions for eafing men of labour, would be of
the fimpleft kind, and fuch as came eafieft to hand.
But keeping flocks of fheep, goats, and fuch like,
would be of great utility, by affording quantities of
milk, which is found to be the moft nouriftiing diet
both to the young and the old ; and their carcafes,
though not ufed as food, might anfwer fome ufeful
purpofes, perhaps in manurin ’ the foil. si
TheAntediluvian world was, in all probability,flock hiereafe of
ed with a much greater number of inhabitants than th ““kind"
prefent earth either aftually does, or perhaps is capabi f coj4 * '
of containing or fupplying. This feems naturally to
ftained his life in health and vigour in his innocent follow from the great length of their lives, which
ftate: but after his tranfgreffion, being thruft out from ceeding the prefent ftandard of life in the proportion,
that happy abode, and having then only the fruits of at leaft, of ten to one, the Antediluvians muft accord-
the common earth to feed on, which were not fo nu- ingly in any long fpace of time double themfelves, at
tritious as thofe of Paradife, he flood in need of fome- leaft in about the tenth part of the time in which man-
thing elfe to fuftain life ; and therefore bread produced kind do now double themfelves. It has been fuppofed
by culture and other preparations for his food was now that they began to beget children as early, and left off
added, which before was not neceffary, and thence as late, in proportion, as men do now; and that the
called tie Jiaff of life. This feems a plain reafon why feveral children of the fame father fucceeded as quick-
bread was added after he came to live on the common ly one after another as they ufually do at this day;
earth ; though perhaps another reafon alfo for that ad- and as many generations, which are but fucceflive with
dition may be given from the change that happened in us, were contemporary before the flood, the number
man’s body after his fall. Bread being now become the of people living on the earth at once would be by that
ftaff of life, Cain, the firft man born, became a tiller of means fufficiently increafed to anfwer any deleft which
the ground, or an hufbandman ; as the next in birth, might arife from other circumftances not confidered.
Abel, became a keeper or feeder of ftieep. So that, if we make a computation on thefe principles.
As to the diftinftion between clean and unclean, this we fliall find, that there was a confiderable number of
folely refpefted animals offered inffacrifice in the Ante- people in the world at the death of Abel, though their
diluvian world: as is evident from hence, that Noah, father Adam was not then 130 years old; and that the
upon his coming out of the ark “ took of every dean number of mankind before the deluge would eafily a-
beaft and of every clean fowl, and offered burnt-offer- mount to above one hundred thoufand millions (even
ings unto the Lord and that upon the grant of ani- according to the Samaritan chronology), that is, to
mal food to him and his poftevity, which was pofterior twenty times as many as our prefent earth has, in all
time to the facrifice, there is not the leaft mention probability, now upon it, or can well be fuppofed ca-
of any diftinftion between clean and unclean with re-
fpeft to food, but the very contrary, fince the grant
pable of maintaining in its prefent conftitution.
The following table, made upon the abovementioned -
runneth, “Every moving thing that liveth _ fliall be principles by Mr Whifton, dhows at leaft what number
meat for you, even as the green herb have I given you of people might have been in the Antediluvian world,
all things.” That diftinftion of clean and unclean as
to food, came in with the law of Mofes, and was diffe- g ^ o- k}
rent from that of facrifices, there being feveral crea- £| = o 3 c 2 co
tures clean for food which were not to be offered in £1 ct* | o ^ o S.
facrifice. cL 3 tl- ^ ^ 2
But another objeftion here occurs. What occafion 2, P*
was there for keeping ftieep, when none of them could 4 2 21
be eaten ? In anfwer to this, it has been obferved, 8 6 42
that ftveep and other animals might at this period 16 12 6 3
be of great ufe to men befides yielding them food. 32 20 84.
Their flocks, no doubt, confifted of fuch creatures as 64
were of the domeftic kind, and fuch as by the divine 128
law were pronounced clean and fit for being offer- 256
3°
42
56
5*2
Anbadilii- •
vians.
* Cocklurn
upon tie De-
iuge.
21
Objections
to Mr
Whifton’s
table.
A
§ ?
N
T
Kj
[ 7^
512
1024
-2O48
4096
8192
16,384
32,768
-65,.,'36
131,072
26'2,i44
524,288
1,048,576
2,097,152
4,194,304
8,388,608
16,777,216
33,554,432
67,108,864
134,217,728
268,435,456
536,870,912
1,073,741,824
2,H?,483,648
4,294,967,296
8,589,934,592
17,179,869,184
34,359,738,368
68,7 [9,476,736
137,438,953,472
2 74,8.7 7,9°6,944
549,755,8i3>888
132
156
182
210
240
272
306
342
380
420
462
506
552
600
650
702
756
812
870
93°
992
1056
1122
1190
1260
1332
1406
1482
24
26
28
3°
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
5°
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
13
14
J5
16
17
18
>9
23
24
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
But according to a later * writer upon the fubjeft,
the above table, though the numbers there may be
thought fuflicient for the peopling of the earth, we
could by no means depend upon, for feveral reafons;
particularly,
1. It is laid down there as a foundation, that the
Antediluvians would double themfelves every 40 years ;
as indeed they would, and in lefs time, after there
came to be 100 marriages. Now, had the author ob-
ferved this regular progreflion in his computation, by
adding 40 years to every former period of the age of
the world, the amount, inftead of two millions of mil¬
lions, 8cc. would have been above five millions of mil¬
lions at the year 1656, the age of the world at the de¬
luge, according to the Hebrew numbers, which he con¬
tends for. What would the fum then have been, had
we carried on the computation for 6oe years more ac¬
cording to the Septuagint?
2. He fuppofes the period of doubling mull; have
been much fhorter in the earlieft ages, and much long¬
er in the later, contrary to reafon and faft. For man¬
kind being fprung from one pair only, the increafe at
firft mu ft have been very flow, but come on very faft
when a confiderable number were married. His table
therefore4s made not regularly, but according to fan¬
cy, by unequal ftarts or chaims, at great intervals in
the later part, where it fliould have been moll regu¬
lar ; it would feera with no other view than to raife
N0 2:. •-
] ANT
fuch a number, upon the whole, as might be thought Antedilu-
fufficient to people the earth. vians.
3. In that calculation the two material points, the4—
time of nurfing and the age of puberty, are quite o-
verlooked, by which all computations of the numbers
in the antediluvian world mull be regulated. What
unavoidable miftakes this omiffion mull occafion, will
be feen by examining the firft ten numbers of the faid
table.
nb 2 Adam and Eve.
3 . 4 Cain and Abe).
Z'i 8
° 2 256
be 512
|.5 1024
£ 2048
On this table it may be obferved, 1. That though
there w>ere but tw-o perfons created at firft, this com¬
putation makes four perfons in the fecond year of the
world. This could not poffibly be, except Cain had
been.born within 12 months after the creation, which
is highly improbable, and Abel in the fecond year, yet
far more improbable 5 for in ‘that cafe Eve could hot
have fuckled Cain.
2. In the fixth year of the world we have eight per¬
fons, that is, fix children of Eve’s m fix years. “ But Cocllurn,
(our author adds) what (hall Eve do with fix infants p. 108.
in fix years ? Where could ihe find fo many wet nurfes
for them ? Or would the mother of all living deny her
children that nourifhment which the Creator had ap¬
pointed for their firft food, the milk in her breads ?
Do they confider that there was but one woman in the
world to do for herfelf, her huiband and her children,
what belongs to women to do ? We ihould furely have
more refpeft and compaffion for the mother of all man¬
kind, than to lay fuch an intolerable burden upon her,
whofe forrow for her own deception, and thereby ruin¬
ing both herfelf and her hufband, muft have been very
great for many years. In puniftiment of which, though
God had faid he ’would greatly multiply her forro<w and
conception, the meaning was not, that ftie ftiould have
a child every year, which could not b’e, becaufe the
nature of that food and nourilhment appointed by him-
felf for her children would not permit it. Nor yet
when he commanded them to increafe and multiply and
replenijh the earth, could the command be obeyed in
fuch a manner as was contrary to the order of nature
and providence. But the method intended to anfwer
the defign of the command was to prolong their lives
to above 800 and 900 years, and their prolific powers
for 340 or 360 years of that term of life, that by flow
and fure and long continuance of increafe they might
people the earth in due time.”
3. The fame exception lies to all the following pe¬
riods of doubling, where the number far exceeds what
it could poffibly be in faft ; but we fhall pafs them •
over, and come to the laft of them in the year 110,
in which the number of mankind is made 2048. Now
in the year 110 not one of Adam’s children were mar-
ANT [ 73 1 ANT
Antedilu- rje(j becaufe not yet come to the age of puberty. In
v‘ans‘ that year of the world there could be no more than 18
—v-^'or 20 perfons, at fingle births, befides Adam and Eve.
It is a great millake therefore to imagine, that the
periods of doubling were much fliorter in the earlier
times than in the later; the contrary of which is evi¬
dent to reafon.
According to our author, two errors have been fallen
Id. p. 8r. ;nto in treating of this point; namely, i. That in the
firft ages of the world, both before and after the Flood,
men began to propagate their kind as early as they
commonly do at prefent. 2. That the children of the
a3 fame father fucceeded one after another as fall as they
Of the ages do now, that is, that the women brought forth chil-
of puberty dren every year. The firft of thefe errors he confutes,
•mong the flowing that the feveral periods or ftages of man’s
vians * U" ^ ^ear a ju^ proportion' to one another, and to the
whole term of life ; and that the period of puberty or
maturity has not been the fame at all times, but is ac¬
cording to the length or brevity of life in the different
ages of the world, according to that remark of St Au-
guftine, Tanto ferior fuit proportion pubertas, quanto
vitx totius major anmfitds. Mofes, he obferves, gives
the age of the world from the creation to the deluge,
and from that period to his own time chiefly by gene¬
rations. A generation is the interval of years between
the births of father and fon. This the Latins call
xtas> and the Greeks Now, a generation, or
the interval of years between father and fon, has not
been, neither poflibly could be, the fame in all ages
from the beginning, as Voffius juftly obferves ; but has
varied greatly according to the length or brevity of
man’s life in the feveral periods of the world. Since
the ordinary term of man’s life has been reduced to
70 and 80 years, the time of puberty is in proportion
to this brevity of life, and reckoned at 20 or 2 1, which
is the fourth part of a life of fourfcore. The feveral
ftages of human life are infancy, childhood, youth,
manhood, full age, declenfion, old or decrepit age;
all which commonly bear a proportion to the whole
term of life. Now the bounds and limits of thefe fe¬
veral ftages cannot be precifely the fame in all, but va¬
ry in refpeifl of the difpofition of mens bodies, their
courfe of life, and alfo the places and ages in which
they live. In the Antediluvian world then, when men
lived to upwards of 8co and 900 years, can it be
thought that they paffed through the feveral ftages of
life in aslhort a time as men do now, who feldom ex¬
ceed 80, and not one in ten arrives at that age ? But
if the Antediluvians arrived at puberty or manhood as
foon as men do now, then would the feveral ttages of
human life have been loft or confounded, and men
would have ftartedfrom childhood to manhood at once,
without any due or regular intervals, contrary to the
order of nature : But if, according to the prefent ce-
conomy of nature, man is but a youth at 20, which
is a fourth part of our term of life, we may reafom
ably conclude, there would be a fuitable proportion of
years in a much longer term of life, fince nature is
conftant and uniform in her operations. And though in
fo long a life as the Antediluvians enjoyed, the time
of puberty might be a fifth or a fixth-part of their term
of life, yet would they be but youths at 150 or 160;
which bears much the fame proportion to the whole of
their life as 20 is to that of ours.
Vot. II. Part I.
The other is an error, he thinks, which could never Antedila-
have been fallen into, had it been confidered, that vians.
every mother fuckled her own children in thofe early '1
days ; and indeed where could Ihe have found another
to have done it for her i
Taking it for granted, then, that it was an univer-
fal cuftom for women to fuckle their children as well
before as after the flood, the next queftion is, for how
long time they continued nurfes ? He fhows various •
inftances, that when man’s life was reduced to 130 or Of the time
140 years, the ordinary time of nurfing was two years : allotted for
he thence infers, that for three or four generations af- flng “
ter the flood, when men lived to above 400 years, they1” 8 eir'^
time would be fo much longer in proportion, and would
not be lefs than three or four years ; and confequently,
that before the flood, when life was protracted to 800
or 900 years, it would be ftill longer in proportion to
their longevity ; fo that five years might be the ordi¬
nary time of nurfing in the Old World; and there¬
fore that we cannot reckon lefs than fix years between
the births. For man’s life being prolonged to fo ma¬
ny hundred years at firft for the more fpeedy peopling-
of the earth, he came by flow degrees to mature age,
there being a long time required to rear up a body that
was to laft near toco years. The intervals therefore
of infancy, childhood, youth, and mature age, were
fo much longer in proportion to ours as the difference
is between our term of life and theirs; and 150 or
160 years, with refpeft to their longevity, was no
more in ’ proportion than 20 is to the brevity of our
life. As the Antediluvians therefore were fo very longDiftance
in growing up to mature age, he concludes that the betweenthe
time of nurfing could not be ihorter than five years,
and that the diftance between the births in a regular
way muft be fet at fix years.
Upon the whole, he thinks it evident that there
could be no fuch fpeedy increafe of mankind at the be¬
ginning as is imagined; that the time of nurfing above
fpecified was no more than neceffary for that ftrength of
conftitution which was to laft for 800 and 900 years ;
and that women who were to continue bearing children
for 340 or 360 years of their life, ftiould have them but
flowly, and at the diltance of feveral years, that their
ftrength might hold out, and that they might not be
overburthened with too many cares at once; and there¬
fore, when Eve’s firft child was fix years old, it was time
enough for her to have another, and fo on, though
pofiibly fometimes twins. 2-g
Thefe points being difeuffed, he proceeds, X. To Cockburn’s
compute what number upon the whole might be born calculation
into the world from the creation to near the time of^ in'
the deluge; and then, 2. To ftate the needful de-crea[e. “v
du&ions for deaths and other deficiencies.
I. 1. How long the parents of mankind continued in
paradife, we know not; though longer perhaps than is
commonly imagined. We fliall even fuppofe two or
three years, in which time there was no child born,
nor any attempt towards it. We {hall allow them two
or three years more to lament their fall, and the mife-
rable eftate their want of faith and difobedience had
brought them to, from a moft happy condition ; and
fuppofe Cain to be born fix years after the creation (in
which fuppofition few, probably, will be apt to think
us too hafty), and Abel again fix years after him, and
fo every fixth year Eve to have had a child, the firft
K feveR
ANT
[ 74 ]
ANT
Antedilu- feven, eight or nine whereof were probably all males
vians. (the males being longer in coming to maturity than the
Ci' — v—females); and this diftance between the births will alfo
be thought a fufhcient allowance. At this rate of in-
creafe Adam would have in too years 16 children, in
2co years 32, and in 400 years 64 children ; when we
will fuppofe Eve to have left off child-bearing. Nor
need this number of Adam’s children be thought too
great, when there are inftances in thefe later ages, and
this fhort period of man’s life, of thofe who have had
40 children at {ingle births by two fucceffive wives,
and of many others who have had 20* 25, and 30, by
one wife though in fuch cafes it is not to be fuppofed Years of the World,
that the women fuckled their children.
2. Though it is reafonable to think that the Ante¬
diluvians, notwithftanding their longevity, came to
mature age at 150; yet as we are not fure that they all
married fo foon as they were ripe for marriage, and
that the earlieft in the genealogies is born in the f6zd
year of his father, who might probably be a firff-born,
our author does not fuppofe Cain, Abel, or any of the
fucceeding children or grandchildren of Adam to have
married till they were 160, but to have had children
from 161 or 162 till they were of the age of 500,
at the fore-named diftance or interval between the
births ; though Noah we know had three fons after he
was 500, at the due intervals. And to all the Ante¬
diluvians we may allow, without fear of exceeding, 50
or 54 children in general, according to the courfe of
nature, and the longevity of thofe firft ages of the
world.
3. Let us next inquire in what number of years the
men of that world might double themfelves, notwith¬
ftanding the long interval between the births. The
ihcreafe indeed will be found very fmall for the firft
300 or 400 years, as they were late in coming to ma¬
turity ; but the fucceeding ages will fwell the account
exceedingly. Let us fuppofe at prefent (what (hall be
proved afterwards) that in the year of the world yco,
there were 200 perfons only, male and female, of full
age to marry, the men at 160, the women at 120 or
thereabout. The firft or fecond year after the mar¬
riage will probably produce too births from 100
couple, and every fixth year after ico more. At this
flow progreffion the 200 married perfons will, in 19 or
20 years, be increafed to 600 : fo that the number of
mankind would be trebled in 20 years, after there came
A00 pair to be married. And in this manner they
would increafe and multiply every 20 years, or in that
fpace treble themfelves.
But though there be nothing in this fuppofition con- Antedllu-
trary to reafon, viz. That after the year of the World vians.
500, they might treble themfelves in 20 years ; yet
we will not reckon upon fo fliort an interval, but will
allow a much longer time even to their doubling them¬
felves, and fliall exhibit two tables of doubling; the
firft at the interval of 50 years (much too long indeed),
the other at the interval of 40 years, and both begin¬
ning at the year 500, when there could not be fewer
(whatever more there might be) than ico married or
marriageable perfons defeended fi-om Adam and Eve.
500
550
600
650
yco
75°
800
850
900
950
1,000
1,050
1,100
1,250
1,300
J>35°
1,400
1,450
1,500
M5°
1,600
1,650
1,700
1,750
1,800
1,850
1,900
1,950
2,000
2,050
Number of Mankind.
200
400
- 800
1,600
3,200
- 6,400
12,800
25,600
51,200
102,400
204,800
- 409,600
819,200
1,638,400
3,27^,800
6,553,600
13,107,200
26,214,400
52,428,800
104,857,600
209,715,200
4'9A10A®°
838,860,800
1,677,721,600
3>335>443>2°o
6,710,886,500
13,42!,772,800
26,843,545,600
53,687,091,200
107,374,182,400
214,748,364,800
429,496,729,600
This table is calculated at the long interval of 50 years,
that it may appear that even by under-rating the num¬
ber of mankind, there would be fo many millions born
into the world before the deluge came, that they would
be obliged to fpread themfelves over the face of the
It may perhaps be obje&ed, that though it appears earth, though but one half of the fum total of ,429,496
l'"* ”''1' r“ ^ 1'" "* £"a r r il millions had been alive at the time of the deluge ; but
as the interval here allowed may appear to be too long
for the time of doubling, the fecond is calculated at
the interval of 40 years, which comes nearer to the
truth of the cafe, though even, this may exceed the
time of doubling.
Number of Mankind.
' - 200
- - 400
800
- - i,6qq
3AC9
• - 6,400
that fuch an increafe might be at firft from the firft
too marriages, yet they could not continue thus to
multiply at fuch periods: becaufe, according to the
rule we have laid down, mone of the iffue of thefe 100
firft marriages could increafe the number of mankind
till the men had attained the age of 160. It is true
they could not: but then it muft be remembered, that
the firft too pair are ftill adding every fixth year 100 Years of the. World,
more to the number of mankind, even till after the 500
400 born in the firft 20 years are married, and begin 54°
a new ftock for increafe; fo that when there came to 580
be fome hundred couples married, the increafe and mul- 620.
tiplication would come on very faft, and in 1000 years 660
mankind would be prodigioufly increafed. 700
74?
ANT
740
780
820
860
920
940
980
1,020
r,o6o
1,100
i,t40
1,180
1,220
1,260
1,300
1.340
1,380
1,420
1,460
1,500
1,540
1,580
1,620
1,660
1,700
1,740
1,780
1,820
1,860
1,900
1,940
1,980
2,020
t 75 ]
Numbers of Mankind. regular increafe.
12,800
- - 25,600
51,200
102,400
204,800
409,600
819,200
1,638,400
ANT
Astedih- Years of the World. Numbers of Mankind. regular increafe. Though every married pair might by Antedilu¬
vians. n±Q - • - - - 12.800 the courfe of nature have had fuch a number of chil- vians.
dren as has been mentioned, yet the Divine Providence
might order it otherwife in manifold inftances ; and it
might poffibly be in the Old World as it has been fince
the flood, viz. that fome marriages have produced
many children, others few, and fome none at all. Al¬
lowing, therefore, for all fuch obftrufitions and deficien¬
cies, and likewife for all cafualties and accidents (to
3,276,800 which men might be liable in that world as well as in
6,553,60° the prefent), in as ample a manner as can be defired,
let the former number be reduced to one half, viz. to
27,487,790,694,400, that is, 27 billions, or millions
of millions, four hundred and eighty-feven thoufand
feven hundred and ninety millions, fix hundred and
ninety-four thoufand and four hundred. And this we
lhall now fuppofe to be the whole number of thofe who
were born into the world before the deluge. But from
,677,721,600 this fum is to be fubtradled the number of thofe who
3,355,443,200 died before that time.
6,710,886,400 Of thofe in the genealogies from Adam by Seth,
13,421,772,800 Enochwas tranflated at the age of 365, Lamech, the
26,843,545,600 father of Noah, died juft before the flood, at 753, Ma-
53,687,091,200 halaleel at 895. Adam and the other five patriarchs
lived to above 900. Before the year 900, therefore,
we may fuppofe there were no deaths except that of
Abel, who was flain, a young man, but that all born
within that period were alive together. But in the
tenth century death began to reign, and Adam and
Eve, we may prefume, were the firft over whom death
had power in a natural way, as their difobedience was
the caufe of it. The children alfo born of them in the
firft hundred years would alfo die in this icth century,
54>975>58i,388,8oo thofe born in the fecond hundred would die in the 1 ith,
thofe born in the third century would die in the 12th,
The firft table is brought down no lower than to the and fo on. But though we are far from thinking that
after the beginning of the 10th century, (till which
time few or none died), the deaths would be equal to
the births; yet as we have made large conceffiona all
along, we fliall do the fame in this cafe, and fuppofe
them upon the whole to have been equal, efpecially
fince we cannot precifely fay how foon that violence c
13,107,200
26,214,400
52,428,800
104,857,600
209,715,200
419,430,400
838,860,800
107,374,182,400
214,748,364,800
429,496,729,600
85^993.459.200
1,717,986,918,400
3»4-35»973.83M°0
6,871,947,673,600
13.743.895.347.200
27,487,790,694,400
year 2050, and the fecond to the year 2020, though
there remain by the firft 206, and by the fecond 236
years to the flood : the reafon is, that in thofe laft 200
years of the world, mankind would not increafe in any
meafure equal to what they had done in the preceding
years, (though regularly the increafe Ihould have been
much greater) ; becaufe that violence was then great
• ’ ’ .1 4.1 r    :ii.*   • 1 .1
_ u blopdlhed, which was their crying fin, came to prevail;
in the earth, and thoufands, yea millions, might have and therefore will reduce the laft fum mentioned to c
been cut off by untimely deaths; for which c311 fie the
world’s deftrudtion was determined 120 years before
47 the flood came.
Objedtion II. But now againft this immenfe number of mankind
anfwered. that might in a regular and ordinary way have been
born into the world between the creation and the de¬
luge in 2056 years, it will no doubt be objected by
fome, (as it has been done to farlefs numbers), that all
fuch calculations are mere guefs-work, the produft of of the whole earth.
half again, to allow for the deaths and prevailing vio¬
lence, and fuppofe the total number of mankind alive
upon the earth at the time of the deluge to have been
no more than 13,743,895,347,200, that is, 13 billions,
or millions of millions, feven hundred and forty-three
thoufand eight hundred and ninety-five millions, three
hundred and forty-feven thoufand and two hundred ; a
number vaftly exceeding that of the prefect inhabitants
fruitful imaginations.
Notwithftanding the very large allowances and a-Probability
But it fhould be confidered, that in calculations of batements made to reduce the number of mankind, .yet of the above
this nature fome regular order or method muft be ob- even the laft reduction to 13 billions, or millions
ferved : and though, according to the courfe of nature, millions, See. feems fo vaftly great, that it will hardly
fuch an increafe and multiplication of mankind there be thought poflible that fuch a number of men could
might have been periodically, efpecially at the begin-  1      ^ vr~—  1
ning, when the command was 6? increafe and multiply.
be at one time upon the earth. Now, though we
pretend to no certainty in this point, (which made it
and replenijh the earth ; yet we will not fuppofe, that the more requifite to allow largely for deaths and de-
all things went on thus regularly, without difference or
interruption. We do not know what extraordinary
obftrudious or interruptions there might be to fuch a
ficiencies), yet the calculation we have given muft ap¬
pear highly probable, fince it is founded on grounds
certain and undeniable : For inftance,
E. 2 1. It
ANT [ ?6 J ANT
Antedilu- 1» It cannot be denied but that the Antediluvians
vians. were come to the age of puberty and marriage at 160
years, when we find a fon born in 162. Nor,
2. Can it be faid, that they could not have children
at the age of 500, when we have an inftance of one
that had three fons at due diftances after that age.
Neither,
3. Can it be alledged, that we have not allowed a due
diftance or interval between the births, viz. fix years,
when moft will be of opinion that it could not be fo
long. Nor yet,
4. Can it be judged, that we have made the period
of doubling far too fhort, when we had before (bowed,
that after 100 marriages confummated, they would
treble themfelves in half the time we have taken for
their doubling. Nor,
5. Will any one make a doubt, but that there might
be 200 perfons of mature age for marriage in the year
of the world 500, the men at 160, the women young¬
er. Neverthelefs, as this is the foundation of our cal¬
culation, we (hall now (how, that there was at lead fuch
a number of perfons marriageable at that age of the
world.
It may be obferved, that as we take 160 for the
year of maturity and marriage, according to that period
all married or marriageable in the year 500 muft have
been born in or before the year 340 ; the males at lead,
though the females coming fooner to maturity, might
fome of them be born later or after the year 380. Now,
according to this dated period of marriage,
1. In or before the year 340, Adam might have had
54 children, males and females, or 27 pair married or
fit for marriage.
2. Cain, whom we fuppofe to be but fix years
younger than Adam, (which by the by is more than
others allow), and to have married in the year 166,
might have, in the year 340, 28 children, or 14 pair
fit for marriage ; which added to the former, makes 41
pair.
3. Abel married fix years later, that is, in the year
172, and whom we (hall fuppofe (lain in the year 223
or 226, could in that cafe have no more than eight or
nine children, or four pair, which, with the former,
make 45 pair.
4. Adam’s third fon, married in the year 178, will
afford us, in the year 340, 26 children, or 13 pair,
which increafe the number of marriageable perfons to
58 pair.
5. A fourth fon of Adam’s, married in the year 184,
will give us, in the year 340, 25 children, or 12 pair,
which makes the number of pairs 70.
6. A fifth fon of Adam’s, married in the year 190,
might, in the year 340, have 24 children, or 12 pair
again, which increafe the former number to 82 pair.
7. A fixth fon of Adam’s, married in the year 196,
would have, in the year 340, 22 children, or ii pair,
which, added to the former, make up 93 pair.
8. A feventh fon of Adam’s, married in the year
202, will, in the year 340, give us 20 children, or 10
pair, which makes in the whole 103 pair, already three
pair more than we reckoned upon. I need therefore
go no farther on to the eighth or ninth fon ; but the
following eight or nine births I may reafonably take
to have been daughters, and married to the brothers
that preceded them.
Here are now no more than 14 children of Adam’s Antego
married, who have given us the too pair we have rec- 1)
koned upon, and three over. We might yet have 13 Antepilam.
pair to bring into the account, all born before the year -
340, and marriageable in the year 500, which would
very much increafe the number of mankind. And by
this the reader may perceive that we have been far from
building on uncertain or precarious foundations, fince
we have omitted 13 pair more, which we might have
taken into the account. And if it be confidered, that
the command given to Adam was to increafe and mul¬
tiply, and replenilh the earth, no doubt can be made,
but that his own and his childrens marriages were fruit¬
ful in the procreation of children, that the earth might
be inhabited.
ANTEGO. See Antigua.
ANTEJURAMENTUM, by our ancellors called
juramentum calumtiix, an oath which anciently both
accufer and accufed were to take before any trial or
purgation.—The accufer was to fwear, that he would
profecute the criminal; and the accufed to make oath,
on the day he was to undergo the ordeal, that he wa*
innocent of the crime charged againft him.
ANTELOPE, in zoology. See Capra.
ANTE LUC AN, in ecclefiaftical writers, is applied
to things done in the night or before day. We find
frequent mention of the antelucan affemblies (Cxtus
antelucani) of the ancient Chriftians, in times of per-
fecution for religious worlhip.
ANTEMURALE, in the ancient military art, de¬
notes much the fame with what the moderns call an
out-work.
ANTENATI, in modern Englilh hiftory, is chief¬
ly underftood of the fubje&s of Scotland, born before
king James the Firft’s accefiion to the Englilh crown,
and alive after it. In relation to thefe, thofe who
were born after the acceffion were denominated Pojlna-
ti. The antenati were confidered as aliens in England,
whereas the pottnati claimed the privilege of natural
fubjefts.
ANTENCLEMA, in oratory, is where the whole
defence of the perfon accufed turns on criminating the
accufer. Such is the defence of Oreftes, or the oration
for Milo : Occifus eji, fed latro. Exfeftus, fed raptor.
ANTENICENE, in ecclefiaftical writers, denotes
a thing or perfon prior to the firft council of Nice.
We fay, the Antenicene faith, Antenicene creeds, An-
tenicene fathers.
ANTENNiE, In the hiftory of infefts, (lender bo¬
dies with which nature has furnilhed the heads of thefe
creatures, being the fame with what in Englilh are call¬
ed horns or feelers. See Entomology.
ANTENOR, a Trojan prince, came into Italy,,
expelled the Enganians on the river Po, and built the
city of Padua, where his tomb is faid to be ftill extant.
ANTEPAGMENTA, in the ancient architedture,,
the jambs of a door. They are alfo ornaments, or gar-
niftiings, in carved work, of men, animals, &c. made
either of wood or (tone, and fet on the architrave.
ANTEPENULTIMA, in grammar, the third fyl-
lable of a word from the end, or the laft fyllable but
two.
ANTEPILANI, in the Roman armies, a name gi¬
ven to the haftati and principes, becaufe they marched
next before the triarii, who were called pilani.
AN-
ANT [ 77 ] ANT
Antepilep- ANTEPILEPTICS, among phyficians, medicines
tics efteemed good in the epilepfy.
II ANTEPOSITION, a grammatical figure, where-
Anthem. ky a word, which by the ordinary rules of fyntax ought
'■Jl »~L-' to follow another, comes before it. As when, in the La¬
tin, the adjeftive is put before the fubftantive, the verb
before the nominative cafe, &c.
ANTEPREDICAMENTS, among logicians, cer¬
tain preliminary queftions which illuftrate the do&rine
of predicaments and categories.
ANTEQU1ERA, a handfome town of Spain, in
the kingdom of Granada, divided into two parts, the
upper and lower. The upper is feated on a hill, and
has a caftle : the lower Hands in a fertile plain, and is
watered with a great number of brooks. There is a
large quantity of fait in the mountain ; and five miles
from the town, a fpring famous for the cure of the gra¬
vel. W. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat. 36. 51.
ANTERIOR, denotes fomething placed before an¬
other, either with refpeft to time or place.
ANTEROS, in mythology, one of the two Cupids
who were the chief of the number. They are placed
at the foot of the Venus of Medici; this is reprefented
with a heavy and fullen look, agreeably to the poeti¬
cal defcription of him, as the caufe of love’s ceafing.
The other was called Eros.
ANTESIGNANI, in the Roman armies, foldiers
placed before the ftandards, in order to defend them,
according to Limpfius ; but Casfar and Livy mention
the antefignani as the firft line, or firft body,, of heavy¬
armed troops. The velites, who ufed to ikirmiflr be¬
fore the army, were likewife called antefignani.
ANTESTATURE, in fortification, a fmall re¬
trenchment made of palifadoes, or facks of earth, with
a view to difpute with an enemy the remainder of a
piece of ground.
ANTESTARI, in Roman antiquity, fignifies to
bear witnefs againft any one who refufed to make his
appearance in the Roman courts of judicature, on the
day appointed, and according to the tenor of his bail.
The plaintiff, finding the defendant after fuch a breach
of his engagement, was allowed to carry him into court
by force, having firft: aflced any of the perfons prefent
to bear witnefs. The perfon afked to bear witnefs in
this cafe, exprefled his confent by turning his right
ear, which was inftantly taken hold of by the plaintiff,
and this was to anfwer the end of a fubpcena. The
ear was touched upon this occafion, fays Pliny, as be¬
ing the feat of memory, and therefore the ceremony
was a fort of caution to the party to remember his en¬
gagement.
ANTEVIRGILIAN husbandry, an appellation
given to Mr Tull’s new method of horfe-hoeing huf-
bandry. See Agriculture.
ANTHELION, See Corona and Parhelion.
ANTHELIX, in anatomy, the inward protuberance
of the external ear, being a femicircle within, and al-
tnoft parallel to the helix. See Anatomy.
ANTHELMINTICS-,' among phyficians, medi¬
cines proper to deftroy worms.
ANTHEM, a church-fong performed in cathedral-
fervice by chorifters, who fung alternately. It was ufed
, , to denote both pfalms and hymns, when performed in
this manner. But, at prefent, anthem is ufed in a more
confined fenfe, being applied to certain paffages taken
out of the fcriptures, and adapted to a particular fo- Anthem;*,
lemnity. Anthems were firft introduced in the re-1—*y—
formed fervice of the Englifh church, in the beginning
of the reign of Queen Ehfabeth.
ANTHEMIS, camomile: A genus of the polyga-
mia fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Compofitee difcoides. The efiential cha¬
racters are thefe : The receptaculum is chaffy; there is
no pappus; the calyx is hemifpheric andfubequal; and
the florets of the' ray are more than five. Of this ge¬
nus Linnseus enumerates 17
Species; of which the moft remarkable are the fol¬
lowing. 1. The nobilis,.or common camomile, grows
in plenty upon commons, and other wafte land. It is
a trailing perennial plant, which puts out roots from
the branches, by which it fpreads and multiplies great¬
ly. Of this kind there is a variety with double leaves.—
Formerly this plant was ufed for planting of walks ;
which, when mowed and rolled, looked well for fome-
time ; but as it was fubje& to decay in large patches,,
the walks became unfightly, and it was therefore dif-
ufed. 2.The pyrethrum, or pellitory of Spain, is a per¬
ennial plant, which grows naturally in Spain and Por¬
tugal, from whence the roots are brought to Britain.
The branches trail upon the ground, and fpread a foot
or more each way; thefe are garnifhed with fine winged
leaves like thofe of the common camomile. At the ex¬
tremity of each branch is produced one large Angle
flower, like camomile, but much larger; the rays of
which are of a pure white within, but purple on the
outfide. After the flowers are paft, the receptacle fwells -
to a large fcaly cone, having the feeds lodged between
its fcales ; but unlefs the feafon is dry, the feeds will.
not come to perfection in this country. 3. The tine-
toria, with fawed winged leaves, is a perennial plant,
which flowers from June to November, and makes a
very pretty appearance, fome of the flowers being of a
white, others of a fulphur, and fome of a bright yel¬
low colour. 4. The Arabica, with a branching em-
palement. The feeds of this fpecies were brought from
Africa by the late Dr Shaw, and diftributed to many
curious botanifts in this, and other countries of Europe.
It grows near two feet high, with an upright ftem,
having a Angle flower at the top, from whole empale-
ment there are two or three footftalks put out horizon¬
tally, about two inches long, each having a Angle
flower fmaller than the firft, like the childing marigold,
or hen-and-chicken daify.
Culture. The firft fort may be very eafily propaga¬
ted by procuring a few flips in the fpring, and plant¬
ing them about a foot diftant from one another, where
they will foon cover the ground. The other forts may
be propagated from feeds Town in the fpring, and will.
require no other care than to be kept free from weeds:
only the third fort mull be tranfplanted when come up
from the feeds into borders near fhrubs, where they
may have room to grow ; for they fpread very wide,
and therefore require to be placed three feet diftant
from other plants.
Medicinal Ufes. The firft and fecond forts are ufed
in medicine. The firft have a ftrong, not ungrateful,
aromatic fmell, and a very bitter naufeous talle. They
are accounted carminative, aperient, emollient, and in.,
fome meafure.anodyne; and Hand recommended in fla¬
tulent .
A N T . . [ .7
Afithefa, tuknt colics, for promoting the uterine purgations, in
Anthcri- fpafmodic pains, and the pains of childbed-women :
cum. iometimes they have been employed in intermittent fe-
'—"V—^ vers, and the nephritis, 'rhei'e flowers are frequently
alio ufed externally in difeutient and antifeptic fomen¬
tations, and in emollient glyIters. They enter the de-
endum pro enemate and dccofhim pro foinento of our
pharmacopoeias. An effential oil was formerly direct¬
ed to be prepared from them, but it is now omitted.
A Ample watery infufion of them taken in a tepid date,
is at\prefent frequently employed to promote the ope¬
ration of emetics. The root of the pyrethrum is the
only part endowed with medical virtue. It has no fen-
fible fmell; its talte is very hot and acrid, but lefs fo
than that of arum or dracunculus : the juice expreffed
from it has fcarce any acrimony, nor is the root itfelf
lb pungent when freih as after it has been dried. Wa¬
ter, affifted by heat, extracts fome lhare of its tafte,
reCtiSed fpirit the whole ; neither of them elevate any
thing in dittillation. The principal ufe of pyrethrum
in the prefent praCtice is as a maiticatory, for promo¬
ting the falival flux, and evacuating vifeid humours
from the head and neighbouring parts ; by this means
it often relieves the tooth-ach, fome kinds of pains of
the head, and lethargic complaints.
ANTHERA, among botanifts, that part of the fta-
men which is fixed on the top of the filamentum,' with¬
in the corolla; it contains the pollen or fine dull, which,
when mature, it emits for the impregnation of the plant,
according to Linnasus. The Apex of Ray, Tournef.
& Rivin.; Capfula Jiaminis, of Malpighi.
ANTHERICUM, spider-wort: A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants; and, in the natural method, ranking under the
10th order, Coronari.?. The characters are : There is
no calyx: The corolla confifts of fix oblong,petals, which
are expanding : The Jlamina con fill of fix fubulated
ereCt filaments ; the antherse are fmall and furrowed :
The pijlilium has a three-cornered germen, a Ample
flylus, and obtufe ftigma : The pericarpium is an ovate
trifulcated capfule, with three cells and three valves :
The are numerous and angular. Of this genus
Einnasus reckons up nine.
Species. But only the three following feem to deferve
notice, i. The ramofum, with a branching ftalk. 2.
The liliago. Thefe are perennial plants, which are na¬
tives -of Spain, Portugal, and other warm countries.
They were formerly pretty common in the Englilh gar¬
dens ; but the fevere winter of 1740 killed moft of
their roots. They flower in June and July, and the
feeds are ripe in September. 3. The frutefeens, with
a ihrubby ftalk, was formerly known among the gar¬
deners near London by the name of onion-leaved aloe.
It produces many ligneous branches from the root, each
fupporting a plant with Jong taper leaves, in Ihape like
thofe of an onion, and full of a yellow pulp very juicy.
Thefe plants fend out roots, which .run down and faften
themfelves into the earth, by which they multiply
greatly. The.flowers are produced on long loofe fpikes,
are yellow, and appear at different times, fo that the
plants are never long deftitute of 'flowers. This fpe-
cies is a native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Culture. The two firft are propagated by feeds, which
ftiould be fown in the autumn, in a warm fituation, on
a .bed of light fandy earth. When the plants come up
■8 ] ANT
they muft be kept clear of weeds during the fummer; Anthef-
and in autumn, when the leaves decay, they fliould be phoria
carefully taken up and tranfplanted into a bed of light II
earth, at a foot diftance from one another. If the win-^nt_°cera*
ter prove fevere, they fhould be covered with ftraw, J
peafe-haulm, or old tan. The third likewife requires
Ihelter in winter; though fome of them will live in the
open air, if planted dole to the warm wall.
ANTHESPHORIA, in antiquity, a Sicilian feftival
inftituted in honour of Proferpine. The word is deri-
rived from the Greek foiver, and / carry ;
becaufe that goddefs was forced aw'ay by Pluto when
fhe was gathering flowers in the fields. Yet Feftus
does not aferibe the feaft to Proferpine; but fays it was
thus called by reafon ears of corn were carried on this
day to the temples.—Anthefphoria feems to be the fame
thing with the florifertum of the Latins, and anfwers
to the harveft-home among us.
ANT HESTER IA, in antiquity, was a feaft ce¬
lebrated by the Athenians in honour of Bacchus. The
moft natural derivation of the word is from the Greek
ai'S'of {Jios), a flower, it being the cuftom at this feaft to
offer garlands of flowers to Bacchus.
The anthefteria lafted three days, the x ith, 12th, and
13th of the month ; each of wdiich had a name fuited
to the proper office of the day. The firft day of the
feaft was called riSrayta, i. e. opening of the vejfels;
becaufe on this day they tapped the veffels, and tailed
the wine. The fecond day they called the
name of a meafure containing the weight of 10 pounds ;
on this they drank the wine prepared the day before.
The third day they called AyV0'* kettles: on this day
they boiled all forts of pulfe in kettles j which however
they were-not allowed to tafte, as being offered to Mer¬
cury.
ANTHESTERION, in ancient chronology, the
fixth month of the Athenian year. It contained 29 days;
and anfw'ered to the latter part of our November and
beginning of December. The Macedonians called it
deejion or dcfion. It had its name from the feftival an¬
thefteria kept in it.
ANTHIST1RIA, in botany: A genus of the
trigynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of
plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under the
4th order, Gramina. The characters are : The ca¬
lyx is a four-valved glume equally cleft to the bafe :
The corolla is a two-valved glume : The Jlamina confift
of three Ihort flender filaments ; the antherae oblong
and ereCt: The pijlillum has an oblong germen ; the
ftyli are two ; and the ftigmata are clavated and hairy :
There is no pericarpium, except a clofed calyx : The
feed is oblong and furrowed. There is only one fpecies
of this grafs, the ciliata or fringed anthiftiria, a native
of India.
ANTHOCEROS, or horn-flower: A genus of
the order of algae, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs
of plants; and, in the natural method, ranking un¬
der the 57th order, Algee. The effential characters
are : The calyx of the male is feffile, cylindric, and en¬
tire ; the antherae (one) is fubulated, very long, and
two-valved : The calyx of the fetnale is monophyllous,
divided into fix parts, and expanding : The feeds are
about three, naked and roundiftx.—There are only three
fpecies of the anthoceros, viz. the punCtatus or fpotted
anthoceros, a native of Britain i the lavis, a native of
Europe
ANT
[ 79 ]
ANT
Antholo- Europe and America ; and the multifidus, a native of herd, and curing all diforders in that animal. To do Anthony
/-<  t. r j : :n. _i—^—i — jjjm greater honour, the Romanifts in feveral pla- ll
ces keep at common charges a hog denominated St •AlItllor^
Anthony's hog, for which they have great veneration.‘ ' j
Some will have St Anthony’s picture on the walls of
their houfes, hoping by that to be preferved from the
plague ; and the Italians, who do not know the true
iignification of the fire painted at the fide of their faint, ,
concluding that he preserves houfes from being burnt,
invoke him on fuch occafions. Both painters and poets»
have made very free with this faint and his followers :
the former, by the many ludicrous pidhires of his temp¬
tation 5 and the latter, by divers epigrams on his dif-
gion Germany. It is found in moift Ihady places, and on
II heaths.
^And_10ny- ANTHOLOGION, the title of the fervice-book
^ ^ ufed in the Greek church. It is divided into 12 months,
containing the offices fung throughout the year, on the
feftivals of our Saviour, the Virgin, and other remark¬
able faints.
ANTHOLOGY, adifcourfe of flowers, or of beau¬
tiful pafiages from any authors.—It is alfo the name
given to a colleftion of epigrams taken from 'feveral
Greek poet$.
ANTHOLYZA, Mad-flower : A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of ciples or friars ; one of which is the following, printed
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the in Stephens’s World of Wonders:
6th order, Enfatx. The efiential charafters are thefe :
The calyx is tubular, irregular, and bent back; and
the capfule is beneath the flower.
Species- 1. The ringens, whofe flower-flips fpread
afunder. This hath red, round, bulbous roots, from
which arife feveral rough furrowed leaves, near a foot
Jong, and half an inch broad: between thefe comes
out the flower-ftalk immediately from the root, which
rifes twro feet high, is hairy, and hath feveral red
flowers coming out on each fide. Thefe appear in
Once fedd’il thou, Anthony, an herd of fwine.
And now an herd of monks thou feedeft ftill.'.
For wit and gut alike both charges bin;
Both loven filth alike ; both like to fill
Their greedy paunch alike ; nor was that kind'
More beaftly, fottifh, fwiniflr, than this laft.
All elfe agrees : one fault I only find,
Thou feedeft not thy monks with oaken maft.
Anthony, or Knights of St Anthony, ‘a military.
June, and the feeds ripen in September. 2. The fpi- order, inftituted by Albert Duke of Bavaria, Holland,-
cata, with narrow furrowed leaves, is in flrape and fize and Zealand, when he defigned to make war againfi:-
like the vernal crocus, but the outer flcin is thin and the Turks in 1382. The knights- wore a collar of.
white ; from this arife five or fix long narrow leaves, gold made in form of a hermit’s girdle, from which,
which are deeply furrowed. Between thefe arife the. hung a flick cut like a crutch, with a little bell, as
flower-ftem, which is a foot and an half high, bending
on one fide towards the top, where the flowers come
out on one fide, Handing ereft. They are of a white
colour, appear in May, and the feeds ripen in Augutt.
Both thefe fpecies are natives, of Africa, from whence
their feeds were firft obtained, and raifed in the Dutch
gardens.
Culture. The antholyza may be propagated by off-
fets, which it fends off in pretty great plenty ; or by
feeds, which are fometimes perfe&cd in Europe. Thefe
ffiould be fown foon after they are ripe, in pots of light
earth ; which, if plunged in old beds of tan which has
loft its heat, and {haded in the middle of the day in
hot weather, they will come up the following win¬
ter : therefore they muft be kept covered with glaffes
to fcreen them from cold, otherwife the young plants
will be deftroyed. They may remain in the pots two
years, if the plants are not too clofe, when they will
have acquired ftrength enough to bear tranfplanting ;
the proper time for which is in July and Auguft, when
their leaves are decayed. In fummer the pots may be
placed in the open air, but in winter they muft be pla¬
cedTinder a hot-bed frame;. or in the green-houfe*,
where they are a great ornament when in flower.
ANTHONY (St), was born.in Egypt in 251, and
they are reprefented in St Anthony’s pi&ures.
St Anthony alfo gives the denomination to an or¬
der of religious founded in France about the year 1095
to take care of thofe affii&ed with St Anthony’s fire :.
(fee the next article.)—It is faid, that, in fome places,
thefe monks affume to themfelves a power of. giving, as-
well as removing, the ignis facer, or eryfipelas; a power,
which ftands them in great ftead for keeping the poor
people in fubje&ion, and extorting alms. To avoid the
menaces of thefe monks, the country people prefent
them every year with a fat hog a-piece. Some prelates*
endeavoured to perfuade Pope Paul III. to abolifh the
order ; quafuarios iftos fantti Anthonii, qui decipiunt ru-
flicos et fjnplices, eofque enumeris fuperfitionibus impli-
cent, de medio tollendos ejje. But they firbfift, notwith-
Handing, to this day in feveral places.
St Anthony's Fire, a name popularly given to the
eryfipelas. Apparently it took this denomination,.
as thofe affli&ed with it made their peculiar applica¬
tion to St Anthony of Padua for a cure. It is known,
that anciently particular difeafes had their peculiar 1
faints: thus, in the ophthalmia, perfons had recourfe
to St Lucia ; in the tooth-ach, to. St Apollonia ; in-
the hydrophobia,’to,St Hubert, &c.
ANTHORA, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe-
inherited a large fortune, which he diftributed among cies-of Aconitum. Sde Aconitum
his neighbours and the poor,, retired into folitude,. ANTHORISMUS, in rhetoric, denotes a contrary,
founded a religious order, built many monafteries, and defeription or definition of a thing from that given by-
died anno 356. Many ridiculous ftories are told of his the adverfe party.—Thus, .if the plaintiff urge, that to
confliifts with The devil and of his miracles. There are take any thing away from another without his know-
feven epililes extant attributed to him.
_ St Anthony is fometim.es reprefented with a fire by-
his fide, fignifying that he relieves perfons from thein-
flammation called after his name; but alwaysaccompa-
sied.by a hog, on account of.his having been a fwine-
ledge or confent, is a theft; this is called. or defi¬
nition. If the defendant reply, that to take a thing a—
way from another without his knowledge or confent,
provided it be done with defign to return it to him a--
gain, is not theft; this is an Aȣbficr^f.
ANTHCVS*.
ANT
'Antl'o'pct* ANTHOSPERMUM, the ambj-r-tree : A genus
mum of the dioecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs
11 of plants ; and ui the natural method ranking under
^datria^0* t^ie or<^er» Stellatj;. The effential characters are :
^ The calyx of the hermaphrodite flower is divided into
four parts ; theie is no corolla; the flamina are four,
and the piftilli two ; the germen is beneath the flower.
Male and female on the fame or feparate plants.
Spirits. Of this genus Linnaeus mentions three ;
the AUthiopica, ciliari, and herbacea; but the find is
molt generally known in the gardens of the curious.
Its beauty confifts in its fmall evergreen leaves, which
grow as clofe as heath. Thefe being bruifed between
the fingers, emit a very fragrant odour; whence the
:name amber-tree.
Culture. This plant is eafily propagated by cuttings
■during any of the fummer-months, in a border of light
•earth ; where they will take root in fix weeks time, pro¬
vided they are watered or firaded as the feafon may re-
- .-quire ; or if they are planted in pots plunged in a mo¬
derate hot-bed, they will take root the fooner, and
there will be a greater certainty of their growing. They
muft be frequently renewed by cuttings, as the old
plants are very fubjeCI to decay, and feldom laft above
three or four years.
ANTHOXANTHUM, or vernal-grass : Age-
nus of the digynia order, belonging to the diandria
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 4th order, Gramina. The eflential characters
are : The calyx is a bivalved gluma, with one flower ;
the corolla is bivalved, obtufe, and without any awn.
There are three fpecies of anthoxanthum : viz. the
odoratum, or fpring-grafs, a native of Britain; the
indicum, a native of India ; and the paniculatum, a na¬
tive of the fouthern parts of Europe. The odoratum
is one of the earlieft fpring grafles, and is extremely
common in our fertile pailures. The delightful fmell
of new-mown hay is chiefly from this plant. Cows,
horfes, Iheep, and goats eat it.
ANTHRACIS, Anthracias, or Anthracitis,
names promifeuoufly ufed by ancient naturalifts for ve¬
ry different fofiils ; viz. the carbuncle, hjematites, and a
kind of afteria. See Carbuncle, &c.
ANTHRACOSIS, in medicine, a corrofive fcaly
nicer either in the bulb of the eye or the eye-lids.
ANTHRAX, a Greek term, literally fignifying a
burning coal, ufed by the ancients to denote a gem, as
well as a difeafe, more generally known by the name of
carbuncle.
Anthrax is fometimes alfo ufed for lithanthrax or
pitcoal. See Lithanthrax.
ANTHROPOGLOTTUS, among zoologifts, an
appellation given to fuch animals as have tongues re-
fembling that of mankind, particularly to the parrot
kind.
ANTHROPOGRAPHY, denotes the defeription
••of the human body, its parts, ftrufture, &c. See Ana¬
tomy.
ANTHROPOLATRiE, in church-hiftory, an ap¬
pellation given to the Nefforians, on account of their
worlhipping Chrift, notwithftanding that they believed
him to be a|mere man.
ANTHROPOLATRIA, the paying divine ho¬
nours to a man ; fuppofed to be the molt ancient kind
of idolatry.
No. 22.
a n t
ANTHROPOLITES, a term denoting petrifae-Anthrop*-
tions of the human body, as thofe of quadrupeds are fites.
called zeolites.
It has been doubted whether any real human petri-
faCtions ever occur, and whether thofe which have been
fuppofed fuch were not mere lufus nature. But the
generality of naturalifts beft verfed in this branch af-
fures us of real anthropolites being fometimes found.
And indeed, as it is univerfally admitted that the
zoolites are frequently feen, what negative argument
therefore can be brought againft the exiftence of the
others ? Are not the component parts of the human
body nearly fimilar to thofe of the brute creation ?
Confequently, correfpondent matter may be fubjeft to,
and acquire, the like accidental changes, wherever the
fame power or caufes concur to a& upon either objedl.
If the former are not fo common, it may be accounted
for, in fome meafure, by refle&ing that human bodies
are generally depofited in felett and appropriated pla¬
ces ; whereas the bones of animals are difperfed every
where, and falling into various beds of earth, at a
greater or lefs depth, there is more probability of their
encountering the petrifying agent. Could we credit
fome authors who have treated on this fubje<£t, they
will tell us of entire bodies and Ikeletons that were
found petrified : One in particular, difeovered at Aix
en Provence anno 1583, in a rocky cliff, the cerebrum
whereof, when ftruck againft a piece of Heel, produeed
fparks, the bones being at the fame time friable. The
reports of Happel and Kircher are too abfurd for be¬
lief. Van Helmont’s ftrange relations, together with
thofe of Jean a Cofta, muft alfo be reje&ed as fabulous.
Scheuhzer has publilhed an engraved figure, which he
calls the Antediluvian man: how far it is authentic, it
would be rafti to fay. It is, however, afferted by ma¬
ny refpe&able writers on natural hiftory, that whole
Ikeletons petrified have been brought to light from
certain old mines, which remained clofed up and dif-
ufed for feveral centuries. Thefe indeed are acknowr-
ledged to be very rare. Yet it is a known faft, that
detached parts, ofteolithi, are fotnetimes found, ef-
pecially in fituations where either the water, the foil,
or both, have been obferved to poffefs a ftrong putref-
cent quality. The human vertebrse, fragrants or por¬
tions of the tibia, and even the whole cranium itfelf,
have been feen in an abfolute ftate of petrification.
Some of thefe are faid to appear vitriolated or mine¬
ralized. As to the petrified bones of pretended giants,
they are more probably real zoolites, the bones of the
larger animals. All thefe bones are found in various
ftates, and under different appearances. Some are
only indurated; others calcined, vitriolated or mine¬
ralized ; fome, again, are Amply incrufted; whilft o-
thers have been proved completely petrified. Not¬
withftanding what is here advanced, it may be granted
that a pofitive lufus natura, in fome hands, is repeat¬
edly miftaken for a real petrification. They are, how¬
ever, diftinguilhable at all times by an experienced na-
turalift; particularly by the two following rules : Firft,
We may determine that foffil a lufus naturce which, on
a drift examination, is oblerved to deviate in any ma¬
terial degree from the true res analogic a exi/lens. Se¬
condly, By the fame parity of reafoning, thofe foflil
ftiells are to be efteemed certain petrifications, and ge¬
nuine Antediluvian reliquiae, in which, on a compari-
[ 8° 1
ithropo* fon with their analogues colle&ed from the fea, there
loey appears an exadl conformity in fhze and figure. This
ithropo- comparative obfervation will hold good for all foffils;
phagi. that is, fuch as prefent themfelves either under the
—-v 1 animal or vegetable form. It is neverthelefs worthy
of notice, that all teftaceous foffils are not petrified;
fince fome kinds of them have been found in beds of
land, which retained their original perfect ffiape and
quality, but at the fame time they proved very brittle,
indeed fcarcely bearing the moft gentle touch. Shells
of this defcription are always diffoluble by acids, in
contradiftinftion to the y>etrified or calcareous foffil
fir ells, whofe property it is to relift the adtion of fuch
like menftrua. See further the article Pethifaction.
ANTHROPOLOGY, a difcourfe upon human na¬
ture.
Anthropology, among divines, denotes that
manner of expreffion by which the infpired writers at¬
tribute human parts and paffions to God.
ANTHROPOMANCY, a fpecies of divination,
performed by infpedling the intrails of a human crea¬
ture.
ANTHROPOMORPHA, a term formerly given
to the primates of that clafs of animals which have the
greateft refemblance to the human kind.
ANTHROPOMORPHISM, among ecclefiaftical
writers, denotes the herefy or error of the Anthropo-
morphites. See the next article.
ANTHROPOMORPHITES, in church-hiftory, a
feiSt of ancient heretics, who, taking every thing ipo-
ken of God in Scripture in a literal fenfe, particularly
that paifage of Genefis in which it is faid God made man
after his own image, maintained that God had a human
lhape. They are likewife called Audens, from Audeus
their leader.
ANTHROPOMORPHOUS, fomething that bears
the figure or refemblance of a man. Naturalifts give
inftances of anthropomorphous plants, anthropomor¬
phous minerals, &c. Thefe generally come under the
clafs of what they call lufus naturee, or monfters.
ANTHROPOPATHY, a figure or expreffion by
which fome paffion is afcribed to God, which properly
belongs only to man.
ANTHROPOPHAGI, (of a man, and
<payi> to eat, Men-eaters. That there have been, in
almoft all ages of the world, nations who have fol¬
lowed this barbarous practice, we have abundance of
teftimonies.
The Cyclops, the Leftrygons, and Scylla, are all re-
prefented in Homer as Anthropophagi, or man-eaters ;
and the female phantoms, Circe and the Syrens, firft
bewitched with a Aiew °f pleafure, and then deftroyed.
This, like the other parts of Homer’s poetry, had a
foundation in the manner of the times preceding his
own. It was ftill, in many places, the age fpoken of by
; Orpheus,
When men devour’d each other like the beafts.
Gorging on human flelh.——
According to Herodotus, among the Effedonlan
Scythians, when a man’s father died, the neighbours
brought feveral beafts, which they killed, mixed up
their fiefti with that of the deceafed, and made a feaft.
; Among the Maffagetae, when any perfon grew old,
they killed him and eat his flelh; but if he died of fick-
Vol. II. Part L
] ANT
nefs, they buried him, efteeming him unhappy. The AntTirop®-
fame author alfo affures us, that feveral nations in the, Phagi
Indies killed all their old people and their fick, to feed " v f
on their flelh: he adds, that perfons in health were
fometimes accufed of being fick, to afford a pretence
for devouring them. According to Sextus Empiricus,
the firft laws that were made, were for the prevention
of this barbarous pradtice, which the Greek writers re-
prefent as univerfal before the time of Orpheus.
Of the practice of anthropophagy in latter times, we
have the teftimonies of all the Romilh miffionaries who
have vifited the internal parts of Africa, and even 1'ofne
parts of Afia. Herrera fpeaks of great markets in
China, furniftied wholly with human flelh, for the bet¬
ter fort of people. Marcus Paulus fpeaks of the like
in his time, in the kingdom of Concha towards Quin-
fay, and the ifland of Zapengit; others, of the great
Java; Barbofa, of the kingdom of Siam and ifland of
Sumatra.; others, of the iflands in the Gulf of Bengal,
of the country of the Samogitians, &c.
The philofophers Diogenes, Chryfippus, and Zeno,
followed by the whole fedl of Stoics, affirmed that
there was nothing unnatural in the eating of human,
flelh; and that it was very reafonable to uie dead bo¬
dies for food, rather than to give them a prey to worms
and putrefaction. In order to make the trial, however,:
whether there was any real repugnancy in nature to the
feeding of an animal with the flelh of its own fpecies,
Leonardus Floroventius fed a hog with hog’s flelh, and
a dog with dog’s flelh ; upon which he found the
briftles of the hog to fall off, and the dog to become
full of ulcers.
When America was difcovered, this praCtice was
found to be almoft univerfal, infomuch that feveral au¬
thors have fuppofed it to be occafioned through a want
of other food, or through the indolence of the people
to feek for it; though others afcribe its origin to a
fpirit of revenge.
It appears pretty certain from Dr Hawkefwqrth’s
Account of die Voyages to the South Seas, that the in¬
habitants of the ifland of New Zealand, a country un-
furnilhed with the necelfaries of life, eat the boflies of
their enemies. It appears alfo to be very probable,
that both the wars and anthropophagy of thefe favages
take their rife and owe their continuance to irrefiftible
neceffity, and the dreadful alterhative of deftroying
each other by violence, or of perifliing by hunger, bee
vol. iii. p. 447, & leq. and vol. ii. p. 389, &c.
Mr Marfden alio informs us that this horrible cuf-
tom is praClifed by the Battas, a people in the ifland
of Sumatra. “ They do not eat human flelh (fays he)
as a means of fatisfying the cravings of nature, owing
to a deficiency of other food; nor is it fought after
as a glutonous delicacy, as it would feem among the
New Zealanders. The Battas eat it as a fpecies of
ceremony; as a mode of Ihowing 'their deteftation of
crimes, by an ignominious punifhment; and as a hor¬
rid indication of revenge and infult to their unfortu¬
nate enemies. The objefts of this barbarous repaft are
the prifoners taken in war, and offenders convicted,
and condemned for capital crimes. Perfons of the for¬
mer defcription may be ranfomed or exchanged, for
which they often w ait a confiderable time; and the lat¬
ter fuffer only when their friends cannot redeem them
by the cultomary fine of twenty beenchangs, or eighty
L dollars.
ANT [ 82 ] ANT
Ahthropa- dollars. Thefe are tried by the people of the tribe
phagi, where the fadt was committed, but cannot be execu-
phaaia*0 te^ t'^ t^e’r own particular raja or chief has been ac-
l . _ ^ ‘ 1 quainted with the fentence ; who, when he acknow¬
ledges the juflice of the intended punifhment, fends a
cloth to cover the delinquent’s head, together with a
large difh of fait and lemons. The unhappy objedt,
whether prifoner of war or malefactor, is then tied to
a ftake: the people a/Tembled throw their lances at
him from a certain diftance; and when mortally wound¬
ed, they run up to him, as if in a tranfport of paffion;
cut pieces from the body with their knives; dip them
in the dilh of fait and lemon juice ; {lightly broil them
over a fire prepared for the purpofe ; and fwallow the
morfels with a degree of favage enthufiafm. Some¬
times (I prefume according to the degree of their
animofity and refentment) the whole is devoured; and
inftances have been known, where, with barbarity flill
aggravated, they tear the flefh from the carcafe with
their mouths. To fuch a depth of depravity may man
be plunged, when neither religion nor philofophy en¬
lighten his fteps! All that can be faid in extenuation
or the horror of this diabolical ceremony is, that no
view appears to be entertained of torturing the fuf-
ferers; of encreafing or lengthening out the pangs of
death; the whole fury is direded againft the corfe ;
warm indeed with the remains of life, but part the fen-
fation of pain. I have found a diiference of opinion
in regard to their eating the bodies of their enemies
flain in battle. Some perfons long refident there, and
acquainted with their proceedings, aflert that it is not
eutlomary; but as one or two particular inftances have
been given by other people, it is juft to conclude, that
it fometimes takes place, though not generally. It
was fuppofed to be with this intent that raja Neabin
maintained a long conflict for the body of Mr Nairne,
a moft refpecftable gentleman and valuable fervant of
the India Company, who fell in an attack upon the
campong of that chief, in the year 1775.”
It may be faid, that whether the dead body of an
enemy be eaten or buried, is a matter perfectly indif¬
ferent. But whatever the practice of eating human
flefh may be in itfelf, it certainly is relatively, and in its
confequences, moft pernicious. It manifeftly tends to
eradicate a principle, which is the chief fecurity of
human life, and. more freqirently reftrains the hand of
the murderer, than the fenfe of duty or the dread of
punifhment. If even this horrid practice originates
from hunger, ftill It muft be perpetrated from revenge.
Death muft lofe much of its horror among thofe who
are accuftomed to eat the dead ; and where there is
little horror at the fight of death, there muft be lefs
repugnance to murder. See fome further obfervations
on this fubjeCt, equally juft and ingenious, by Dr
Hawkefworth, ut fupra,
ANTHR.OPOP H AGI A, the aCt or habit of eat¬
ing human fiefti. This is pretended by fome to be the
effeCt of a difeafe, which leads people afteCted with it
to eat every thing alike. Some choofe only to con-
fider it as a fpecies of pi ca. The annals of Milan fur-
nifh an extraordinary inftance of anthropophagy. A
Milanefe woman, named Elizabeth, from a depraved
appetite, like what women with child, and thofe whofe
menfes are obftr'uCted, frequently experience, had an
invincible inclination to human fleih, of. which fhe
made provifion by enticing children into her houfe, Anthrepofi?
where fre killed and faked them ; a difcovery of which copia. ?
having been made, ftie was broken on the wheel and JjJ
burnt in 1519. , n y
ANTHROPOSCOPIA, from «,9pUr.f, and
7 coxjider, the art of judging or difcovering a man’s
character, difpofition, paffions, and inclinations, from
the lineaments of his body. In which fenfe, anthro-
pofcopia feems of fomewhat greater extent than phyfi-
ognsmy or metopofcopy. Otto has publifhed an An-
thropofcopia, jive judicium hominis de ho mi ns ex linen-
mentis externis.
ANTHROPOTHYSIA, the inhuman practice of
offering human facrifices. See Sacrifice.
ANT HUS, in ornithology, a fynonime of a fpecies
of loxia. See Loxia.
ANTHYLLIS, Kidney-vetch, or Lady’s-finger :
A genus of the decandria order, belonging to the dia-
delphia clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 32d order, Papilionacece. The ef-
fential characters are : The calyx is ventricofe, and the
legumen is roundifli and covered.
Species. Linnaeus enumerates nine fpecies; of which
the following feem to be moft worthy of attention.
1. The vulneraria, with unequal winged leaves, is a na¬
tive of Spain and Portugal, as likewife of Wales. It
is a biennial plant, having Angle leaves at bottom,,
which are oval and hairy; but thofe which grow out
of the ftalks are winged, each being compofed of two
or three pair of lobes terminated by an odd one. The
flowers grow collected into heads at the top of the
ftalks, are of a bright fcarlet colour, and make a pretty-
appearance. It flowers in June and July, and the feeds
ripen in October. 2. The montana or herbaceous
woundwort, with winged leaves, grows naturally in the
mountains in the fouth of France, and in Italy. It is
garnilhed with winged leaves, which have an equal
number of hairy lobes at the extremity of the branches.
The flowers are produced in heads, and are of a purple
colour and globular form. They appear in June and
July, and the feeds ripen in October. 3. The barba
jovis, or filver-bufh, has its name from the whitenefs.-
of its leaves. This is a Ihrub which often grows to-,
the height of ten or twelve feet, dividing into many
lateral branches, garniftied with winged leaves compo¬
fed of an equal number of narrow lobes, which are very
white and hairy: the flowers are produced a t the ex¬
tremities of the branches, collected into fmall heads y
thefe are of a bright yellow colour, and appear in June;,
fometimes they are fucceeded by fhort woolly pods,
containing two or three kidney-ftiaped feeds : but un¬
less the feafon proves warm, they do not ripen in this,
country. 4. The cytifoides, or fhrubby woundwort, W
has long been known in the Englifli gardens. It is a
low ftirub, ieldom rifing above two feet high, but. fends
out many {lender branches, garnilhed with hoary leaves,
which are fometimes Angle, but generally have three
oval lobes, the middle being longer than the other two:
the flowers are yellow, and come out from the Tides of
the branches, three or four joined together, having; J
woolly impalements; but thefe are rarely fucceeded by
feeds in England.
Culture. The fir ft and fecond forts require no par¬
ticular management further than being kept free from-
wteds. The third and fourth may be propagated by
cutting?
ANT [ 83 ] ANT
iKnthyp*- catlings planted during any of the fummer months;
JT: Phora- obferving to ftiade and water them till they have taken
intichrift g00^ root 5 when they are to be tranfplanted into pots,
■ and muft always be houfed in winter,
jj ANTHYPOPHORA, in rhetoric, a figure of
fpeech; being the counter-part of an hypophora. See
Hypophora.
ANTI, a Greek prepofition, which enters into the
compofition of feveral words, both Latin, French, and
Englifh, in different fenfes. Sometimes it fignifies be-
fore, as an anti-chamber; and fometimes cppojite or con¬
trary, as in the names of thefe medicines, anti-fcorbutic,
anti-venereal.
Anti, in matters of literature, is a title given to
divers pieces written by way of anfwer to others, whofe
names are ufually annexed to the anti. See the slnti
of M. Baillet ; and the /inti-Bail let of M. Menage :
there are alfo Anti-Menagiani, &c. Casfar the dic¬
tator wrote two books by way of anfwer to what had
been objected to, him by Cato, which he called Anti-
Cat ones; thefe are mentioned by Juvenal, Cicero, &c.
Vives affures us, he had feen Csefar’s Anti-Catones in
an ancient library.
ANTIBACCH1US, in ancient poetry, a foot con-
fifting of three fyllables, the two firft long, and the
laft one fhort; fuch is the word amblre.
ANTIBES, a fea-port town of Provence in France,
with a ftrong caflle. Its territory produces excellent
fruit; and the town Bands oppofite to Nice, in the Me¬
diterranean. E. Long. 7. 5. N. Lat. 43. 3J.
ANTICHAMBER, an outer chamber for ftrangers
to wait in, till the perfon to be fpoken with is at lei-
fure.
ANTICHORUS, in botany: A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the odlandria clafs ; of
which the eflential characters are : The calyx is a four¬
leaved perianthium : The corollo confifts of four ex¬
panding petals: The pericarpium is a capfule, above,
fubulated, with four cells and four valves ; The feeds
are very numerous. There is but one fpecies, the de-
preffirs, a native of Arabia.
ANTICHRIbT, among ecclefiaftical writers, de¬
notes a great adverfary of Chriflianity, who is to ap¬
pear upon the earth towards the end of the world.
We have demonftrations, difputations, and proofs,
in great order and number, both that the pope is, and
that he is net, Antichrift.
F. Calmet is very large in deferibing the father and
mother of Antichrift, his tribe and pedigree, his wars
and conqueils, his atchievements againit Gog, Ma¬
gog, &c.
Some place his capital at Conftantinople, others at
Jerufalem, others at Molcow, and fome few at London ;
but the generality at Rome, though thefe laft are di¬
vided. Grotius and fome others fuppofe Rome Pagan
-to have been the feat of Antichrift : moft of the Lu¬
theran and reformed doctors contend earneftly for Rome
Chriftian under the papal hierarchy. In faCt, the point
having been maturely debated at the council of Gap,
held in 1603, a refolution was taken thereupon, to in-
fert an article in the confiflion of faith, whereby the
pope is formally declared to be Antichrift.—Pope Cle¬
ment VI I. was flung to the quick with this decifion ;
and even king Henry IV. of France was not a little
mortified, to be thus declared, as he faid, an imp of AnticbriAr"
Antichrift. '“**"'>» *
M. le Clerc holds, that the rebel Jews and their
leader Simon, whofe hiftory is given by Jofephus, are
to be reputed as the true Antichrift. Lightfoot and'
Vanderhart rather apply this character to the Jewifli
Sanhedrim. Hippolitus and others held that the devil
himfelf was the true Antichrift ; that he was to be in¬
carnate, and make his appearance in human Ihape be¬
fore the confummaticn of all things. Others among the
ancients held that Antichrift was to be born of a virgin,
by Ibme prolific power imparted to her by the devil. A
modern writer * of the female fex, whom many hold n-a:
tor a lamt, has improved on this lentiment; maintain-voce sou-
ing that Antichrift is to be begotten by the devil on rignen,
the body of a witch by means of the femen of a man
caught in the commiffion of a certain ^rime, and con¬
veyed, &c.
Hunnius and fome others, to fecure Antichrift to
the pope (notwithftanding that this latter feemed
excluded by not being of the tribe of Dan), have
broke in upon the unity of Antichrift, and affert
that there is to be both an eaftern and a weftern Anti¬
chrift.
Father Malvenda, a Jefuit, hath publifhed a large
work imitled Antichrijio, in which this fubjeft is amply
dilcuffed. It confifts of thirteen books. In the firft
he relates all the opinions of the fathers with regard
to Antichrift. In the fecond, he fpeaks of the times
when he fhall appear ; and fhows, that all the fathers
who fuppofed Antichrift to be near at hand, judged
the world was near its period. In the third, he dif-
courfes of his origin and nation ; and ftiows that he is
to be a Jew, of the tribe of Dan : this he founds on
the authority of the fathers ; on the paflage in Genefis
xlix. 17. Dan Jhall be a ferpent by the way, &c.; on
that of Jeremy viii. 16. where it is faid, The armies of
Dan Jhall devour the earth; and on Rev. vii. where
Ft John, enumerating all the tribes of Ifrael, makes no
mention of that of Dan. In the fourth and fifth books,
he treats of the figns of Antichrift. In the fixth, of
his reign and wars. In the feventh, of his vices. In
the eighth, of his doCtrine and miracles. In the ninth,
of his perfecutions: and in the reft, of the coming of
Enoch and Elias, the converfion of the Jews, the reign
of Jefus Chrift, and the death of Antichrift, after he
has reigned three years and an half. See alfo Loviman
on the Revelation.
How endlefs are conjeClures ? Some of the Jews, we
are told, actually took Cromwell for the thrift ; while
fome others have laboured to prove him Anuchiifl
himfelf. Pfaffius affures us he faw a folio book in the
Bodleian library, written on purpofe to demonftrate
this latter pofition.
Upon the whole, the Antichrift mentioned by the
apoftle John, 1 Eph. ii. 18. and more pai'ticularly de¬
ferred in the book of Revelation, feems evidently to
be the fame with the Man of Sin, &c charadterifed
by St Paul in his fecond Epiftle to the Theifalonians,
ch. ii. And the entire defeription literally applies to
the exceffes of papal power. Had the right of private
judgment, fays an excellent writer, been always adopt¬
ed and maintained, Antichrift could never have been ;
and when the facred right comes to be univerfally af-
L 2 ferted,
ANT [ 84 ] ANT
Antichri- ferted, and men follow the voice of their own reafori
ftiamfm anj confciences, Antichrift can be no more.
Antidefma. ANTICHRIST1ANISM, a ftate or quality in per-
■ —^ Tons or principles, which denominates them antichrifti-
an, or oppofite to the kingdom of Chrift.
M. Jurieu takes the idea of the unity of the church
to have been the fource of Anlichriftianifm. Had not
mankind been infatuated with this, they would never
have flood in fuch awe of the anathemas of Rome.
It is on this the popes erected their monarchial power.
ANTICHRIST1ANS, properly denote the followers
or worftuppers of Antichrift.
Antic KRISTIANS are more particularly underftood
of thofe who fet up or believe a falfe Chrift, or Mef-
fiah.
ANTICHTHONES, in ancient geography, an ap¬
pellation given' to the inhabitants of oppofite hemi-
fpheres.
ANT1COR, or Anticqeur among farriers, an in¬
flammation in a horfe’s throat, being the fame with
the quinzyin mankind. See Farriery, xxxvii. 2.
ANTICOSTE, a barren ifland lying in the mouth
of the river St Laurence, in North America. W. Long.
64. 16. N. Lat. from 49. to 53.
ANTICA (anc. geog ), a town in Phocis, on
the Corinthian bay, oppofite to Cirrha, lying to the
weft on the fame bay. The Phoceans feizing the tem¬
ple of Apollo at Delphi, a war, called the facred, com¬
menced, and lafted ten years ; when Philip, father of
Alexander the great, avenged the god by deftroying
many of the cities of the pillagers. Anticyra was one
of the number. It was again taken and fubverted by
Atilius a Roman general in the war with the Macedo¬
nians. It afterwards became famous for its hellebore.
That drug was the root of a plant, the chief produce
of the rocky mountains above the city, and of two
kinds; the black, which had a purgative quality ; and
the white, which was an emetic. Sick perfons refort-
ed to Anticyya to take the medicine, which was pre¬
pared there by a peculiar and very excellent recipe:
Hence the adage, Naviget Anticyrain, (Hor.) By the
port in the fecond century was a temple of Neptune,
not large, built with felefcfted ftones, and the inftde
white-wafhed; the ftatue of brafs. The agora or mar¬
ket-place was adorned with images of the fame metal;
and above it was a well with a Ipring, fheltered from
the fun by a roof fupported by columns. A little high¬
er was a monument formed with fuch ftones as occur¬
red, and defigned, it was faid, for the fon of Iphitus.
One of thefe, Schedius, was killed by Hecftor, while
fighting for the body of Patroclus, but his bones were
tranfported to Anticyra; where his brother died after
his return from Troy. About two ftadia or a quarter
of a mile diftant was a high rock, a portion of the
mountain, on which a temple of Diana flood, the i-
mage bigger than a large woman, and made by Praxi-
telles. The walls and other edifices at Anticyra were
probably erefted, like the temple of Neptune, with
ftones or pebbles. The Fite is now called Afprofpitia,
or The White hLufcs; and fome traces of the buildings
from which it was fo named remain. The port is land¬
locked, and frequented by.veffels for corn. Some paces
up from the fea is a fountain.
ANTIDESMA, in botany, a genus of the dioecia
•rder, belonging to the pentandria. clafs of plants. The
Antigonea*
calyx of the male is five-leav’d; there is no corolla; the Antidico-
anthera are bifid : The female calyx is five-leav’d ; themar'an‘tes
corolla is wanting ; the fligmata are five; the berry is . J
cylindric and one-feeded. There is but one fpecies,
the alexiteria, a native of India.
ANTIDICOMAR1AN1TES, ancient heritics,
who pretended that the holy virgin did not preferve a
perpetual virginity, but that file had feveral children
by Jofeph after our Saviour’s birth.—Their opinion was
grounded on fome expreffions of our Saviour, wherein
he mentions his brothers and his fifters; and of St
Matthew, where he fays, that Jofeph knew not Mary
till fhe had brought forth her firft-born fon. The An-
tidicomarianites were the difciples of Helvidius and Jc-
vinian, who appeared in Rome toward the clofe of the
fourth century.
ANTIDORON, in ecclefiaftical writers, a name
given by the Greeks to the confecrated bread, out of
which the middle part, marked with the crofs, where¬
in the confecration refides, being taken away by the
prieft, the remainder is diftributed after mafs to the
poor. On the fides of the antidoron are impreffed the
words Jefus Chrijtus vicit. The word is formed from
donum, “ a gift,” as being given away loco mu-
neris, or in charity. The antidoron is alfo called pa-
nis preefanllificattts. Some fuppofe the antidoron to
be diftributed in lieu of the facrament, to fuch as were
prevented from attending in perfon at the celebration ;
and thence derive the origin of the word, the eucharift
being denominated doron, “ gift,” by way of emi¬
nence.
ANTIDOSIS, in antiquity, denotes an exchange
of eftates, pradtifed by the Greeks on certain occa-
fions with peculiar ceremonies, and firft inftituted by
Solon.
When a perfon was nominated to an office, the ex¬
pence of which he was not able to fupport, he had re-
courfe to the antidofis ; that is, he was to feek fome
other citizen of better fubftance than himfelf, who was-
free from this, and other offices ; in which cafe the for¬
mer was excufed. In cafe the perfon thus fubftituted
denied himfelf to be the richeft, they were to exchange
eftates, after this manner: the doors of their houfes
were clofe fhut up and fealed, that nothing might be
conveyed away; then both took an oath to make a
faithful difcovery of all their effedts, except what lay
in the filver-mines, which by the laws was excufed
from all impofts; accordingly, within three days, a
full difcovery and exchange of eftates was made.
ANTIDOTE, among phyficians, a remedy taken ta
prevent, or to cure, the effedis of poifon, &e.
AN TIE NT. See Ancient.
ANTIGONE A, or Antic on 1 a (anc. geog.), a
town of Bithynia, fo called from Antigonus, the fon
of Philip, and afterwards called Nicaa (Strabo, fcte-
phanus.) Another of Epirus, to the north of the
Montes Ceraunii, oppofite to the city of Oricum (Po¬
lybius, Ptolemy.) A third of Arcadia, namely Man*
tinea, fo called in honour of king Antigonus (Plu¬
tarch, Paufanias.) A fourth in Macedonia, in the-
territory of Mygdonia (Pliny, Ptolemy.) A fifth in
the territory of Chalcidice, in Macedonia, on the eaft
the* Sinnc Thermauius fLivv.^ A fixth of
fide of the" Sinus Thermaicus (Livy.) A fixth of
Syria, built by Antigonus, not far from Antioch, on
She Orontes (Stephanas); but foon after deftroyed by
Seleucus,,
ANT
[ 85 ] ANT
Seleucus, who removed the inhabitants to Seleucia, a
. , town built by him (Diodorus Siculus.) A feventh of
jjntigua., 'proaS) cai]ec} Alexandria in Pliny’s time..
P ANTIGONUS, one of Alexander’s commanders,
to whom Afia fell. He conquered Eumenes, and ex-^
pelled Seleucus out of Syria; who flying to Ptolemy
Lagus in Egypt, a bloody war commenced betwixt
him, Caflander, and Antigonus, wherein, by the help
of his fon Demetrius, Antigonus prevailed, and built
the city Antigonia, anno Romas 448. Afterward
Callander, Seleucus, and JLyfimachus, uniting againlt
him, routed him, in league with king Pyrrhus, and
flew him near Epirus, ;or years before Chrift.
Antigonus, king of the Tews, was the fon of Ari-
ftobulus. He entered into an alliance with the king of
the Parthians, and befieged Jerufalem. He cut off his
uncle Hircanus’s ears, to incapacitate him for the high-
priefthood ; and put Jofephus, Herod’s brother, to
death. At length, Herod took him and fent him to
M. Anthony; who, to gratify Herod, cut off his
head, and thereby extinguilhed the Afmoneans, who
had reigned 126 years. This happened 36 years be¬
fore Chrift.
ANTIGRAPHUS, in antiquity, an officer of A-
thens, who kept a counterpart of the apodefti, or
chief treafurer’s accounts, to prevent miftakes, and
keep them from being falfified.
Antigraphus is alfo ufed, in middle-age writers,
for a fecretary or chancellor. He is thus called, ac¬
cording to the old gloflarifts, on account of his wri¬
ting anfwers to the letters fent to his mafter. The an¬
tigraphus is fometimes alfo called archigraphus; and
his dignity antigraphia, or arehigraphia.
Antigraphus is alfo ufed in Iftdorus for one of
the notes of fentences which is placed with a dote to’
denote a diverfity of fenfe in tranflations.
Antigraphus is alfo applied in ecclefiaftical wri¬
ters to an abbreviator of the papal letters. In which
fenfe the word is ufed by pope Gregory the Great in
his regifter. Of late days the office of antigraphus
confifts in making minutes of bulls from the petitions
agreed to by his holinefs, and renewing the bulls after
cngroffing.
ANTIGUA, one of the Antilles or Caribbee iflands,
fituated 20 leagues eaft of St Chriftopher’s, in W.
Long. 62. 5. and N. Lat. 17. 30. It is about 50
miles in circumference, and is reckbned the largeft of
all the Britifti leeward iflands.
This ifland having no rivers, and but few fprings,
or fuch as are brackifh, the inhabitants are obliged to
preferve the rain-water in cifterns. The air here is
not fo wholefome as in the neighbouring iflands, and
it is more fubjedt to hurricanes; but it has excellent
harbours, particularly Englifh Harbour, which is ca¬
pable of receiving the largeft man of war in the navy.
Here is.alfo a dock-yard, fupplied with all ftores and
conveniences for repairing and careening fliips. The
principal trade, however, is carried on in the harbour
of St John’s, the capital,, fituated in the north-weft
part of the ifland, and which has water fufficiently
deep for merchant veffels. The town of St John’s
was once in a very flourifliing condition, as may be
judged by the lofs fuftained at the late fire, which was
computed at the amazing fum of L. 400,000.
This ifland was firft attempted to be fettled by Sir
i'tigonus
Thomas Warner, about the fame time with St Chri- Antlgugler
ftopher’s and Nevis: but no eftablilhment then tcok Ant-^jen.
place. It was afterwards granted by Charles II. to fiunli
Lord Willoughby then governor of Barbadoe's, whc u—v —,,.>
fettled a colony upon it in the fpace of a few years.
In a fliort time, but by what means is not evident,
it became again the public property. It raifes at pre-
fent about 16,000 hogfheads of fugar, which was at
firft of a very bad quality, unfit for the Englilh mar¬
ket ; but the planters have greatly improved their
ftaple fince, and it is now as good as in any of the
other iflands. It has continued unmolefted in all the
late wars vv'ith France. The number of white inhabi¬
tants is reckoned about io,o®o. It is divided into five
parifhes ; that of St John’s-town, which is reckoned
the capital of the north weft part, and confifts of above
200 houfes; thofe of Falmouth, Porham, and Bridge¬
town, on the fouth'fide; and St Peter’s, which is no
town, but lies almoft in the middle of the ifland.
ANT1GUGLER, is a crooked tube of metal, fo
bent as eafily to be introduced into the necks of bot¬
tles, and ufed in decanting liquors, without difturbing
them. For this purpofe the bottle fliould be a little
inclined, and about half a fpoonful pf the liquor pour¬
ed out, fo as to admit an equal quantity of air; let
one end of the bent tube be flopped with the finger,
whilft the other is thruft into the body of the liquor
near to the bubble of air already admitted. When the
finger is taken off, the bottle will have vent, and the
liquor will run out fleadily and undifturbed.
ANTIHECTICS, in pharmacy, medicines good in
heftical diforders.
ANTIHECT1CUM poterii, the name of a me¬
dicine formerly much celebrated, but now laid afide in
common pra&ice.
ANTILIBANUS (anc. geog.), a mountain of
Coelefyria, which bounds it on the fouth, running pa¬
rallel with Libanus: they both begin a little above
the fea, Libanus near Tripolis, Antilibanus at Sidon ;
and both terminate near the mountains of Arabia;
which run to the north of Damafcus, and the moun¬
tains of Traconitis, and there end in other mountains,
(Strabo.) The Scripture making no diftinction be¬
tween Libanus and Antilibanus, calls them by the com¬
mon name Lebanon.
ANTILLES, the French name for the Caribeee
iflands.
ANTILOGARITHM, the complement of the lo¬
garithm of a fine, tangent, or fecant; or the difference,
of that logarithm from the logarithm of 90 degrees.
ANTILOGY, in matters of literature, an incon-
fiftency between two or more paffages of the fame.
/book.
ANTILOPE. See Capra.
ANTIMENSIUM, a kind of confecrated table¬
cloth, occafionally ufed in the Greek church, in places
where there is no proper altar. F. Goar obferves, that
in regard the Greeks had but few confecrated churches,
and that confecrated altars are not things eafy to be
removed,; that church has, for many ages, made ufe
of certain confecrated fluffs or linens, called antmen*
fia, to ferve the purpofes thereof.
Antimensium, in the Greek church, anfwers to
the all are pertabile, or portable altar in the Latin
church. They are both only of late invention,.though.
Habertus-.
ANT [ 86 ] ANT
Antliwenfia Habertus would have them as old as St Bafil. But
. H Durant and Bona do not pretend to find them in any
Antimony- aut]lor before the time of Bede and Charlemagne.
- v Antimensr a is alfo applied to other tables, ufed in
offices of religion, befides thofe whereon the eucharift
m is adminiftered : fuch, e. g. are thofe whereon the hod
is expofed, &c. The origin of the antimenfia is de-
fcribed by Meurfius; when the bifhop had confecrated
a church, the cloth which had been fpread on the
ground, and over the communion table, was torn in
pieces, and diftributed among the prietts, W'ho carried
each a fragment away, to ferve to cover the tables in
their churches and chapels. Not that it wras neceflary
that fuch cloths Ihould be laid on all tables,; but only
on thofe which either were not confecrated, or at leaft
whofe confecration was doubted of.
ANTIMERIA, in grammar, a figure whereby one
part of fpeech is ufed for another : e. g. velle Juam
cuique eft, for voluntas fua cuique eft; alfo, populus
late rex, for populus late regnans.
Antimeria, in a more reftrained fenfe, is a figure
where the noun is repeated inftead of the pronoun.
The antimeria is frequent in the Hebrew, and is fome-
times retained in our verfion of the Old Telhtment ac¬
cordingly: e. g. Hear my voice,’ye vsives of Lamech,
for my vjives, Gen. iv. 23.
ANT1METABOLE, in rhetoric, a figure which
fets two things in oppofition to each other. The word
is Greek, compounded of againft, and atla.Sox>,
from titla-GxkKv, I fthift or transfer, i. e. a Ihifting, or
fetting two things over-againft each other. This fi¬
gure is twice exemplified in an apophthegm of Mufo-
nius ; which, on account of its excellence, is called au-
reum motiitum, the golden maxim or precept.
A* T1 tsrftc^e KXXOV jxitx ■cram, o ftiv ■aroras oi^frai, to Si naXoir
A* ri croimti air ^01 /xirtcnSom;, to ^sv vSu ti^crat, to Si air
(tint.
In Engliffi thus:
“ Allowing the performance of an honourable adtion
to be attended with labour; the labour is foon over, but
the honour immortal: whereas, fhould even pleafure
wait on the commiffion of what is diihonourable, the
pleafure is foon gone, but the difhonour eternal ”
ANTI METATHESIS, in rhetoric, is the inver-
fion of the parts or members of an Antithefis. Such
is that of Cicero, in Verrem, lib. iv. cap. 52. “ Com¬
pare this peace with that war; the arrival of this go¬
vernor with the vidtory of that general; his profligate
troops with the invincible army of the other; the lux¬
ury of the former with the temperance of the latter:
you will fay, that Syracufe was founded by him who
took it; and taken by him, who held it when found¬
ed.”
ANTIMONARCHICAL, an appellation given to
whatever oppofes monarchical government.
ANTIMONIALS, in medicine, preparations of
antimony. See Pharmacy.
ANTIMONY, a blackifh mineral fubftance, flam¬
ing the hands, full of long, finning, needle-like Arise,
hard, brittle, and confiderably heavy. It is found in
different parts of Europe, as Bohemia, Saxony, Tranfyl-
vania. Hungary, France, and England ; commonly in
mines by itielf, intermixed with earth and (tony mat¬
ters. Sometimes it is blended with the richer ores of
filver, and renders the extraction of that metal difficult Antimony* ’
by volatilizing a part of the filver; or, in the language1 
of the miners, robbing the ore. See Metallurgy
for the different operations.
Antimony is the ftibium of the ancients; by the
Greeks called The reafon of its modern deno¬
mination, antimony, is ufually referred to Bafil Valen¬
tine, a German monk, who, as the tradition relates,
having thrown fome of it to the hogs, obferved, that,
after purging them violently, they immediately grew
fat upon it. This made him think, that, by giving
his fellow-monks a like dofe, they would be the better
for it. The experiment, however, fucceeded fo ill,
that they all died of it; and the medicine thencefor¬
ward was called antbnony, q. d. anti-monk.
Ufes. Antimony at firfi was of fervice only in the
compofition of paint. Scripture deferibes it to us as
a fort of paint, with which the women blackened their
eye-brows. Jezebel, underflanding that Jehu was to
enter Samaria, painted her eyes with antimony; or,
according to the Hebrew, “ put her eyes in antimo¬
ny." As large black eyes- were thought the fineft,
they of both fexes, who were careful of their beauty,
rubbed their eyes, eye-lids, and round the eyes, with
a needle dipped in a box of paint made of antimony,
with a defign of blackening them.—At this day, the
women of Syria, Arabia, and Babylonia, anoint and
blacken themfelves about the eyes; and both men and
women put black upon their eyes in the defert, to
preferve them from the heat of the fun and the pier¬
cing of its rays. Mr Darvieux tells us, that the Ara¬
bian women border their eyes with a black colour made
of tutty, which the Arabians call rebel. They draw
a line of this kind of blacking without the corner of
their eyes, to make them appear larger. Ifaiah, in
his enumeration of thefeveral ornaments belonging to
the daughters of Sion, has not forgot the needles
which they made ufe of in painting their eyes and eye¬
lids. Nor has this pra<5tice efcaped the lalh of Juve¬
nal :
Ille fupercilium madida fuligine tindlmn
Obliqua producit acu, pingitque trementes
Attollens oculos
Ezekiel, difeovering the irregularities of tire Jewi/h
nation under the idea of a debauched woman, fays*
that Ihe bathed and perfumed herfelf, and that fhe
anointed her eyes with antimony. Job Ihows fufli-
ciently how much antimony was in efteem, by calling
one of his daughters a veffel of antimony, or a box to
put paint in, cornu Jiibii. The author of the book of
Enoch fays, that before the deluge the angel Azleei
taught young women the art of painting themfelves.
Tertu'llian and St Cyprian have declaimed very
warmly againlt this cuflom of painting their eyes and
eye brow-, which was much practifed in Afric even
by the men: Inunge oculos tuos non ftibio diaboli, fed
collyrio Chrifli, fays St Cyprian. Pliny, fpeaking of
the Roman ladies, fays, that they painted their very
eyes : Tania eft decoris affetfatio, ut tingantur oculi
quoqste. Sar-danapalus painted his eyes and eye-brows.
Jofephus reproaches the feditious with the fame, who
affirmed the name of zealots, and made themfelves ma-
flers of the temple of Jerufalem.
The modern ufes of antimony are very numerous
and important. It is a common ingredient in fpecula
ANT
t 87 1
ANT
r or burning concaves, ferving to give the compofition
. a finer texture. It makes a part in bell metal, and
l" renders the found more clear. It is mingled with tin,
j to make it more hard, white, and founding; and with
lead, in the calling of printers letters, to render them
more fmooth and firm. It is alfo a general help in
preached from the decalogue, but only from the gof- Antinomi-
pel. ans-
This fed fpnmg up in England during the protec-
torate or Oliver Cromwell, and extended their fvltem. ^ <
of libertinifm much farther than Agricola the difciple
of Luther. Some of their teachers exprefsly maintain-
the melting of metals, and efpecially in the calling of ed, that as the eledl cannot fall from grace, nor forfeit
 u^n.. t*. • ii :/a  i r • r *  ta*  r  ^ • i i „ n:    
cannon balls. It is likewife made ufe of for purifying
and heightening the colour of gold. See Chemistry,
Gold Pukikication, &c.
For a long time this mineral was elleemed poifonous.
In 1566, its ufe was prohibited in France by an edi<fl
of parliament; and in 1609, one Befnier was expelled
the faculty for having given it. The edi<5t was re¬
pealed in 1650; antimony having a few years before
been received into the number of purgatives. In 1668,
a new edidt came forth, forbidding its ule by any but
dodlors of the faculty.—It is now univerfally allowed,
that pure antimony in its crude Hate has no noxious
quality ; and that though many of its preparations are
moll virulently emetic and cathartic, yet, by a flight
alteration or addition, they lofe their virulence, and
become mild in their operation. See Ch emistry and
Pharmacy.
The virtues of antimony in the difeafes of animals
are greatly extolled. Pigs that have the meafles are
at all times recovered by it, which proves it a great
purifier of the blood. Horfes who have running heels
that cannot be cured by the common methods ufed
by the farriers, will generally be cured by this medi¬
cine in a little time. The manner of ufing it is this:
Mix one dram with every feeding of oats which the
horfe has in a morning. It is bell put together in one
place, buried under a few oats : and the horfe’s head
being with-held a little, and then let go juft againft
that place, he will take it aH in at a mouthful. Some
horfes do not diflike it; others obftinatdy refufe it,
but to thefe it may be eafily given in balls. The vir¬
tues of this drug in fattening of cattle has been thought
imaginary, but experiment proves it to be a real truth.
A horfe that is lean and fcabby, and not to be fatted
by any other means, will become fat on taking a dofe
ef antimony every morning for two months together.
A boar fed for brawn, and having an ounce of anti¬
mony given him every morning, will become fat a fort¬
night looner than others put into the ftye at the fame
time, and fed in the fame manner, but without the
antimony.
ANT1NOE. See Enfine'.
ANTINOEIA, in antiquity, annual facrifices, and
quinquennial games, in memory of Antinous the Bithy-
nian. They were inftituted at the command of Adrian
the Roman emperor, at Mantinea in Arcadia, where
Antinous was honoured with" a temple and divine wor-
fiiip.
ANTINOMIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, certain
heretics who maintain the law of no ufe or obligation
under the gofpel-difpenfation, or who hold doftrines
that clearly fnpercede the neceffity of good works and
a. virtuous life. The Antinomians took their ori¬
gin from John Agricola about the year 1538; who
taught, that the law is no ways neceflary under the
the Divine favour, the wicked adtions they commit
are not really finful, nor are to be confidered as inftan-
ces of their violation of the divine law ; and that con-
fequently they have no occafion either to confefs their
fins, or to break them oft’ by repentance. According'
to them, it is one of the eflential and diftitidlive cha¬
racters of the eleCt, that they cannot do any thing
which is either difpleafing to God or prohibited by the
law.—Luther, Rutherford, Schluflelburg, Sedgwick>
Gataker, Witfius, Bull, Williams, &c. have written
refutations; Crifp, Richardfon, Saltmarfti, &c. defen¬
ces, of the Antinomians; Wigandus, a comparifon be¬
tween ancient and modern Antinomians.
The dodtrine of Agricola was in itfelf obfcure, and
perhaps reprefented worfe than it really was by Luther,
who wrote with acrimony againft him, and firft ftyled
him and his followers Antinomians. Agricola flood
bn ins own defence, and complained that opinions
were imputed to him which he did not hold. Nicholas
Amfdorf fell under the fame odious name and imputa¬
tion, and feems to have been treated more unfairly
than even Agricola himfelf. It is rather hard to charge
upon a man all the opinions that may be inferred from
things that have haftily dropped from him, when he
himfelf difavows fuch inferences.
ANTINOUS, the favourite of Adrian, was born
at Bithynus in Bithynia. His beauty engaged the heart
of Adrian in fuch a manner, that there never was a
more boundlefs and extravagant paffion than that of
this emperor toward this youth. After his death, the
emperor ordered divine honours to be paid him ; and
he alfo erefted a city of his name. See Enfine'.
ANTIOCH, a city of Syria in Afia, fituated on
tha river Orontes, in E. Long. 37. J. N. Lat. 36. 20.
It was built by Seleucus Nicator, founder of the Syro-
Macedonian empire, who mad,e it his capital. It flood
on the above-mentioned river, about 20 miles from the
place where it empties itfelf into the Mediterranean;
being equally diftant from Gonllant-inople and Alex¬
andria in Egypt, that is, about 700 miles from each,
Seleucus called it Antioch, from his father’s name, ac¬
cording to fome; or from that of his fon, according
to others. He built 16 other cities bearing the fame
name ; of which one, fituated in Eifidia, is probably
that where the name of ChriJUatis was firft given to
the followers cf Jefus Chrill. But that fituated on
the Orontes, by far eclipfed, not only all the others of
this name, but all the cities built by Seleucus. Anti-
gonus, not long before, had founded a city in that
neighbourhood, which from his own name he had called
Antigonia, and defigned it for the capital of his em¬
pire ; but it was raied to the ground by Seleucus, who
employed the materials in building his metropolis, and1
alfo tranfplanted the inhabitants thither.
The city of Antioch was-afterwards knowm by the
, ....it guuu wuiks uo not promote our laivauon, name or 1 tirapotiSf oeing umuea as it were into rour
aor ill ones hinder it; that repentance is not to be- cities, each of them being furrounded with its proper
wall,.
ANT [ 88 ] ANT
Antio-cli. wall, bedJes a common one which inclofed them all.
The firft of thefe cities was built b7 Seleucus Nicator,
as already mentioned; the fecond by thofe who flock¬
ed thither on its being made the capital of the Syro-
Macedonian empire ; the third by Seleucus Callinicus ;
and the fourth by Antiochus Epiphanes.—About four
or five miles dillant, flood a place called Daphne, which
was neverthelefs reckoned a fuburb of Antioch. Here
Seleucus planted a grove, and in the middle of it built
-a temple which he confecrated to Apollo and Diana,
making the whole an afylum. To this place the inha¬
bitants ©f Antioch reforted for their pleafures and di-
verfions ; whereby it became at laft fo infamous, that
“ to live after the manner of Daphne” was ufed as a
, proverb to ecprefs the moft voluptuous and diflblute
way of living. Here Lucius Verus, the colleague of
M. Aurelius, chofe to take up his refidence, inftead of
marching againfl the Parthians ; while his general
Caffius forbad by proclamation any of his foldiers to
enter or even go near the place. In fhort, -fo remark¬
able was Daphne of old, that the metropolis itfelf was
diflinguilhed by it, and called Antioch near Daphne.
Though Antioch continued to be, as Pliny calls it,
the queen of the Eaft, for near 1600 years; yet fcarce
any city mentioned in hiftory hath undergone fuch ca¬
lamities, both from the attacks of its enemies, and its
being naturally fubjedted to earthquakes.—The firft
difafler mentioned in hiftory which befel the Antio-
chians happened about 145 years before Chrift. Being
at that time very much difaffedted to the perfon and
government of Demetrius their king, they were conti¬
nually raifing tumults and feditions; infomuch that he
found himfelf at laft obliged to folicit afliftance from
the Jews ; and was fumifhed by Jonathan, one of the
Maccabees, with 3000 men ; by which reinforcement,
believing himfelf fufficiently ftrong to reduce the mu¬
tineers by force, he. ordered them immediately to de¬
liver up their arms. This unexpedfed order caufed
a great uproar in the city. The inhabitants ran to
arms, and invefted the king’s palace, to the number
of 120,000, with a defign to put him to death. All
the Jews haftened to his relief, fell upon the rebels,
killed ioo.ooo of them, and let fire to the city. On
the deftrudlion of the Syrian empire by the Remans,
Antioch fubmitted to them as well as the other cities
of that kingdom, and continued for a long time under
their dominion. About the year 115, in the reign of
the emperor Trajan, it was almoft entirely ruined by
one of the moft dreadful earthquakes mentioned in
hiftory. Trajan himfelf happened to be there at that
time, being returned from an expedition againft the
Parthians; fo that the city was then full of troops,
and ftrangers come from all quarters either out of cu-
riofity or upon bufinefs and embaflies : the calamity
was by this means felt almoft in every province of the
Roman empire. The earthquake was preceded by vio¬
lent claps of thunder, unufual winds, and a dreadful
noife under ground. The ftiock was fo terrible, that
great numbers of houfes were overturned, and others
tofled to and fro like a fhip at fea. Thofe who hap¬
pened to be in their houfes were for the moft part bu¬
ried under their ruins: thofe who were walking in the
ftreets or in the fquares, were, by the violence of the
Ihock, daflied againft each other, and moft of them ei¬
ther killed or dungeroufly w ounded.—This earthquake
M0 23.
continued, with fome fmall-intermifllon, for many daysi Antioch.,
and nights ; fo that vaft numbers perifhed. The moft'
violent Ihock, according to the Adis of St Ignatius,
was on a Sunday, December 23, By this Trajan was
much hurt, but efcaped through a window. Dio Caf¬
fius pretends, that he was taken out of the window by
one who exceeded the human fize in tallnefs. The
fame hiftorian adds, that mount Lifon, which flood at
a fmall diftance from the city, bowed with its head and
threatened to fall dowm upon it; that other mountains
fell; that new rivers appeared, and others that had
flowed before forfook their courfe and vanifhed. When
the earthquake ceafed, a woman was heard crying un¬
der the ruins; which being immediately removed, ftie
was found with a living child in her arms. Search
was made for others; but none was found alive, except
one child, which continued fucking its dead mother.
No doubt, Trajan, -who was an eye-witnefs of this
terrible calamity, would contribute largely towards the
re-eftablifhment of Antioch in its ancient fplendor. Its
good fortune, however, did not continue long ; for in
153, it was almoft entirely burnt by accidental fire;
when it was again reftored by Antoninus Pius. In 176
or 177, the inhabitants having fided with Caffius, the
abovementioned Roman general, who had revolted from
M. Aurelius, that emperor publifhed a fevere edidt a-
gainft them, deprived them of all their privileges, fup-
prefled their public affemblies, and took from them the
fliows and fpedtacles to which they were greatly addic¬
ted : but his anger being foon appeafed, he reftored
them to their former condition, and even condefcended
to vifit their city. In 194, having fided with Niger
againfl: Severus, the latter deprived them of all their
privileges, and fubjedted Aiitioch as a mere village to
Laodicea; but, however, pardoned them the next year,
at the intreaties of his eldeft fon, then a child.
When the power of the Roman empire began to de¬
cline, Antioch became the bone of contention between
them and the -eaftern nations; and accordingly, on the
breaking out of a Perfian war, it was almoft always
fure to fuffer. In 242, it was taken and plundered by
Sapor; and, though he was defeated by Gordian, it
underwent the fame misfortune in the time of Valerian,
about iS years after; and after the defeat and capti¬
vity of Valerian, being taken by the Perfian monarch
a third time, he not only plundered it, but levelled all
the public buildings with the ground. The Perfians,
however, being foon driven out, this unfortunate city
continued free from any remarkable calamity till about
the time of the divifion of the Roman empire by Con-
ftantine in 331. It was then afflicted with fo grievous
a famine, that a bulhel of wheat was fold for 400 pieces,
of filver. During this grievous diftrefs, Conftantine
fent to the bilhop 30,000 bufhels of corn; befides an
incredible quantity of all kinds of provifions, to be di-
ftributed among the ecclefiaftics, widows, orphans,&c.
In the year 347, Conftantine II. caufed an harbour to' -
be made at beleucia, for the conveniency of Antioch.
This was effe&ed at an immenfe expence, the mouth
of the Orontes, where the port was made, being full
of fands and rocks. When the emperor Julian let out
on his expedition againft the Perfians, he made a long
ftay at Antioch; during which time, many of the Ro¬
man provinces were afflidled with a famine, but which
raged more violently at Antioch than in other places.
ANT [ 89 ] ANT
jttioe’h. The ecclefiaftical writers of thofe times fay, that this fa-
mine followed Julian from place to place; and as he
continued longer at Antioch than any other city, it
raged more violently there than any where elfe. To re¬
medy this evil, Julian fixed the prices of corn; by which
means the famine was greatly increafed, the merchants
conveying their corn privately to other places, fo that
this metropolis was reduced to a moft deplorable fitu-
ation. In 381, in the reign of Theodofms the Great,
Antioch was again vifited by a famine, accompanied by
a grievous plague. The latter foon ceafed : bat, the fa¬
mine ftill continuing, the bifhop, Libanius, applied to
Jcarius, count of the Eaft, requefting him by fome
means or other to relieve the poor, who had flocked
from all parts to the metropolis, and were daily perilh-
ing in great numbers; but to this Icarius gave no
other anfwer, than that they were abhorred and juftly
punifhed by the gods. This inhuman anfwer raifed
great diflurbances ; which, however, were terminated
without bloodfhed. In 387, Theodofius finding his
exchequer quite drained, and being obliged to be at an
extraordinary expence in celebrating the fifth year of
the reign of his fon Arcadius, and the tenth of his own,
an extraordinary tax was laid upon all the people in the
empire. Moft of the cities fubmitted willingly to this;
but the people of Antioch, complaining of it as an un-
reafonable oppreffion, crowded to the houfe of Flavia-
nus their bifhop, as foon as the edifl was publifhed, to
implore his protection. Being unable to find him, they
returned to the forum ; and would have torn the gover¬
nor in pieces, had not the officers who attended him
"kept back with great difficulty the enraged multitude,
till he made his efcape. Upon this, they broke fome
of the emperor’s ftatues, and dragged others through
the city, uttering the moft injurious and abufive expref-
fions againft him and his vbole family. They were
however, difperfedby a body of archers, who, by wound¬
ing only two of the rabble, ft ruck "terror into all the
reft. The governor proceeded againft the offenders with
the utmoft cruelty; expofing fome to wild beafts in
the theatre, and burning others alive-. He did not fpare
■even the children, who had infulted the emperor’s fta¬
tues ; and caufed feveral perfons to be executed, who
had been only fpeiftators of the diforder. In the mean
time, a report was fpread,-that a body of troops was at
hand, with orders to plunder the city, and put all to the
fword, without diftindlion of fex or age ; upon which
the citizens abandoned their dwellings in the utmoft
terror and confufion, retiring to the neighbouring moun¬
tains with their wifes and families. As the report pro¬
ved groundlefs, fome of them returned ; but the great¬
er part, dreading the cruelty of the governor, and
the difpleafure-of the emperor, continued in their re¬
treats. To thofe who returned, St Chryfoftom preach¬
ed fome homilies, which have reached our times, and
•are greatly admired; and which are faid by St Chry-
foftom himfelf, as well as fome cotemporary writers, to
have had a confiderable effeCf in reforming the lives of
this licentious and diffolute people. On hearing the.
news of this tumult, Theodofius was fo much enraged,
that he commanded the city to be deftroyed, and its in¬
habitants to be put to the fword without diftindion ;
but this order was revoked before it could be put into
■execution, and he contented himfelf with a punifhment
Umilar to that inflicted by Severus above-mentioned,
Vol. II. Part I.
He appointed judges to punifh the offenders ; who pro- Antiocfc.
ceeded with fuch feverity, and condemned fuch num-—y—
bers, that the city was thrown into the utmoft confter-
nation. On this occafion, St Chryfoftom and the her¬
mits, who were very numerous in the neighbourhood,
exerted all their eloquence in behalf of the unhappy
people, and obtained a refpite for thofe who had been
condemned. They next proceeded to draw up a me¬
morial to the emperor in favour of the citizens in gene¬
ral ; and being joined by Flavianus, at laft obtained a
general pardon, and had die city reftored to all its for¬
mer privileges.
In the year 458, Antioch was almoft entirely ruined
by an earthquake, which happened on the 14th of Sep¬
tember ; fcarce a fingle houfe being left Handing in the
moft; beautiful quarter of the city. Tire like misfor¬
tune it experienced in 525, during the reign of the em¬
peror Juftin ; .and 15 years after, being taken by Cof-
rhoes king of Perfia, that infulting and haughty mo¬
narch gave it up to his foldiers, who put all they met to
the fword. The king himfelf feized on all the gold and
filver veflels belonging to the great church; and caufed
all the valuable ftatues, pi&ures, &c. to be taken down
and conveyed to Perfia, while his foldiers carried off
every thing elfe. The city being thus completely plun¬
dered, Oofrhoes ordered his men to fet fire to it; which
was accordingly done fo effectually, that none of the
buildings even without the walls efoaped. Such of the
inhabitants as efcaped flaughter were carried into Per¬
fia, and fold as flaves.
Notwithftanding fo many and fo great calamities,
the city of Antioch foon recovered its wonted fplendor ;
but in a fhort time underwent its ufual fate, being al¬
moft: entirely deftroyed by an earthquake in 587, by
which 30,000 perfons loft their lives. In 634, it fell
into the hands of the Saracens, who kept poffeffion of
it till the year 858, w-hen it was furprifed by one Burt-
zas, and again annexed to the Roman empire. The
Romans continued mafters of it for fome time, till the
civil diffentions in the empire gave the Turks an oppor¬
tunity of feizing upon it as well as the whole kingdom
of Syria. From them it was again taken by the Cru-
faders in 1098. In 1262, it was taken by Bibaris ful-
tan of Egypt, who put a final period to its glory.
Antioch is now no more than a ruinous town, whofe
houfes, built with mud and ftraw, and narrow and miry
ftreets, exhibit every appearance of mifery and wretch-
ednefs. Thefe houfes are fituated on the fouthern
bank of the Orontes, at the extremity of an old de¬
cayed bridge: they are covered to the fouth by a
mountain ; upon the Hope of which.is a wall, built by
the Crufaders. The diftance between the prefent town
and this mountain may be about 400 yards, which
fpace is occupied by gardens and heaps of rubbifh, but
prefents nothing interefting.
Notwithftanding the unpoliflied manners of its inha¬
bitants, Antioch v.as better calculated than Aleppo to
be the emporium of the Europeans. By clearing the
mouth of the Orontes, which is fix leagues lower down,
boats might have been towed up that river, though
they could not have failed up, as Pocoke has affert-
ed ; its current is too rapid. The natives, who never
knew the name Orontes, call it, on account of the
fwiftnefs of its ftream, El-aaji, that is, the rebel. Its
breadth, at Antioch, is about forty paces. Seven
M leagues
ANT I 90 1 ANT
Antio. leagues above that town it pafTes by a lake abound-
chetta. ing in fiih, and efpecially in eels. A great quanti-
Antioehian’y of thefe are faked every year, but not fufficient
, °c ia“for the numerous fafts of die Greek Chx-iftians. It
^ is to be remembered, we no longer hear at Antioch,
either of the Grove, or Daphne, or of the voluptuous
fcenes of which it was the theatre.
The plain of Antioch, though the foil of it is excel¬
lent, is uncultivated, and abandoned to the Turcomans;
but the hills on the fide of the Orontes, particularly
oppofite Serkin, abound in plantations of figs and o-
lives, vines, and mulberry-trees, which, a thing un¬
common in Turkey, are planted in quincunx, and ex¬
hibit a landfcape worthy our fineft provinces.
Seleucus Nicator, who founded Antioch, built alfo
at the mouth of the Orontes, on the northern bank, a
large and well fortified city, which bore his name, but
of which at prefent not a Angle habitation remains :
nothing is to be feen but heaps of rubbifli, and works
in the adjacent rock, which prove that this was once a
place of very confiderable importance. In the fea alfo
may be perceived the traces of two piers, which are in¬
dications of an/ancient port, now choaked up. The
inhabitants of the country go thither to fifli, and call
the name of the place Souatdia.
ANTIOPHETTA, a town of Turkey in Afia, in
Carimania, with a bifhop’s fee, over againft the ifland
of Cyprus. E. Long. 32. IJ. N. Lat. 36 42.
ANTIOCHIA (anc. geog.), a town of Aflyria,
fituated between the rivers Tigris and Tornadotus
(Pliny).—Another of Caria, on the Meander; called
alfo Pythopolis, Athjmbra, and Nyjfa, or Nyjd (Ste¬
phanas) : but Strabo fays, that Nyfa was near Tralles.
—A third of Celicia Trachea, on mount Cragus (Pto¬
lemy)—A fourth, called Epidaphnes, the capital of
Syria, diftinguifhed from cities of the fame name, either
by its fituation on the Orontes, by which it was di¬
vided, or by its proximity to Daphne (See Antioch).
—A fifth Antiochia, a town of Comagene, on the
Euphrates (Pliny).—A fixth, of Lydia Tralles, fo
called (Pliny).—A feventh, ofMargiana (Strabo, Pli¬
ny, Ptolemy), on the river Margus, taking its name
from Antiochus, fon of Seleucus, who rebuilt it, and
walled it round, being before called Alexandria, from
Alexander the founder, and furnamed Syria ; in com-
pafs feventy fiadia ; whither Orodes carried the Ro¬
mans, after the defeat .of CraiTus (Pliny).—An eighth,
in Mefopotamia, on the lake Calirrhoe, the old name
of Edeffa (Pliny).—A ninth Antiochia, on the river
Mygdonius, in Mefopotamia, fituate at the foot of
mount Maiius, and is the fame with Nifibis (Strabo,
Plutarch). Jt was the bulwark and frontier town of
the Romans againft the Parthians and Perfians, till
given up to the Perfians, by Jovinian, by an ignomini¬
ous peace (Ammian, Eutropius).—A tenth Antiochia,
was that fituate in the north of Pifidia (Luke, Pto¬
lemy, Strabo) : it was a Roman colony, with the ap¬
pellation, Ccefarea. There is an Antiochia at mount
Taurus, mentioned by Ptolemy, but by no other au¬
thor.
ANTIOCHIAN sect or Academy, a name given
to the fifth academy, or branch of academies. It took
the denomination from its being founded by Antiochus,
a philofopher contemporary with Cicero.—The Anti¬
ochian academy fucceeded the Philonian. As to point
of do&rine, the philofophers of this fe& appear to Antiochia*
have reftored that of the ancient academy, except that .8
in the article of the criterion of truth. Antiochus , ntlPar0!^ ]
was really a ftoic, and only nominally an academic. ?1
Antiochian Epocha, a method of computing time
from the proclamation of liberty granted the city of
Antioch, about the time of the battle of Pharfalia.
ANTIOCHUS, the name of feveral kings of Sy¬
ria. See that article.
Antiochus of Afcalon, a celebrated philofopher,
the difciple of Philo of Larilfa, the mafter of Cicero,
and the friend of Lucullus and Brutus. He was foun¬
der of a fifth academy ; but, inftead of attacking other
fedts, he fet himfelf down to reconcile them together,
particularly the fedt of the ftoics with that of the an¬
cient academy.
ANTlOPE, in fabulous hiftory, the wife of Lycus,
king of Thebes, who, being deflowered by Jupiter in
the form of a fatyr, brought forth Amphion and Ze-
thus.—Another Antiope was queen of the Amazons ;
and, with the affiftance of the Scythians, invaded the
Athenians; but was vanquiftied by Thefeus.
ANTIPiEDOBAPTISTS, (derived from «*r<, a-
gain]}, «■*<{, -CTKiJ.f, child, and baptize, whence
^asrnruf), is a diftinguifhed denomination given to
thofe who objedl to the baptifm of infants ; becaufe
they fay infants are incapable of being inftrudled, and
of making that profeffion of faith which intitles them
to this ordinance and an admiflion into church com¬
munion. See Anabaptists and Baptists.
ANTIPAROS, an ifland in the Archipelago, op¬
pofite to Paros, from which it is feparated by a ftrait
about feven miles over. It is the Olearos, or Oliaros,
mentioned 6y Strabo, Pliny, Virgil, Ovid, &c. ; and
was, according to Heraclides Ponticus as quoted by
Stephanus, firft peopled by a Phoenician colony from
Sidon.—According to Mr Tournefort’s account, it is
about 16 miles in circumference, produces a little wine
and cotton, with as much corn as is neceflary for the
maintenance of 60 or 70 families, who live together in
a village at one end of the ifland, and are moftly Mal-
tefe and French corfairs.
This ifland is remarkable for a fubterraneoUs cavern
or grotto, accounted one of the greateft natural curio-
fities in the world. It was firft difcovered in the laft
century by one Magni an Italian traveller, who has gi-
ven us the following account: “ Having been inform¬
ed (fays he) by the natives of Paros, that in the little
ifland of Antiparos, which lies about two miles from
the former, of a gigantic ftatue that was to be feen at
the mouth of a cavern in that place, it was refolved that
we (the French corful and himfelf) ftiould pay it a vi-
fit. in purfuance of this refolution, after we had land¬
ed on the ifland, and walked about four miles through
the midft of beautiful plains and doping woodlands,
we at length came to a little hill, on the fide of which
yawned a molt horrid cavern, that with its gloom at
firft Itruck us with terror, and almoft reprefl’ed curiofity.
Recovering the firft furpriie, however, we entered
boldly; and had not proceeded above 20 paces, when
the fuppofed ftatue of the giant prefented itfelf to our
view. We quickly perceived, that what the ignorant
natives had been terrified at as a giant, was nothing
more than a fparry concretion, formed by the water
dropping from the roof of the cave, and by degrees
hardening
ANT
[ 9i 1
ANT
ptiparo* hardening into a figure that their fears had formed in-
to a monfier. Incited by this extraordinary appear¬
ance, we were induced to proceed ftill farther, in queft
of new adventures in this fubterranean abode. As we
proceeded, new wonders offered themfelves: the fpars,
formed into trees and fhrubs, prefented a kind of pe¬
trified grove ; fome white, fome green ; and all rece¬
ding in due perfpedtive. They ftruck us with the more
amazement, as we knew them to be mere productions
of Nature, who, hitherto in folitude, had, in her play¬
ful moments, dreffed the fcene, as if for her own amufe-
' ment.
I “ But we had as yet feen but a few of the wonders
of the place, and we were introduced as yet only iilto
the portico of this amazing temple. In one corner of
| this half-illuminated recefs, there appeared an opening
of about three feet wide, which feemed to lead to a
place totally dark, and that one of the natives affured
us contained nothing more than a refervoir of water.
Upon this we tried, by throwing down fome ftones,
which rumbling along, the fidesof thedefcent for fome
time, the found feemed at laft quafhed in a bed of wa¬
ter. In order, however, to be more certain, we fent
in a Levantine mariner, who, by the promife of a good
reward, with a flambeau in his hand, ventured into this
narrow aperture. After continuing within it for about
a quarter of an hour, he returned, carrying fome beau¬
tiful pieces of white fpar in his hand, which art could
neither imitate nor equal Upon being informed by
him that the place was full of thefe beautiful incrufta-
tions, I ventured in once more with him, for about 50
mariner, and defcended about 50 paces by means of a Antiparw.
rope. I at laft arrived at a fmall fpot of level ground,
where, the bottom appeared different from that of the
amphitheatre, being compofed of foft clay, yielding to
the preflure, and in which 1 thruft a flick to about fix
feet deep. In this, however, as above, numbers of the
molt beautiful cryftals were formed ; one of which,
particularly, refembled a table. Upon our egrefs from
this amazing cavern, we perceived a Greek infcription
upon a rock at the mouth ; but fo obliterated by time,
that we could not read it. It feemed to import, that
one Antipater, in the tim» of Alexander, had come
thither ; but whether he penetrated into the depths of
the cavern, he does not think fit to inform us.”
From this account Mr Tournefori’s differs confide-
rably. Mr Magni mentions only one defcent or pre¬
cipice from the entry of the cave to the grotto, or
moft magnificent part: Mr Tournefort fays that there
were many very dangerous precipices and rugged vrays,
through which they were obliged to pafs fometimes on
their back, and fometimes on their belly ; but gives no
particular account of his journey till he comes to the
grand cavern. This indeed he delcribes very pompouf-
ly ; but as by it he evidently wants to fupport a favou¬
rite hypothefis, namely, the vegetation of ftones, per¬
haps the particulars are not altogether to be depended
upon. He informs us, that, at the entry into the ca¬
vern, he met with a Greek infcription almoft defaced,
containing a good number of proffer names ; and that
there was a tradition.among the inhabitants, that thefe
were the names of fqme who had confpired againft A-
paces, anxioufly and-cautioufly defcending by a fteep lexander the Great, and having miffed their aim, had
and dangerous way. Finding, however, that we came taken refuge in this grotto.
to a precipice which led into a fpacious amphitheatre,
if I may lb call it, ftill deeper than any other-part, we
returned; and being provided with a ladder, flambeaux,
and other things to expedite our defcent, our whole
company, man by man, ventured into the fame opem
ing, and, defcending one after another, we at laft faw
The moft particular account, however, of this fa¬
mous grotto that hath hitherto been publiftied, appear¬
ed in the Britifh magazine, in a letter figned Charles
Saunders, and dated Feb. 24th, 1746-7; which, as it
is very particular, and feems to bear fufficient marks of
authenticity, we ftiall here infert. “ Its entrance lies
ourfelves all together in the moft magnificent part of in the fide of a rock, about two miles from the fea-
the cavern.
tC Our candles being now all lighted up, and the
whole place completely illuminated, never could the eye
ftiore; and is a fpacious and very large arch, formed
of rough craggy rocks, overhung with brambles and
a great many climbing plants, that give it a gloomi-
be prefented w-ith a more glittering or a more magnifi- nefs which is very awful and agreeable. Our furgeon,
cent fcene. The roof all hung with folid icicles, tran- myfelf. and four paffengers, attended by fix guides
fparent as glafs, yet folid as marble. The eye could
fcarce reach the lofty and noble cieling'; the fides uTere
regularly formed with fpars ; and the whole prefented
the idea of a magnificent theatre, illuminated with an
immenfe profufion -of lights. The floor confifted of fo¬
lid marble; and in feveral places^ magnificent columns,
thrones, altars, and other obje<£ts, appeared, as if nature
had defigned to mock the curiofities of art. Our voices,
upon fpeaking or finging, were redoubled to an afto-
nifhing loudnefs; and, upon the firing of a gun, the
noife and reverberations were almoft deafening. In the
vith lighted torches, entered this cavern about eight
o’clock in the morning, in the middle of Auguft laft.
We had not gone 20 yards in this cavity when we loft
all fight of day-light: but our guides going before us
with lights, we entered into a low narrow kind of al¬
ley, furrounded every way with ftones all glittering like
diamonds by the light of our torches ; the whole be-"
ing covered and lined throughout with fmall cryftals.
which gave a thoufand various colours by their different
reflections. This alley grows lower and narrower as
one goes on, till at length one can fcarce get along it.
midft of this grand amphitheatre rofe a concretion of At the end of this paflage we were each of us prefent-
about 15 feet high, that, in fome meafure, refembled ed with a rope to tie about our middles ; which when
an altar ; from which, taking the hint, we caufed mafs
to be celebrated there. The beautiful columns that
fhot up round the altar, appeared like candlefticks; and
many other natural objects reprefented the cuftomary
ornaments of this facrarnent.
“ Below even this fpacious grotto, there feemed an¬
other cavern 5 down which I ventured with my former
had done, our guides led us to the brink of a moft
horrible precipice. The defcent into this was quite
fteep, and the place all dark and gloomy. We could
fee nothing in fix rt, but fome of our guides with
torches in a miferable dark place, at a vaft diftance be¬
low us. The dreadful depth of this place, and he
horror of the defcent thro’ a miferable darknefs into it,
M 2 made
ANT [ 92 ] ANT
Antipires. made me look back to the lane of diamonds, if I may
'“'"■'y fo call it, thro* which we had juft paffed ; and I could
not but think I was leaving heaven, to defcend into the
infernal regions. The hope of fomething fine at my
journey’s end, tempted me, however, to truft myfelf
to the rope and my guides at the top, to let myfelf
down. After about two minutes dangling in this po-
fture, not without much pain as well as terror, I
found myfelf fafe, however, at the bottom ; and our
friends all foon followed the example. When we had
congratulated here with one another on our fafe de-
fcent; I was inquiring where the grotto, as they call¬
ed it, was. Our guides, lhaking. their heads, told us,
we had a great way to that yet; and led us forward
about 30 yards under a roof of ragged rocks, in a
fcene of terrible darknefs, and at a vaft depth from the
furface of the earth, to the brink of another precipice
much deeper and more terrible than the former. Two
of the guides went down here with their torches firft;
and by their light we could fee, that this paflage was
not fo perpendicular indeed as the other, but lay in a
very fteep flant, with a very flippery rock for the bot¬
tom ; vaft pieces of rough rugged rocks jutting out in
many places on the right hand, in the defcent, and for¬
cing the guides fometimes to climb over, fometimes to
creep under them, and fometimes to round them ; and
on the left, a thoufand dark caverns, like fo many mon-
ftrous wells, ready, if a foot ftiould flip, to fvvallow them
up for ever. We flood on the edge to fee thefe people
with their lights defcend before us; and were amazed
and terrified to fee them continue defending till they
feemed at a monftrous and moll frightful depth. When
they were at the bottom, however, they hallowed to
us; and we, trembling and quaking, began'to defcend
after them. We had not gone 30 feet down, when we
came to a place where the rock was perfectly perpendi¬
cular ; and a vaft cavern feemed to open its mouth to
iwallow us up on one fide, while a wall of rugged
rock threatened to tear us to pieces on the other. I
was quite difheartened at this terrible profpe<ft, and de¬
clared I would go back : but our guides allured us
there was no danger; and the reft of the company re-
folving to fee the bottom now they were come fo far, I
would not leave them : fo on we went to a corner where
there was placed an old flippery and rotten ladder,
which hung down clofe to the rock ; and down this,
one after another, we at length all defcended. When
we had got to the bottom ol this we found ourfelves at
the entrance of another palfage, which was terrible e-
nough indeed; but in this there was not wanting fome¬
thing of beauty. This was a wide and gradual de¬
fcent ; at the entrance of which one of our guides feat-
cd himfelf on his breech, and began to Aide down,
telling us we mull do the fame. We could difcover, by
the light of his torch, that this palfage was one of the
noblelt vaults in the world. It is about nine feet high,
feven wide, and has for its bottom a fine green glofiy
marble. The walls and arch of the roof of this being
as fmooth and even in moll places as if wrought by
art, and made of a fine gliftering red and white gra¬
nite, fupported here and there with .columns of a deep
blood-red Aiming porphyry, made, with the refleflion
of the lights, an appearance not to be conceived. This
palfage is at leaft 40 yards long ; and of fo fteep a de¬
fcent, that one has enough to do, when feated on one’s
full of a thoufand ftrange figures of fnakes rolled round,'
and looking as if alive ; but in reality as cold and hard,
as the reft of the ftone, and nothing but fome of the
ftone itfelf in that fhape. We walked pretty eafily a-
long this defcent for near 200 yards; where we faw
two pillars feemingly made to fupport the roof from
falling in : but in reality it was no fuch thing ; for they
were very brittle, and made, of a fine glittering yellow
marble. When we had pafled thefe about- 200 yards,
we found ourfelves at the brink of another very terrible
precipice : but this our guides aflured us was the laft ;
and there being a very good ladder to go down by, we
readily ventured. At the bottom of this fteep wall, as
I may call it, we found ourfelves for fome way upon-
plain even ground ; but, after about 4<>yards walking,
were prefented by our guides with ropes again ; which,
we faftened about our middles, though not to be fwung
down by, but only for fear of danger, as there are lakes
and deep waters all the way from hence on the left hand*
With this caution, however, we entered the laft alley ;
and horrible work it was indeed to get through it. All
was perfectly horrid and difmal here. The fides and
roof of the paflage were all of black ftone ; and the
rocks in our way were in fome places fo fteep, that we
were forced to lie all along on our backs, and Aide
down ; and fo rough, that they cut our clothes, and
bruifedus miferably in paflxng. Over our heads, there
were nothing but ragged black rocks, fome of them
looking as if they were every moment ready to fall in
upon us; and, on our left hands, the light of our guides
torches fliowed us continually the furfaces of dirty and
miferably looking lakes of water. If I had heartfty
repented of my expedition often before, here 1 aflure
you I was all in a cold fweat, and fairly gave myfelf
over for loft; heartily curling all the travellers that had
written of this place, that they had defcribed it fo as
breech, not to defcend too quickly. Our guides, that we Antlparos^
kept with us, could here keep on each fide of us: and,' 'q
what with the prodigious grandeur1 and beauty of the
place, our eafy travelling thro’ it, and the diverfion of.
our now and then running over one another whether we
would or not; this was much the pleafanteft part of
our journey. When we had entered this palfage, I
imagined we fliould at the bottom join the tw© guides
we had firft fet down : but alas ! when we were got.
there, we found ourfelves only at the mouth of ano¬
ther precipice, down which we defeended by a fec'ond
ladder not much better than the former. I could have
admired this place alfo, would my terror have fuffered
me ; but the dread of falling,1 kept all my thoughts-
employed during my defcent. I could not but obferve,
however, as my companions were coming down after
me, that the wall, if I may fo call it, which the lad¬
der hung by, was one mafs of blood-red marble, co¬
vered with white fprigs of rock-cryftal as long as my-
finger, and making, with the glow of the purple from
behind, one continued immenfe fheet of amethyfts.-
From the foot of this ladder we Aided on our bellies
through another fliallow vault of polillied green and
white marble, about 20 feet; and at the bottom of this
joined our guides. Here we all got together once a-
gain, and drank fome rum, to give us courage befora-
we proceeded any farther. After this ftiort refrefli-
ment, we proceeded by a ftrait, but fomewhat flanting.
paflage, of a rough,; hard, and fomewhat coarfe ftone.
ANT [ 93 ] ANT
'itAntipavos. to tempt people to fee it, and never told us of the hor-
rors that lay in the way. In the midfl of all thefe re-
|' flections, and in the very difmalleft part of all the ca¬
vern, on a fudden we had loft four of our fix guides.
What was my terror on this fight ! The place was a
thoufimd times darker and more terrible for want of
their torches ; and I expe&ed no other but every mo¬
ment to follow them into feme of thefe lakes, into
which I doubted not but they were fallen. The remain¬
ing two guides faid all they could, indeed, to cheer us
up ; and told us we ftiould fee the other four again
foon, and that we were near the end of our journey.
I don’t know what effedt this might have upon the reft
of my companions ; but I afllire you I believed no part
•f the fpeech but the laft,. which I expedted every mo¬
ment to find fulfilled in fome pond or precipice. Our
paflage was by this time become very narrow, and we
were obliged to crawl on all-fours over rugged rocks ;
when in an inftant, and in the midft of thefe melancho¬
ly apprehenfions, I heard a little hilling noife, and faw
myfelf in utter, and not to be deferibed, darknefs. Our
guides called indeed cheerfully to us, and told us that
they had accidentally dropped their torches into a pud¬
dle of water, but we ftiould foon come to the reft: of
them, and they would light them again ; and told us
there was no danger, and we had nothing to do but to
crawl forward. I cannot fay but I was amazed at the
courage of thefe people; who were in a place where,
I thought, four of them had already perifhed, and
from whence we could none of us ever efcape ; and de¬
termined to lie down and die where I was. Words can¬
not deferibe the horror, or the extreme darknefs of the
place. One of our guides, however, perceiving that I
did not advance, came up to me, and clapping hb hand
firmly over my eyes, dragged me a few paces forward.
While 1 was in this ftrange condition, expetfting every
moment death in a thoufand ftiapes, and trembling to
think what the guide meant by this rough proceeding,
he lifted me at once over a great ftone, let me down on
my feet, and took his hand from before my eyes. What
words can deferibe at that inftant my aftoniftiment and
tranfport 1 Inftead of darknefs and defpair, all was
fplendor and magnificence before me ; our guides all
appeared about us : the place was illuminated by jo
torches, and the guides all welcomed me into the grot*
to of Antiparos. The four that were firft miffing, I
now found had only given us the flip, to get the torches
lighted up before we came; and the other two had put
out their lights on purpofe, to make us enter out of ut¬
ter darknefs into this pavilion of fplendor and glory,
I am now come to the proper bufinefs of this letter;
which was, to deferibe this grotto. But I muft confefs
to you that words cannot do it. The amazing beau¬
ties of the place, the eye that fees them only can con¬
ceive. The heft account I can give you, however, pray,
accept of.
“ The people told us, the depth of this place was 485
yards, the grotto, in which we now were, is a cavern
of 120 yards wide, and 113 long, and feems about 60
yards high in moft places. Thefe meafures differ fome-
^thing from the accounts travellers in general give us ;
but you may depend upon them as exa«ft, for I took
them with my own hand. Imagine then with your-'
felf, an immenfe arch like this, almoft all over lined
with fine and bright chryftalized white marble, and
illuminated with 50 torches ; and you will then have Antiparas,
fome faint idea of the place I had the pleafure to fpend L—
three hours in. This, however, is but a faint deferip-
tion of its beauties. The roof, which is a fine vaulted
arch, is hung all over with icicles of white fliining mar¬
ble, fome of them ten feet long, and as thick as one’s
middle at the root; and among thefe there hang i©oo
feftoons of leaves and flowers, of the fame fubftance ;
but fo very glittering, that there is no bearing to look
up at them. The fides of the arch are planted with
feeming trees of the fame white marble, rifing in rows
one above another, and often incloffng the points of
the icicles. From thefe trees there are alfo hung fe¬
ftoons, tied as it were from one to another in vaft
quantities ; and in fome places among them there feem
rivers of marble winding through them in a thoufand
meanders. All thefe things are only made, in a long
courfe of years, from the dropping of water, but really
look like trees and brooks turned to marble. The
floor we trod upon was rough and uneven, with cry-
ftals of all colours growing irregularly out of it, red,
blue, green, and fome of a pale yellow. Thefe were
all Ihaped like pieces of faltpetre; but fo hard, that
they cut our ffioes : among thefe, here and there, are
placed icicles of the fame whitefhining marble with thofe
above, and feeming to have fallen down from the roof
and fixed there ; only the big end of thefe is to the floor.
To all thefe our guides had tied torches, two or three
to a pillar, and kept continually beating them to make
them burn bright. You may guefs what a glare of-
fplendor and beauty muft be the effect of this illumina¬
tion, among fuch rocks and columns of marble. All
round the lower part of the Tides of the arch are a thou¬
fand white mafles of marble, in the fliape of oak-trees.
Mr Tournefort compares them to cauliflowers, but I
fliould as foon compare them to toad-ftools. - In fliort,
they are large enough to inclofe, in many places, a piece
of ground big enough for a bed-chamber. One of
thefe chambers has a fair white curtain, whiter than
fattin, of the fame marble, ftretched all over the front
of it. In this we all cut our names, and the date of
the year, as a great many people have done before us.
In a courfe of years afterwards, the ftone blifters out
like this white marble over the letters'. Mr Tourne¬
fort thinks the rock grows like oaks or apple-trees for
this reafon ; but I remember I faw fome of the fineft
cockle and mufcle fhells, in the rock thereabouts, that
ever I faw in my life. I wonder whether he thinks
they grow there too. Befides, if this rock grows fo
faff, the cavern ought to be all grown up by this time;
and yet, according to his meafures and mine, the ca¬
vern feems on the other hand to be turned larger fince.
Indeed, all that I can gather from his account of this
glorious place is, that he had-drank a bottle or twro too
much before he went down into it.”
ANTIPAS-herod, or Herod-Antipas, the fon
of Herod the Great, by one of his wives called Cleo¬
patra, a native of Jerufalem. Herod the Great, m
his firft will, appointed Antipas his fucceffbr in the
kingdom ; but afterwards, altering that will, he named
his fbn Archelaus his fucceflbr, giving to Antipas the
title only of Tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea,
Antipas took a great deal of pains in adorning and
fortifying the principal places of his dominions. He
married the daughter of Aretas king of Arabia; whom
he
ANT [ 94 ] ANT
Antiparos. he divorced about the year of Chrift 33, to marry his
flfter-in-law Herodias, wife to his brother Philip, who
was hill living. St John the Baptift exclaiming con¬
tinually againft this inceft, was taken into cuftody by
order of Antipas, and imprifoned in the caftle of Ma-
chserus, (Mat. xiv. 3, 4. Mark i. 14. vi. 17, 18. Luke
iii. 19, 20.) Jofephus fays, that Antipas caufed St
John to be laid hold of, becaufe he drew too great a
concourfe of people after him; and that he’ was afraid
left he ftiould make ufe of the authority which he had
acquired over the minds and affeiftions of the people,
to induce them to revolt. But the evangelifts, who
were better informed than Jofephus, as being eye-wit-
neftes of what pafled, and acquainted in a particular
manner with St John and his difciples, affure iis that
the true reafon of imprifoning St John was, the averfion
which Herod and Herodias had conceived againft him
for the liberty he had ufed in cenfuring their feanda-
lous marriage. The virtue and h tlinels of St John were
fuch, that even Herod feared and refpe&ed him; but
his paflionfor Herodias had prevailed with him to have
killed that prophet, had he not been reftrained by his
apprehenftons of the people, who efteemed John the
Baptift as a prophet. (Matt. xiv. 5, 6.) One day,
however, while the king was celebrating the feftival of
his birth, with the principal perfons of his court, the
daughter of Herodias danced before him; and pleafed
him fo well, that he promifed with an oath to give her
whatever (he ftiould aik of him. By her mother’s ad¬
vice ftie afked the head of John the Baptift ; upon
which the king commanded John to be beheaded in
prifon, and the head to be given her.—Aretas, king
of Arabia, to revenge the affront which Herod had
offered to his daughter, declared war againft him, and
overcame him in a very obftinate engagement. Herod
being afterwards detefted as a party in Sejanus’s con-
fpiracy, was baniftied by the emperor Caius into Lyons
in Gaul; whether Herodias accompanied him.
This Antipas is the Herod who, being at Jerufalem
at the time of our Saviour’s paffion, (Luke xxiii. 11.)
ridiculed him, by drefling him in a white robe, and di¬
recting him to be conducted back to Pilate, as a mock
king, whofe ambition gave him no umbrage. The
time which Antipas died is not known: however, it is
certain he died in exile, as well as Herodias. Jofe¬
phus fays, that he died in Spain, whether Caius upon
his coming to Gatft, the firft year of his banifhment,
might order him to be fent.
ANTIPATER, the difciple of Ariftotle, and one
of Alexander the Great’s generals, was a man of great
abilities, and a lover of the fciences; but w'as accufed
of poifoning Alexander. He fubdued the revolted
Thracians, relieved Megalopolis, and overthrew the
Spartans there. He died 321 years before the Chri-
ftian sera.
Antipater, an Idumsean of illuftrious birth, and
poffeffed of great riches and abilities, taking advantage
of the confufion into which the two brothers Hyrcanus
and Ariftobulus plunged Judea by their conteft for
the office of high-prieft, took fuch meafures as to gain
Hyrcanus that office, and under his government to
obtain the abfolute direction of all affairs ; while his
great abilities and application to bufinefs made him fo
confiderable, that he was honoured as- much as if he
bad been invefted with the royal authority in form:
but he was at lafl poifoned by a Jew, named Malachus, Antipater,
4? years before the Chriftian sera. He left among his . 8
other children, the famous Herod king of the Jews. Antipathy.
ANtiPATtR (Cselius),a Roman hiitorian, who wrote J
a hiftory of the Punic wrar, much valued by Cicero.
The emperor Adrian preferred him to Saluft.
Antipater of Sydon, a ftoic philofopher, and like-
wife a poet, commended by Cicero and Seneca: he
flourilhed about the 171ft Olympiad. We have feveral
of his epigrams in the ntholngia.
ANTIPATHY, in phyfiology, is formed from the
two Greek words contrary, and Ta6<>f pajpon. Li¬
terally taken, the word fignifies incompatibility: but for
the moil part the term a t.pathy is not ufed to ftgnify
fuch incompatibilities as are merely phyftcal; it is re-
ferved to exprefs the averfion which an animated or
fenfitive being feels at the real or ideal prelence of par¬
ticular objeCIs. In this point of view, which is the
light in which we at prefent confider the term, anlipa*
thy, in common language, fignifies “ a natural hor-
“ ror and deteftation, an infuperable hatred, an invo-
“ luntary averfion, which a fenfitive being feels for feme
“ other object, whatever it is, though the perfon who
“ feels this abhorrence is entirely ignorant of its caufe,
“ and can by no means account for it.” Such is, they
fay, the natural and reciprocal hoftility between the fa*
lamander and the tortoife ; between the toad and the
weafel; or between ftieep and wolves. Such is the in¬
vincible averfion of particular perfons againft cats, mice,
fpiders, &c.; a prepoffeffion which is fometimes fo vio¬
lent, as to make them faint at the fight of thefe ani¬
mals. Of thefe and a thoufand other antipathies the
ancient naturalifts, the fchoolmen, and the vulgar,
form fo many legends; and relate them as certain faCts,
that they may demand an explication of them from the
philofophers. But thefe fages begin with inveftigating
whether fuch antipathies actually exift or not.
To explore the matter without prejudice, we ftiali
find it neceffary to abftraCt from the fubjeCts of this
difquifition, I. All fuch antipathies as are not afeer-
tained; as that which is fuppofed to be felt by hens
at the found of an harp whofe firings are made of a
fox’s bowels, between the falamander and tortoife, and
between the weafel and the toad. Nothing is lefs con¬
firmed, or rather nothing is more falfe, than thefe
faffs, with which vulgar credulity and aftoniftiment
are amufed and affuated : and though fome of thefe
antipathies ftiould be afeertained, this would be no-
proof that the animals which feel them are not ac¬
quainted with their caufes, according to their mode and,
proportion of knowledge ; in which cafe it will be no
longer the antipathy which we have defined.
2. We muft abftraff thofe antipathies which can be
extinguiftied or refumed at pleafure ; thofe fictitious a-
verfions, which certain perfons feel, or pretend to feel,
with affeffed airs, that they may appear more precife
and finical, or Angularly and prodigioufly elegant ;
that they may feem to have qualities fo exquifttely fine,
as require to be treated with peculiar delicacy. One
who beftows any attention on the fnbject, would be a-^
ftoniftied to find how many of thefe chimerical aver-
fions there are, which are pretended, and palled upon
the world by thofe who affeff them as natural and un¬
conquerable,
3. When we abftraff tbofe averfions the caufes of
which
ANT [ 95 } ANT
(Antipathy.which are known and evident; we fliall be furprifed,
"" after our deduction of thefe pretended antipathies from
the general fum, how fmall, how inconfiderable, is the
quantity of thofe which are conformable to our defini¬
tion. Will any one pretend to call by the name of an¬
tipathy, thofe real, innate, and inconteftable averfions
which prevail between Iheep and wolves ? Their caufe
is obvious ; the wolf devours the ftieep, and fubfifts up¬
on his victims; and every animal naturally flies with
terror from pain Or deftruetion : fheep ought therefore
to regard wolves with horror, which for their nutrition
; tear and mangle the unrefifting prey. From principles
fimilar to this, arifes that averfron which numbers of
people feel againft ferpents; againft fmall animals, fuch
as reptiles in general, and the greateft number of in¬
fers. During the credulous and fufceptible period of
infancy, pains have been taken to imprefs on our minds
the frightful idea that they are venemous ; that their
bite is mortal; that their fling is dangerous, produc¬
tive of tormenting inflammations or tumours, and
ibmetimes fatal: they have been reprefented to us as
ugly and fordid; as being, for that reafon, pernicious
to thofe who touch them ; as poifoning thofe who have
the misfortune td fwallow them. Thefe horrible pre-
pofleffions are induftrioufly inculcated from our infan¬
cy ; they are fornetimes attended and fupported by dif-
mal tales, which are greedily imbibed, and indelibly
engraven on our memories. It has been taught us
both by precept and example, -when others at their
approach have affumed in our view the appearance of
deteftation and even of terror, that we fhould fly from
them, that we fhould not touch them. Is it then won¬
derful (if our falfe impreffions as to this fubjeft have
been corredted neither by future refledtions nor expe¬
riments), that we Ihould entertain, during our whole
lives, an averfion for thefe objedls, even when we
have forgot the admonitions, the converfations, and
examples, which have taught us to believe and appre¬
hend them as noxious beings ? and in proportion to the
fenfibility of our frame, in proportion as our nerves
are irritable, our emotions at the fight of what we
fear will be more violent, efpecially if they anticipate
our expectation, and feize us unprepared, though our
ideas of what we have to fear from them are the moft
confufed and indiftindi imaginable. To explain thefe
fadts, is itneceflary to fly to the exploded fubterfuge
of occult qualities inherent in bodies, to latent relations
produdtive of antipathies, of which no perfon could ever
form an idea ?
It is often fufficient to influence a perfon who had
formerly no averfion for an objedt, if he lives with fome
other aflbciafe who gives himfelf up to fuch capricious
panics; the habit is infeniibly contradled to be agitated
with difagreeable emotions at the prefence of an ob¬
jedt which had been formerly beheld with indifference
and cold blood. I was acquainted (fays, the author
of the article Antipathy in the French Encyclopedic)
with a perfon of a very found underflanding, whom
thunder and lightning by no means terrified ; nay,
to whom the fpedtacle appeared magnificent and the
round majeflic : yet to a mind thus feemingly fortified
againft the infedtious terror, no more was neceffary
than fpending the fummer with a friend in whom the
appearance of lightning excited the ftrongeft emotions,
and whom the remoteft clap of thunder affedled with
extravagant paroxifms, to become timid in excefs at Antipathy
the approach of thunder ; nor could he ever afterwards' v—*■'
furmount the fear which it infpired.—The frightful
ftories of dogs and cats, which have killed their mailers,
or which have given them mortal wounds, are more
than fufficient to infpire a timorous perfon with aver-*
lion againft thefe animals ; and if the olfactory nerves
of fuch a perfon be delicate, he will immediately dif-
cover the fmell of them in a chamber : difturbed by the
apprehenfion which thefe effluvia excite in his mind,
he gives himfelf up to the moft violent uneafmefs, which
is tranquillized when he is affured that the animal is no
longer in the room. If by chance, in the fearch which
is made to calm the uneafinefs of this timorous per¬
fon, one of thefe creatures ihould at Jaft be difcover-
ed, every one prefently exclaims, A miracle / and ad¬
mits the reality of antipathies into his creed ; whilft all
this is nothing but the effedt of a childifh fear, founded
on certain confufed and exaggerated ideas of the ha¬
zard which one may fun with thefe animals. The an¬
tipathy which fome people entertain againft eels, though
they are eaten by others with pleafure, arifes from no¬
thing but the fear of ferpents, to which thefe fifties are
in fome degree fimilar. There are likewife other anti¬
pathies which do not originate in the imagination, but
arife from fome natural incongruity; fuch as we often
remark in children, for particular kinds of victuals,
with which their tafte is not offended, but which their
ftomachs cannot digeft, and which are therefore dif»
gorged as foon as fwallowed.
To what then are thofe antipathies, of which we have
heard fo much, reducible ? Either to legendary tales ;
or to averfions againft obje&s which we believe dange¬
rous ; or to a childifti terror of imaginary perils; or to
a difrelifti, of which the caufe is difguifed ; or to a ri¬
diculous afteiftation of delicacy ; or to an infirmity of
the ftomach ; in a word, to a real or pretended reluc¬
tance for things which are either invefted, or fuppofed
to be invefted, with qualities hurtful to us. Too much
care cannot be taken in preventing, or regulating, the
antipathies of children ; in familiarifing them with ob-
je<fts of every kind ; in difcovering to them, without
emotion, fuch as are dangerous ; in teaching them the
means of defence and lecurity, or the methods of efca-
ping their noxious influence : and, xt'hen the rational
powers are matured, by age, in refleifting on the na¬
ture of thofe objects which we fear, in afcertaining what
has been told concerning their qualities, or in vigor-
oufly operating upon our own difpofitions to overcome
thofe vain repugnancies wfliich we may feel. See Sym¬
pathy, which is the oppofite of Antipathy.
Antipathy,in ethics, hatred, averlion, repugnancy.
Hatred is entertained againft perfons ; averjion, and
antipathy, indifcriminately againft perfons or things ;
and repugnancy, againft actions alone.
Hatred is more voluntary than rfz/?ry7ff», antipathy, or
repugnancy Thefe laft have greater affinity .with the
animal conftitution. The caufes of antipathy are lefs
known than thole of aver fun. Repugnancy is lefs per¬
manent than either the one or the other—We hate a
vitious character, we feel averp,on to its exertions’: we
are affedted with an t ipai hy for certain perfons at fir ft
fight ; there are fome affairs which we tranfact with
repugnancy—Hatred calumniates ; averjion keeps us at
a diltance from certain perfons: antipathy makes
us
ANT t 96 ] ANT
Ar.tipatris.us detefl. them ; repugnancy hinders us from imitating
' J them.
,AntlP°des- ANTIPATRIS (Afls xxiii. 31.), a town of Pa-
J , _ leftine, anciently called Capbar-Saba, according to Jo-
fephus, but named Autipatris by Herod the Great, in
honour of his father Antipater. It was fituated in a
pleafant valley, near the mountains, in the way from
Jerufalem to Csefarea. Jofephus places it'at about the
diftance of feventeen miles from Joppa.
ANTIPELARGIA, among the ancients, a law,
whereby children are obliged to furnilh necelfaries to
their aged parents. The ciconia, or ftork, is a bird
famous for the care it takes of its parents when grown
old. Hence, in fome Latin writers, this is rendered
lex cieoniaria, or the ftork’s law,
ANTIPHONARY, antiphonarium, a fervice-
book, which contained all the invitatories, refponfories,
collects, and whatever elfe was. fung or Paid in the
choir, except the leffons. This is otherwife called re-
Jponfarium, from the refponces therein contained. The
author of the Roman antiphonary was pope Gregory
the Great. We alfo find mention of nodturnal and
diurnal antiphonaries, for the ufe of the daily and night¬
ly offices ; fummer and winter antiphonaries ; alfo an¬
tiphonaries for country churches, &c. By the provin¬
cial conftitutions of Archbifhop Winchelfey, made at
Merton, A. D. 1305, it is required that one of thefe
fhould be found in every church within the province of
Canterbury. The ufe of thefe, and many other popifh
books, were forbid by the 3d and 4th of Edward VL
e. 10.
ANTIPHONY, the anfwer made by one choir to
another, when the pfalm or anthem is fung between
two.
ANTiPHONYjfometimes denotes a fpecies of pfalmo-
dy, wherein the congregation, being divided into two
parts, repeat the pfalms, verfe for verfe, alternately.
In this fenfe, antiphony (lands contradiftinguifhed from
fymphony, where the whole congregation fmgs toge-
■ ther.
Antiphony differs from refponforium, becaufe in this
latter the verfe is only fpoken by one perfon, where¬
as in the former, the verfes are fung by the two choirs
alternately. The original of Antiphonal finging in the
weftern churches is referred to the time of St Am-
brofe, about the year 374. That father is faid to have
firft introduced it into the church of Milan, in imita¬
tion of the cuftom of the eaftern church, where it ap¬
pears to be of greater antiquity, though as to the time
of its inftitution, authors are not agreed; it was moft
probably introduced at Antioch, between the year of
Chrift 347 and 356.
Antiphony is alfo ufed to denote the words given
out at the beginning of the pfalm, to which both the
choirs are to accommodate their finging.
Antiphony, in'a more modern fenfe, denotes a
kind of compofition made of feveral verfes extra&ed
out of different pfalms, adapted to exprefs the myftery
folemnized on the occafion.
ANTIPODES, in geography, a name given to
thofe inhabitants of the globe that live diametrically
oppofite to each other. The word is Greek, and com¬
pounded of avr-, oppojite, and a foot; becaufe their
feet are oppofite to each ether-
The antipodes lie under oppofite meridians and op-
K° 23.
pofite parallels ; in the fame degree of latitude, but of AutipoRs
oppofite denominations, one being north and the other . H
fouth. They have nearly the fame degree of heat and pntHuari^
cold, days and nights of equal length, but in oppofite
feafons. It is noon to one, when midnight to the
other; and the longed day with the one, is the fhort-
eft with the other.
Plato is efteemed the firft who thought it poffible
that the antipodes fubfifted, and is looked upon as the
inventor of the word. As this philofopher apprehend¬
ed the earth to be fpherical, he had only one dep to
make to conclude the exiflence of the antipodes.
The ancients, in general, treated this opinion with
the highed contempt; never being able to conceive
how men and trees could fubfid fufpended in the air
with their feet upwards, for fo they apprehended they
mud be in the other hemifphere.
They never reflefted that thefe terms upwards and
downwards are merely relative ; and fignify only near¬
er to, or farther from, the centre of the earth, the
common centre to which all heavy bodies gravitate;
and that, therefore, our antipodes have not their feet
upwards and head downwards any more than our-
felves; becaufe they, like us, have their feet nearer the
centre of the ea^th, and their heads farther from it. To
have the head downwards and feet upwards, is to place
the body in a direction of gravity tending from the feet
to the head : but this cannot be fuppofed with regard
to the antipodes ; for they, like us, tend toward the
centre of the earth, in a direction from head to foot.
ANTIPOLIS {anc. geog.), now Antibes, on the
coaft of Provence, a colony of the Maffilians, near the
river Verus, in Gallia |Narbonenfis (Livy),three leagues
to the weft of Nice. E. Long. 7° Lat. 430 407.
ANTIQUARE, among Roman lawyers, properly
denotes the rejecting of a new law, or refufing to pafs
it. In which fenfe, antiquating differs from abrogating',
as the latter imports the annulling an old law, the for¬
mer the reje&ing a new one.
Antiq_uare is alfo ufed for a law’s growing obfo-
kte, or into difufe, either by age or non-obfervance.
AntiqUarii, a name given to copiers of old books.
After the decline of learning amongfl the Romans,
and when many religious houfes were erefted, learning
was chiefly in the hands of the clergy; the greateft
number of whom were regulars, and lived in mona-
fteries. In thefe houfes were many induftrious men,
who were continually employed in making new copies
of old books, either for the ufe of the monaftery or for *
their own emolument. Thefe writing monks were di-
ftinguiftied by the name of Antiquarii. They deprived
the poor librarii, or common feriptores, of great part
of their bufinefs, fo that thefe found it difficult to gain
a fubfiftence for themfelves and families. This put
them upon finding out more expeditious methods of
tranferibing books. They formed the letters fmaller,
and made ufe of more jugations and abbreviations than
had been ufual. They proceeded in this manner till
the letters became exceedingly fmall; the abbrevia¬
tions were very numerous, and extremely difficult to
be read. This in fome meafure accounts for the great
variety of hands in the fpecies of writing calledYUo-
dern Gothic. When a number of copies were to be
made of the fame work, it was ufual to employ feveral
perfons at the fame time in writing it; cVh perfon,
except
ANT L 97 1 ANT
ntiquary except him v/ho wrote the firft flan, began where his
.1 , . fellow was to leave off,
iAntiquities ANTIQUARY, a perfon who {Indies and fearches
1 " after monuments and remains of antiquity ; as old me¬
dals, books, ftatues, fculptures, and infcriptions ; and,
in general, all curious pieces that may afford any light
into antiquity.
In the chief cities of Greece and Italy, there were
perfons of diftinftion called antiquaries, whofe bufi-
nefs it was to fhow ftrangers the antiquities of the
place, to explain the ancient infcriptions, and to give
them all the affiftance they could in this way of learn-
i • ing.—Paufanias calls thefe antiquaries ^ymm. The
Sicilians call them myflogegi.
There was an ancient college of antiquaries erefled
in Ireland by Ollamh Fodhla, 7<so years before Chrift,
for compofmg a hiftory of that country : And to this,
fay the Irifh hiftorians, it is owing that the hiftory
and antiquities of that kingdom may be traced back
beyond thofe of moft other nations.
There is a fbciety of antiquaries in London, and
another in Edinburgh, incorporated by the king’s
charter. See Society.
Antiquary is alfo ufed by ancient writers for the
keeper of the antiquariurri or cabinet of antiquities.
This officer is otherwife called ardueota, or antiquary
of a king, a prince, a date, or the like.
Henry VIII. gave John'Lelahd the title of his an¬
tiquary a title which, fays the author of his life, no
body ever enjoyed befides himfelf. But the reftridtion,
we fuppofe, was only intended to be underitood in re-
fpecl of the kings of England.. M. Schott, we find,
had the title of antiquary to the king of Pruffia ; P.
Pedruzzi, that of antiquary of the Duke of Parma ;
M. Galland refided fome time in Turky under the title
of antiquary of the king of France.—The univerfity
of Oxford have ftill their antiquary.under the denomi¬
nation oi cujhs arckivorum.—The kings of Sweden
have been at great expences in order to illuftrate the-
antiquity of their country, having eftabli filed an aca¬
demy of antiquaries with this fingle view.—The office
of the ancient Irifli antiquaries was to preferve the ge¬
nealogies of the kings of Ireland, to corredt the regal
tables of fucceflion, and deliver down the pedigree of
every collateral branch of the royal family.
ANTIQUATED, fomething obfolete, out of date,
or ourof ufe.
ANTIQUE, in a general fenfe, fomething that is>
ancient: but the term is chiefly ufed by fculptors, pain¬
ters, and architedts, to denote fueh pieces of their dif¬
ferent arts as were made by the ancient Greeks and
Romans. Thus we fay,-an antique bull, an antique
ftatue, &c.
Antique is fometimes contradiffinguifhedfrom an¬
cient, which fignifies a lefs degree of antiquity. Thus,
antique architefture is frequently diftinguiihed from an¬
cient architedture.
ANTIQUITIES, a term implying all teftimonies,
or authentic accounts, that have come down to us of
ancient nations. Bacon calls antiquities the wrecks of
hiftory, or fuch particulars as induftrious and learned
perfons have colledfed from genealogies, infcriptionsi
monuments, coins, names, etymologies, archives, in-
flruments, fragments of hiftory, &c.
Antiquities form a very extenfive fcience, including
Vox. II. Part I.
“ anhiftorical knowledge of the edifices, magiftrates, Antiquitie*
offices, habiliments, manners^, cuftoms, ceremonies, ‘'"■''v——'
worfliip, and other objedts worthy of curiofity, of all
the principal ancient nations of the earth.-’’
This fcience is not a matter of mere curiofity, but
is indifpenfable to the theologian ; who ought to be
thoroughly acquainted with the antiquities of the Jews,
to enable him properly to explain numberlefs pafiages
in the Old and New Teftaments : to the lawyer; who,
without the knowledge of the antiquities of Greece
and Rome, can never well underhand, and properly ap¬
ply, the greateft part of the Roman laws : to the
phyfician and the philofopher, that they may have a
complete knowledge of the hiftory and principles of
the phyfie and philofophy of the ancients : to the cri¬
tic, that he may be able to underftand and interpret
ancient authors : to the orator and poet; who will be
thereby enabled to ornament their writings with num¬
berlefs images, illufions, comparifons, &c.
Antiquities are divided into facred and profane, into
public and private, univerfal and particular, &c. It is
true, that the antiquaries (>efpecially fuch as are infedled
with a fpirit of pendantry, and the number of thefe is
great) frequently carry their inquiries too far, and em¬
ploy themfelves in laborious refearches after learned
trifles ; but the abufe of a fcience oughtnever to make'
us negledt the applying it to rational and ufeful pur-
pofes.
Many antiquaries alfo reftrain their learned labours to
the eclairciffement of the antiquities of Greece and
Rome: but thjs field is far too confined, and by no-
means contains the whole of this fcience, feeing it pro¬
perly includes the antiquities of the Jews, Egyptians,.
Perfians, Phenicians; Carthaginians, Hetrufcans, Ger¬
mans, and, in general, all thofe principal nationsmen-
tioned in ancient hiftory: fo far as any accounts of
them are come down to us.
If to the general fubjefts above mentioned We add'
the particular ftudy of antiques, of the ftatues, bafiV
reliefs, and the precious relies of archite&ure, paint¬
ing, camaieus, medals, &e. it is eafy to conceive that
antiquities form a fcience very extenfive and very com--
plicated, and wuth which only a very fmall acquaintance
could have been attainable by any one man, if our me--
deceflbrs had not prepared the way for us: if they had
Hot left us fuch ineftimable works qs thofe of Gronovius,
Grsevius> Montfaucon, Count Caylus, Winckelman,
the Hebraic antiquities of D. Iken'of Bremen, the
Grecian antiquities of Btunings, the Roman antiqui¬
ties of Nieupoort, and efpecially that work which is
intitled Bibliographia Antiquaria Job. Alberti Fabricii,
profeflbr at Hamburgh ; &c. &c. Nor muft wTe here-
forget that very valuable work, with which our coun¬
tryman Mr Robert Wood has lately enriched this
fcience, and which is fo well known, and fo juftly e-
fteemed by all true connoiffeurs, under the title of the
Ruins of Palmyra, and thofe of Balleck. It is by this-
work that we are fully convinced of the grandeur and
magnificence, the tafte and elegance, of the buildings
of the ancients. We here -fee that the invention of
thefe matters is not all owing to the Greeks, but that
there were other nations who ferved them as models.
For, tho’ many of the edifices of Palmyra are to be at¬
tributed to the emperor Aurelian, and to Odenatus and
his wife Zenobia, who reigned there about die year
N 264*,
ANT [98] ANT
Antiquities 264, yet there are found at the fame place, ruins of
buildings, that appear to be of far greater antiquity,
and that are not lefs beautiful. The ancient Perfe-
polis is fufficient to prove this affertion. When we
duly refle6t on all thefe matters, and efpecially if we
attempt to acquire any knowledge of this fcience, we
fhall foon be convinced that it but ill becomes a petit-
maitre to laugh at a learned antiquary.
The knowledge of thofe monuments of the ancients,
the works of fculpture, ftatuary, graving, painting, &c.
which they call antiques, requires a ftriit attention
with regard to the matter itfelf on which the art has
been exercifed; as the wax, clay, wood, ivory, ftones
of every kind, marble, flint, bronze, and every fort
of metal. We fhould begin by learning on what mat¬
ter each ancient nation principally worked, and in
which of the fine arts they excelled. For the matter
itfelf, as the different forts of marble, compofitions of
metals, and the fpecies of precious ftones, ferve fre¬
quently to charadterize the true antique, and to dif-
cover the counterfeit. The connoiffeurs pretend alfo
to know, by certain diftindt charadlers in the defign
and execution of a work of art, the age and nation
where it was made. They find, moreover, in the in¬
vention and execution, a degree of ex'cellence, which
modern artifts are not able to imitate. Now, though
we ought to allow, in general, the great merit of the
ancients in the -polite arts, we ftiould not, however,
fuffer our admiration to lead us into a blind fuperfti-
:tion. There are pieces of antiquity of every fort,
■which have come down to us; fome that are perfedtly
excellent ; and others fo wretched, that the meanett
;among modern artifts would not acknowledge them.
The mixture of the good and bad has taken place in
all fubjedts, at all times, and in all nations. Themif-
fortune is, that moft of our great antiquaries have
been fo little {killed in defigning, as fcarcely to know
how to draw a circle with a pair of compalfes. It is
prejudice, therefore, which frequently diredfs them to
ive the palm to the ancients, Tather than a judgment
iredled by a knowledge of the art. That charadter
of expreflion, which they find fo marvellous in the
works of antiquity, is often nothing more than a mere
chimera.- They pretend that the artifts of our days
conftantly exaggerate their expreflions ; that a modern
Bacchus has the appearance of a man diftradted with
intoxication ; that a Mercury feems to be animated with
the fpirit of a fury ; and fo of the reft. But let them
not decide too haftily. Almoft all the antique fi¬
gures are totally void of all fpirit of expreflion ; we
are forced to guefs at their characters. Every artifi¬
cial expreflion requires, moreover, to be fomewhat ex¬
aggerated A ftatue or portrait is an inanimate fi¬
gure j and muft therefore have a very different effedl
from one which, being endowed with life, has the
mufcles conftantly in play, and where the continual
change of the features, the motion of the eyes, and the
looks, more or lefs lively, eafily and clearly exprefs the
paflionsand fentiments. Whereas, in a figure that is
the produce of art, the delicate touches, that fhould
exprefs the paflions, are loft to the eyes of the fpedta-
tors : they muft therefore be ftruck by ftrong, bo’d
charadlers, which can effeft them at the firft glance of
the eye. A very moderate artift is fenfible, at the
fame time, that he is not to give his figures extravagant Antiquity i
expreflions, nor to place them in diftorted attitudes. . * . 1
ANTIQUITY ftgnifies times or ages paft long
ago. Thus, we fay, the heroes of antiquity, &c.
Antiquity is alfo ufed to denote the works or mo¬
numents of antiquity. See Antiquities.
Antiquity likewife expreffes the great age of a
thing ; and in this fenfe we fay the antiquity of a fa¬
mily, the antiquity of a kingdom.
ANTIRRHINUM, snap-dragon, or calves-
snout : A genus of the angiofpermia order, belong¬
ing to the didynamia clafs of plants ; and in the natu¬
ral method ranking under the 40th order, Perjonatar.
The effential charadlers are thefe : The calyx conflfts
of five leaves; the bafis of the corolla is bent back¬
wards, and furniftied with pedloria; the capfule is bi¬
locular. There are 14 fpecies of the antirrhinum, 10
of which are natives of Britain, viz. the cymbalaria,
or ivy-leaved toad-grafs ; the elatine, or (harp-pointed
fluellin ; the fpurium, or round-leaved fluellin ; the
arvenfe, or corn blue toad-flax; the repens, or creep¬
ing toad-flax; the monofpermum, or fweet-fmelling
toad-flax ; the linaria, or common yellow toad-flax ;
the minus, or leaft toad-flax; the majus, or greater fnap-
dragon ; and die orontium, or leaft fnap-dragon. The
linaria is faid to be cathartic, and diuretic ; but it is
not uled in the {hops.
ANTIRRHIUM, (anc. geog.), a promontory at
the mouth of the Corinthian bay, where it is fcarce a
mile broad, and where it feparates the fEtolians from
the Peloponnefus ; fo called from its oppofite fituation
to Rhium in Peloponnefus, (Pliny) : both are now
called the Dardanelles of Lepanto.
ANTISABBATARIANS, a modern religious fedl,
who oppofe the obfervance of the Chriftian fabbath.
The great principle of the Antifabbatarians is, that
the Jewifti fabbath was only of ceremonial, not mo¬
ral obligation ; and confequently is aboliftied by the
coming of Chrift.
ANTISAGOGE, in rhetoric, a figure differing
little from that called concefion. The following paf-
fage from Cicero is an inftance of it: Difficilis ratio
belli gerenii; at plena fidei, plena pietatis: et Ji di~
cas, magnus labor, multa pericula proponuntur ; at glo¬
ria ex his hnmortalis eft confecutura. See Concession.
ANTISC1I, in geography, people who live on dif¬
ferent fides of the equator, whofe lhadows at noon are
projected oppofite ways. Thus the people of the north
are Antifcii to thofe of the fouth; the one projecting
their ftiadows at noon toward the north pole, and the
other toward the fouth pole.
ANTISCORBUTICS, medicines good infeorbutie
cafes.
ANTISEPTICS, (from and <rtiTro( putrid, bf
eryiTu to putrijy), an appellation given to fuch fubfian¬
ces as refift putrefaction.
We have fome curious experiments in relation to an-
tifeptic fubftances by Dr Pringle, who has afeertained
their feveral virtues. Thus in order to fettle the an-
tifeptic virtue of lalts, he compared it with that of
common fea-falt; which being one of the weakeft, he
fuppofes equal to unity, and expreffes the proportional
ftrength of the reft by higher numbers, as in the fol¬
lowing table.
5 Salts,
tifepVics
Sea-falt
ANT
Salts, their antifeptic virtue.
i Saline mixture
[ 99 ]
ANT
Salgemma
Tartar vitriolated
Spiritus Mindereri
Tartar is folubilis
Sal diuretiau
Crude fal ammoniac
Nitre
Salt of hartfhorn
Salt of wormwood
Borax
Salt of amber
Alum
4 +
4 +
4 +
12 +
20 +
30 +
In this table the proportions
numbers: only to fome there is added the fign +, to
fhow, that thofe falts are pofTeffed of a ftronger anti¬
feptic virtue than the number in the table expreffes, by
fome fractions ; unlefs in the three laft, where the fame
fign* imports, that the fait may be ftronger by fome
units.
Some refinous and other fubftances even exceed the
antifeptic virtues of the neutral falts ; thus myrrh,
afafaetida, terra japonica, and aloes, are at leaft twelve
um, and fometimes fucceeds where opium fails. As Antiftafi#
antifpafmodics, the eflential oils differ in this from opi- 1
um, that they aft more on a particular part than on Aritlthgfi»-
the fyftem in general, and have no foporific effeft. ,
Some medicines -remove fpafms by immediate eontaft,
as affes milk, cream, oil of almonds ; others by repell¬
ing heat, as gas, fulphur, nitre, fal ammoniac, &c.
And where the ftrictures are produced by inanition and
a defeft of vital heat, fpafms are removed by thofe me-
marked in integral dicines that reftore the vis vita, fuch as valerian, caftor,
mufk, &c.
ANTISTASIS, in oratory, a defence of an aftion
from the confideration that had it been omitted worfe
would have enfued. This is called by Latin writers
comparativum argumentum; fuch, e. gr. would be the
general’s defence who had made an inglorious capi¬
tulation, That, without it, the whole army muft have
periflied.
ANTISTHENES, a Greek philofopher, andfoun-
times more antifeptic than fea-falt. Two grains of der of the Cynics. He was born at Atliens, and paffed
 1—- : u.„r—* ToU An tjje former part of his life as a foldier. Having after¬
camphor is equivalent to fixty grains of that fait. An
infufion of a few grains of Virginian fnake-root, in
powder, exceeds twelve time's its weight of fca-falt.
Camomile flowers have nearly the fame extraordinary
quality. The Jefuits bark has it alfo. Beiides thefe,
pepper, ginger, faffron, contrayerva-root, are twelve
times more antifeptic than fea-falt. Dried fage, rhu¬
barb, the root of the wild valerian, mint, angelica,
ground ivy, fenna, green tea, red rofesj wormwood,mu-
ftard, and horfe-radilh, were likewife found more an¬
tifeptic than the ftandard.
To the clafs of antifeptic medicines may likewife be
added fermented liquors, acids, fpirits, and even thofe
plants called anti-acids, and erroneeufly fiippofed ha-
fteners of putrefaftion, particularly horfe-radilh. Now
vegetables, poffefiing this virtue, are the more valuable,
in that being ufually free of acrimony, they may be
taken in much greater quantities than either fpirits,
acids, refins, or even the neutral falts.
Antifeptics are prefcribed in all putrid, malignant,
and peftilential cafes. It is to be remarked, however,
that different kinds of them are to be given in different
difeafes, and even in difterent ftages of the fame dif-
eafe. Thus, the bark is afpecific in a gangrene, when
the veffels are relaxed, and the blood refolved or dif-
pofed to putrefaftion ; but will fail, if the veffels are
too full, or the blood be too thick. With the fame
caution is the bark to be ufed in wounds, viz. chiefly
in cafes of abforbed matter, when it infefts the humours,
and brings on a heftic fever.
By the great antifeptic virtue of alum, the bark, and
other aftringents, it (hould feem, that altridion had no
fmall ftiare in the cure of putrid diforders ; and, indeed,
the very nature of putrefaftion confifts in a feparation
or difunion of the parts. But as aftringents are im¬
proper to be adminiftered in many cafes, contrayerva-
root, fnake-root, camphor, &c. may fupply their place;
which, though. highly antifeptic, have very little, or
any, of an aftringent quality.
wards been an attendant at the lectures of Socrates, he
was principally charmed with thofe exhortations of that
great philofopher, which perfuadedto frugality, to tem¬
perance, and to moderation : thefe Antitthenes was re¬
folved to praftife by carrying every precept to its ut-
moft extent. Permitting therefore his beard to grow,
he went about the ftreets in a thread-bare coat, fcarcely
to be diftinguilhed from a common beggar. He prided
himfelf upon the moft rigid virtue, and thought himfetf
obliged to attack the vicious wherever he found them.
This gave him fome reputation in the city; but it may
befuppofed, that, in a place fo very luxurious as Athens,
he-had more enemies than difciples. His philofophy
confifted rather in aftion than fpeculation: it was
therefore his conftant maxim. That to be virtuous was
to be happy, and that all virtue confifted in aftion ;
that the wife man fhould live for himfelf, contented in
all fituations, and happy alone in the confcioufnefs of
his own virtue. He acknowledged nothing to be good
but what was honourable; and afferted, that virtue
might be acquired by practice. Laertius tells us there
were 10 tomes of his works ; and he has given us many
of his apophthegms.
ANT1ST0ECH0N, in grammar, the ufmg one
letter inftead of another ; as vlli for illi.
ANTISTROPHE, in grammar, a figure by which
two things mutually depending on one another, are re‘-
ciprocally converted; as, the Jervant of the wafer, the
wafer of the fervant.
Antistrophe, among lyric poets, that part of a
fong and dance in ufe among the ancients, which was
performed before.the altar, in returning from weft to
eaft ; in oppofttion to ftrophe. See Strophe and Ode.
ANTITACTAE, in church hiftory, a branch of
Gnoftics, who held, that God was good and juft, but
that a creature had created evil; and confequently that'
it is our duty, to oppofe this author of evil, in order to *
avenge God of. his adverfary.
AN TITHE N A R, in anatomy, a name given to
‘ - - Table of the
ANTISPASMODICS, are medicines proper for  , _  
the cure of fpafms and convulfions. Opium, balfam the adduftor incicis. See Anaiomy:
of Peru, and the effential oils of many vegetables, are; Mnfcies.
the principal in this clafs of. mediftnes. Opium ex-- ANTITHESIS, in rhetoric, a contrail or oppofi-
cels, for its immediate effects. Peruvian balfam, ini tion of words or fentiments. Such is that of Cicero,,
many inltances, produces more lading benefit than opi-- in the fecond Catilinarian : u On one fide Hands mo-
Na- deity,,
ANT [ loo ] ANT
Antlthefis dcfty, on the other impudence ; on one fidelity, on
. i the other deceit; here piety, there facrilege; here
. ntltype'. continency, there luft, &c.” Such alfo is that of Au-
guftus to fome feditious young men : Audite, juvenes,
fenem, quern juvenem feties audivere. Such again is that
of Seneca: Cur<e laves loqauutur, ingentes jlupent.
And that of Virgil:
Fleflere ft nequeo Juperos, Acheronta tneveho.
St Auguftine, Seneca, Salvian, and many other an¬
cient writers, feem greatly to effedf antithefis ; but a-
mong the moderns they are generally decried. Def-
jmaretz reprefents them as the favourites of young wri¬
ters. The following is an example of modern anti¬
thefis ;
 Though gentle, yet not dull;
Strong, without rage; without o'er plowing, full.
Antithesis is fometimes ufed for controverfy. In
this fenfe, we meet with antithetic method, antithetic
-difcourfes, &c. Marcion compofed a volume of Anti-
thefes, or contrarieties and oppofitions between the law
and the gofpel.
ANTITRAGUS wuseui-tTS, in anatomy, a mufcle
of the ear. See Anatomy, Table of the Mujcles.
ANTITR1NITARIANS, thofe who deny the Tri¬
nity, and teach that there are not three perfons in the
Godhead. Thus the Samofatenians, who do not be¬
lieve the diftindtion of perfons in God; the Arians,
who deny the divinity of the Word; and the Macedo¬
nians, who deny that of the Holy Spirit, are all pro¬
perly Antitrinitarians. Among the moderns, Anti-
trinitarians are particularly underftood of Socinians,
called alfo Unitarians.
The Bibliotheca Antitrinitariorum, or Antitrinitari-
en Library, is a pofthumous work of Chriftopher San-
dius, an eminent Antitrinitarian ; wherein he gives a
lift, digefted in order of time of all the Socinian or
modern Antitrinitarian authors, with a brief account
of their lives, and a catalogue of their works. See
Unitarian.
ANTITYPE, a Greek word, properly fignifying a
type or figure correfponding to fome other type.
The word antitype occurs twice in the New Tefta-
ment; viz. in the epiftle to the Hebrews, ix. 24. and
in St Peter, 1 Ep. iii. 21. where its genuine import
has been much controverted. The former fays, that
“ Chrift is not entered into the holy places made with
hands, which are x-iriTv-rm, the figures or antitypes of
the true—now to appear in the prefence of God
for us.” Now Tjcr©-, fignifies the pattern by which
another thing is made; and as Mofes was obliged
to make the tabernacle, and all things in it, ac¬
cording to the pattern fliowed him in the mount;
the tabernacle fo formed was die antitype of what
was fiiown to Mofes: any thing, therefore, form¬
ed according to a model or pattern, is an antitype.
In the latter paflage, the Apoftle, fpeaking of Noah’s
flood, and the deliverance only of eight perfons in the
ark from it, fays, **< »/“«? wv o-«f£i
Baptifm, being an antitype to that, now faves us ; not
putting away the filth of the fiefh, but the anfwer of a
'good confidence towards Cod, &c. The meaning is,
that righteoufnefs, or the anfwer »f a good confcience
towards God, now faves us by means of the refurrec-
tion of Chrift, as formerly righteoufnefs faved thofe Antitype,
eight perfons by means of the ark, during the flood,
The word antitype, therefore, here fignifies a general. 11 °n ‘f
fimilitude of circumftances; and the particle «, where- v . 's
unto, refers, not to the immediate antecedent,
water, but to all that precedes.
Antitype, among the ancient Greek fathers, and
in the Greek liturgy, is alfo applied to the fymbols of
bread and wine in the facrament. Hence it hath been
argued, by many Proteftants, that the Greeks do not
really believe the do&rine of tranfubftantiation ; be-
eaufe they call the bread and wine antitypes,.
q. d. figures, fimilitudes ; and this even sifter the con-
fecration.
ANTIUM, (anc. geog.) a city of the Volfci, (Li¬
vy); fituated on the Tufcan fea, yet without a har¬
bour, becaufe they had a neighbouring hamlet, called
CenOj with a harbour, (Strabo). The Romans gained
their firft reputation in naval affairs againft the Antia-
tes; part of whofe fhips they conveyed into the arfenal
of Rome and part they burnt; and with their beaks
or roftra adorned the pulpit ere&ed in the Forum,
thence called Rofira, (Eivy, Florus). Here flood a
famous temple of Fortune, (Horace). Addifon fays,
there were two Fortunae worlhipped at Antium.—It is
now extindl, but the name ftill remains in the Capo
d'Anzo.
ANTIVARI, a ftrong town of Turky, in Europe,
in Dalmatia, a Greek archbiihop’s fee, and fubjeift to
the Turks. E. Lon. 29. 15. N. Lat. 43. o.
ANTLER, among fportfmen, a Hart or branch of a
deer’s attire.
Brow-AuTLER, denotes the branch next the head;
and,
Bes-Antler, the branch next above the brow-ant-
ler.
ANTLIA, an ancient machine, fuppofed to be the
fame with our pump. Hence the phrafe in antliam
condemnari, according to the critics, denotes a kind of
punifhment, whereby criminals were condemned to
drain ponds, ditches, or the like.
ANTOEICI, in geography, thofe inhabitants of the
earth who live under the fame meridian, and at the
fame diftance from the equator; the one toward the
north, and the other toward the fouth. Hence they
have the fame longitude; and their latitude is alfo the
fame, but of a different denomination. They are in the
fame femicircle of the meridian, but oppofite in paral¬
lels. They have precifely the fame hours of the day and
night, but oppofite feafons ; and the night of the one
is always equal to the day of the other.
ANTOINE, a town of France, in Dauphiny, in the
dibcefe of Vienne, with a celebrated abbey. It is feated
among the mountains 13 miles ea(t of Lyons. E. Lon.
5. 20. N. Lat. 45. 43.
ANTONA, (Tacitus); a river of Britain, which
Camden fuppofes to be a faulty reading for Avuona or
Aufona,. (the Avon).
ANTONACUM, Antonnacum, or Antunna-
cum, a town of the Treveri; now Andernach below
Coblentz. E. Lon. 70 5'. Lat. 50° 25'.
ANTONIA, a citadel f>f Jerufalem, the origin of
which vre have in Jofephus; who fays, that Hyrcanus,
the firft high-prieft of that name, built Baris near the
temple, a houfe with turrets, where he generally re-
fided.
ANT .[ ioi ] ANT
i(Antonia, fided. Herod afterwards made it ftronger, for the fe-
1 I curity and defence of the temple ; and in honour of
t °. eS| Marc Antony, who then commanded in the eaft, called
| ’ it Antonia. It was very extenfive, and could accommo¬
date a Roman legion: from it there was a full view of
the temple.
ANTONIA (St), a town of France, in Rouergue,
in the diocefe of Rhodez, whofe fortifications are de-
molilhed. It is feated on the river Aveirou. E. Lon.
o. JJ. N. Lat. 44. 10.
ANTONIAN waters, medicinal waters of Ger¬
many, very pleafant to the tafte, and efteemed good in
many chronic and hypochondriac cafes. See Tons-
tein.
ANTONIANO (Silvio), a man of great learning,
who raifed himfelf from a low condition by his merit,
was born at Rome in the year 1540. When he was but
ten years old, he could make verfes upon any fubjeft
propofed to him ; and thefe fo excellent, though pro¬
nounced extempore, that even a man of genius could not
compofe the like without a good deal of time and pains.
The Duke de Ferrara coming to Rome, to congratulate
Marcellus II. upon his being raifed to the pontificate,
was fo charmed with the genius of Antoniano, that he
carried him to Ferrara, where he provided able mailers
to inflruct him in all the fciences. From thence he was
fent for by Pius IV. who made him profeflbr of the
belles lettres in the college at Rome. Antoniano filled
this place with fo much reputation, that, on the day
when he began to explain the oration pro Marco Mar¬
cello, he had a vaft crowd of auditors, and among thefe
no lefs than 25 cardinals. He was afterwards chofen
redlor of the college ; and after the death of Pius IV.
being feized witlra fpirit of devotion, he joined himfelf
to Philip Neri, and accepted the office of fecretary to
the facred college, offered him by Pius V. which he
executed for 25 years with the reputation of an honeil
and able man. He refufed a bilhopric which Grego¬
ry XIV. would have given him ; but he accepted the
office of fecretary to the briefs, offered him by Cle¬
ment Vill. who made him his chamberlain, and after¬
wards a cardinal. Antoniano killed himfelf by too great
fatigue : for he fpent whole nights in writing letters ;
which brought on a ficknefs, whereof he died, in the
63d year of his age. He wrote with fuch eafe and flu¬
ency, that he nejver aim 6 ft made any blot or rafure;
and it is faid of him, that he preferved the flower of
his virginity during his whole life.
ANFONIDES vander Goes (John), an eminent
T)utch poet, born at Goes in Zealand, the 3d of April
1647. His parents were Anabaptifts, people of good
■charafler, but of low circumftances. They went to live
■at Amfterdam when Antonides was about four years
old; and, in the ninth year of hrs age, he began his ftu-
dies, under the direction of Hadrian Junius and James
Cocceius. Antonides took great pleafure in reading the
I,atin poets, and carefully compared them with Gro-
tiaSj Heinfius, &c. By this means he acquired a tafte
for poetry, and enriched his mind with noble ideas. He
firft attempted to tranflate fome pieces of Ovid, Horace,
and other ancients; and, having formed his tafte on
thefe excellent models, he at length undertook one of
the, molt difficult talks in poetry, to write a tragedy :
this was intitled ‘Irazil, or The Irtvajion of China. An¬
tonides, however, was fo modeft, as not to permit it to
be publifhed. Vondel, who was then engaged in n dra- Antonide*
matic piece, which was taken alfo from fome event that 8 ,
happened in China, read Antonides’s tragedy; and was . ntoninus.‘
fo well pleafed with it, that he declared, if the author
would not print it, he would take fome pafl'ages out of
it, and make ufe of them in his own tragedy. He ac¬
cordingly did fo ; and it was reckoned much to the ho¬
nour of Antonides, to have written what might be
adopted by fo great a poet as Vondel. was acknow¬
ledged to be by all good judges. Upon the conclufion
of the peace between Great Britain and Holland, in the
year 1697, Antonides wrote a piece, intitled Be/tona
aanband, i. e. “ Bellona chained ;”a very elegant poem,
confifting of feveral hundred verfes. He next wrote an
ingenious heroic poem, which he intitled The River T
(the river on which Amfterdam is built).
Antonides’s parents had bred him up an apothecary:
but his remarkable genius for poetry foon gained him
the efteem and friendftiip of feveral perfons of diftinc-
tion; and particularly of Mr Buifero, one of the lords of
the admiralty at Amfterdam, and a great lover of poe¬
try, who fent him at his expence to purfue his ftudies
at Leyden, where he remained till he took his de¬
gree of doflor of phyfic, and then his patron gave him
a place in the admiralty. In 1678, Antonides married
Sufanna Bermans, a minifter’s daughter, who had alfo
a talent for poetry. His marriage was celebrated by
feveral eminent poets, particularly by the famous Pe¬
ter ^rancius, profeflbr of eloquence, who compofed
fome L6tin verfes on the occafiou. After marriage, he
did not much indulge his poetic genius; and within a
few years he fell into a confumption, of which he died
on the 18th September 1684, being then but thirty-
feven years and a few months old. He is efteemed the
moft eminent Dutch poet after Vondel. His works
have been printed feveral times, having been collected
by father Anthony Tanfz. The laft edition was
printed by Nicholas Ten Hoom, at Amfterdam, in the
year 1714, in 4to, under the diredion of David Van
Hoogftraaten, one of the mafters of the Latin fchool
of that city, who added to it alfo the life of the poet.
ANTONINUS Pius, the Roman emperor, was
born at Lanuvium in Italy, A. C. 86, of a family ori¬
ginally from Nifmes in Languedoc. His charader was
in all refpeds one of the nobleft that can be imagined;
and he had the title of Pius given him by the fenate.
We have no regular account of the tranfadions of his
reign, fmce Capitolinus has written in a very confufed
manner; and we have only an abridgment of Dion
Callius’s hiftory by Xiphilin now remaining. He ma¬
naged the public revenues with great frugality, yet was
extremely generous ; was fond of peace, and in war
preferred the reputation of juftice to all the advantages
which might be gained by vidory. He was more in¬
tent upon preferving the bounds of his empire than
extending them ; and he often made life of Scipio’s ex-
preffion, That he chofe rather to fave one citizen than
kill a thoufand enemies. By this conducft he made him¬
felf univerfally efteemed and revered in that age, and
admired by poflerity. This great and good emperor
died in 161, aged 75 years, have reigned 23.
ANTONINUS Philosophus (Marcus Aurelius),
the Roman qjnperor, born at Rome, the 26th of April,
in the 121ft year of the Chriftian tera. He was called
by fqveral names till he was admitted into the Aure-
liaa
ANT [ 102 ] ANT
Antoninus.lian family, when he took that of Marcus Aurelius
i““—V"" 1 Antoninus. Hadrian, upon the death of Cejonius Com-
modus, turned his eyes upon Marcus Aurelius; but, as
he was not then id years of age, and confequently too
young for fo important a ftation, he fixed upon Anto¬
ninus Pius, whom he adopted, upon condition that he
fliould likewhe adopt Marcus Aurelius. The year after
this adoption, Hadrian appointed him quae ft or, though,
he had not.yet attained the age prefcribed by the laws.
After the death of Hadrian, Aurelius married Faufti-
na, the daughter of Antoninus Pius, by whom he had
feveral children. In the year 159, he was invefted with
new honours by die emperor Pius, in which he beha¬
ved in fuch a manner as endeared him to that prince and
the whole people.
Upon the death of Pius, which happened in the year
rbi, he was obliged by the fenate to take upon him
the government; in the management of which he took
Lucius Verus as his colleague. Dion Cafiius fays, that
the reafon of doing this was, that he might have leifure
to purfue his fludies, and on account of his ill Hate of
health ; Lucius being of a llrong vigorous conftitution,
and confequently more fit for the fatigues of war. The-
lame day he took upon him the. name of Antoninus,
which he gave likewife to Verus his colleague, and be¬
trothed his daughter Lucilla to him. The two empe¬
rors went afterwards to die camp; where, after having
performed the funeral rites of Pius, they pronounced
each of them a panegyric to his memory. They dif-
charged the government in a very amicable manner. It
is faid that, foon after Antoninus had performed the
apotheofis of Pius, petitions were prefented to him by
the Pagan prieils, philofophers, and governors of pro¬
vinces, in order to excite him to perfecute the Chri-
Itians ; which he rejected with indignarion, and inter-
pofed his authority for their protection, by writing ^
letter to the common aflembly of Afia, then held at
Ephefus (a). The happinefs which the empire began
to enjoy under thefe two emperors was interrupted, in
the year 162, by a dreadful inundation of the Tiber,
which deltroyed a vaft number of cattle, and occafioned
a famine at Rome, This calamity was followed by the
Parthian war ; and at the fame time the Catti ravaged
Germany and Rhjetia. Lucius Verus went in perfon
to oppofe the Parthians; and Antoninus continued at
Rome, where his prefence was neceffary.
During this war with the Parthians, about the year
163 or 164, Antoninus lent his daughter Lucilla to
Verus, Ihe having been betrothed to him in marriage,
and attended her as far as Brundufium : he intended to
have conduced her to Syria ; but it having been infi- Aatoninasi
nuated by fome perfons, that his defign of going into the
eaft was to claim the honour of having finifhed the
Parthian war, he returned to Rome. The Romans ha¬
ving gained a victory over the Parthians, who were
obliged to abandon Mefopotamia, the two emperors
triumphed over them at Rome in the year t66 ; and
were honoured with the title of Fathers <sj their coun¬
try. This year was fatal, on account of a terrible pelli-
lence which fpread itfelf over the whole world, and a
famine under which Rome laboured : it was likewife
in. this year that the Marcomauni, and many other peo¬
ple of Germany, took up arms againft the Romans ;
but the two emperors having marched in perfon again li
them* obliged the Germans to fue for peace. The war,
however, was renewed the year.following, and the two
emperors marched again in perfon ; but Lucius Verus
was feized with an apopleCtic fit, and died at Altinum.
The Romans were now defeated with great flaugh-
ter ; and the emperor, not choofing to burden his fub-
jeCts with new taxes, expofed to public fale the furni¬
ture of the palace, the gold and filver plate belonging
to the crown, and his wife’s rich garments embroider¬
ed with gold, and a curious collection of pearls, which
Adrian had purchafed during his long progrefs thro’ the
provinces of the empire, and was called Adrian’s cabinet-
In the year 170, Antoninus made vaft preparations
againft the Germans, and carried on the war with great
vigour. During this war, in 174, a very extraordinary
event is faid to have happened, which,according to Dion.
Caffius, was as follows: Antoninus’s army being block¬
ed up by the Quadi, in a very difadvantageous place,
where there was no poffibihty of procuring waterin
this fituation, being worn out with fatigue and wounds,,
opprefled with heat and thirft, and incapable of retiring
or engaging the enemy, in an inftant the Iky was co¬
vered with clouds, and there fell a vaft quantity of rain i,
the Roman army were about to quench their thirft,
when the enemy came upon them with fuch fury, that
they muft certainly have been defeated, had it not been
for a Ihower of hail, accompanied with a ftorm of thun¬
der and lightning, which fell upon the enemy, without
the leaft annoyance to the Romans, who by this means
gained the victory (b). In 175, Antoninus made a
treaty with feveral nations of Germany. Soon after,.
Avidius Caflius, governor of Syria, revolted from the
emperor: this infurreCtion, however, was put an end tor
by the death of Caffius, who was killed by a centurion,
named Anthony. Antoninus behaved with great lenity
towards thofe who had been engaged in Caffius’s par-
(a) Eufebms has preferred this letter, Hift. Ecclef. lib. iv. cap. 13. but he falfely aferibes it to Antoninus
Pius, whereas it was wrote by Marcus Antoninus, as Valerius makes it appear in his annotations, on Lufe-
bius.
(b) The Pagans as well as Cbriflians, according to Mr Tillemont (p. 621. art. xvi.), have acknowledged
die truth of this prodigy, but have greatly differed as to the caufe of fuch a miraculous event; the former as¬
cribing it, fome to one magician and fome to another: In Antoninus’s Pillar, the glory is aferibed to Jupiter
the god of rain and thunder- But the Chriftians affirmed, that God granted this favour at the prayer of the
Chriftian foldiers in the Roman army, w!k> are faid to have compofed the twelfth or Melitene legion ; and, as
a mark of ffiftinftion, we are told that they received the title of the Thundering Legion, from Antoninus (Eu-
feb. Ecclef. Hill. lib. v. cap. 5.) Mr Moyle, hi the letters publiflied in the fecond volume of his works, has
endeavoured to explode this ftory of the Thundering Legion; which occafioned Mr Whifton to publifh an
anfwer, in 1726, intitled, Of the Thundering Legion, or, Of the Miraculous delivetan&t oj Marcus Antoninus
find>his artny, upon the prayers of the Chfijiians.,
ANT t 103 ] ANT
ijjSermtus. ty ; he would not put to death, nor imprifon, nor even
l| fxt in judgment himfelf upon any of the fenators enga¬
ged in this revolt; but he referred them to the fenate,
fixing a day for their appearance, as if it had been on¬
ly a civil affair. He wrote alfo to the fenate, defiring
them to aft with indulgence rather than feverity ; not
to Ihed the blood of any fenator or peifion of quality,
or of any other perfon whatfoever, but to allow this ho¬
nour to his reign, that, even under the misfortune of a
rebellion, none had loft their lives, except in the firft
heat of the tumult. In 176, Antoninus vifited Syria
and Egypt: the kings of thofe countries, and ambaf-
fadors alio from Parthia, came to vifit him. He (laid
feveral days at Smyrna ; and, after he had fettled the
•affairs of the eaft, went to Athens, on which city he
conferred feveral honours, and appointed public profef-
fors there. From thence he returned to Rome with his
fon Commodus, whom he chofe conful for the year fol¬
lowing, though he was then but 16 years of age, ha¬
ving obtained a difpenfation for that purpofe. On the
27th of September, the fame year, he gave him the title
of Imperator; and on the 23d of December, he entered
Rome in triumph, with Commodus, ©n account of the
viftories gained over the Germans. Dion Caflius tells
us, that he remitted all the debts which were due to
himfelf and the public treafury during 46 years, from
the time that Hadrian had granted the fame favour,
and burnt all the writings relating to thofe debts. He
applied himfelf likewife to correft many enormities,
and introduced feveral excellent regulations. In the
year x 79, he left Rome with his fon Commodus, in
order to go againft the Marcomanni, and other barba¬
rous nations ; and the year following gained a confider-
able viftory over them, and would, in all probability,
have entirely fubdued them in a very Ihort time, had
he not been taken with an illnefs, which carried him off
on the 17th of March 180, in the 59th year of his
age, and 19th of his reign. The whole empire regret-
ed the lofs of fo valuable a prince, and paid the great-
eft regard to his memory: he was ranked amongft the
gods, and almoft every perfon had a Itatue of him in
their houfes. His book of meditations has been much
admired by the beft judges.
SturomWE's Column. See Coiumn.
sIntoninus’s Wall, the name of the third rampart or
defence that had been built or repaired by the Romans
againft the incurfions of the North Britons. It is call¬
ed by the people in the neighbourhood, Dyke',
from the notion that one Graham, or Grimus, firft made
a breach in it after the retreat of the Romans out of Bri¬
tain. The firft barrier erefted by the Remans was the
• Seedgrl- chain of forts made by Agricola * from the frith of
cela. Forth to that of Clyde, in the year 81, to proteft his
conquefts from the inroads of the Caledonians- The
t See j4- fecond was the vallum, or dyke, flung up by Adrian f
d’ian. in the year t2i. It terminated on the weftern fide of
the kingdom at Axelodunum, or Brugh, on the Solway
fands, and was fuppofed to have reached no further
than Tons JfLhi, or Newcaflle, on the eaftern. But from
an infeription lately difeovered, it appears to have ex-
I See Sere- tended as far as the wall of S'everus J. This rampart
r“J- of Adrian’s was fituated much farther fouth than A-
gricola’s chain ; the country to the north having been
either, according to feme authors, recovered by the na¬
tive Britons after the departure of Agricola ; or, ac¬
cording to others, voluntarily flighted by Adrian. How- Antonimu.
ever, this work of Adrian’s did not long continue to
the extreme boundary of the Roman territories to the
north in Britain. For Antoninus Pius, the adopted
fon and immediate fucceffor of Adrian, having, by his
lieutenant Lollius Urbicus, recovered the country once
conquered by Agricola, commanded another rampart
to be ereifted between the friths of Forth and Clyde, in
the trad! where Agricola had formerly built his chain
of forts. The great number of inferiptions which have
been found in or near the ruins of this wall, or rampart,
to the honour of Antoninus Pius, leave us no room to
doubt its having been built by his direftion and com¬
mand. If the fragment of a Roman pillar with an in¬
feription, now in the college library of Edinburgh, be¬
longed to this work, as it is generally fuppofed to
have done, it fixes the date of its execution to the third
confulfhip of Antoninus, which was A. D. 140, only
20 years after that of Adrian, of which this feems to
have been an imitation. This wall or rampart, as feme
imagine, reached from Caer-ridden on the frith of
Forth to Old Kirkpatrick on the Clyde ; or, as o-
thers think, from Kinniel on the eaft to Dunglafs on
the weft. Thefe difterent fuppofitions hardly make a
mile of difference in the length of this work, which,
from feveral adhial menfurations, appears to have been
37 Englifli or 40 Roman miles. Capitolinus, in his life
of Antoninus Pius, diredlly affirms, that the wall which
that emperor built in Britain was of turf. This in the
main is unqueftionably true ; though it is evident (from
the veftiges of it ftill remaining, which not very many
years ago were dug up and examined for near a mile
together) that the foundation was of ftone. Mr Cam¬
den alfo tells us, from the papers of one Mr Anthony
Pont, that the principal rampart was faced with fquare
ftone, to prevent the earth from falling into the ditch.
The chief parts of this work were as follows : 1. A
broad and deep ditch, whofe dimenfions cannot now be
difeovered with certainty and exaftnefs, tho’ Mr Pont
fays it was 12 feet wide. 2. The principal wall or
rampart was about 12 feet thick at the foundation, but
its original height cannot nowbe determined. This wall
was fituated on the fouth brink of the ditch. 3. A
military way on the fouth fide of the principal wall,
well paved, and railed a little above the level of the
ground. This work, as well as that of Adrian, v/as
defended by garrifons placed in forts and Rations along
the line of it. The number of thefe forts or ftations,
whofe veftiges were vifible in Mr Font’s time, were 1 8,
fituated at about the diitance of two miles from each
other. In the intervals between the forts, there were
turrets or watch-towers. But the number of thefe,
and their diftance from each other, cannot now be dif¬
eovered.
It is not a little furprifing, that though it is now
more than 1600 years fince this work was fmifhed.and
more than 1300 fince it was flighted, we can yet dif-
cover, from authentic monuments, which are ftill re¬
maining, by what particular bodies of Roman troops
almoft every part of it was executed. This difeovery
is made from inferiptions upon ftones, which were ori¬
ginally built into the face of the wall, and have been
found in or near its ruins, and are carefully preferved.
The number of ftones with inferiptions of this kind now
extant, is 11 ; of which fix may be feen at one view
ANT [ 104 ] ANT'
Antonlftuvm the-college cf Glafgow, one in the college of Aber-
Antonio. deeri, one in the college of Edinburgh, one in the col-
leclion of Baron Clerk; one at Cochnoch-houfe, and.
one at CaMer-lioufe. From thefe infcriptions it ap¬
pears in general, that this great work was executed by
the fecond legion, the vexillations of the fixth legion
and of the twentieth legion, and one cohort of auxilia^
ries. If thefe corps were all complete, they would,
make in all a body of 7800 men. Some of thefe in¬
fcriptions have fuffered greatly by the injuries of time,
and other accidents ; fo that we cannot difcover from
them with abfolute certainty, how many paces of this,
work were executed by each of thefe bodies of troops.
The fum of the certain and probable information con¬
tained in thefe infcriptions, as it is collected by the.
learned, and illuitrious Mr Horfley, Hands thus
Paces..
The fecond legion built - 11,603,
The vexillation of the fixth legion - 7>4fi
The. vexillation of the twentieth.legion - 7>8oi
All certain - - 26,815
The vexillation of the twentieth legion, the
monument certain, and. the number probable 3,411
The fame vexillation, on a plain monument, no
number vifible,.fuppofed - - 3>500
The fixth legion,, a monument, but no num¬
ber, fuppofed . - - 3>ooo
Cohors piima Cugemorum. - - 3,000
Total 39,726
or 39 miles 726 paces,, nearly the whole length of the
wall. It would have been both ufeful and agreeable to
have known how long time thefe ,troops were employ¬
ed in the execution of this great work. But of this we
have no information. Neither do we know what par¬
ticular bodies of. troops were in garrifon in the feveral
forts and ftations along the line of this wall, becaufe.
thefe garrifons were, withdrawn, before the Notitia Im¬
perii was written.
Though we cannot difcover exadlly how many years
this wall of the emperor Antoninus continued to be
the boundary of'the Roman territories in Britain, yet
we know with certainty that it was not very long.. For
^ we are told by an author of. undoubted credit, that,
*g2o' ^2 in the reign of. Commodus, A. D. 180, “ he had
" wars W’ith ,feveral .foreign nations, but . none fo danger¬
ous as that of Britain. For the people of the ifland, ha¬
ving pafled.the wall which divided them.from the Ro¬
mans, attacked them, and cut them in pieees.”'
ANTONIO (Nicholas), knight of the order of St
James and canon of Seville, did great honour to the
Spanifh nation by his Bibliotheque of their writers. He
was born at Seville in 1617, being the fon of a gentle¬
man whom king Philip IV. made prefident of the ad¬
miralty eftablilhed in that city in 1626. After having
gone through a courfe of philofophy and divinity in his
own country, he wenttb ftudy law at Salamanca ; where
he clofely attended the leisures of Francifco Ramos del
Manzano, afterwards counfellor to the king and pre¬
ceptor to Charles II. Upon his return to Seville, after-
he had finilhed his law ftudies at Salamanca, he fhut
himfelf up in the royal monaftery of Benedi&inesj
where he employed himfelf feveral years in writing his
Bibliotheca Hifpanica, having the ufe of. the. books of
Na 23.
Bennet de la Sana abbot of that moaaftery and dean Antonie.’
of the faculty of divinity at Salamanca. In the year
1.659) he was fent to Rome by king Philip IV. in the
charafter of agent-general from this prince : he had al--
fo particular commiffions from the inqpilition of Spain,
the viceroys of Naples and Sicily, and the governor of
Milan,, to negociate their affairs at Rome. The car¬
dinal of. Arragon procured..him, from Pope Alexan¬
der VII. a canonry in the church of. Seville, the in--
come whereof he employed in charity and purchafing;
of books ; he bad above 30,000.volumes in his library.'.
By this help, joined to.continual labour, and indefa¬
tigable application, he was at laft enabled to finiih, is
Bibliotheca Hifpanica, in four volumes in folio, two •
of which he publifired at Rome in the year 1672. The:
work confifts of two partsthe one containing the Spa--
nifir writers who flouriftred: before the 15th century,,
and the other thofe fince the end.of that century. Af¬
ter the publication of thefe two volumes,, he was re-'
called to Madridby king: Charles Hi to take upon him.
the office of counfellor to the crufade;. which he dis¬
charged with great integrity till his death, which hap¬
pened in 1684. He left nothing at his death but his vaft':
library, which he had brought from Rome to Madrid ; •
and his tw® brothers and nephews being unable to pu- •
bliih the remaining volumes of his Bibliotheca, fent .
them to Cardinal d’Aguifne, who paid the charge of,'
the impreffion, and committed the care thereof to;
Monfieur Marti, his librarian, who added notes to them:
in the name of the Cardinal..
Antonio (St), one of. the Cape- de Verd iflands, ,
lying in E. Long. o. 26^ N. Lat. 18. 10. It is fe--
parated from St Vincent’s by a clear navigable chan--
nel two leagues in breadth: On the north fide, it has a >,
good road for {hipping, with a colleclion of frefh wa¬
ter rifing.from fprings, which, however, Icarcely merits
the name 0^ a pond. The ifland firetches froranorth-
eaft to fouth-wefi, and is filled with mountains ; one of.
which is of: fo extraordinary a height,, as to be compa¬
red with the Peak of. Teneriffe : Its top is conftantly
covered with fnow-, and, notwithftanding the clearnefs -
of. the Iky,, is generally hid in clouds. Here are pro¬
duced a .variety of fruits ; oranges, lemons, palms, me¬
lons, &c. and fome fugar-canes. The potatoes and melons
are particularly excellent, and are much fought after by
mariners. But, notwithftanding all this plenty, the in¬
habitants live in the mo ft wretched poverty. They are.
in number about 500, chiefly negroes, under the pro—
teftion of. the Portuguefe, whofe language they fpeak,,
and imitate their manners. To the north-weft {lands;>
a village, containing about 20 huts, and at leaft 50 fa¬
milies, under the direiftion of. a governor, or, as they,
call him^ a captain, a prieft, and a fchoolmafter.
Antonio (St), a Dutch fort in Axim) on the
gold coaft of Africa. It Hands on a high rock, which';
projects into the fea in form of a peninfula 5 and is fo
environed by.roeks and dangerous ffioals, as to be in—
acceffible to an enemy but by land, where it is fortified
by a parapet, draw-bridge, and two batteries of heavy
cannon. Befides this it has a battery towards the fea..
The thjee batteries confift of 24-cannon. Its form is ,
triangular; the building is neat, ftrong, and commo¬
dious for the extent, that being but fmall, on account ,
of the narrownefs of the rock on which it is built. The.
garrifon is ufually compofed of 25 white men, and an
equal number of.negroes, under .the command of afer—
jeant.
ANT
I
jfentomus. jeant. It Is maintained at tjie expence of the Wefl-
India Company; and, when well ftored with provifions,
is capable of making a long defence againft any num¬
ber of negroes. It is, however, as well as all other forts
on this coaft, liable to inconveniencies from the heavy
and continual rains, which damage the walls, and ren-
I i°5 1
ANT
the former, as veryhandfome in his youth; for which Antsmus,
reafon he was greatly beloved by Curio, a fenator, who, Antonoini-
by Carrying him about in all his debaucheries, made him , 1'ia'
central fuch heavy debts, that his own father forbade
him his houfe. Curio, however, was fo generous as to
bail him for 250 talents. When the civil war broke
der frequent reparations neceflary. This obliges the out, Curio took Caefar’s party, and prevailed with An-
Dutch always to keep ready a quantity of lime or ce- tonius to do the faihe; for which he was made a tribune
ment made of calcined oyfter-lhells, of which the coaft of the people, and in that office did Caefar great fer-
produces great numbers.—This fettlement was firft vice. Csefar, having made himfelf mailer of Rome, gave
founded by the Portuguefe during the reign of Ema- Antonius the government of Italy : At the battle of
nuel. They fixed at firft upon a fmall point; where, PharfaJia, Caefar confided fo much in him, that he gave
finding themfelves infecure, they built the fort where it him the command of the left wing of his army, whilit
now Hands. They were driven out by the Dutch in he himfelf led the right. After Caefar was made dic-
1642 ; and, upon the conclufion of a peace with the tator, he made Antonius general of the horfe, though
-States-general, the fort remained by treaty in the hands he had never been praetor; in w hich command he ex-
of the Dutch Weft-India Company, who have kept
pofteffion of it ever fince.
ANTONIUS (Marcus), a famous Roman orator.
While he filled the office of praetor, Sicily fell to his
lot, and he cleared the leas of the pirates which infeft-
erted his power with the utmoft violence. He was made
coijful, when Caefar enjoyed that honour for the fifth
time, the laft year of that ufurper’s life. On Caefar’s
death, he harangued the populace with great art, and
raifed their fury againft his murderers ; flattering Lim¬
ed that coaft. He was made conful w’ith A. Potthumi- felf that he Ihould eafily get into the place which Ca¬
ns Albinus, in the year of Rome 653; when he oppo- far had filled : but his haughty behaviour made him
fed the turbulent defigns of Sextus Titus, tribune of lofe all the advantages his affefled concern for Cafar
the people, with great refolution and fucdefs. Some had gained him. His ill treatment of Ocftavius, and
time after, he was made governor of Cilicia, in quality quarrel wuth him, produced another civil war; which
of proconful; where he performed fo many great ex¬
ploits, that he obtained the honour of a triumph. We
cannot omit obferving, that, in order to improve his
great talent for eloquence, he became a fcholar to the
greateft men at Rhodes and Athens, in his waiy to Ci¬
licia, and when on his return to Rome. Soon after he
was appointed cenfor; which office he difcharged with
great reputation, having carried his caufe before the
people, againft Marcus Duronius, who had preferred
an accufation of bribery againft him, in revenge for
Antonius’s having erafed his name out of the Tift of
fenators, which tins wife cenfor had done, becaufe Du¬
ronius, when tribune of the people, had abrogated a
law which reftrained immoderate expence in feafts. He
was one of the greateft orators ever known at Rome ;
ended in an accommodation between him, Odtayius, and
Lepidus, fatal to tire peace of Rome. They agreed to
ftrare the fupreme power among them; and many of the
moft illuftrious Romans were facrificed by profcription
to cement this bloody league, which is known by the
name of the Second Triumvirate. But the triumvirs
were too ambitious, and hated one another too much,
to be long united. Antonins went into Afia to raife
money for his foldiers; during his abfence, Fulvia his
wife quarrelled with Oflavius. When Antonius was in
Afia, indulging himfelf in all manner of luxury, the fa¬
mous Cleopatra infpired him with the moft violent paf-
fion. Hearing of the quarrel between Fulvia and 0<5ta-
vius, and finding Octavius was become publicly his
enemy, Antonius entered into a confederacy with Sex-
and it was owing to him, according to tire teftimony of tus Pompeius, who was ftill mafter of Sicily. He then
Cicero, that Rome might boaft herfelf a rival even to went into Italy, in order to fight Oftavius ; but Fulvia,
Greece itfelf in the art of eloquence. He defended, a- who had been the author and promoter of this war,
nrongft many others, Marcus Aquilius; and moved the dying, Octavius and Antonius came to an agreement,
judges in fo fenfible a manner, by the tears he fired, One of the conditions of this newpence was, that they
and the fears he flrowed upon the breaft of his clienti
that he carried his caufe. He never would publiflr any
of his pleadings, that he might not, as he faid, be
proved to fay in one caufe, what might be contrary to
what he ftronld advance in another. He affected to be
a man of no learning. Hismodefty, and many other ± 0
-qualifications, rendered him no lefs dear to many per- him, and begin the war again. At laft they engag<
Tons of dillinftion, than his eloquence made him uni- in a fea-fight at A&ium, in which Octavius gained a
‘rerfally admired. He was unfortunately killed du- complete victory; which was followed by the deaths
ring thofe bloody confufions raifed at Rome by Marius both of Antonius and Cleopatra. The infatuated Arr-
and Cinna. He was difeovered in tire place where he tonius fell upon his own fword; and Cleopatra ftunr
flrould together attack Pompey, though the former had
lately made an alliance with him. Antonius then mar¬
ried Oftavia, fifter to Oiftavius, as a pledge of their re¬
newed friendfltip; but returned foon after to his belo¬
ved Cleopatra, and again lived with her in Alexandria.
Octavius took hold of this pretence to inveigh againft
;ed
hid himfelf, and foldiers were fent to difpatch him;
but his manner of addreffing them had fuch an effect,
that none but he who commanded them, and had not
heard his difeourfe, had the cruelty to kill him. His
head was expofed before the roftra, a place which he
had adorned with his triumphal fpoils. This happen¬
ed 90 years before the Chriftian sera.
Antonius (Marcus) the triumvir, grandfon to
V01. II. Part. I,
herfelf to death with an afp, as was fuppofed, to avoid
gracing the vigor’s triumph at Rome.
ANTONOMASIA, a form of fpeech, in which,
for a proper name, is put the name of feme dignity,
office, profeffion, fcience, or trade ; or when a proper
name is put in the room of an appellative. Thus a
king is called his majejly; a nobleman, his lordjhip.
We fay the phUofopher inftead of Ariftotle, and the ora-
O tor
ANT [ ro6 J ANT
Antofian-7#r for Cicero : Thus a man is called by the name of
drians, his country, a Germany an Italian; and a grave man
Antrim. js ca]iecj a Cato, and a wife man a Solomon.
v ANTOSIANDRIANS, a fed of rigid Lutherans,
who oppofe the doctrine of Ofiander relating to juftifi-
cation. Thefe are otherwife denominated OJiandro-
mafliges.—The Antofiandrians deny that man is made
juft, with that juftice wherewith God himfelf is juft;,
that is, they alfert, that he is not made eflentially, but
only imputatively, juft ; or, that he is not really made
juft, but only pronounced fo.
ANTRIM, the moft northerly county of Ireland.
It is bounded by that of Down on the fouth-eaft,
that of Londonderry on the weft, from which it is fe-
parated by the river Bann, part of Armagh on the
fouth, St George’s channel on the eaft, and the Deu-
ealedonian ocean on the north'. Its gr.eateft length is
about 46 miles, its greateft breadth about 27 ; and t£ie
number of acres it contains, plantation-meafure, are
computed at 383,000. . Though-the country is much
incumbered with bogs and marfhes, yet it enjoys a
pretty good air, and is well peopled, chiefly with pro-
teftants. Where it is free from bogs the foil is fruit¬
ful. It fends two members for the Ihire, and two for
each of the following towns, viz. Lilburn, Belfaft,
Antrim, and Randalftown.
Certain narrow valleys, called gtyns, beginning here,
and running a great way along the coaft, belonged
formerly to the Biflets, noblemen of Scotland, who, ha¬
ving been obliged to quit that country for having aflaf-
finated Patrick earl of Athol upon a private quarrel,
came hither, and had a great eftate beftowed upon them
by Henry HI. of England; of which, in the reign of
Edward II. a part was forfeited by the rebellion of
Hugh, then chief of the family. Another trad! near
this, called the Rowte, belonged anciently to the Mac-
guillers, but now to the M‘Donnels earls of Antrim.
Upon the coaft of this country are the promontories
called by Ptolemy, Robogdium, Venniciniutn, and Bo-
rretiniy now Fair Foreland, Ramjbead, and St He¬
len's-head. The river alfo, ftyled by the fame author
Vidua, and now Crodacb, runs through this county.—
Here alfo is the remarkable natural curiofity called the
Cunt’j- Caufe-way, for a particular defcription of which
fee that article.
Antrim, the capital town of the county of An¬
trim, in Ireland, feated at the north end of the lake
Lough-Neagh, about fix mites from the mouth of the
bay, having a good road before it, with a pier near
the place, within which veflels lie dry at low water.
It was anciently a borough of great confequence, as
appears from the mayor’s being admiral of a confider-
able extent of coaft, as well in Down as in this coun¬
ty ; the corporation enjoying the cuftoms paid by all
vefTels within thofe bounds, the creeks of Bangor and
Belfaft only excepted. This grant, however, the crown
'repurchafed, and thereupon transferred the cuftom-
houfe to Belfaft, to which town it is now much infe¬
rior as well in fize as in trade. It is, however, ft ill a
place of note, and fends two members to the houfe of
commons. It gives the title of earl to the noble family
of M‘Donnell.—At Antrim is a feat, with noble de-
mefnes, and beautiful and highly cultivated lands, of
%he earl of Maftareene.—It is but a poor place, 13
miles weft of Carrickfergus. W. Long. 6. 26. N. Lat. Antrim*,
54. 4J. It fends two members to parliament. Antwerp.^
ANTRUM, among anatomifts, a term ufed to de-(~^v"“J.
note feveral cavities of the body : as the antrim bigb-
morianum, or that in the maxillary or jaw bone ; an¬
trum pylori, or that at the bottom of the pylorus, &c.
ANTWERP, a city of the duchy of Brabant, in
the Auftrian Netherlands, capital of the marquifate of
Antwerp, otherwife called the marquifate of the holy
Roman empire, fituated in E. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 51.
12. It lies in a low marfliy ground on the Scheld,
24 miles from Bruflels to the north. It is the third
city in rank in Brabant, large and well built, contain¬
ing 22 fquares, and above 200 ftreets, all ftraight and
broad, efpecially that called the Mere, in which fix
coaches can go abreaft. Moft of the houfes are of free-
ftone, and have an air of antiquity, being high, with
courts before and gardens behind. At the head of the
Mere is a crucifix of brafs thirty-three feet high. The
cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary, the ftadt-houfe,
and the exchange, are magnificent ftrudlures : the lat¬
ter is the firft building of that kind in Europe, and
on its model the exchanges of London and Amfterdam
are built. Its pillars are all of blue marble, and carved,
but all in a different manner. The exchange cell the
city 3po,coo crowns, Antwerp, towards the end of
the fifteenth century, was one of the. moft celebrated
towns that ever exifled. The Scheld, on which it
Hands, being 20 feet at low water, and rifing 20 feet
more at flood, flops of the greateft burden came up to
the keys, as in the river Thames at London; but when
the United Provinces formed themfelves into a free ftate,
after having fliaken off the yoke of Spain, they got the
entire command of the navigation of the Scheld ; which
ruined the trade of Antwerp, and transferred it to Am¬
fterdam. This made the inhabitants turn their heads
to painting, jewelling, and banking, which they have
continued to this day with great fuccefs and reputa¬
tion ; for at Antwerp bills of exchange niay be nego-
ciated for any fum to any part of Europe ; and in the
time of Queen Anne’s wars, two brothers of the name
of De Kining, paid the one the army of France, and
the other that of the confederates. Befides, here is a
fine manufacture of tapeftryand lace; and, for the pro¬
moting of trade, an infurance-company has. been erec¬
ted. This city is the fee of a bilhop, who, as ab¬
bot of St Bernard, is the fecond prelate in Brabant.
The bilhopric is of great extent, and the cathedral a
moft noble pile, with one of the fineft fteeples in the
world. The emperor Charles V. when he made his
entry into Antwerp, faid it ought to be put in a cafe,
and fhowed onlyonce a year for a rarity. The houfe
of the hanfe-towns, built when the city was in its
flourifhing condition, is a ftately building, with ma¬
gazines above for dry goods, and cellars below for
wet, and in the middle ftory were 300 lodging-rooms
for merchants ; but ndw it is turned to a horfe-bar-
racL There is a market here called the Friday's mar¬
ket, becaufe it is held every Friday, where all forts of
houfehold goods, pictures, and jewels, are fold by
auftion. No city in the Netherlands has fo many and
fo fine churches as this. Many of them, particularly
the cathedral and Jefuits church, are adorned with,
paintings, by Sir Peter Paul Rubens, who was a na,-
ANT [ 107 ] ' A N U
(Antwerp, tlve of this city} and by Quintin Mafleys, who is
' faid to have been a blackfmith 5 but having fallen in
love with a painter’s daughter, and been told by her
father, when he a deed her of him in marriage, that he
would have none but a painter for his (bn-in-law, he
went to Italy to dudy painting, and, in a few years,
returned fo eminent in his new profeffion, that he found
no difficulty in obtaining the father’s confent. He is
interred at the entry of the cathedral, where his effigy
is put up, with an infeription, dignifying, that conju¬
gal love made an Apelles of a blackfmith. The above
mentioned Jefuits church is extremely magnificent, and
the chapel of the Virgin, joining to it, dill more fo.
Among the cloifters the moil remarkable are, the
noble and rich abbey of St Michael, on the banks of
the Scheld, the apartments of which are truly royal, and
in which all fovereign princes that pafs this way actual¬
ly lodge ; and the Englifh nunnery, of the order of St
Terefa, the nuns of which never wear linen, nor eat
flelh, and lie upon draw: the grates of the convent are
fo difmal, that it looks like a prifon. As to the forti¬
fications of the city, it is environed with a fine wall,
planted with rows of trees on each fide, with walks be¬
tween, broad enough for two coaches to go abread,
being alfo defended by a very ftrong, large, regular ci¬
tadel, in form of a pentagon, eroded by the Duke of
Alva in 1568, which commands the town and the
neighbouring country. The magiftracy of this city is*
chofen only out of the feven patrician families; and
confifts of two burgomafters and 18 echevins, befides
inferior magidrates. Among the privileges granted to
it by its princes, there is one by which every perfon
born in it is a citizen, though both his father and mo¬
ther were foreigners.
In 1585, Antwerp underwent a remarkable fiege by
the Duke of Parma It was then the mod wealthy city
in the Netherlands, and had long been the objeft of
his defigns; but the difficulties attending the enterprize
obliged him to poftpone it for a confiderable time.
In order to fucceed, it was needfary to cut off the com¬
munication of the city with Holland, Ghent, and all
places above and below Antwerp on the Scheld. To
effeCt this, he laid fiege to Lilkenihouk and Tillo, places
of the utmoft confequence to the fecurity and commerce
of the city : both were obftinately defended ; and the
fi ege of the latter was raifed, after it had been carried on
for three month*: however, the Duke gained feveral o-
ther ports on the river, where he built forts, and great¬
ly annoyed the flipping and trade of the city. . He
next laid fiege to Dendermonde, in order to cut off the
communication with Ghent, in which he fucceeded by
the reduction of the town. His next attempt was on
Vilvorde: this place he took by affault, and thereby
cut off the communication with Bruffels. Finding,
however, this method of hemming in the city tedious,
and ineffectual while an opening to the mouth of the ri¬
ver remained, he formed a defign of building a bridge
acrofs the Scheld, the extremities of which were to be
defended by rtrong forts and out-works. He began
with collecting great quantities of wood at Callo and
fort St Philip, where he intended the bridge rtiould be
built; but his projeCt was for feme time retarded by the
Antwerpers, who broke down the dykes, overflowed
the whole country, and carried off his magazines by
the inundation. Not difeouraged by this lofs, he ap¬
plied himfelf diligently to repair it, and with incredible Antwerp
expedition cut a canal from Steken to Callo, by which
he carried off the waters. He then fet to work upon '
the bridge, and finirtied it in feven months, without
any interruption from the Zealanders. During the
buildjng of this bridge, Aldegonde, governor of Ant¬
werp, propofed to build a fort on Couvenfleyn dyke,
in order to fecure that important port, and then break¬
ing down the dyke when the bridge was near finifhedt
but he was violently oppofed by certain citizens, who
apprehended that their lands and villas would be de-
ft'royed by the inundation. This unfeafonable oppofi-
tion, with the negligence of the magiftrates, who, be-
caufe the markets were high, had not laid in a fuffi-
cient ftock of com, occafioned the lofs of the city.
However, in defpite of all the Duke of Parma’s pre¬
cautions, the Zealanders found means to throw in a
convoy of corn; but the citizens, knowing they would
not run the rifk of carrying it back again, fo cheapened
the price, that thefe bold traders refufed ever to bring
their goods again to fo bad a market. The Antwerp¬
ers, having thus through avarice brought on their ruin,
began in a fhort time to fuffer by famine; they then
preffed the Zealanders to attempt fomething for their
relief, but it was now too late. While the magiftrates
were deliberating on fome means for deftroying the
bridge, which they might have prevented from being
ever completed, one Ginebelli, a Mantuan, engineer,
offered his fervice, undertaking at a certain expence
to blow it into the air. Even in this extremity the ex¬
pence was grudged: but neceflity at laft overcame this
obftacle ; Ginebelli was fumilhed with two large vef-
fels, a number of fmall boats, and every thing necef-
fary. He formed the two large veffels into fire-fliips,
which he fet adrift with the ftream, deceiving the ene¬
my by means of falfe fires lighted up in the fleet of
fmall boats. The train of one of the fire-ftiips was ex¬
pended before the time expected, and fte blew up with a
terrible explofion, but with little damage to the bridge.
The other was more fuccefsful, carrying off all the out¬
works, fetting fire to the whole bridge, and burying
above 500 foldiers in the ruins it made. The fire, how¬
ever, was foon extinguiftied, and the bridge repaired by
the Duke of Parma, while the Antwerpers were pre¬
vented by avarice from repeating the experiment; fo
that they xvere foon reduced to the greateft ftraits,
and obliged to furrender. It is faid that the city of
Amfterdam had obftruifted every meafure for the relief
of Antwerp, hoping to profit by its deflrutfion. It
•was not doubted but the Protertants would foifake it
as foon as it fell into the hands of an arbitrary Catho¬
lic prince ; and this conjecture was foon fulfilled by tlie
removal of many families with their effects to Amfter-
dam.—After the battle of Ramillies, the city of Ant¬
werp furrendered to the Duke of Marlborough. It
was taken by the French in 1746, but reftored to the
houfe of Aurtria at the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
ANUB1S, a fymbolical diety of the Egyptians, was
regarded as the faithful companion of Ofiris and of
Ifis. Temples and priefts were confecrated to him,
and his image was borne in all religious ceremonies.
Cynopolis, the prelent Minieh, fituated in the lower
Thebais, was built in honour of Anubis. The temple
wherein he was worfhipped no longer fubfifts. The
priefts celebrated his feltivals there with great pomp,
O 2 and
ANU f 108 } AOR
AmMs. anj confecrated tlie dog to him as his living reprden-
m~~\ tation. “ Anubrs (fays Strabo) is the city of dogs,
the capital of the Cynopolitan prefecture. Thefe
animals are fed there on facred aliments, and religion
has decreed them a worlhip.” An event, however, re¬
lated by Plutarch,, brought them into confiderable dif-
eredit with the people; Cambyfes having flain the god
Apis, and thrown his body into a field, all animals
refpeCted it except the dogs, which alone eat of his
flelh. This impiety diminiihed the popular veneration
for them.
Cynopolis was not the only city which, burned in-
cenfe on the altars of Anubis. He had chapels in al-
moft all the temples. On folemnities, his image al¬
ways accompanied thofe of Ifis and Ofiris. Rome ha¬
ving adopted the ceremonies of Egypt, the emperor
Commodus, to celebrate the Ifiac feafts, iliaved his
head, and himfelf carried the god Anubis. The ftatue of
this god was either of maffive gold or gilt,, as well as the
attributes that accompanied him. Anubis fignifies^i/d/^.
The denomination was myfterious; and the Egyptian
priefts, it would feem, had not given it without reafon.
The fignification of this emblematical ■ deity is thus
explained by Plutarch: “ The circle which touches and
feparates the two hemifpheres, and which is the caufe
of this divifion, receiving the name of is call¬
ed Anubis., He is reprefented under the form of a
dog, becaufe that animal watches day and night.”
St Clemens of Alexandria, who was well informed in
the myftic theology of the Egyptians, favours this ex¬
plication. The two dogs, fays he, (the two Anubis)
are the fymbols of two hemifpheres which environ the
terreftrial globe. He adds in another place : Others
pretend that thefe animals, the faithful guardians of
men, indicate the tropics, which, guard the fun on the
fouth and on the north like porters.
According to the former of thefe interpretation^
the priefts, regarding Anubis as the horizon, gilded
his ftatue'; to mark, that this circle* receiving the firft
rays of the fun, appears fparkli-ng with brightnefs on
his rifxng, and that at his fetting he reftedts his laft
rays upon the earth. They faid in their facred fables,
that Anubis was the fon of Ofiris, but illegitimate.
In fad, he only gives to the earth a borrowed light;
and cannot be efteemed, like Horus, as the father
of the day, or as the legitimate offspring of Ofiris.. It
may be added, that the vifible horizon turning with
the fun, is his infeparable companion.
In the latter of thefe explications, where Anubis
reprelents the tropics, he is alfo the faithful guardian
of Ifis and Ofiris. In fad, the courfe of the. fun and
the moon is contained between the circles wherein
the folftices are performed. They neither deviate to
the right nor left. Thefe limits affigned by the Au¬
thor of nature might therefore, in hieroglyphic lan¬
guage, be reprefented by a divinity with the head of a
dog, who feemed to oppofe their -paffage on the fide
of the two poles. The other opinion, notwithftand-
ing, feems more natural, and to be more analagous to
the ideas of the priefts.
Upon the whole, it is reafonable to imagine, that
Anubis at firft was only a fymbolical image, invented
by aftronomers to give a fenfible expremori of their
difcoveries; that afterwards, the people, accuftomed
to fee it in their temples, which were the depofitaries
of fcience, adored it as a deity ^ and that the priefts Aura*
favoured their ignorance by conneding it with their •
religion. The worlhip of Anubis introduced, that of, Aorilu?,j
the dog became his emblem. Almoft all the gods of "~v ' -
the Gentiles have originated in. this manner.
ANUS, in anatomy, the lower extremity of the in-
teftinum redum, or orifice of the fundament.
ANVIL, a fmith’s utenfil, ferving to place the
work on to be hammered- or forged. The face or up-
permoft furface of the anvil, muft be very flat and
mooth, without flaws, and fo hard that a file will not
touch it. At one end there, is fometimes a pike,
bickem or beak-iron, for the rounding of hollow
work. The whole is ufually mounted on a firm wooden
block.—Forged anvils are better than thofe of call
work, and the bell have the upper part made of fteel..
Lockfmiths have a fmaller kind of anvil called the Jiake,
which is moveable, and placed ordinarily on their
work-bench. Its ufe is for fetting fmall cold work
ftraight, or to cut or punch on with-the cold chiffel or
cold punch.
ANXUR (anc. geog.), a city of the Volfci, in
Latium ; called Tarracina, by the Greeks and Latins:
Now Terracina; fituated on an eminence (Livy, Ho¬
race, Sil. Italicus). Anxuras, a citizen of Anxur (Li¬
vy). And the epithet Anxurus, a name of Jupiter, -wor-
ftiipped without a beard at Anxur (Virgil). Though
others read Axurus, or Axyrus, without a razor. E.
Long. 14. 5. Lat. 41. 18.
AONIDES, in mythology, one of the many appel¬
lations of the.mufes ; fo called from Aonia, a part of an ¬
cient Boeotia.
AQRASIA, in antiquity, the. invifibility of the
gods. The word is Greek, «<’/=«<’-<«, and derived from .
«, priv. and to fee. The opinion- of the ancients
with regard to the appearance of the gods to men, was,
that they never fliowed themfelves face to face, but
were known from their backs as they withdrew. Nep¬
tune affumed the.form of Calchas to fpeak to the two
Ajaxes ; but they knew him not till he turned his back
to leave them, and difcovered the god by his majeftic ftep
as he went from them. Venus appeared to JEneas in
the charaffer of a huntrefs : but her fon knew her not
till fhe departed from him; her divinity was then be¬
trayed by her radiant head, her. flowing robe, and her
majeftic pace.
AORIST, among grammarians, a tenfe peculiar to
the Greek language, comprehending all the tenfes ; or
rather, expreffing an adtion in an indeterminate manner,
without any regard to pad, prefent, or future.
AORISTIA, in the fceptic philofophy, denotes that
date of the mind wherein we neither affert nor deny
any thing pofitively, but only fpeak of things as feem-
ing or appearing to us in fuch a manner. The aoriftia
is one of the great points or terms of fcepticifm, to
which the philofophers of that denomination had com
tinual recourfe by way of explication, or fubterfuge.
Their adverfaries, the Dogmatifts, charged them with
dogmatizing, and afferting the principles andpofitions
of their fedt to be true and certain.
AORNUS, a very high rock of India, having its
name from its extraordinary height, as being above the
flight of a bird. Its circuit was about 25 miles, its
height 1 x furlongs, and the way leading up to the top
artificial and narrow. At the bottom, on one fide, ran
the
A O U [ io9 ] A P A
Aomus the river Indus ; on the top was a fine plain, part of
I which was covered with a thick wood ; the reft arable
Aoufta‘ land, with a fountain furnifiling abundance of excellent
'' “ water. This rock was taken by Alexander the Great,
in whofe time there was a report that Hercules had at¬
tempted it in vain; however, according to Arrian, this
report was without foundation. It is probable indeed,
that it was raifed after the place was taken, in order
to magnify Alexander’s exploit. While the Macedo¬
nian monarch was preparing all things neceflary for the
fiege, an old man with his two fons, who had long li¬
ved in a cave near the fummit, came and offered to mow
him a private way of afcending. This being readily
accepted, Ftolemy, with a confiderable body of light¬
armed troops, was difpatched with them, with orders
in cafe they fucceeded, to entrench themfelves ftrongly
upon the rock, in the wood to which the old man was
to direct them, before they ventured to attack the Ins-
dians. Ptolemy exactly executed his orders; and gave
notice, by a lighted torch fet upon a pole, that he had
got fafely up. Upon this, Alexander gave immediate
orders for a body of troops to attempt the paffage by
which the rock was commonly afcended; but they were
repulfed with great flaughter. He then fent an Indian
with letters to Ptolemy, defiring him, the next time an
attack was made by the common way, to fall upon the
enemy behind. But in the mean time, thofe who de¬
fended the rock attacked Ptolemy with great vigour ;•
but were atlaft repulfed, though with much difficulty:
but the next day, when Alexander renewed the attack^
though Ptolemy attacked the Indians in the rear, the
Macedonians were repulfed on both fides, At laft the
king, perceiving that the ftrength of the Indians lay in
the ftraitnefs and declivity of the way by which they
were attacked, caufed a . great quantity of trees to be
felled, and with them filled the cavities between the
lain on which the Indians were encamped and the
igheft of his own advanced ports. The Indians at firft
derided his undertaking ; but at length perceiving the
ardour with which the work was carried on, and having
felt the effeiftsofthemiffile weapons of the Macedonians,
they fent deputies to propofe terms of capitulation.
Alexander, fufpe&ing. that their defign was only to a-
mufe him till they made their efcape, withdrew his
guards from the avenues. As foon as he knew the
Indians were defcended, he, with 700 of Ptolemy’s
light armed foot, took poffeffion of the deferted rock,
and then made a fignal for his. forces to fall upon the
flying Indians. They, fetting up a loud Ihout, fo ter¬
rified the fugitives, that numbers of them fell from the
rocks and precipices, and were dafhed to pieces, while
the greateft part of the remainder were cut off in the
reads.
AORTA, in anatomy, the great artery which rifes
immediately from the left ventricle -of the heart, and is
from thence diftributed to all parts of the body. It is
divided into two grand trunks, diftinguiftied by the
epithets afcending and defending. See Anatomy.
AOUSTA, or Aost, a town of Italy, in Pied¬
mont, and capital of the duchy of the fame name, a
biffiop’s fee, and fubjedt to the king of Sardinia. If
is remarkable forfeveral monuments of the Romans, ,
and for the birth of Anfelm archbilhop of Canterbury.
It is feated at the foot of the Alps, on the river Doria,
£. Long. 7. .33. N. Lat, 45. 38.
AoustA, a territory of Piedmont, with the title of Aoufta
a duchy. It is a valley 30 miles in length, and ex- II
tends from the pafs of St Martin’s, near the frontiers APaUchia«
of Yvree, to St Bernard. It abounds in paftures, and
all forts of fruits; the capital is of the fame name.
AOUTA, the name of the paper mulberry-tree at
Otaheite, in the South Sea, from which a cloth is ma¬
nufactured, that is worn by the principal inhabitants.
See the article Bark.
APACHES, a people of New Mexico in North
America. They are brave, refolute, and warlike, fond
of liberty, and the inveterate enemies of tyranny and
oppreffion. Of this difpofition the Spaniards had fa¬
tal experience towards the end of the laft century, when
they revolted againft the Catholic king, maffacred fe-
veral of his officers, and committed the greateft deva-
ftations. Ever fince, they have remained the allies, not
the fubjeCls, of the Spaniards; and the viceroy of Mexi¬
co has been obliged to maintain a more formidable
garrifon, and a greater number of troops.
APiEDUSIA, denotes ignorance or unfkilfulnefis
in what relates to learning and the fciences. Hence al-
fo perfons uninftru&ed and illiterate are called apadeu-
t<e. The term apadeuta was particularly ufed among
the French in the time of Huet; when the men of wit
at Paris were divided into two faCtions, one called by
way of reproach apxdeuiee, and the others eruditi. Thu
apcedeuta; are reprefented by Huet, as perfons who,,
finding themfelves either incapable or unwilling to un¬
dergo a fevere courfe of ftudy in order to become tru¬
ly learned, confpired to decry learning, and turn the
knowledge of antiquity into ridicule, thus making a
merit of their own incapacity. The apxdeutts in effeft
were the men of pleafure ; the eruditi the men of ftu¬
dy. The apaedeutis in every thing preferred the mo¬
dern writers to the ancient, to fuperfede the neceffity of
ftudying the latter. The eruditi derided the moderns,
and valued themfelves wholly on their acquaintance with
the ancients.
APAGOGE, in logic. See Abduction.
Apagoge, in the Athenian law, the carrying a
criminal taken in the fa£t to the magiftrate. If the
accufer was not able to bring him to the magiftrate, it
was ufual to take the magiftrate along with him to the
houfe where the criminal lay concealed, or defended
himfelf.
Apagoge, in mathematics, is fometimes ufed to de¬
note a progrefs or paflage from one propofition to ano¬
ther ; when the firft having been once demonftrated, is
afterwards employed in the proving of others.
APAGOGICAL demonstration, an indirect
way of proof, by fhowing the abfurdity of the con¬
trary.
APALACHIAN Mountains, more properly
called the Allegany Mountains, have their fouthern be¬
ginning near the bay of Mexico, in the latitude of 30%
extending northerly on the bask of the Britilh colo¬
nies, and running parallel with the fea-coaft to the la¬
titude of 40° north; but their diftance from the fea, on -
the weft, is not exactly known, though it is generally
thought to be above 200 miles. A great part of thefo
mountains is covered with rocks, feme of which are
of a ftupendous height and bulk; the foil between them
is generally black and fandy, but in fome places diffe¬
rently.coloured, compofed of pieces of broken rock and ‘
, A P A [ n
Apatnca. fpat*, of a glittering appearance, which feem to be in-
 ' dications of minerals and ores if proper fearch was
made for them. Chefnuts and fmall oaks are the trees
that principally grow on thefe mountains, with fome
chinkapin* and other fmall flirubs. The grafs is thin,
mila. See mixed with vetch and fmall peafe ; and in fome places
F<%u*. there ;s very little vegetable appearance.
The rocks of the .Apalachian mountains feem to en-
grofs one-half of the furface. They are moftly of a
light grey colour: fome are of a coarfe-grained marble
like alabafter; others, of a metallic luftre: fome pieces
are in the form of Hate, and brittle; others, in lumps,
and hard: and fome appear with fpangles, or covered
over with innumerable fmall fhining fpecks, like filver.
Thefe frequently appear at the roots of trees when
blown down. The different fpars are found moft on
the higheft and fteepeft parts of the hills, where there
is little grafs and few trees ; but the greateft part of
the foil between the rocks is generally a dark fandy-
coloured kind of mould, and mallow ; yet fertile, and
productive of good corn, which encourages the Talli-
poofes, a clan of the Cherokee Indians, to fettle among
them in latitude 340: and they are the only Indian
nation that has a conllant refidence upon thefe moun¬
tains.
APAMEA, or Apamia, the name of feveral an¬
cient cities.
1. One of Bithynia, formerly called Myrleay from
Myrlus, general of the Colophonians: deftroyed by
Philip, father of Perfeus; and given to his ally Prufms,
who rebuilt it, and called it A panic ay from the name
of his queen Apama (Strabo). Stephanus fays, that
Nicomedus Epiphanes* fon of Prufias, called it after
his mother ; and that it had its ancient name from
Myrlea, an Amazon. The Romans led a colony thi¬
ther (Strabo) ; called Colonea Apamena (Pliny, Ap-
pian). The gentilitious name is Apaxnaui and Apa-
menus (Trajan in a letter to Pliny).
2. Another Apamca, called Cibotss, of Phrygia, at
fome dillance from the Meander (Agathodaemon)j but
by a coin of Tiberius, on the Meander, The name is
from Apame, mother of Antiochus Soter, the foun¬
der, and the daughter of Artabazus (Strabo). The
rife, or at leaft the increafe, of Apamea, was owing to
the ruins of Celenae. The inhabitants were called A-
pamienjis; and, though inland, were worfhippers of
Neptune. The reafon, it has been conjectured, was,
that they had fuffered often from earthquakes of
which he was fuppofed the author. Mithridites gave
an hundred talents toward the refloration of the city ;
which, it is faid, had likewife been overthrown in the
time of Alexander. Their tribute-money was remit¬
ted to them for five years on the fame account un¬
der the emperor Tiberius. The fubterraneous paffage
of the Lycus and the other dreams fhowed that the
ground had many cavities; and thefe, it has been fur-
mifed, rendered the region very liable to be fhaken.
3 A third, on the confines of Parthia and Media,
furnamed Raphane (Strabo, Pliny).
4. A fourth Apaviea, a town of Mefene, an ifland in
the Tigris (Pliny, Ammian); where a branch of the
Euphrates, called the Royal river, falls into the Tigris
(Ptolemy).
5. A fifth in M.efopotamia, on the other fide the
Euphrates, oppofite to Zeugma on this fide, both found-
o ] a p A
ed by Seleucus, and joined by a bridge, frortl which Apanage
the latter takes its name (Pliny, Infidor, Characenus). I .
6. A fixth Apamea, now Famia, alfo in Syria, below APaturia»
the confluence of the Orontes and Marfyas ; a ftrong v_
city, and fituated in a peninfula, formed by the Oron¬
tes and a lake. “ It was here (fays Strabo} that the
Seleucidae had eftablifhed the fchool and nurfery of
their cavalry.” The foil of the neighbourhood, abound¬
ing in pafturage, fed no lefs than thirty thoufand mares,
three hundred ftallions, and five hundred elephants; in-
ftead of which, the marlhes of Famia at preient fcarce-
ly afford a few buffaloes and Iheep. To the veteran
foldiers of Alexander, who here repofed after tlxeir
vuftories, have fucceeded wretched peafants, who live
in perpetual dread of the oppreffions of the Turks and
the inroads of the Arabs.
Apamea was alfo the ancient name of Pella, in the
Decapolis.
APANAGE, or Appennage, in the French cuf-
toms, lands afligned by a fovereign for the fubfiffence
of his younger fons, which revert to the crown upon
the failure of male iffue in that branch to which the
lands are granted.
APANOMIA, a town of Santorin, an ifland in the
Mediterranean fea, called in this part, by fome, the Sea
of Candia : it has a fpacious harbour, in the form of a
half-moon ; but the bottom is fo deep, that fhips can¬
not anchor there, E. Long. 25. 59. N. Lat. 36. 18.
APANTHROPY, in medicine, denotes a love of
folitude, and averfion for the company of mankind.
Apanthropy is by fome reckoned among the fymptoms,
by others among the fpecies or degrees, of melancholy;
and alfo paffes for an ill indication in leucophlegmatic
cafes.
APARINE, in botany, a fynonime of the utricu-
laria and feveral other plants.
APARITHMES1S, in rhetoric, denotes the an-
fwer to the'protafis or propofition itfelf. Thus, if the
protafis be, Apellandi tempus non erat,—the aparith-
mefis is, At tecum anno plus vixi.
APARTISMENUS, in the ancient poetry, an ap¬
pellation given to a verfe, which comprehended an en¬
tire fenfe or fentence in itfelf. This is fometimes alfo
written apartemenus, i. e. fufpended, as not needing
any following verfe.
APATHY, among the ancient philofophers, .im¬
plied an utter privation of pallion, and an infenfibility
of pain. The word is compounded of « priv. and
affettion. The Stoics affedled an entire apathy :
they confidered it as the higheft wifdom to enjoy a per¬
fect calmnefs or tranquillity of mind, .incapable of
being ruffled by either pleafure or pain. In the firft
ages of the church, the Chriftians adopted the term
apathy to exprefs a contempt of all earthly concerns ;
a ftate of mortification, fuch as the gofpel pre (bribes.
Clemens Alexandrinus, in particular, brought it ex¬
ceedingly in vogue ; thinking hereby to draw the phi¬
lofophers to Chriftianity, who afpired after fuch a iiib-
lime pitch of virtue. Quietifm is only apathy dif-
guifed under the appearance of devotion.
APATUR1A; in antiquity, a folemn feaft cele¬
brated by the Athenians in honour of Bacchus. The
word is ufually derived from fraud. It is faid to
have been inftituted in memory of a fraudulent vidtory
obtained by Melanthus, king of Athens, over Xanthus,
king
APE t >
Apaulia king of Bocetia, in a -Tingle combat, which they agreed
I upon, to put an end to a debate between them relating
^Apelyte^ t0 ^ frontiers of their countries. Hence Budseus
calls itfejlum deceptionis, “ the feaft of deceit.”
Other authors give a different etymology of this
feaft : They tell us, that the young Athenians were
not admitted into the tribes on the third day of the
apaturia, till their fathers had firft Tworn that they
were their own children ; and that, till that time, they
were fuppofed, in Tome meafure, to be without fathers,
arxTopif- whence the feaft, fay they, took its name.
Xenophon, on the other hand, informs us, that the re¬
lations and friends met on this occafion, and joined
with the fathers of the young people who were to be
received into the tribes; and that from this aflembly
the feaft took its name: that in the «, far
from being a privative, being here a conjun&ive, figni-
fies the fame thing with o^«, together. This feaft lafted
four days : the firft day, thofe of the fame tribe made
merry together; and this they called The fe-
cond day, wdiich they called they facrificed to
Jupiter and Minerva. The third day, which they call¬
ed Kugiarif, fuch of their young men and maids as
were of age were admitted into their tribes. The
fourth day they called
APAULIA, in antiquity, the third day of a mar¬
riage folemnity. It was thus called, becaufe the bride,
returning to her father's houfe, did u*av\iS(a6«, tv
lodge apart from die bridegroom. Some will have the
apaulia to have been the fecond day of the marriage,
viz. that whereon the chief ceremony was performed ;
thus called by way of contradifthnftion from the firft day,
which was called *poav\«i. On the day called
(whenever that was), the bride prefented her bride¬
groom with a garment called ax«v*>il»pia,
APE, in zoology, the general Englifh name of a
very numerous race of animals, the natural hiftory of
which is given at large under the article Simia; com¬
prehending Apes, properly fo called, or fuch as want
tails ; and Monkeys and Baboon 's, or fuch as have
tails, the former long, and the other Jhort, ones. See
Simia.
Sea-Ape, a name given by Steller to a marine ani-
• a er mal which he faw on the coaft of America, and is thus
"Kamtfch/t- defcribed *. “ The head appeared like that of a dog,
Aa, p. 136. with ftiarp and upright ears, large eyes, and with both
lips bearded: the body round and conoid ; the thickeft
part near the head: the tail forked; the upper lobe
the longeft : the body covered with thick hair, grey on
the back, reddifti on the belly. It feemed deftitute of
feet. It was extremely wanton, and played a multi¬
tude of monkey-tricks. It fometimes fwam on one
fide, fometimes on the other fide of the fhip, and gazed
at it with great admiration. It made fo near an ap¬
proach to the veflel, as almoft to be touched with a
pole ; but if any body moved, it inftantly retired. It
would often ftand eredl for a cbnfiderable fpace, with
«ne-third of its body above water; then dart beneath
the fhip, and appear on the other fide ; and repeat the
fame thirty times together. It would frequently arife
with a fea-plant, not unlike the bottle-gourd, tofs it
up, and catch it in its mouth, playing with it number-
ids fantaftic tricks.
APELYTES, Chriftian heretics in the fecond cen¬
tury, who affirmed that Chiifl received a body from
ri ] APE
the four elements, which at his death he rendered back Apella.
to the world, and fo afcended into heaven without at APelles-
body. ■
APELLA, among phyficians, a name given to
thofe whofe prepuce is either wanting or ftirunk, fo
that it can no longer cover the glan1'. Many authors
have fuppofed this fenfe of the word Apella warrant¬
ed from the paflage in Horace, credat Judans Apella
non ego. But, according to Salmafius and others, A-
pella is the proper name of a certain Jew, and not an
adjedive fignifying cireumcifed.
APELLES, one of the moft celebrated painters of
antiquity. He was bom in the ifie of Cos, and flou-
rifhed in the time of Alexander the Great, with whom
he was in high favour. He executed a piifture of this
prince, holding a thunderbolt in his hand: a piece,
finiflied with fo much Ikill and dexterity, that it ufed
to be faid there were two Alexanders ; one invincible,
the fon of Philip ; the other inimitable, the produc¬
tion of Apelles. Alexander gave him a remarkable
proof of his regard: for when he employed Apelles
to draw Campafpe, one of. his miftrefles, having found
that he had conceived an affedion for her, he refigned
her to him ; and it was from her that Apelles is faid to
have drawn his Venus Anadyomene.
One of Apelles’s chief excellencies was , his making
his pi&ures fo exadly refemble the perfons reprefented;
infomuch that the phyfiognomifts are faid to have been
able to form a judgment of the perfons deftiny as
readily from his portraits as if they had feen the ori¬
ginals, But what is called was the charaderiftic
of this artift. His pencil was fo famous for drawing
fine lines, that Protogenes difcovered by a fingle line
that Apelles had been at his houfe. Protogenes lived
at Rhodes: Apelles failed thither, and went to his-
houfe with great eagernefs, to fee the works of an ar¬
tift who was known to him only by name. Protoge¬
nes was gone from home : but an old woman was left
watching a large piece of canvas,, which was fitted in
a frame for painting. She told Apelles that Protoge¬
nes was gone out; and alked him his name, that Ihc
might inform her mafter who had inquired for him.
“ Tell him (fays Apelles) he was enquired for by
this perfon—at the fame time taking up a pen¬
cil, he drew on the canvafs a line of great delicacy.
When Protogenes returned, the old woman acquainted
him with what had happened. That artill, upon con¬
templating the fine ftroke of the line, immediately
pronounced that Apelles had been there ; for fo finiih-
ed a work could be produced by no other perfon. Pro¬
togenes, however, himfelf drew a finer line of another
colour; and, as he was going, away, ordered the old
woman to ftiow that line to Apelles if he came again 3
and to fay, “ This is the perfon for whom you are en¬
quiring.” Apelles returned, and faw the line : he
would not for ftiame be overcome ; and therefore, in a
colour different from either of the former, he drew
fome lines fo exquifitely delicate, that it was utterly
impofllble for finer ftrokes to be made. Protogenes
now eonfeffed the fuperiority of Apelles, flew to the
harbour in fearch of him, and refolved to leave the
canvafs with the lines on it for the aftonilhment of fu¬
ture artifts.
Apelles fhowed great liberality of mind towards Pro¬
togenes, With ideas enlarged by education and litera-
tuse..
APE [ 3 APE
Apelles, ture, he 'Was incapable of harbouring little jealoufies of
“'—Y'-""' noble competitors; on the contrary, he was the firft
who made the works of Protogenes to be valued as
they deferved among the Rhodians. He acknowledged
that Protogenes was in fome reipe&s fuperior to him-
felf; but that in one particular himfelf excelled, viz.
in knowing when to take his hand from the picture.;
an art which Protogenes had not yet learned, and
therefore over-worked his pieces. Apelles equally
difapproved of too elaborate diligence, or too hafty
negligence in execution. A ftudied work of Proto¬
genes he efteemed lefs on the dne account; and on the
other, when a filly painter once brought him a pidlure,
and {aid, “This I painted in a hurry,”—he replied,
“ Though you had not .told me fo, I perceived it was
painted in hafte: but I wonder you could not execute
more fuch pieces in the fame time.”
There are two ftories related of Apelles, which fhow
him to be at once an artift of modefty in amending
even trifling improprieties, when pointed out to him
by competent judges ; and yet of felf-confidence fuffi-
cient to make him know the perfe&ion and value of his
(Own .paintings. It was cuftomary with Apelles to ex-
pofe to public view the works which he had finifhed,
:and to hide himfelf behind the picture, in order to hear
.the remarks palled on it by perfons who chanced to
View it. He once overheard himfelf blamed by a Ihoe-
maker for a fault in the flippers of fome pidture : he
corredted the fault which the man .had noticed.: but
on the day following the Ihoemaker "began to aiiimad-
vert on the leg; upon which Apelles with fome an-
fer looked out from behind the canvafs, and bade him
eep to his own province, “ Ne futor ultra crepidam.”
It is well known that Alexander forbade any one befides
Apelles to paint his portrait. We are not, however,
to conclude from this, that Alexander was a more
fkilful judge pf painting than he was of poetry. Like
Augumis, he cherilhed the fine arts more from vanity
than talle. .A remarkable proof is given of this prince’s
inability to difcem merit, and of the painter’s freedom
in exprefling the mortification he felt, when a work of
his ,y,ras not fufliciently commended. ■“ Alexander
(fays iElian, lib. ii. c. 3. Var. Hill.)'having viewed the
pidture of himfelf which was. at Ephefus, did not praife
it as it deferved. But when a Horfe was 'brought in,
and neighed at feeing the figure of a horfe in the pic¬
ture, as though it hafl been a real horfe,; 0 king,' (laid
Apelles) /Hf horfe feem: to be bj far a better judge of
fainting than you." It happened more than once that
the horfes drawn by him were miftaken for real ones,
by living horfes which faw nnd neighed at the pidlures.
In his finilhing a drawing of this animal, a remarkable
circumftance is related of him- He had painted a horfe
returning from battle, and had fucceeded to his wifhes
in defcribing every other mark that could indicate a
mettlefome fteed, impatient of reftraint; there was
wanting nothing but a foam of a bloody hue ifluing
from the mouth. He again and again endeavoured to
exprefs this, but his attempts were unfuccefsful. At
laft, with vexation, he threw againft the reins of the
horfe a fponge which had in it many colours; a mixture
.of which coming out of the fponge, and tinging the
reins, produced the very efleft defired by the painter.
The works of Apelles were all admired; but the
jnoft celebrated were the pifture of Alexander in the
N0 23.
temple of Diana at Ephefus, and that of Venus emer- A pens
ging from the fea. Alexander was drawn witli thun- #
der in his hand; and fuch relief was produced by the ,APenzel ';
chiarofcuro in this piece, that the fingers feemed to 1
{hootforward, and the thunder-bolt to be out of the
pidure. His Venus AvKSva/wri was efteemed the moft
exquifite figure which the pencil could create : it is
therefore extolled by the Roman poets Propertius and
Ovid; and the poet of Sidon, Antipater, has left us
the following Greek epigram on it:
■T*» a\icc$voy.ivut ctro fialigo; ugh 3-aXar7«f
Kvrpiv, AtiWiiv oga yputpiSoe,
-Sll X!P‘ iOfc/iug^aa-x f vScih xatlx*
Ek6a.iC« taUpav apgOM x-tto 'aXov.a.fia*.
AuUt *vv ipiVTit Adnv«iit rt xai Hpw ~
“ Ouk th am piogpKi ipi, tp^o/utfa."
Anth. iy. 13.
^Graceful as from her natal fea fhe fprings,
Venus, the labour of Apelles, view:
With prefling hand her humid locks flie wrings.
While from her trefles drips tire frothy dew
Ev’n Juno and Minerva now declare,
“ No longer we contend whole form’s moft fair.”
APENE, in antiquity, a kind of chariot where¬
on the images of the gods were carried in procef-
fion on certain days, attended with a folemn pomp,
fongs, hymns, dancing, &c. It was very rich, made
fometimes of ivory, or of filver itfelf, and varioufly de¬
corated.
APPENINNUS, nowthe Appennine; amountain,or
ridge of mountains, running through the middle of Italy,
from north-weft to the fcuth-weft for 700 miles, in the
form of acrefcent, (Pliny); beginning at the Alps in
Liguria, or the Rivierra di Genoa; and terminating
at the ftrait of Meflana, or at Reggio, and the pro¬
montory Leucopetra; and feparating, as by a back or
ridge, the Adriatic from the Tufcan fea, (Pliny, Stra¬
bo, Ptolemy, Polybius, Vitruvius). This mountain,
though high, is greatly fhort of the height of the
Alps. Its name is Celtic, fignifying a high mountain.
APENRADE, a town of Denmark in the duchy
of Siefwick, feated at the bottom of a gulph in the
Baltic fea, between Flenfbourg and Hadafchleben. It
is 2$ miles north from Siefwick. E. Long. 9. 28-
N. Lat. s 5- 4-
APENZEL, a town of Switzerland, in the cantoa
of the fame name, feated on the river Chuz, E. Long.
9. 1. N. Lat. 47. 31. The canton itfdf, which was
allied to the others in I J13, confifts only of three or
four valleys; having the town and abbey of St Gall on
the north; the county of Toggenburg on the weft;
the lordfhip of Sax in the canton of Zurich, and that
of Gambs in the canton of Schweiz, on the fouthj
and the Rheinthall, or Rhine-valley, on the eaft. Its
greateft length is about 30 miles, and its breadth about
20. It yields good pafturage, and confequently is not
deftitute of cattle, milk, butter, or cheefe. Confider-
able quantities alfo of wheat, rye, barley, oats, beans,
peafe, flax, and wine, are produced in it; befides a
great deal of fruit, wood, and turf; with mineral wa¬
ters, and warm baths. There are many mountains m
the canton, the higheft of which is that called the Ho-
hefantis, or the Hohe-Meftner, whichcommands a pro-
fpedt of a prodigious extent. There are alio feveral
lakes and rivers. The inhabitants, who are partly Pro-
teftants,
APE [ 113 1 A P H
Apepfia tenants, and partly Roman Catholics, fubfifl; chiefly
II by their manufactures of linen, crape, fultian, and
Apex' , thread, or by bleaching, and the fale of their cattle,
v butter, cheefe, horfes, wood, and coal. Of the twen¬
ty-three parifhes in the canton, four are Popifh and
nineteen Proteftant. Before the reformation, the in¬
habitants were fubjedt to the Abbot of St Gaul; but
they then Ihook oif his yoke, and united themfelves
with the other cantons i after that, however, there were
violent animofities between the Papifts and Proteftants,
the former continually perfecuting the latter, till at
laft, in 1587, by the mediation of the other cantons,
the tw'o parties came to an accommodation, by which
certain diftridts were afligned to each party, whereas
before they lived promifcuoufly together ; and though
thefe two divifions now conftitute but one canton, yet
each forms a diltindt. community or free (late, fending
its particular reprefentatives to the diets of the con¬
federacy, and haying its feparate councils and officers.
In fpirituals the Papifts are fubjedt to the bifhop of
Conftance, but the Proteftants to their own confiitory-
The militia of the former does not exceed 3000, where¬
as thofe of the latter amount to 10,000.
APEPSIA, (from «, neg. and to digeft.)
Indigeftion.
Abftemioufnefs and excefs are alike caufes of indi¬
geftion. An over-diftenfion of the flomach may in
fome meafure injure its proper tone ; and long falling,
by inducing a bad quality in the juices fecerned into the
itomach, renders it feeble, and generates wind. - Hard
drinking, and any of the caufes of an anorexy, alfo
injure digeftion.
The columbo root is faid to be particularly ufeful
when the Itomach is languid, the appetite defedtive,
digeftion with difficulty carried on, or when a naufea
with flatulency attends. It is preferibed in fubftance
with any grateful aromatic, or infufed in Madeira wine,
now and then interpofmg gentle dofes of the tindlure
of rhubarb.
A mixture of muftard-feed with the columbo root is
of admirable utility in complaints of this kind ; par¬
ticularly where acidity and flatulence prevail much in
the primae vise.
APER, in zoology, a fynomime of the fus ferofa.
See Sus.
APERIENTS, in the materia medica, an appel-,
lation given to fuch medicines as facilitate the circula¬
tion of the humours by removing obftruflions.-—The
five aperient roots of the fhops are fmallage, fennel,
afparagus, parfley, and butcher’s broom.
APERTURE, the opening of any thing, or a hole
or cleft in any continuous fubjeift.
Aperture, in geometry, the fpace between two
right lines which meet in a point and form an angle.
Aperture, in optics, a round hole in a turned bit
of wood or plate of tin, placed within the fide of a
tejefcope or microfcope, near to the objedf-glafs, by
means of which more rays are admitted, and a more
diftindt appearance of the objedf is obtained.
Apertures, or Apertions, in architedhire, are ufed
to fignify doors, windows, chimneys, &c.
APETAlOSE, or apetalous, among botanifts,
an appellation given to fuch plants as have no flower-
leaves
APEX, the vertex, or fummit of any thing..
You. II. Part L
Apex, in antiquity, the creft of a helmet, but more Apex
efpecially a kind of cap worn by the flamens. rum.
Apex, among grammarians, denotes the mark of a L
long fyllable, falfely called a Izng accent.
APHACA, (anc. geog.) the name of a place in
Syria, fxtuated between Heliopolis and Byblus, near
Lebanon ; infamous, for a temple of Venus, called
Aphacitis, near which was a lake, round which fire
ufually burft forth, and its waters were lb heavy, that
bodies floated on them. The temple was deltrpyed by
Conftantine, as being a fchool of incontinence, (Eu-
febius). The name is of Syriac origin, fignifying em¬
braces.
APHACRESIS, in grammar, a figure by which a
letter or fyllable is cut off from the beginning of a word.
Thus cicouic by aphaerefis, is written coma; content*
nere, temnere ; emitere, rnittere, &c.
A like retrenchment at the end of a word is called
APOCOPE.
Aph^resis, in medicine, denotes a neceffary ta¬
king away or removal of fomething that is noxious.—
Infurgery, it fignifies an operation whereby fomething
fuperfiuous is taken away.
APHANES: A genus of the monogynia order,,
belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants; and in the
natural method ranking under the 35th order, Senti-
cofx. The effential charadters are thefe : The calyx is^
divided into eight parts ; there is no corolla; the feeds
are two, and naked. There is only one fpecies, the
arvenfis or penfley-piert, a native of Britain. It is
extremely common in corn-fields. The .ftalks rife five
or fix together; they are three inches long, round,
hairy, and procumbent: the leaves ftand very thick.
upon them, and are roundifli, but divided, as,it were,
into three parts, and thofe deeply ferrated at their
edges. The flowers come out in a doubly feries, ar¬
ranged all along the branches, and are of a greenifli
white, and the whole plant is of a greyifh or whittilh-
green colour.
APHASIA, (from «, and w<, “ I fpeak,”) in the
fceptic philofophy, denotes a ftate of doubt, wherein
a perfon not knowing what to determine on, it is heft
for him to be filent. In this fenfe, aph a/ia ftands op-
pofed to phafu, under which are included both afler-
tion and negation.
APHEK, the name^of feveral cities mentioned in
feripture. I. Aphek in the tribe of Judah, where the
Philiftines encamped when the ark was brought from
Shiloh, which was taken by them in battle, 1 Sam. iv.-
I, 2, &c. It is thought to be the fame with Aphe-
kah mentioned in Joffi. xv. 53. 2. Aphek in the val-
ley of Jezreel, where the Philiftines encamped while
Saul and his army were near Jezreel, upon the moun¬
tains of Gilboa, 1 Sam. xxix. 1, &c. 3. Aphek a city
belonging to the tribe of Afher, near the country of
the ffidonians; (Jolh. xix. 30. and xiii. 4.) 4. Aphek
a city of Syria, one of the principal in Benhadad's
kingdom, near which the battle was fought between
Ahal) and Benhadad, wherein the Syrians were worft-
ed ; and whereof, as they retreated with precipitation
into the city, the walls fell upon them, and cruftied
in pieces 27,oco. (1 Kings xx. 26, etfeq.) This city
lay between Helipolis and Biblos.
APHEUUM, or aphelion, in aftronomy, is that
point in any planet’s orbit, in which it is fartheft di¬
ll ilant
A P H t *14 ] A P H
Aphiom, ftant from the fun, being, that end of the greater axis
Aphis. 0f t}je elliptical orbit of the planet molt remote from
1 the focus where the fun is.
APHIOM karaHissAur, a town of Natolia, in A-
fiatic Turkey; it is named Aphiom becaufe it produces
a great deal of opium, called aphiom by the Turks.
E. Long. 32. 18. N. Lab 38. 35.
APHIS, in zoology, the puceron, vine-fretter,
or plant-louse; a genus of infedts belonging to the
order of infedta hemiptera. The rollrum or beak of
the aphis is indexed; the antenna or feelers are long¬
er than the thorax ; the wings are four, and eredt, or
they are wanting ; the feet are of the ambulatory
kind; and the belly often ends in two horns, from
which is ejected that moft delicate juice called Honey-
ddw See Honey-^w.
Linnaeus enumerates 33 fpecies of the aphis, all of
them inhabitants of particular plants, from which their
trivial names are taken ; as, aphis ribis, ulmi, rofa,
&c. : And he adds, that there feem to be a greater va¬
riety of plants producing aphides than there are dif¬
ferent forts of this infedt. But fome late obfervers have
been able to diltinguilh more than double the above
number of fpecies; and it is probable that many more
remain Hill to be added, as many of the fame kind of
plants are found to fupport two or three quite different
forts of aphides. Thus the plum-tree has two forts
very diftindl from each other: one of a yellowifh green,
with a round Ihort body ; the other of a bluifh green,
as it were enamelled with white, and the fhape more
oblong. On the goofeberry-bufh and currant the fame
aphides may be found; but each of thefe is inhabited
by two very different fpecies : one being of a dufky
green, with a fhort plump body ; the other of a paler
green, the body more taper, and tranfverfely wrink¬
led. The rofe-tree, again, fupports not lefs than three
diftindt fpecies : the largeft is of a deep green, having
long legs of a brownifh cafl, with the joints of a very
dark brown, as are alfo the horns and antennas; a fe-
cond fort is of a paler green, has much fhorter legs,
and a more flat body; the third fort is of a pale red,
its body tranfverfely wrinkled, and is moft frequently
on the fweet-briar.
The extraordinary nature of thefe infedts have for
fome time paft juftly excited the wonder and atten¬
tion of naturalifts. They were long ranked among
the animals which had been claffed with the true an¬
drogynes fpoken of by Mr Breynius : for having never
been catched copulating, it was haftily concluded that
they multiplied without copulation. This, however,
was but a doubt, or at beft a mere furmife : but this
furmife was believed and adopted by Mr Reaumur; and
tho’ he fupported it by fome obfervations peculiar to
himfelf, the queftion remained ftill undecided, till Mr
Bonnet feemed to have cleared it up in the affirmative,
by taking and fhutting up a young aphis at the inftant
of its birth, in the moft perfedt folitude, which yet
brought forth in his fight 95 young ones. The
fame experiment being made on one of the individuals
of this family, that had been tried with its chief, the
new hermit foon multiplied like its parent; and one (f
this third generation, in like manner brought up in fo¬
litude, proved no lefs fruitful than the former. Re¬
peated experiments, in this reipedl, as far as the fifth or
fixth generation, all uniformly prefenting the obfer-
ver with fecund virgins, were communicated to the
Royal Academy of Sciences; when an unforefeen and Aphlr.
very ftrange fufpicion, imparted by MrTrembley to Mr1——y—
Bonnet, engaged him anew in a feries of ftill more
painful experiments than the foregoing. In a letter
which that celebrated obferver wrote to him from the
Hague, the 27th January 1741, he thus expreffes him¬
felf: “ I formed, fince the month of November, the
defign of rearing feveral generations of folitary puce-
rons, in order to fee if they would all equally bring
forth young. In cafes fo remote from ufual circum-
ftances, it is allowed to try all forts of means ; and I
argued with myfelf. Who knows, but that one copula¬
tion might ferve for feveral generations i” This “ ivht
knows,” to be fure, was next to avouching nothing ;
but as it came from Mr Trembley, it was fufficient to
perfuade Mr Bonnet that he had not gone far enough
in his inveftigation. If the fecundity of aphides was
owing to the fecret copulation fuggeited by Mr Trem¬
bley ; this copulation ferved at leaft five or more fuccef-
five generations. Mr Bonnet therefore reared to the
amount of the tenth generation of folitary aphidesi
and had the patience to keep an account of the days
and hours of the births of each generation. In Ihort,
it was difeovered, That they are really diftinguifhed by
fexes: That there are males and females amongft them,
whofe amours are the leaft equivocal of any in the
world : that the males are produced only in the tenth
generation, and are but few in number : that thefe,
foon arriving at their full growth, copulate with the
females: that the virtue of this copulation ferves for
ten generations : that all theie generations, except
the hrft (from the fecundated eggs), are produced vi¬
viparous ; and all the individuals are females, except
thofe of the laft generations, among whom, as we have
already obferved, fome males make their appearance,
to lay the foundations of a frelh feries.—Thefe circum-
ftances have been confirmed by other naturalifts. In
particular, we have a curious and accurate detail of
them by Dr Richardibn of Rippon, in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfaftions, Vol. xi. art. 22. an extraft of which
we fhall here infert, in order to give the reader as full
an infight into the nature of theie Angular infedts, as
can be done by a mere detail of fads in theml'elves ut¬
terly unaccountable.
“ The great variety of fpecies which occur in the
infedts now under confideration, may make an inquiry
into their particular nature feem not a little perplexed;
having them, howe.yer, ikilfully reduced under their pro¬
per genus, the diificuky is by this means confiderably
diminiihed. All the infedfs comprehended under any
diftindl genus, we may reaibnably fuppofe to partake
of one general nature; and, by diligently examining
any of the particular fpecies, may thence gain fome
infight into the nature of all the reft. With this view
I have chofen, out of the various forts of aphides, the
largeft of thofe found on the rofe-tree ; not only as its
fize makes it the more confpicuous, but as there are
few others of fo long a duration. This fort, appearing
early in the fpring, continues late in the autumn;
while feveral are limited to a much Ihorter term, in
conformity to the differeht trees and plants from whence
they drew their nouriftiment.
1. “ If At the beginning of February the weather
happens to be fo warm as to make the buds of the
rofe-tree fwell and appear green; fmall aphides are
frequently to be found upon them, not larger than the
young
A P H
[ 115 ]
A P H
Aphis, young ones in fummer when firft produced. But there
being no old ones to be found at this time of the year,
which in fummer I had Obferved to be viviparous, I
was formerly not a little perplexed by fuch appearan¬
ces, and almoft induced to give credit to the old doc¬
trine of equivocal generation. That the fame kind of
animal fliould at one time of the year be viviparous,
and at another time oviparous, was an opinion 1 could
then by no means entertain. This, however, frequent
obfervation has at laft convinced me to be fad!; having
found thofe aphides which appear early in the fpring,
to proceed from fmall black oval eggs which were de-
pofned on the laft years ftioots in autumn : though,
when it happens that the infedts make too early an
appearance, I have obferved the greateft part to fuffer
from the fharp weather that ufually fucceeds, by which
means the rofe-trees are fome years in a manner freed
from them.
“ Thofe which withftand the feverity of the weather
feldom come to their full growth before the month of
April; at which time they ufually begin to breed, af¬
ter twice calling off their exuvise or outward covering.
It appears then that they are all females, which pro¬
duce each of them a very numerous progeny, and that
without having intercourfe with any male infedt. _ As
1 obferved before, they are viviparous; and what is e-
qually uncommon, the young ones all come into the
world backwards. When they firft come from the pa¬
rent, they are enveloped by a thin membrane, having
in this fituation the appearance of an oval egg; which,
I apprehend, mull have induced Reaumur to fufpedl
that the eggs difcovered by Bonnet were nothing more
than mere abortions. Thefe egg-like appearances ad¬
here by one extremity to the mother; while the young
ones contained in them extend the other; by that
means gradually drawing the ruptured membrane over
the head and body to the hind feet. During this o*
peration, and for fome time after, by means of fbme-
thing glutinous, the fore part of the head adheres to
the vent of the parent. Being thus fufpended in the
air, it foon frees itfelf from the membrane in which it
was confined, and, after its limbs are a little ftrengthen-
ed, is fet down on fome tender fhoot, and then left to
provide for itfelf.
2. “ In the fpring months, there appear on the rofe-
trees but two generations of aphides, including thofe
which immediately proceed from the laft year’s eggs ;
the warmth of the fummer-adds fo much to their ferti¬
lity, that no lefs than five generations fucceed one ano¬
ther in the interval. One is produced in May, which
calls otf its covering ; while the months of June and
July each fupply two more, which call off their cover¬
ings three or four times, according to the different
warmth of the feafon. This frequent change of the
outward covering is the more extraordinary, as it is
the ofteneft repeated when the infe&s come the fooneft
to their growth ; which I have fometimes obferved to
happen in ten days, where warmth and plenty of nou-
rilliment have mutually confpired. From which confi-
derations 1 am thoroughly convinced that thefe various
coverings are not connate with the infedt; but that
they are, like the fcarf-lkin, fucceffively produced.
“ Early in the month of June, fome of the third
generation which were produced about the middle of
May, after calling off their laft covering, difcover four
eredl wings, much longer than their bodtes ; and the Aphf*.
fame is obfervable in all the fucceeding generations,
which are produced during the fummer months; with¬
out, however, diflinguilhing any diverfity of fex, as
is ufual in feveral other kinds of infedls. For fome
time before the aphides come to their full growth, it is
eafy to difcover which of them will have wings, by a
remarkable fullnefs of the breaft, which, in the others,
is hardly to be diftinguilhed from the body. When
the laft covering is rejeifted, the wings, which were be¬
fore folded up in a very narrow compafs, gradually ex¬
tend themfelves in a moll furprifing manner, till their
dimenfions are at laft very confiderable. But thele
winged ones have the peculiarity, that the number of
them does not feem fo much to depend on their origi¬
nal ftrudture, as on the quantity or quality of the nou-
riftiment with which they are fupplied: it being fre¬
quently obferved, that thofe on a fucculent Ihoot have
few or none with wings among them, while others of
the fame generation, on a lefs tender branch, are moft
of them winged ; as if only the firft rudiments of wings
were compofed in the former, while nature thought
proper to expand them in the latter, that they might
be more at liberty to fupply their wants.
“ The increafe of thefe infedts in the fummer-time
is fo very great, that, by wounding and exhaufting the
tender Ihoots, they would frequently fupprefs all vege¬
tation, had they not many enemies which reftrain them.
To enumerate the variety of other infedts that in their
worm and fly ftate are conftantly deftroying them,
would exceed the bounds of the prefent defign : there
is one, however, fo Angular in the manner of executing
its purpofe, that I cannot pafs by it without fome fur¬
ther notice. This is a very fmall black ichneumon
fly, with a {lender body and very long antennas, which
darts its pointed tail into the bodies of the aphides, at
the fame time depofiting an egg in each. This egg
produces a worm, which feeds upon the containing in-
fedl till it attains its full growth ; when it is ulual¬
ly changed to that kind ot fly from whence it came,
in this, however, it is fometimes prevented by ano¬
ther fort of fmall black fly, which wounds this worm
through its pearl-like habitation; and by laying one
of its eggs therein, inftead of the former fly, produces
its own likenefs. I mull, however, further obferve,
notwithftanding thefe infedts have many enemies, they
are not without friends ; if we may confider thofe as
fuch who were very officious in their attendance, for the
good things they expedt to reap thereby. The ant
and the bee are both of this kind, colledling the ho¬
ney in which the aphides abound ; but with this dif¬
ference, that the ants are conftant vifitors, the bee only
when flowers are fcarce. To which let me alfo add,
that the ants will fuck in the delicious nedlar while
the aphides are in the adl of difcharging v it from the
anus ; but the bees only colledl it from the leaves on
which this honey-dew has fallen.
3. “In tire autumn I find three more generations
of aphides to be produced ; two of which make their
appearance in the month of Auguft, and the third
ufually appear before the middle of September. As
the two firlt differ in no refpedt from thofe which We
meet with in fummer, it would be wafting time to
dwell any longer upon them ; but the third, differing
greatly from all the reft, demands our giving it a more
P 2 ferious
A P H
Aphis, ferious attention. Though all the aphides which have
hitherto appeared were females, in this tenth genera¬
tion are found feveral male infeds; not that they are by
any means fo numerous as the females, being only pro¬
duced by a fmall number of the former generation.
To which I mull further add, that 1 have obferved
thofe which produce males, previoufly to have produced
a number of females ; which in all refpeds refembling
thofe already defcribed, I fhall decline taking into any
further confideration.
“ The females have at firft altogether the fame ap¬
pearance with thofe of the former generations ; but
in a few days their colour changes from a green to a
yellow, which is gradually converted into an orange
colour before they come to their full growth. They
differ likewife in another refpedt, at leaft from thofe
which occur in the fummer, that all thofe yellow fe¬
males are without wings. The male infeds are, how¬
ever, ftill more remarkable, their outward appearance
readily didinguifhing them from the females of this and
of all other generations. When firfl produced, they
are not of a green colour like the red, but of a red-
difh brown ; and have afterwards, when they begin
to thicken about the bread, a dark line along the mid¬
dle of the back. Thefe male infeds come to their full
growth in about three weeks time, and then cad off
their lad covering; the whole infed being, after this
operation, of a bright yellow colour, the wings only
excepted. But after this they foon change to a darker
yellow ; and in a few hours to a very dark brown ; if
we except the body, which is fomething lighter co¬
loured, and has a reddifh cad. They are all of the
winged fort: and the wings, which are white at fird,
foon become tranfparent, and at length appear like very
fine black gauze.
“ The males no fooner come to maturity than they
copulate with the females ; in which ad they are rea¬
dily difcovered, as they remain in conjundion for a
confiderable time, and are not eafily didurbed. The
commerce between them continues the whole month of
October, and may be obferved at all times of the day,
though I have found it mod frequent about noon ; e-
fpecially when the weather is moderately warm, and
the fun overcad. The females, in a day or two after
their intercourfe with the males, I have obferved to
lay their eggs ; which they ufually do near the buds,
when they are left to their own choice. Where there
are a number crowded together, they of courfe inter¬
fere with each other ; in which cafe they will frequent¬
ly depolite their eggs on other parts of the branches,
or even on the {pines with which they are befet.’’
Thefe infeds are found in great numbers not only
on the dems and leaves, but even upon roots of many
SeePlate I. t;rees an(j plants. Thofe trees that are mod loaded
(vcl. i.) ^11 the infeds, as already obferved, futfer greatly from
tiiem. The plant-lice thrud their diarp-pointed rodrum
into the fubdance of the leaf to draw out their fude-
nance, which wraps the dems and leaves, and occafions
in rhe latter cavities undern'eath, and dwellings above ;
nay, even in fome, a kind of hollow gall filled with in¬
feds, as is often feen on elm-leaves.
It appears adonilhing that the dight pundure of fo
fmall an animal fhould fo greatly disfigure a plant:
but it mud be remembered, that plant-lice always live
in numerous allocutions, which increafe vifibly by the
A P H
prodigious fruitfulnefs of thofe infeds ; fo that although Aphlaftum
each pundure be flight, yet the number of them is fo' t
great, fo reiterated, that it is no longer a wonder the Aphrodita.
leaves fliould be disfigured. Lovers of gardening and v ' ■
plants are extremely anxious to free and cleanfe, their
trees from this vermin ; but their care often proves
unavailing, the infed is fo fruitful that it foon produ¬
ces a frelh colony. The bed and fured method of ex¬
tirpating it is to put on the trees infeded with them
fome larvae of the plant-loufe lion, or aphidivorous
flies # ; for thofe voracious larvae dedroy every day a* See Coc~
great number of the infeds, and that with fo much^”'^^*
the more facility, as the latter remain quiet and mo
tionlefs in the neighbourhood of thefe dangerous ene- *
mies, who range over heaps of plant-lice, which they
gradually wade and diminifli.
APHLASTUM, in the ancient navigation, a
wooden ornament, lhaped like a plume of feathers,
fadened on the goofe’s or fwan’s neck ufed by the an¬
cient Greeks in the heads of their {hips. The aphla-
dum had much the fame office and effed in a fhip that
the crell had on the helmet. It feems alfo to have had
this further ufe, viz. by the waving of a party-coloured
ribband fadened to it, to indicate from what quarter
the wind blew.
APHONIA, among phyficians, fignifies a fuppref-
fion or total lofs of voice. It is never a primary dif-
eafe; but a confequence of many different diforders.
The cure is to be effeded by removing the diforder
from whence the aphonia proceeds.
APHORISM, a maxim or principle of a fcience;
or a fentence which comprehends a great deal in a few
words. The word comes from apofxfu, / feparati';
q. d. a choice or feled fentence.—The term is chiefly
ufed in medicine and law. We fay the aphorifms of
Hippocrates, of Sandorius, of Boerhaave, &c. apho¬
rifms of the civil law, &c.
APHRACTI, in the ancient military art, denotes
open veflels, without decks or hatches, furniflied only
at head and dem with crofs planks, whereon the men
flood to fight.
APHRODISIA* in antiquity, feflivals kept in ho¬
nour of Venus, the moft remarkable of which was that
celebrated by the Cyprians. At this folemnity feveral
myfterious rites were pradifed: all who were initiated
to them offered a piece of money to Venus as an har¬
lot, and received as a token of the goddefs’s favour a
meafure of fait, and a paxxof, the former, becaufe fait
is aconcretion of fea-water, to which Venus was thought
to owe her birth ; the latter, becaufe ihe was the god-
defs of wantonnefs,
APHRODISIACS, among phyficians, medicines
which increafe the quantity of femen, and create an in¬
clination to venery.
APHRODIT A, in zoology, an infed of the order
of vermes mollufca. The body of the aphrodita is
oval, with many fmall tentacula or protuberances on
each fide, which ferve as fo many feet': The mouth is
cylindrical at one end of the body, and capable of
being retraded, with two'briflly tentacular. There are
four fpecies of this infed ; viz. i. The aculeata, by
fpme called thewith 32 tentacula or feet,
an inhabitant of the European feas, and often found
in the belly of the eod-fifh. It feeds upon fliell-fifli.
See plate XV. fig. 4, 2.The fcabra, of an oblong fhape,
fcabrous
[ ”6 1
API t 117 ] API
Aphrodite'{cab rous on the back, with 20 tentacula. It inhabits of his principal works was his Antiquities of E- Apis.
.1 the Belgic fea. It is fometimes taken oif Brighthelm- gypt. 1 v
AP'lon- {{one, an inch long. 3. The fquamata, with 24 feet, APIS, in mythology, a divinity worfhipped by the
ancj fcaly on the back. The mouth is wrapt up in an ancient Egyptians at Memphis. It was an ox, having
aperture., and the tail is terminated by a few very fhort certain exterior marks; in which animal the foul of
briftles. It inhabits the European ocean. 4. The the great Ofiris was fuppofed to fubfift. This animal
imbricata, is very like the former, only its fcales are had the preference to all others, as being the fymbol of
more glabrous. It inhabits the northern ocean. agriculture, the improvement of which that prince had
APHRODITE, in mythology, a name of Venus, fo much at heart,
derived from «pp°c, frath ; becaufe, according to the According to feveral learned writers on the Egyp-
poets, Venus is fuppofed'to have been produced from tian religion, Apis was only a fymbolical deity. “ A-
the froth or foam of the fea. mongd the animals confecrated to ancient rites (fays
APHRONITRE, in natural hiftory, a name given Ammianus Marcellinus), Mnevis and Apis are the moft
by the ancients to a particular kind of natrum. celebrated : the firil is an emblem of the fun, the fe-
APHTH/E, in medicine, fmall, round, and fuper- cond of the moon.” Prophyry tells us, that Apis bore
ficial ulcers arifing in the mouth. See Medicine- the charaAferidic figns of the two ftars; and Macro-
Inckx. bius who confirms this opinion, adds, that he was
APHTHARTODOCETAC, a fed fwora enemies equally confecrated to them both,
of the council of Chalcedon. The word is derived This bull, become the objed of public adoration, it
from incorruptible, -xadL Imagine; and may be fuppofed, could not be born like other animals ;
was given them, becaufe they imagined the body of accordingly the priefts publiflied that his origin was
Jefus Chrift was incorruptible and impaffible, and not celeltial. “ An Apis is feldom born, fays Pomponius
capable of death. They arofe among the Eutychians, Mela. He is not produced by the ordinary laws of
and made their firft appearance in the year 535. generation. The Egyptians fay he owes his birth to
APHYLLANTHES,leafless flower, or blue celeftial fire.” Plutarch explains this paflage : “ The
Montpellier pink : A genus of the monogynia or- prietts pretend that the moon diffufes a generative in-
der, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants; and in fluence, and as foon as a cow who takes the bull is
the natural method ranking under the 5th order, Te- Itruck by it, fhe conceives an Apis. Accordingly we
trapetalcidcs. In charader it differs not from the difcover in him the figns of that liar.”
Juncus or rufli, but in having a calyx of fix petals, ouch were the fables indulirioufly fpread by thofe
whereas the juncus has no calyx. There is only one who prefided over the divine inlfithtions. The vulgar,
fpecies, the Monfpelienfes, a native of France. The to whom this emblematical deity prefaged abundance,
root confifts of a number of flender, hard, woody, long, received them eagerly, and implicitly believed them,
and contorted fibres : the radical leaves are very nume- Pliny has defcribed the charaders which difiinguifhed
rous, two inches long, extremely narrow, and wither this facred bull: “ A white fpot, refembling a cref-
very quickly. The ftalk is round, fmooth, without a cent, on the right fide, and a lump under the tongue,
joint or knot, naked, and tolerably firm ; at its top were the diitinguilhing marks of Apis.” When a cow,
ftands a fingle and very beautiful blue flower, arifing therefore, which was thought to be ftruck with the
from a kind of compound imbricated cup. rays of the moon, produced a calf, the facred guides
APIARY, a place where bees are kept. See the went to examine it, and if they found it conformable
article Bee. to this defcription, they announced to the people the
APIASTER, in ornithology, the trivial name of birth of Apis, and fecundity,
a fpecies of the merops. See Merops. “ Immediately (fays Aslian), they built a temple to
APICES, in botany, the lame with Antherte. tlie new god, facing the rifing fun, according to the
APICIUS. There were at Rome three of that precepts of Mercury, where they nourilhed him with
name, famous for their gluttony: thefecond is themoft milk for four months. This term expired, the prieits
celebrated of the three. He lived under Tiberius, repaired in pomp to his habitation, and faluted him by
fpent immenfe fums on his belly, and invented divers the name of Apis. They then placed him in a veffel
forts of cakes which bore his name. He kept as it magnificently decorated, covered with rich tapeflry,
were a fchool of gluttony at Rome. After having andrefplendentwithgold,andcondu£tedhimtoNilo-
fpent two millions and a half in entertainments, finding polls, finging hymns, and burning perfumes. There
himfelf very much in debt, he examined into the ftate they kept him for forty days. During this fpace of
of his affairs ; and feeing that he had but 250,000 li- time, women alone had permiflion to fee him, and fa-
vres remaining, he poifoned himfelf, out of apprehenfion luted him in a particular manner. After the inaugu-
of ilarving with fuch a fum. He had proflituted him- ration of the god in this city, he was conveyed to
felf when very young to Sejanus. Memphis with the fame retinue, followed by an innu-
APiNA, or Apinee, a town of Apulia, built by merable quantity of boats, fumptuoufly decked out.
Diomedes, as was alfo Tricae, (Pliny). and There they completed the ceremonies ol his inaugura-
Tricte is a proverbial faying for things trifling and of tion, and he became facred to all the world. Apis was
no value, (Martial); and A; was the appellation fuperbly lodged, and the place where he lay was my-
for triflers or buffoons, (Trebellius Pollio.) ftically called Strabo having vilited his pa-
APION, a famous grammarian, born in Egypt, lace, thus defcribes it: “ The edifice where Apis is
was a profeflbr at Rome in the reign of Tiberius. He kept, is fituated near the temple of Vulcan. He is fed
had all the arrogance of a mere pedant, and amufed in a fecred apartment, before which is a large court,
himfelf with difficult and infignificant inquiries. One The houfe in which they .keep tire cow that produced
him.
API [ i
Apis, him, occupies one of its fides. Sometimes, to fa-
"~v~" tisfy the curiofity of ftrangers, they make him go
out into this court. One may fee him at all times
through a window; but the priefts produce him alfb
to public view.” Once a year (fays Solinus) they
refent a heifer to him, and the fame day they kill
er.
A bull, bom in fo marvellous a manner, muft be
poilefled of fupernatural knowledge. Accordingly the
priefts publiflied, that he predicted future events by
Seftures, by motions, and other ways, which they con-
rued according to their fancy. “ Apius (fays Pliny)
has two temples called Bids, which ferve as an augury
for the people. When they come to confult him, if
he enters into a particular one, it is a favourable pre-
fage, and fatal if he palfes into the other. He gives
anfwers to individuals by taking food from their hands.
He refufed that offered him by Germanicus, who died
foon after.” It would be unjuft to conclude, that this
refpe&able writer gave credit to fuch auguries. He
relates the opinion of the Egyptians, and contents
himfelf with citing fads without offering his judg¬
ment.
Such was the inftallation of Apis. His anniverfary
was always celebrated for feven days. The people af-
fembled to offer facrifices to him, and what is extraor¬
dinary, oxen were immolated on the occaiion. This
folemnity did not pafs without prodigies. Ammianus
Marcellinus, who has collated the teftimonies of the
ancients, relates them in thefe words: “ During the
feven days in which the priefts of Memphis celebrate
the birth of Apis, the crocodiles forget their natural
ferocity, become gentle, and do no harm to any
body.”
This bull, however, fo honoured, muft not exceed
a myfterious term fixed for his life. “ Apis (fays
Pliny) cannot live beyond a certain number of years.
When he has attained that period they drown him in
the fountain of the priefts; for it is not permitted,
adds Ammianus Marcellinus, to let him prolong his
life beyond the period prefcribed for him by the facred
books.” When this event happened, he was embalm¬
ed, and privately let down into the fubterraneous pla¬
ces deftined for that purpofe. In this circumftance,
the priefts announced that Apis had difappeared ; but
when he died a natural death, before this period arri¬
ved, they proclaimed his death, and folemnly convey¬
ed his body, to the temple of Sejrapis.
“ At Memphis was an ancient temple of Serapis,
which ftrangers were forbidden to approach, and where
the priefts themfelves only entered when Apis was in¬
terred. It was then (fays Plutarch) that they opened
the gates called Lethes and C'ey the (of oblivion and la¬
mentation), which made a harfti and piercing found.”
Ammianus Marcellinus, and Solinus, paint with great
energy the general defpair of the Egyptians, who w ith
cries and lamentations demanded another Apis from
heaven.
According to Plutarch, the term prefcribed for the
life of Apis was 2$ years; which number marked a
period of the fun and of the moon, and the bull was
confecrated to thefe two bodies. Syncellius, in his
Chronography, when he comes down to the 3ad Pha¬
raoh, called .djeth, fays, u Before Afeth, the.folar year
confuted of 360 days. This prince added five to com-
8 ] API
plete its courfe. In his reign a calf was placed amongft Apis,
the gods, and named Jpis” And in the Bibliotheca1——V"-
of Fabricius we have the following paifage: “ It was
cuftomary to inaugurate the kings of Egypt at Mem¬
phis, in the temple of Apis. They were here firft
initiated in the myfteries, and were religioufly inveft-
ed ; after which, they were permitted to bear the yoke
of God, through a town to a place called the Sanfluary,
the entrance of which was prohibited to the profane.
There they were obliged to fwear that they would nei¬
ther infert months nor days in the year, and thdt it
ftiould remain compofed of 365 days, as had been efta-
bliihed by the ancients.”—From thefe faefts Mr Sava-
ry, in his letters on Egypt, infers, that Apis was the
tutelary divinity of the new form given to the folar
year, and of the cycle of 25 years, difeovered at the
fame time. This deity, befides, had a marked rela¬
tion to the fwelling of the Nile, as is teitified by a great
number of hiftorians. The new moon which followed
the fummer folftice, was the aera of this phenomenon,
on which the eyes of every body were fixed: And
Pliny fpeaks as follows on this fubjedl: “ Apis had on
his right fide a white mark, reprefenting the crefeent:
This mark (continues ifdian) indicated the commence¬
ment of the inundation.” If Apis poffeffed the cha-
rafteriftic figns which proved his divine origin, he
promifed fertility and abundance of die fruits of the
earth. It feems demonftrated, therefore, Mr Savary
adds, that this facred bull, the guardian of the folar
year of 365 days, was alfo regarded as the genius who
prefided over the overflowing of the river. The priefts,
by fixing the courfe of his life to 25 years, and by ma¬
king the inftallation of a new Apis, concur with the
renewal of the period above mentioned, had probably
perceived, as the refult of long meteorological obferva-
tions, that this revolution always brought about abun¬
dant feafons. Nothing was better calculated to pro¬
cure a favourable reception of this emblematical deity
from the people, fince his birth was a prefage to them
of a happy inundation, and of all the treafures of teem-
ingnature.
The folemnity of this inauguration was called Appa¬
rition. That which was renewed every year towards-
the 12th or 13th of the month Payn, which corre-
fponds with the 17th or 18th of June, was called the
birth of Apis. It was a time of rejoicing, which -/Elian
deferibes in the following manner: “ What feftivals 1
what facrifices take place in Egypt at the commence¬
ment of the inundation ! It is then that all the people
celebrate the birth of Apis. It w'ould be tedious to
deferibe the dances, the rejoicings, the fhews, the ban¬
quets, to which the Egyptians abandon themfelves on
this occafion, and impoflible to exprefs the intoxication
of joy which breaks forth in all the towns of the king¬
dom.”
Thefe obfervations Mr Savary thinks further con¬
firmed- by the name of this refpeffable bull; A pi, in
thfe Egyptian tongue, fignifying number, meafure.
This epithet perfe/flly chara/fterizes an animal eftablifti-
ed as the guardian of the folar year, the type of the-
cycle of 25 years, and the prefage of a favourable in¬
undation.
Monfieur Heut, Bilhop of Avranche, has endea¬
voured to prove that Apis wras a fymbolical image of
thq Patriarch Jofeph, and has fupported his opinion
with
API [ I!
Apis, with aU his erudition. Dr Bryant apprehends that the
"v~—' name of dph was an Egyptian term for a father; that
it referred to the Patriarch Noah; and that the cref-
cent which was ufually marked on the fide of the ani¬
mal, was a reprefentation of the ark.
APIS, or Bee, in zoology, a genus of infetts
belonging to the order of infefta hymenoptera. The
mouth is fumifhed w ith tw?o jaws, and a probofcis in¬
folded in a double fheath ; the wings are four in num¬
ber, the two foremoft covering thofe behind when at
reft: In the anus or tail of the females and working
bees there is a hidden fting.
Thefe infefts are diftinguilhed into feveral fpecies,
each of which has its peculiar genius, talent, manners,
and difpofition. Variety prevails in the order of their
architefture, and in the nature of their materials.
Some live in fociety, and Ihare the toils ; fuch are the
common bee and the drone. Others dwell and work
in folitude, building the cradles of their families ; as
the leaf-cutter bee does with the rofe-tree leaf; the up-
holfterer with the gaudy tapeftry of the corn-ro'fe ; the
mafon-bee with a plafter, the wrood-piercer with faw-
duft. All are employed in their little hermitage, with
the care of providing for the wants of their pofterity.
—The fpecies enumerated by Linnaeus are no fewer
than 55 ; of which the following are the moft remark¬
able :—
i. The florifomnis, or black bee with a cylindrical
incurvated belly, having two tooth-like protuberances
at the anus, and a kind of prickles on the hind-legs.
This bee fleeps in flowers. 2. The dentata, or Aiming
green bee, with black wirigs, and a kind of teeth on
the hind thighs. The tongue of this bee is almoft as
long as its body. 3. The variegata; the breaft and
belly are variegated with white and black fpots; the
legs are of an iron colour. It is a native of Europe.
This fpecies fleeps in the geranium phaeum, or fpotted
crane’s-bill. 4. The roftrata is diftinguifhed by the
upper-lip being infle&ed and of a conical fliape, and
by the belly being invefted with bluifli belts. They
build their nefts in high fandy grounds, and there is
but one young in each neft. 5. The ferruginea, or
fmooth black bee, w'ith the feelers, mouth, belly, and
feet of an iron colour. This is a fmall bee, and fup-
pofed to be of an intermediate kind between the bee
and vafp. It is a native of Europe. 6. The cariofa
is a yellowiih hairy bee; and the feet and front are of
a bright yellow colour. It builds in the rotten trees
of Europe. 7. The brafilianorum, or pale-red hairy
bee, with the bafis of the thighs black. This is a very
large bee, every where covered w ith a teftaceous Ikin.
It is a native of America. 8. The lapidaria, or red
hairy bee, with a yellow anus, builds in holes of rocks.
9. The terreftris is black and hairy, with a white belt
round the breaft, and a white anus : it builds its neft
Very deep in the earth. 1 o. The violacea is a red bee,
and very hairy, with bluifti wings. It is a native of
Europe. The violacea is faid to perforate trees, and
hollow them out in a longitudinal direction; they be¬
gin to build their cells at the bottom of thefe holes,
and depofite an egg in each cell, which is compofed of
the farina of plants and honey or a kind of gluten.
11. The mufcorum, or yellow hairy bee with a white
belly, builds in moify grounds. The Ikill difplayed by
thefe builders is admirable. In order to enjoy the
9 1 API
pleafure of feeing their operations, let a neft be taken Apis,
to pieces, and the mofs conveyed to a diftance. The—v—*“■*
bees will be feen to form themfelves into a chain, from
their neft to the place where the mofs has been laid.
The foremoft lays hold of fome with her teeth, clears,
it bit by bit with her feet (which circumftance has alfa
otten them the name of carding-bees), then, by the
elp of her feet, ftie drives the unravelled mofs under
her belly; the fecond, in like manner, pufties it on to
the third. Thus there is formed an uninterrupted
chain of mofs, which is wrought and interwoven with
the greateft dexterity by thofe that abide by the neft ;
and to the end, their neft may not be the fport of the
winds, and may flicker them from rain, they throw an
arch over it, which they compofe with a kind of wax,
tenacious, though thin in fubftance, which is neither
the unwrought bees-wax nor the real wax. Dilfolved
in oil of turpentine, it may be ufed in taking off im-
preflions. 12. The centuncularis, leaf-cutter, or black
bee, having its belly covered with yellow down. The
nefts of this fpecies are made of leaves curioufly plaited
in the form of a matt or quilt. There are feveral va¬
rieties of the leaf-cutting bees, all equally induftrious.
They dig into the ground, and build their nefts, of
which fome have the form and fxze of thimbles inferted
one within another, others the fliape and fize of goofe-
quills. Thefe nefts are compofed of pieces of leaves.
Each fort of bees cut into its own materials ; fome the
rofe-tree leaf, others the horfe cheftmt. A careful
obferver may difcover rofe-tree leaves cut as it were
with a pinking iron; and there he may procure him-
felf the pleafure of feeing with what dexterity a bee,
deftitute of any mathematical inftrument, cuts out a
circular piece, fit to be either the bottom or the lid
of one of thofe nefts ; others it cuts out into ovals and
femi-ovals, which form the fides of the nefts, into each
of which it depofites one egg with ready prepared vic¬
tuals. 13. The mellifica, or domeftic honey-bee. But
the particulars concerning this valuable fpecies are ft?
numerous and interefting as to require a feparate article
for their detail; which the reader will therefore find at
due length under the Englifti or popular name Bee.
In the Philofophical Tranfadtions, N°I72*. we have#yoil.6g,
an account of a fpecies of honey-bee found in fome
parts of America, very different in form and manners
from the common bee of Europe. Their combs are
compofed of a feries of fmall bottles or bladders of wax,
of a dulky brown or blackilh colour; and each of thefe
is much of the fize and Ihape of a Spanifti olive. They Plate LVIi
hang together in clufters, almoft like a bunch of grapes,
and are fo contrived, that each of them has its aper¬
ture, while the bees are at work upon it; but as foon
as it is filled with honey, this aperture is clofed, and
the bees leave it, and go to work upon another vefl'el.
Their lodgings are ufually taken up in the hollow of an
old tree, or in fome cavity of a rock by the fea-fide.
They are fagacious in choofing the moft fecure retreats,
becaufe their honey is fo delicious a bait, that they are
hunted after by many animals; and they have no power
of defending themfelves, having no flings as our bees
have. The combs are brittle; and the honey is clear
and liquid like rock-water. It is ufed by the natives
rather as a drink with their food than as honey. They
ufe it alfo in medicine as a purge, drinking half a pint
of it in the morning failing.
The
API [ I2d ] A P 0
Apis, The Abbe Clavigero, in his hiPcory of Mexico,
Apium. mentions a fpecies limilar in every refpect to ours, but
 « 1 without the fling. This is the bee of Yucatan and
Chiapa, which makes the fine clear honey of Ejiaben-
tun, of an aromatic flavour, fuperior to that of all
the other kinds of honey with which we are acquaint¬
ed. The honey is taken from them fix times a-year,
that is, once in every other month ; but the belt is
that which is got in November, being made from a
fragrant white flower like jeffamine, which blows in Sep¬
tember, called in that country Efiabentun, from which
the honey has derived its name. This honey, is faid
to be in high eftimation with the Europeans who touch
at the ports of Yucatan. According to our author,
the French of Guarico buy it fometimes for the pur-
pofe of fending it as a prefent to the king. Another
fpecies defcribed by the fame author, refembles in its
form the winged ants, but is fmaller than the common
bee and without a fling. This infe<5t, which is pecu¬
liar to warm and temperate climates, forms nefls in fize
and fhape refembling fugar-loaves, and even fometimes
greatly exceeding thefe in fize, which are fufpended
from rocks, or from trees, and particularly from the
oak. The popiiloufnefs of thefe hives are much great¬
er than thofe of the common bee. The nymphs of
this bee, which are eatable, are white and round, like
a pearl. The honey is of a greyifh colour, but of a
fine flavour.
APIUM, parsley : A genus of the digynia order,
belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 45th order, Umbel-
lata. The fruit is of an oval fhape, and flreaked ;
the involucrum confifls of one leaf; and the petals are
infledted. There are only two fpecies of apium ; the
petrofelinum, or common parfley, a native of Sardinia ;
and the graveolens, or fmallage, a native of Britain :
the culture of both which are well known.
Medicinal Ufa, &c. The roots and feeds of the pe¬
trofelinum are ufed in medicine. The root of parfley
is one of the five aperient roots, and in this intention
.its fometimes made an ingredient in apozems and diet-
drinks : if liberally ufed, it is apt to occafion flatulen¬
cies ; and thus, by diftending the vifcera, produces a
contrary effedt to that intended by it; the talle of this
root is fomewhat fweetilh, with a light degree of
warmth and aromatic flavour. The feeds are an ingre¬
dient in the eledluary of bay-berries.—The roots of
fmallage are alfo in the number of aperient roots, and
have been fometimes prefcribed as an ingredient in ape¬
rient apozems and diet-drinks, but are at prefent dif-
regarded. The feeds of the plant are moderately aro¬
matic, and were formerly ufed as carminatives; in
which intention they are, doubtlefs, capable of doing
fervice, though the other Warm feed's, which the fliops
are furnifhed with, render thefe 'unneceflary ; and ac¬
cordingly the Edinburgh college, which retains the
roots, has expunged the feeds.
Befides its medicinal virtues above mentioned, the
common parfley is reckoned an effedlual cure for the
rot in Iheep, provided they are fed with it twice a-
week for two or three hours each time : but hares and
rabbits, are fo fond of this herb, that they will come
from a great diilance to feed upon it; and in the
countries where thefe animals abound, they will de--
NQ 23..
ftroy it if not very fecurely fenced againfl them ; fb Apirorur
that whoever has a mind to have plenty of hares in U -
their fields, may dtaw them from all parts of the coun-, pocu ypf*
try by cultivating parffey.
ARIVQRUS, in ornithology, a fynonime of a fpe¬
cies of falco. See Falco.
APLUDA: A genus of the moncecia order, be¬
longing to the polygamia clafs of plants; and in the
natural method ranking under the 4th order, Granina.
The calyx is a bivalved'gluiha; the flofcules cf the fe¬
male are feffile, and the male flofcules are fumifhed
with pedunculi; tire female has no calyx ; the corolla
has a double valve ; there is but one llylus, and one
covered feed. The male has three ftamina. There
are three fpecies of apluda, viz. the mutica, ariftata,
and zengites, all natives of the Indies.
APOBATANA, the metropolis of Media, and
where the kings kept their treafure (Ifidorus Chara-
cenus); fuppofed to be the fame with Ecbatana.
APOBATERION, in antiquity, a valedictory fpeech
or poem made by a perfon on departing out of his-
own country, and addreffed to his friends or relations.
APOBATHRA, a place near Seftos (Strabo);
the landing place where Xerxes’s fliips were frozen
and ftuck in the ice (Euftathius).
APOCALYPSE, Revelation, the name of one
of the facred books of the New Teftament, containing-
revelations concerning feveral important dodtrines of
Chriftianity. The word is Greek, and derived from
a-maL\\jrTv, to reveal, or difcover.
This book, according to Irenseus, was written a-
bout the year 96 of Chrift, in the ifland of Patmosr
whither St John had been banifhed by the emperor
Domitian. But Sir Ifaac Newton places the writing
of it earlier, viz. in the time of Nero. Some attri¬
bute this book to the arch-heretic Cerinthus : but the
ancients unanimoufly afcribed it to John, the fon of
Zebedee, and brother of James ; whom the Greek fa¬
thers call the Divine, by way of eminence, to diftin-
guifti him from the other evangelifts. This book has
not, at all times, been efteemed canonical. There
were many churches in Greece, as St Jerome informs
us, which did not receive it; neither is it in the cata¬
logue of canonical books prepared by the council ’of
Laodicea, nor in that of St Cyril of Jerufalem: but:
Juftin, Irenaeus, Origen, Cyprian, Clemens of Alex¬
andria, Tertullian, and all the fathers of the fourth,,
fifth, and the following centuries, quote the Revela¬
tions as a book then acknowledged to be canonical.
The Alogians, Marcionites, Cerdonians, and Luther
himfelf rejected this book: but the Prote Hants have,
fbrfaken Luther in this particular; and Beza has
flrongly maintained againil his objedlions, that the A-
pocalypfe is authentic and canonical.
The Apocalypfe confifts of twenty-two chapters-
The three fir ft are an inftrudion to the bifhops of the
feven chui ehes of Afia Minor. The fifteen, following
chapters contain the perfecutions which the church was
to fulfer from the Jews, heretics, and Roman empe-.
rors. Next St John prophefies of the vengeance of
God, which he will exercife agalnft thofe perfecutors,,
agaihll the Roman empire, and the city of Rome;
which, as the Proteftants fuppofe, he describes under
the. name of Babylon the great whore, feated upon
fey-em
A P O t i
Apocalypfe feven hills. In thelaft place, the 19th, 2oth, 21 ft, and
I 22d chapters, defcribe the triumph of the church over
. P0C^yPia; its enemies, the marriage of the Lamb, and the hap-
v pinefs of the church triumphant.
“ It is a part of this prophecy (fays Sir Ifaac New¬
ton), that it ftiould not be underftood before the laft age
of the world ; and therefore it makes for the credit of
the prophecy, that it is not yet underftood. The folly
of interpreters has been to foretel times and things
by this prophecy, as if God defigned to make them
prophets. By this raftmefs they have not only expofed
themfelves, but brought the prophecy alfo into con¬
tempt. The deiign of God was much otherwife : He
gave this and the prophecies of the Old Teftament,
not to gratify mens curiofities, by enabling them to
foreknow things: but that, after they were fulfilled,
they might be interpreted by the events ; and his own
providence, not the interpreters, be then manifefted
thereby to the world. And there is already fo much
of the prophecy fulfilled, that as many as will take
pains in this ftudy, may fee fufficient inftances of God’s
providence.”
There have been feveral other works publiihed un¬
der the title of dpocalypfts. Sozomen mentions a
book ufed in the churches of Paleftine, called the A-
poctlypfe, or Revelation of St Peter. He alfo men¬
tions an Apocalypfe of St Paul; which the Coph-
tae retain to this day. Ettfebius alfo fpeaks of both
thefe Apocalypfes. St Epiphanius mentions an Apo¬
calypfe of Adam ; Nicephorus, an Apocalypfe of Ef-
dras: Gratian and Cedrenus, an Apocalypfe of Mofes,
another of St Thomas, and another of St Stephen ;
St Jerom, an Apocalypfe of Elias. Porphyry, in his
life of Plotin, makes mention of the Apocalypfe or
Revelations of Zoroafter, Zoftrian, Nicothaeus, Allo-
genes, &c.
APOCOPE, among grammarians, a figure which
cuts off a letter or fyllable from the end of a word ;
as ingc7it for ingenii.
APOCRISARIUS, in ecclefiaftical antiquity, a
fort of refident in an imperial city, in the name of a
foreign church or biftiop, whofe office. was to nego-
ciate, as pro<5tor, at the emperor’s court, in all eccle¬
fiaftical caufes in which his principals might be con¬
cerned. The inftitution of the office feems to have
been in the time of Conftantine, or not long after,
when, the emperors being become Chriftians, foreign
churches had more occafions to promote their fuits at
court than formerly. However, we find it eftablifhed
by law in the time of Juftinian. In imitation of this
officer, almoft every monaftery had its Apocrifarius,.
or refident, in the imperial city.
The title and quality of Apocrifary became at length
appropriated to the Pope’s agent, or Nuncio, as he is
now called ; who refided at Conftantinople, to receive
the Pope’s difpatches, and the emperor’s anfwers. The
■word is formed from At^i*s<», to anfwer.
APOCRUST1CS, in medicine, the fame with repel¬
lents. See Repellents.
APOCRYPHA, orAPOCRYPHALBOOKSjfuch books
as are not admitted into the canon of fcripture, being
either not acknowledged as divine, or confidered as
fpurious. The word is Greek ; and derived from ««®,
and y-pnpra to hide ox conceal.
When the Jews publiftied their facred books, they
Voi. II.. Part. I,
21 ] A P O
gave the appellations of canonical and divine only to Apocrypha
fuch as they then made public.: fuch as were ftill re- Apocynum.
tained in their archives they called apocryphal, for no v
other reafon but becaufe they were not public ; fo
that they might be really facred and divine, though not
promulged as fuch.
Thus, in relpedt of the Bible, all books were called
apocryphal which were not inferred in the Jewifh canon
of fcripture. Voffius obferves, that, with regard to
the facred books, none are to be accounted apocry¬
phal, except fuch as had neither been admitted into
the fynagogue nor tire church, fo as to be added to the
canon, and read in public.
The Proteftants do not only reckon thofe books to
be apocryphal which are efteemed fuch in the church
of Rome, as the prayer of Manaffeh king of Judath,
the third and fourth books of Efdras, St Barnabas’s
epiftle, the book of Hermos, the addition at the end
of Job, and the 151ft pfalm; but alfo Tobit, Judith,
Efter, the book of Wifdom, Jefus the fon of Sirah,-
Baruch the prophet, the Song of the Three Children,
the hiftory of Sulannah, the hiftory of Bell and the
Dragon, and the firft and fecond books of Maccabees.
It is now pretended that thefe books tvere not recei¬
ved by the Jews, or fo much as known to them. None
of the writers of the New Teftament cite or mention
them : neither Philo nor Jofephus fpeak of them. The
Chriftian church was for fome ages an utter ftranger
to thefe books. Origen, Athanafius, Hilary, Cyril
of Jerufalem, and all the orthodox writers, who have
given catalogues of the canonical books of fcripture;
unanimoufly concur in rejecting thefe out of the canon.
And for the New Teftament, they are divided in their
opinions, whether the epiftle to the Hebrews, the e •
piftle of St James, and the fecond epiftle of St Peter,
the fecond and third epiftles of St John, the epiftle of
St Jude, and die Revelations, are to be acknowledged
as canonical or not.
The Proteftants acknowledge fuch books of fcripture
only to be canonical as were fo efteemed to be in the
firft ages of the church; fuch as are cited by the ear-
lieft writers among the Chriftians as of divine authori¬
ty, and after the moft diligent enquiry were received
and fo judged to be by the council of Laodicea. The
feveral epiftles abovementioned, and the book of Re¬
velations, whatever the fentiments of fome particular
perfons are or may have been of them, are allowed by
all the reformed churches to be parts of the canon- of
the New Teftament.
The apocryphal books, however, according to the
fixth article of the church of England, are to be read
for example of life and inftnnftion of manners ; but it
doth not apply them to eftablifh any do&rine.
APOCYNUM, (Aa-oxufovj of a™ and a dog, be¬
caufe the ancients believed this plant would kill dogs),-
Dogsban e : A genus of the digynia order, belonging
to the pentandria olafs of plants ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 30th order Content#. The
effential characters are : The corolla is beil-ftiaped; and
the filaments are five, alternate with the ftamina.
Species. Of this genus botanical writers enumerate
11 fpecies ; of which the following are the moft re¬
markable : 1. The venetum, with an upright herbace¬
ous ftalk, grows on a fmall ifiand in the lea near Ve¬
nice, but is fuppofed to have been originally, brought
from--
A P O [ 122 ] A P O
Apocynumfrom Tome other country.- There are two varieties of
this ; one with a purple, and the other with a white
flower. The roots creep very much, and by them only
it is propagated ; for it feldom produces any feeds ei¬
ther in the gardens where it is cultivated, or in thofe
places where it grows naturally. Mr Miller tells us,
that he had been aflured by a very curious botanifl, who
refxded many years at Venice, and conftantly went to
the fpot feveral times in the feafon to procure the feeds,
had any been produced, that he never could find any
pods formed on the plants. The ftalks rife about two
feet high, and are gamiihed with fmooth oval leaves
placed oppofite; the flowers grow at the top of the
ilalks, in fmall umbels, and make a very pretty appear¬
ance. The flowers appear in July and Auguft. 2.
The fpecioflimum, with large flowers, is a native of
Jamaica in the lavannahs, whence it^ has the name of
Savannah flower, by which it is generally known in
that ifland. This fort rifes three or four feet high, ha¬
ving woody ftalks which fend out a few lateral bran¬
ches, garniftied with fmooth oval leaves placed by pairs
oppofite, of a ftiining green colour on their upper fides,
but pale and veined underneath. The flowers are pro¬
duced from the fides of the branches, upon long foot-
ftalks: there are commonly four or five buds at the end
of each ; but there is feldom more than one of them
which comes to the flower. The flower is very large, ha¬
ving a long tube which fpreads open wide at the top, of a
bright yellow, and makes a fine appearance, efpeciallyin
thofe places where the plants grow, naturally, being moft
part of the year in flower. 3. Cordatum with a climb¬
ing ftalk. 4. The villofum, with hairy flowers and a
climbing ftalk. Thefe were difcovered at La Vera
Cruz in New Spain, by Dr William Houfton, who
fent their feeds to England. They are both climbers
and mount to the tops of the talleft trees. In Eng¬
land they have climbed over plants in the ftoves, and
rifen to upwards of 2© feet high. The third fort has
produced flowers feveral times: but the fourth never
Ihowed an appearance of any.
Culture. The firft fort is hardy enough to live m
England in the open air, provided it is planted in a
warm fituation and dry foil. It is propagated, as we
have already obferved, by its creeping roots ; the belt
time for removing and planting which is in the fpring,
juft before they begin to pufh out new ftalks. The
other forts are propagated by feeds, but are fo tender
as to require being kept conftantly in a ftove.
Properties. All the fpecies of this plant abound
with a miiky juice, which flows out from any part of
their ftalks and leaves when they are broken: this is
generally fuppofed to be hurtful if taken inwardly, but
doth not blifter the ikin when applied to it as the juice
of fpurge ;.nd other acrid plants. The pods of all the
forts are filled with feeds, which are for the moft part
compre/fed and lie over one another imbricatim, like
the tiles of a houfe ; thefe have each a long plume of
a cottony down faftened to their crowns, by which
when the pods are ripe and open, the feeds are wafted
by the wind to a confiderable diftance, fo that the plants
become very troublefome weeds. This down is-in great
eftsem in France, for fluffing of eafy chairs, making
quilts, &c. for it is exceedingly light and elaitic. It
is called by the French delawad; and might probably
become a vendible commodity in England, were peo¬
ple attentive to the colledling of it in Jamaica where ApodeA* .
the plants are found in plenty. 8
APODECT/E, in antiquity, a denomination given A(^hina-
to ten general receivers appointed by the' Athenians , nan*
to receive the public revenues, taxes, debts, and the
like. . The apodeftae had alfo a power to decide con-
troverfies arifxng in relation to money and taxes, all
but thofe of the moft difficult nature and higheft con¬
cern, which were referved to the courts of judicature.
APODECTaEI, in the Athenian government, offi¬
cers appointed to fee that the meafures ofcorn were juft.
APODES, in a general fenfe, denotes things with¬
out feet. Zoologifts apply the name to a fabulous fort
of birds, faid to be found in fome of the iflands of the
New World,which,being entirely without feet,fupport
themfelves on the branches of trees by their crooked bills.
Apodes, in the Linnsean fyftem, the name of the
Jirft order of fifties, or thofe which have no belly-fins.
SeeZooi-oGY.
APODICTICAL, among philofophers, a term
importing a demonftrative proof, or fyltematical me¬
thod of teaching.
APODOSIS, in rhetoric, makes the third part of
a complete exordium, being properly the application,
or reftriftion of the protajis. The apodofis is the fame
with what is otherwife called axiojis; and ftands op-
pofed to protajis : e. gr. protajis, all branches of hi-
ftory are neceflary for a ftudent; catefceue, fo that,
without thefe, he can never make any confiderable fi¬
gure ; apodojis, but literary hiftory is of a more efpe-
cial nfe, which recommends it, &c.
APODYTERIUM, in the ancient baths, the a-
partments where perfons drefled and undreifed.
APOGEE, in Astronomy, that point in the orbit
of a planet which is at the greateft diftance from the
earth. The apogee of the fun is that part of the earth’s
orbit which is at the greateft diftance from the fun;
and confequently the fun’s apogee, and the earth’s a-
phelion, are one and the fame point.
APOLIDES, in antiquity, thofe condemned for
life to the public works, or exiled into fome ifland, and
thus diverted of the privileges of Roman citizens.
APOLLINARIAN games, in Roman antiquity,
were inftituted in the year of Rome 542. The occa-
fion was a kind of oracle delivered by the prophet Mar¬
cus after the fatal battle at Gannas, declaring, that to
expel the enemy, and cure the people of an infe&ious
difeafe which then prevailed, facred games were to be
annually performed in honour of Apollo; the praetor
to have the dire&ion of them, and the decemviri to of¬
fer faci'ifices after the Grecian rite. The fenate order¬
ed that this oracle ftiould be obferved the rather, be-
caufe another of the fame Marcus, wherein he had
foretold the overthrow at Gannas, had come true ; for
this reafon they gave the praetor 12;ooo afes out of the
public cafti to defray the folemnity. There were iacri-
ficed an ox to Apollo, as alfo two white goats, and a
cow to Latona; all with their horns gilt. Apollo had
alfo a colleftion made for him, be fides what the people
who were fpedators gave voluntary. The firft prae¬
tor by whom they were held was P. Cornelius Sylla.
For fome time they were moveable or indi&ive; but at
length were fixed, under P. Licinius Varus, to the fifth
of July, and made perpetual. The men, who were
fpeftators at thefe games, wore garlands on their heads;
A P O
t
Apollina- the women performed their devotions in the temples at
^rians, the fame time, and at laft they caroufed together in the
r°is veftibles of their houfes, the doors (landing Open. The
i , Apollinarian games were merely fcenical; and at firfl
" only obferved with finging, piping, and other forts of
vnufic; bat afterwards there were alio introduced all
manner of mountebank-tricks, dances, and the like; yet
fo as that they dill remained fcenical, no chariot races,
wreftling, or the like laborious exercifes of the body,
being ever pradtifed at them.
APOLLINARIANS, Apoli.inarists, called al-
fo by Epiphanius Dimarita, ancient heretics, who de¬
nied the proper humanity of Chrift, and maintained
that the body which he aflumed was endowed with a
fenfitive, and not a rational, foul, but that the Divine
Nature fupplied the place of the intelledlual principle
in man. This fedt derived its name from Apollinaris,
biftop of Laodicea, in the fourth century.
The Apollinarians have been charged with other
opinions, fuch as, the Millenarian and Sabellian, the
pre-exiftence of the body of Chritt, and the paffion of
his Deity; but ecclefiaftical writers are not agreed with
tefpeft to thefe and other particulars. Their dodtrine
Was firfl; condemned by a council of Alexandria in the
year 362, and afterwards in a more formal manner by
a council at Rome in 375 ; and by another council in
378, which depofed Apollinaris from his bilhopric.
Notwithftanding all, his dodtrine fpread through mod
of the churches of the eaft; and his followers were fub-
divided into various fedts. In 388, the emperor The-
bdofius enadled a law, forbidding them to hold afl’em-
blies, to have any ecclefiaftics or bifhops, or to dwell in
cities. The rigorous execution of this law, in concur¬
rence with the decrees of different councils, reduced
them to a very fmall number, and their dodtrine had
no long duration.
APOLLINARIS (Caius Sulpicius), a very learned
grammarian, born at Carthage, lived in the 2d century,
under the Antonines ; he is fuppofed to be the author
of the verfes which are prefixed to the comedies of Te¬
rence, and contain the arguments of them. He had
for his fucceflbr in the profeflion of grammar Helvius
Pertinax, who had been his fcholar, and was at lad
emperor.
Apollikaris Sidonius (Caius Lollius), an emi¬
nent Chriftian writer and biftiop in the ^th century, was
born of a noble family in France. He was educated
under the bed maders, and made a prodigious pro-
grefs in the feveral arts and fciences, but particularly
In poetry and polite literature. After he had left the
fchools, he applied himfelf to the profeflion of war. He
married Papianilla, the daughter of Avitus, who was
conful, and afterwards emperor, by whom he had three
children. But Majorianus in the year 457 having de¬
prived Avitus of the empire, and taken the city of
Lyons, in which our author refided, Apollinaris fell
' into the hands of the enemy. However, the reputation
of his learning foftened Majorianus?s refentments, fo
that he treated him with the utmofl civility, in return
for which Apollinaris compofed a panegyric in his ho¬
nour ; which was fo highly applauded, that he had a
flatue erefted to him at Rome, and was honoured with
the title of Count. In the year 467 the emperor An¬
themius rewarded him for the panegyric, which he had
■written in honour of him, by raifing him to the pod of
governor of Rome, and afterwards to the dignity of a
23 ] A P O
patrician and Senator, and erecding a flatue to him. Apellina-
But he foon quitted thefe fecular employments for the .““.V
fervice of the church. The bifliopric of Clermont be-, ^ l0‘.
ing vacant in 472 by the death of Eparchus, Apolli¬
naris, who was then only a layman, was chofen to
fucceed him without any intered or felicitation on his
part, in wdiich fee he adted with the greated inte¬
grity. Clermont being befieged by the Goths, he
animated the people to the defence of that city, and
would never confent to the furrender of it; fo that,
when it was taken about the year 480, he was obli¬
ged to retire ; but he was foon redored by Evariges
king of the Goths, and continued to govern the church
as he had done before. He died in peace the 21A of
Augud 487; and his fedival is dill obferved in the
church of Clermont, where his memory is had in great
veneration. He is edeemed the mod elegant writer of
his age, both in profe and verfe. He wrote a great
many little pieces; but preferved none but thofe which
he thought were worthy of being continued down to
poderity. He collefted himfelf the nine books which
we have remaining of his letters. His chief pieces in
poetry are the three panegyrics upon the emperors A-
vitus, Majorianus, and Amthemius. The red of them
are a colleftion of poems addrefled to his friends upon
particular fubje&s. His letters contain a variety of
particulars relating to polite literature and profane hi¬
de ry.
. ^POLLINARIUS (Claudius), a learned bifhop
of Hierapolis, who, about the year 170, prefented to
Marcus Aurelius an excellent Apology for the Chri-
dians.
Apollinarius the Younger, thus called to di-
flinguilh him from his father, called /Ipoliinarius the
Elder, was at fird le<5tor or reader of Laodicea, and af¬
terwards bifhop of that city. He was univerfally e-
deempd the greated man of his age, both for learning
and piety, and a mod accurate and nervous defender of
the faith againd all its enemies : but notwithdanding
this, on his advancing fome opinions that were not ap¬
proved, he was anathematized as an heretic by the fe-
cond general council of Condantinople in 381.
APOLLO, in mythology, a Pagan deity worflrip-
ped by the Greeks and Romans. Cicero mentions
four of his name: the mod ancient of whom was the
fon of Vulcan; the fecond a fon of Corybas, and born
in Crete; the third an Arcadian, called Nomian, from
his being a great legiflator ; and the lad, to whom the
greated honour is al'eribed, the foh of Jupiter and La-
tona.
Apollo had a variety of other names, either derived
from his principal attributes, or the. chief places where '
he was worfliipped. He was called the Healer {rora
his enlivening warmth and cheering influence; Faun,
from the pedilential heats : to fignify the former, the
ancients placed the graces in his right hand ; and for
the latter, a bow and arrows in his left: Nomius, or
the (hepherd, from his fertilizing the earth, and thence
fudaining the animal creation : Delius, from his ren¬
dering all things manifed; Pythius, from his vidlory
over Python ; Lycias, Phoebus, and Phaneta, from his
purity and fplendor. As Apollo is almod always con¬
founded by the Greeks with the fun, it is no wonder
that he fhould be dignified with fo many attributes.-
It was natural for the mod glorious object in nature,
whofe influence is felt by all creation, and feen by eve-
ry
A P O t 124 ] A F O
Apollo.
rj animated part of it, to be adorned as the fountain of
light, heat, and life. The power of healing difeafes
being chiefly given by the ancients to medicinal plants
and vegetable productions, it was natural to exalt info
a divinity the vifible caufe of their growth. Hence he
was alfo ftyled the God of Phyjic ; and that external
heat which cheers and invigorates all nature, being
transferred from the human body to the mind, gave
rife to the idea of all mental effervefcence coming from
this god ; hence, likewife, poets, prophets, and mufi-
cians, are faid to be Numine afflati, infpired by A*
polio.
Whether Apollo was ever a real perfonage, or only
the great luminary, many have doubted. Indeed, Vof-
iius has taken great pains to prove this god to be only
a metaphorical being, and that there never was any o-
ther Apollo than the fun. “ He was ftyled the fon of
Jupiter (fays this author), becaufe that god was rec¬
koned by the ancients the author of the world. His
mother was called Latona, a name which fignifies hid¬
den ; becaufe, before the fun was created, all things were
wrapped up in the obfcurity of chaos. He is always
reprefented as beardlefs and youthful, becaufe the fun
never grows old or decays. And what elfe can his
bow and arrows imply, but his piercing beams ?” And
adds, “ that all the ceremonies which were performed
to his honour, had a manifeft relation to the great
fource of light which he reprefented. Whence (he
concludes) it is vain to feek for any other divinity than
the fun, which was adored under the name of Apdlfe.'”
However, though this be in general trye, yet it does
appear, from many paffages in ancient authors, that
there was fome illuftrious perfonage named 4polle,who,
after his apotheofis, was taken for the fun; as Ofiris
and Orus in Egypt, whofe exiftence cannot be called
in <jueftion, were, after their death, confounded with
the fun, of which they became the fymbols, either
from the glory and fplendor of their reigns, or from a
belief that their fouls had taken up their refidence in
that luminary.
Of the four Apollos mentioned by Cicero, it ap¬
pears that the three laft were Greeks, and the firft an
Egyptian; who, according to Herodotus, was the fon
of Ofiris and Ifis, and called Orus. Paufanias is of
the fame opinion as Herodotus,' and ranks Apollo a-
mong the Egyptian divinities. The teftiniony of Dio¬
dorus Siculus is ftill more exprefs ; for in fpeaking of
Ifis, after faying that (he had invented the practice of
medicine, he adds, that flie taught this art to her fon
Orns, named A hollo, who was the laft of the gods that
reigned in Egypt.
It is eafy to trace almoft all the Grecian fables and
mythologies from Egypt. If the Apollo of the Greeks
was faid to be the fon of Jupiter, it was becaufe Orus
the Apollo of the Egyptians had Oilris for his father,
whom the Greeks confounded with Jupiter. If the
Greek Apollo was reckoned the god of eloquence, mu-
fic, medicine, and poetry, the reafon was, that Oliris,
who was the fymbol of the fun among the Egyptians,
as well as his fon Orus, had there taught thofe liberal
arts. If the Greek Apollo was the god and conduc¬
tor of the mufes, it was becaufe Ofiris carried with him
in his expedition to the Indies finging women and mu-
ficians. This parallel might be carried on ftill further;
but enough has been faid to prove that the true Apollo Apolf*:
was that of Egypt. --y—«»
To the other perfections of this divinity the poets
have added beauty, grace, and the art of captivating
the ear and the heart, no lefs by the fweetnefs of his
eloquence, than by the melodious founds of his lyre.
However, with all thefe accomplifhments, he had not
the talent of captivating the fair, with whofe charms
he was enamoured. But the amours and other adven¬
tures related of this god during his refidence on earth,
are too numerous, and too well known, to be inferred
here. His mufical contefts, however, being more con¬
nected with the nature of this work, muft not be whol¬
ly unnoticed.
To begin, therefore, with the difpute which he had
with Pan, that was left to the arbitration of Midas.
Pan, who thought he excelled in playing the flute,
offered to prove that it was an inftrument fuperior to
the lyre of Apollo. The challenge was accepted; and
Midas, who was appointed the umpire in this conteft,
deciding in favour of Pan, was rewarded by Apollo,
according to the poets, with the ears of an afs, for his
ftupidity.—This fitSlion feems founded upon hiftory.
Midas, according to Paufanias, was the fon of Gor¬
dius and Cybele ; and reigned in the Greater Phrygia,
as we learn from Strabo. He was poffeffed of fuch
great riches, and fuch an inordinate defire of increafmg
them by the moft contemptible parfimony, that, ac¬
cording to the poets, he converted whatever he touch¬
ed into gold. However, his talent for accumulation
did not extend to the acquirement of tafte and know¬
ledge in the fine arts ; and, perhaps, his dulnefs and
inattention to thefe provoked fome mufical poets to in¬
vent the fable of his decifion in favour of Pan againft:
Apollo. The fcholiaft upon Ariftophanes, to explain
the fidtion of his long ears, fays, that it was defigned
to intimate that he kept fpies in all parts of his domi¬
nions.
Marfyas, another player on the flute, was ftill more
unfortunate than either Pan or his admirer Midas.
This Marfyas, having engaged in a mufical difpute
with Apollo, chofe the people of Nyfa for judges. A-
pollo played at firft a fimple air upon his inftrument;
but Marfyas, taking up his pipe, ftruck the audience
fo much by the novelty of its tone, and the art of his
performance, that he feemed to be heard with more
pleafure than his rival. Having agreed upon a fecond
trial of ikill, it is faid that the performance of Apollo,
by accompanying the lyre with his voice, was allowed
greatly to excel that of Marfyas upon the flute alone.
Marfyas with indignation, protefted againft the deci¬
fion of his judges; urging that he had not been fairly
vanquidied according to the rules ftipulated, becaufe
the difpute was concerning the excellence of their fe-
veral inftruments, not their voices ; and that it was
wholly unjuft to employ two arts againft one.
Apollo denied that he had taken any unfair advan¬
tages of his antagonift, fince Marfyas had employed both
his mouth and fingers in performing upon his inftru¬
ment ; fo that, if he was denied the ufe of his mouth,
he would be ftill more difqualified for the contention.
The judges approved of Apollo’s reafoning, and order¬
ed a third trial. Marfyas was again vanquilhed; and
Apollo, inflamed by the violence of the difpute, flea’d
him alive for his prefumption. See Marsyas.
Pau-
A P O [ 125 ] A P O
jkpollo. Pailfanias relates a circumftance concerning this con-
 ' te(t, that had been omitted by Diodorus, which is, that
Apollo accepted the challenge from Marfyas, upon
condition that the vi&or fhould ufe the vanquifhed as
he pleafed.
Diodorus informs us, that Apollo, foon repenting of
the cruelty with which he had treated Marfyas, broke
the ftrings of the lyre, and by that means put a flop,
for a time, to any farther progrefs in the practice of
that new inftrument.
The next incident to be mentioned in the hiftory of
Apollo is his defeat of the ferpent Python.
The waters of Deucalion’s deluge, fays Ovid, which
had overflowed the earth, left a flime from whence
fprung innumerable monfters; and among others the
ferpent Python, which made great havoc in the country
about Parnalfus. Apollo, armed with his darts, put
him to death; which, phyfically explained, implies, that
the heat of the fun having diflipated the noxious fleams,
thofe monfters foon difappeared; or, if this fable be re¬
ferred to hiftory, the ferpent was a robber, who haunt¬
ing the country about Delphos, and very much infeft-
ing thofe who came thither to facrifice; a prince, who
bore the name of Apollo, or one of the priefts of that
god, put him to death.
This event gave rife to the inftitution of the Pythian
games, fo frequently mentioned in the Grecian hiftory;
and it was from the legend of Apollo’s vidtory over the
Python that the god himfelf acquired the name of Fy-
ihius, and his prieftefs that of Pythia. The city of
Delphos, where the famous oracles were fo long deli¬
vered, was frequently ftyled Pytho.
As Apollo was the god of the fine arts, thofe who
cultivated them were called his fans. Of this number
■was Philammon of Delphos, whom the poets and my-
thologifts make the twin-brother of Autolychus, by the
nymph Chione, and Apollo and Mercurf. It is pre¬
tended that both thefe divinities were favoured by the
nymph on the fame day, and that their fires were known
from their different talents. Philammon, a great poet
and mufician, was reported to be the offspring of the
god who prefides over thofe arts ; and Autolychus,
irom the craftinefs and fubtilty of his difpofition, was
faid to have fprung from Mercury, god of theft and
fraud. Philammon is one of the firft, after Apollo,
upon fabulous record, as a vocal performer, who ac¬
companied himfelf with the found of the lyre : his fon
was the celebrated Thamyris. See Thamyris.
There can be no doubt but that Apollo was more
generally revered in the Pagan world than any other
deity; having, in almoft every region of it, temples,
oracles, and feftivals, as innumerable as his attributes:
the wolf and hawk were confecrated to him, as fymbols
of his piercing eyes; the crow and the raven, becaufe
thefe birds were fuppofed to have by inftincft the faculty
of predidion ; the laurel, from a perfuafion that thofe
who flept with feme branches of that tree under their
heads received certain vapours, which enabled them to
prophefy. The cock was confecrated to him, becaufe
by his crowing he announces the rifing of the fun ;
and the grafshopper on account of his finging faculty,
which was fuppofed to do honour to the god of mufic.
Moft of the ancient poets have celebrated this tuneful
infeift, but none better than Anacreon, Ode 43.
Plato fays that the grafshopper fings all fummer with¬
out food, like thofe men who, dedicating themfelves to Apollo.’
the mufes, forget the common concerns of life.
The fwan was regarded by the ancients as a bird fa-
cred to Apollo in two capacities; firft, as being, like the
crow and raven, gifted with the fpirit of predi<ftion ;
and, fecondly, for his extraordinary vocal' powers.
The fweetnefs of his fong, efpecially at the approach
of death, was not only extolled by all the poets of
antiquity, but by hiftorians, philofophers, and fages ;
and to call a great writer the fwan of his age and na¬
tion, was a full acknowledgment of his fovereignty *. * See the
Thus Horace calls Pindar the Theban fwan. article A-
Plutarch, who was himfelf a prieft of Apollo, im-”^’
preffed with the higheft refpedt and veneration for him
and for mufic, in his dialogue upon that art, makes
one of his interlocutors fay, that an invention fo ufe-
ful and charming could never have been the work of
man, but muft have originated from fome god, fuch
as Apollo, the inventor of the flute and lyre, impro¬
perly attributed to Hyagnis, Marfyas, Olympus, and
others ; and the proofs he urges in fupport of this af-
fertion, ftiow, if not its truth, at leaft that it was the
common and received opinion.
All dances and facrifices, fays he, ufed in honour
of Apollo, are performed to the found of flutes : the
flatue of this god at Delos, eredted in the time of Her¬
cules, had in its right-hand a bow; and on the left flood
the three graces, who were furniftied with three kinds
of inftruments; the lyre, the flute, and the fyrinx.
The youth alfo who carries the laurel of Tempe to
Delphos, is accompanied by one playing on the flute;
and the facred prefents formerly fent to Delos by the
Hyperboreans, were conduced thither to the found of
lyres, flutes, and fhepherds pipes. He fupports thefe
fafts by the teftimonies of the poets Alcseus, Alcmon,
and Corinna.
It feems as if the account of Apollo could not be
concluded by any thing that is left to offer on the fub-
jedt, fo properly, as by part of the celebrated hymn
of Callimachus, wdiich during many ages was performed
and heard by the moft poliftied people on the globe,
with the utmoft religious zeal, at the feftivals inftituted
to this god.
Ha! how the laurel, great Apollo’s tree,
And all the cavern, ftiakes ! Far off, far oil.
The man that is unhallow’d : for the god
Approaches. Hark! he knocks: the gates
Feel the gladimpulfe; and the fever’d bars
Submiffive clink againlt their brazen portals.
Why do the Delian palms incline their boughs,
Self mov’d; and hov’ring fwans, their throats releas’d
From native fxlence, carol founds harmonious?
Begin, young men, the hymn : let all your harps
Break their inglorious filence ; and the dance,
In myftic numbers trod, explain the mufic.
But firft, by ardent pray’r, and clear luftration.
Purge the contagious fpots of human weaknefs-;
Impure no mortal can behold Apollo .
So may you flourilh, favour’d by the god,
in youth with happy nuptials, and in age
With filver hairs, and fair defeent of children}
So lay foundations for afpiring cities,
And blefs your fpreading colonies increafe.
Pay facred rev’rence to Apollo’s fong}
Left watchful the far-fhooting god emit
His fatal arrows. Silent, Nature ftands;
And Teas fubfide, obedient to the found
Of lo ! lo Paean ! nor dares Thetis
Longer bewail her lov’d Achilles’.death.
F*c
A P O r 126 1 A P O
Apollo* . For Phosbns was his foe. Nor mu ft fad Niobe
Apollodo- In fruitlefs forrow perfevere, or weep
rus. Even thro' the Phrygian marble. Haplefs mother 1
(a..- y-—-.■/ Whole fondnefs could compare her mortal offspring
TPo thofe which fair Eatona bore to Jove.
Io ! again repeat ye, lo Peean !
Recite Apollo’s praife till night draws on>
The ditty ftill unfinilh’d J and the day
Unequal to the godhead’s attributes
Various, and matter copious of your fongs.
Sublime at Jove’s right-hand Apollo fits,
And thence diftributes honour, gracious king.
And theme of verfe perpetual. From his robe
Flows light ineffable ! his harp, his quiver,
And Laftian bow, are gold: with golden fandals
His feet are Ihod. How rich ! how beautiful !
Beneath his fteps the yellow min’ral rifes ;
And earth reveals her treafures. Youth and beauty
Eternal deck-his cheek : from his fair head
Perfumes diftil their fweets ; and cheerful Health,
His duteous hand-maid, through the air improv’d
With lavilh hand diffufes fcents athbrofial.
The fpearman’s arm by thee, great god, dire&ed,
Sends forth a certain wound. The laurel'd bard,
Infpir’d by thee, compofes verfe immortal.
Taught by thy art divine, the fage phyfician
Eludes the urn, and chains or exiles death.
Perpetual fires fhine hallow’d bn thy altars.
When annual the Carnean feaft is held :
The warlike Libyans, clad in armour, lead
The dance; with clanging fwords and fhields they beat
The dreadful meafure : In the chorus join
’ Their women ; brown, but beautiful: fuch rites
To thee well pleafing   
 The monftrous Python
Dutft tempt thy wrath in vain ; for dead he fell.
To thy great ftrength and golden arms unequal.
lo ! while thy unerring hand elanc’d
Another and another dart, the people
Joyfully repeated It 1 la Pnan!
Elance the dart, Apollo; for the fafety
And health of man,- gracious thy mother bore thee !
Prior.
A pox to Belvidere, one in the firft clafs of the ancient
ftatues. The excellence of this ftatue confifts in the
expreffion of fomething divine, whereas the reft excel
only in things that axe common to men. This ftatue
may perhaps juftly enough claim the preference, even
in the fuperior and diftinguifhed clafs of the-beft remains
of all antiquity. There are about twenty ancient fta¬
tues which the modems have difcovered that are refer¬
red to the firft clafs, and confidered each as the chief
beauty in its kind.
APOLLODORUS, born at Damafcus, a famous
architect under Trajan and Hadrian. Pie had the di¬
rection of the bridge of ftone which Trajan ordered to
be built over the Danube in die year 104, which was
efteemed the moft magnificent of all the works of that
emperor. Hadrian, one day as Trajan was difcour-
fmg with this architect upon the buildings hehad raifed
at Rome, would needs give his judgment, and fhowed
he undqrftood nothing of the matter. Apollodorus
turned upon him bluntly, and faid to him, G,o paint
citruls, for you are very ignorant of the fubjeCt we are
talking upon. Hadrian at this time boafted of his paint¬
ing citruls well. This infult coft Apollodorus his life.
Apollodo rus, a celebrated painter of Athens, a-
hout 408 years before the birth of Chrift, was the firft
who invented the art of mingling the colours, and of ex-
preffing the lights and ftiades. Jie was admired alfo
for his judicious choice of fubjeris, and for the beauty Apollodo*
and ftrength of colouring furpaffed all the matters that rus'
went before him. He excelled likewife in ftatuary. Apollonius.
Apoxlodorus the Athenian, a famous grammarian,
the fon of Afclepiades and difciple of Ariftarchus. He
wrote many works not now extant; but his moft fa¬
mous production was his Bibliotheca, concerning the
origin of the gods. This work confifted of 24 books,
but only three are now in being. Several other pieces
of his are to be found in Fabricius’s Bibliotheca Graca.
There were various other perfons of this name. Sci-
pio Tefti, a Neapolitan, has written a treatife of the
Apollodorufes, which was printed at Rome in 1555 ;
and Dr Thomas Gale publifhed a work of the fame
kind in 1675.
APOLLONIA, the name of feveral ancient cities,
particularly of a colony of the Milefians in Thrace, from
which Lucullus took away a coloffus of Apollo, and
placed it in the capitol. The greateft part of the town
was fituated in a fmall ifland on the Euxine, in which
was a temple of Apollo (Strabo). Pliny fays the co-
lolTus was 30 cubits high, and coft 500 talents. There
was alfo an Apollonia at mount Pamaflus, near Delphi.
(Stephanus). Troezen was formerly called Apollonia.
Apollonia, feafts facred to Apollo, inftituted up¬
on the following occafion. Apollo, having vanquilhed'
Python, went with his fitter Diana to fEgialea ; but,
being driven from thence, he removed to the ifland
Cr?te. The iEgialeans were foon after vifited with a
plague ; upon which, confulting the foothfayers, they
were ordered to fend feven .young men and as many
virgins, to appeafe thofe deities and bring them back
into their country. Apollo and Diana being thus ap-
peafed, returned to Aigialea: in memory of which,
they dedicated a temple to Pitho, the goddefs of per-
fuafion ; whence a cuftom arofe of choofing every year
feven young men, and as many virgins, to go as it
were in fearch of Apollo and Diana.
Apollonia, in geography, a promontory of Afri¬
ca, upon, the coaft of Guinea, near the mo.uth of the
river Mancu.
APOLLONIUS, the author of the Argonautics,
and furnamed The Rhodian, from the place of his re-
fidence, is fuppofed to have been a native of Alexan¬
dria, where he is faid to have recited fome portion of
his poem while he w£s yet a youth. Finding it ill re¬
ceived by his countrymen, he retired to Rhodes; where
he is conjeriured to have polifhed and completed his
work, fupporting himfelf by the profeflion of rhetoric,
and receiving from the Rhodians the freedom of their
city. He at length returned, with confiderable honour,
to the place of his birth ; fucceeding Eratofthenes in
the care of the Alexandrian library in the reign of
Ptolemy Euergetes, who attended the throne of Egypt
the year before Chrift 246. That prince had been
educated by the famous Ariftarchus, and rivalled the
preceding fovereigns of his liberal family in the mu¬
nificent encouragement of learning. Apollonius was
a diftiple of the poet Callimachus ; but their con¬
nexion ended in the moft violent enmity, which was
probably owing to fome degree of contempt exprefled
by A pollonius for the light compofitions of his matter.
The learned have vainly endeavoured to dittover the
particulars of their quarrel.—The only work of Apol¬
lonius which has dettended to modern times is his poem
above mentioned,, in four books, on the Argonautic
expedition,.
A P O [ 127 ] A P O
dpollonius expedition. Both Longinus and Quintilian have af-
Apollos. figned to this work the mortifying character of medio-
■—’’V'—crity: “ But (fays Mr Hay ley) there lies an appeal
from the fentence of the moft candid and enlightened
critics to the voice of Nature; and the merit of Apol¬
lonius has little to apprehend from the decifion of this
ultimate judge. His poems abound in animated de-
fcription, and in paffages of the moft tender and pa¬
thetic beauty. How finely painted is the firft fetting
forth of the Argo ! and how beautifully is the wife of
Chiron introduced, holding up the little Achilles in
her arms, and ftiowing him to his father Peleus as he
failed along the ftiore ! But the chief excellence in our
poet, is the fpirit and delicacy with which he has de¬
lineated the paffioh of love in his Medea. That Virgil
thought very highly of his merit in this particular, is
fufficiently evident from the minute exadtnel's with which
he has copied mariy tender touches of the Grecian poet.*
Thofe who compare the third book of Apollonius with
the fourth of Virgil, may, I think, perceive not only
that Dido has fome features of Medea, but that the
two bards, however different in their reputation, re-
fembled each other in their genius ; and they both excel
in delicacy and pathos.”—The ancient fcholia upon his
Argonautics, ftill extant, are extremely ufeful, and full
of learning.
Apollonius of Perga, a city of Pamphylia, was a
great geometrician, under the reign of Ptolemy Euer-
getes, which reaches from the ad year of the I3;d O-
lympiad to the 3d year of the 139th. He ftudied a
long time at Alexandria, under the difciples of Euclid;
and compofed feveral works, of which that only of the
Conics remains.
Apollonius, a Pythagorean philofopher, born at
Tyana in Cappadocia, about the beginning of the firft
century. At 16 years of age he became a ft rift ob*
ferver of Pythagoras’s rules, renouncing wine, women,
and all forts of flelh; not wearing ftioes, letting his
hair grow, and wearing nothing but linen. He foon
after fet up for a reformer of mankind, and chofe his
habitation in a temple of iEfculapius, where he is faid
to have performed many wonderful cures. Philoftratus
has wrote the life of Apollonius, in which there are
numberlefs fabulous ftories recounted of him. We are
told that he v ent five years without fpeaking; and yet,
during this time that he Hopped many {editions in
Cilicia and Pamphylia: that he travelled, and fet up
for a legiflator; and that he gave out he undetftood
all languages, without having ever learned them : that
he could tell the thoughts of men, and underftood the
oracles which birds gave by their fmging. The Hea¬
thens were fond of oppofing the pretended miracles of
this man to thofe of our Saviour; and by a treatife
which Eul'ebius wrote againft one Hierocles, we find
that the drift of the latter, in the treatife which Eufe-
bius refutes, feems to have been to draw a parallel be¬
twixt Jefos Chrift and Apollonius, in which he gives
the preference to this philofopher. Mr Du Pin has
wrote a confutation of Philoftratus’s life of Apollo¬
nius.
Apollonius wrote fome works, viz. four books of ju¬
dicial aftrology; a treatife upon the facrifices, ftiowing
what was proper to be offered to each deity; and a
great number of letters ; all of which are now loft.
APOLLOS, in Scripture-hiftory, a Jew of Alex¬
andria, who came to Ephefus during the abfence of Apollyon
St Paul, who was "gone to Jerufalem (Adis xviii. 24.) Apologetic
Apollos was an eloquent man, and well verfed in the
Scriptures ; and as he fpoke with zeal and fervour, he
taught diligently the things of God : but knowing
only the baptifm of John, he was no more than a ca¬
techumen, or one of the loweft order of Chriltians,
and did not as yet diftindlly know the myfteries of the
Chriftian dodtrine. However, he knew that Jefus
Chrift was the Mefliah, and declared himfelf openly to
be his difciple. When therefore he was come to Ephe¬
fus, he began to fpeak boldly in the fynagogue, and
to Ihow that Jefus was the Chrift. Aquila and Prii-
cilla having heard him, took him home with them ;
inftrudted him more fully in the ways of God ; and
baptized him, probably in the name of Jefus Chrift.
Some time after this he had a mind to go into A*
chaia ; and the brethren having exhorted him to un¬
dertake this journey, they wrote to the difciples, de¬
firing them to receive him. He arrived at Corinth ;
and was there very ufeful in convincing the Jews out
of the Scriptures, and demonftrated to them that Jefus
was the Chrift. Thus he watered what St Paul had
planted in this city (l Cor. iii.6.) but the great fond-
nefs which his difciples had for his perfon had like to
have produced a fchifm ; fome faying, “ I am of Paul;
others, I am of Apollos ; I am of Cephas.” However,
this divifion which St Paul fp^aks of in the chapter
laft quoted, did not prevent that apoftle and Apollos
from being clofely united by the bands of charity.
Apollos hearing that the apoftle was at Ephefus, went
to meet him, and was there when St Paul wrote the
firft epiftle to the Corinthians; wherein he teftifies,
that he had earneftly entreated Apollos to return to
Corinth, but hitherto had not been able to prevail with
him ; that, neverthelefs, he gave him room to hope
that he would go when he had an opportunity. St
Jerome fays, that Apollos was fo diflatisfied with the
divifion which had happened upon his account at Co¬
rinth, that he retired into Crete with Zena, a do<5tor
of the law ; and that this difturbance having been ap-
peafed by the letter which St Paul wrote to the Co¬
rinthians, Apollos returned to this city, and was bi-
fhop thereof. The Greeks make him bilhop of Duras;
others fay, he was bilhop of Iconium in Phrygia; and
others, that he was bilhop of Csefarea.
APOLLYON, a Greek word that fignifies the de-
Jlrty er, and anfwers to the Hebrew Abaddon. St John
in the Revelations (ix. n.) fays, that an angel having
opened the bottomlefs pit, a thick fmoke iffued out
of it; and with this fmoke locufts, like horfes, prepa¬
red for battle, and commanded by the angel of the
bottomlefs pit, called in Hebrew Abaddon, but in the
Greek Apollyon.
APOLOGETIC, Apologetical, fomething faii
or written, by way of excufe or apology, for any ac¬
tion or perfon.
The Apologetic of Tertullian is' a work full of
ftrength and fpirit. He there vindicates the Chriftians
from all that had been objected to them ; particularly
from the abominable crimes faid to be perpetrated at
their meetings, and their want of love and fidelity to
their country. The ground of this laft accufation was,
their refufing to take the accuftomed oaths, and fwear
by the tutelary gods of the empire.—Tertullian ad-
dreffes
A P O [ 128 1 A P O
Apologue drcfles his Apologetic to the magiflrates of Rome, the mirabilium cfo ttmtulis ftcundum xxvii't. in a nf ones lunee. Aponoge-
I emperor Severus being then abfent. His body being fecretly taken up by his friends, efca- ton-
i AP"no' . APOLOGUE, in matters of literature, an inge- ped the vigilance of the h ;unitors, who would havefpoph>ge;
v nious method of conveying inftruftion by means of a burnt it. It was removed federal times, and was at v
feigned relation called a moralJabte. laft placed in the church of St Auguftin, without an
The only difference between a parable and an apo- epitaph or any mai k of honour. The moft remarkable
logue is, that the former, being drawn from what paf- boo -: which Apona wrote, was that which procured
fes among mankind, requires probability in the narra- him the irname of Conciliator; he wrote alio a piece
tion ; whereas the apologue, being taken from the intitled Be medisina omntmida. There is a ftory told
fuppofed aftions of brutes, or even of things inanimate, of him, that, having no well in his houfe, he earned
is not tied down to the ft rift rules of probability, iE- his neighbour’s o be carried into the ftreet by devils,
fop’s fables are a model of this kind of writing. when he heard they had forbidden his maid fetching
APOLOGY, a Greek term, literally importing an water there. He had much better (fays Mr Bayle)
excule or defence of fome perfon or aftion. have employed the devils to make a well in his own
APOMEL1, among ancient phyflcians, a decoc- houfe, and have flopped up his neighbour’s; or, at
tion of honey and vinegar, much ufed as a detergent, leaft, tranfported it into his houfe, rather than into the
promoter of ftool, urine, &c. ftreet.
APOMYOS deus. (*»•’,and in the Heathen APONOGETON t A genus of tire digynia order,
my thology, a name under which Jupiter was worfhip- belonging to the heptandria clals of plants, which has
ped at Elis, and Hercules as well as Jupiter at the O- no Engliih name. The calyx is an oblong omentum ;
lympic games. Thefe deities were fupplicated under there is no corolla; and the capfuls: are three-feeded.
this name, to deftroy or drive away the vaft number There are two fpecies, natives of the Indies,
of flies which always attended at the great facrifices ; APONUS, a hamlet near Patavium with warm baths,
and in thofe which accompanied the Olympic games, It was the birth-place of Livy, (Martial); and is now
the firft was always to the Apontyos, or Myiagrus called Aibano, E. Long. 10. Lat. 45. 15.
Deus, that he might drive away the flies from the reft. APOPEMPTIC, in the ancient poetry, a hymn
The ufual facrifice was a bull. addreffed to a ftranger on his departure fronr a place to
APONEUROSIS, among phyfreians, a term fome- his own country. The ancients had certain holidays,
times ufed to denote the expanfton of a nerve or ten- wherein they took leave of the gods with apopemptic
don in the manner of a membrane ; fometimes for the fongs, as liippoftng them returning each to his own
cutting off a nerve; and, finally, for the tendon it- country. The deities having the patronage of divers
felf. places, it was but juft to divide their prefence, and al-
- APONO (Peter d’), one of the moft famous philo- low fome time to each. Hence it was, that among the
fophers and phyuciansof his age, bom inthe year 1250, Delians and Milefians we find feafts of Apollo, and
in a village about four miles from Padua. He ftudied among the Argians feafts of Diana, called Epideruiat
fome time at Paris, and was there promoted to the de- as fuppofing thefe deities then more peculiarly refi-
gree of doftor in philofophy and phyfic. When he came dent among them. On the laft day of the feaift they
to praftife as a phyfician, he is faid to have infilled on difmiffed them, following them to the altars with apo-
very large fums for his vifits: we are not told what he pemptic hymns.
demanded for the vifits he made in the place of his re- APOPHASIS, a figure in rhetoric, by which the
fidence ; but it is affirmed, that he would not attend the orator, fpeaking ironically, feems to wave what he
fick in any other place under 150 florins a-day and would plainly infinuate : as, Neither will I mention
when he was fent for by Pope Honorius IV. he de- thoje things; which, if 1 Jbould, you notwithftanding
manded 400 ducats for each day’s attendance. He was could neither confute nor /peak againJi them.
fufpefted of magic, and profecuted by the Inquifition APOPHLEGMATIZANTS, in pharmacy, medi-
on that account. “ The common opinion of almoft all cines proper to clear tire head from fuperfluous phlegm,
authors (fays Naude) is, that he was the greateft ma- whether by fpitting or by the nofe.
gician of his age ; that he had acquired the know- APOPHTHEGM, a fhort, fententious, and inftruc-
ledge of the feven liberal arts, by means of the feven tive remark, pronounced by a perfon of diftinguifhed.
familiar fpirits, wdiich he kept inclofed in a cry- charafter. Such is that of Cyrus: He is unworthy to
flal; and that he had the dexterity to make tlie mo- be a magiflrate, who is not better than his fubjetts.
ney he had fpent come back into his purfe.” The Or this : He that will not take care of his own bufmefs,
fame author adds, that he died before the procefs a- will be forced to take care of that of others. Or that oT
gainfl him was finifhed, being then in the 80th year Artaxerxes Mnemon, when reduced to hunger by the
of his age ; and that, after his death, they ordered lofs of his baggage: How much pleafure have 1 hither-
him to be burnt in effigy', in the public place of the to Jived a Jlranger to ? Or that of Cato, Homines nihil
city of Padua; defigning thereby to ftrike a fear into agendo difeunt male agere. Or, finally, that of Au-
others of incurring the like puniihment; and to fup-- guftus, Fejiina lente. The apophthegms of Plutarch
prefs the reading three books which he had wrote; the are well known.
firft being the Heptameron, which is printed at. the APOPHYGE, in architefture, a concave part or
end of the firft volume of Agrippa’s work; the fecond, ring of a column, lying above or below the flat mem-
that which is called by Trithemius, Elucidarium ne- ber. The French call it le conge d'en has, or d’en haute
crornanticum Petri de Aibano ; and the laft, that which the Italians, cavo di bajfo, or di fepra-, and alfo-i/ vivo
is intitled by the fame author, Liber experiment or utts di bajfo. The apophyge originally was no more than,
N® 2.4. the.
A P O [ 129 ] A P O
Apopkyfis the ring, or ferril, at firft fixed on the extremities of
.. 8 wooden pillars, to keep them from fplitting ; which af-
. po^acy'. terwards was imitated in ftone.
APOPHYSIS, in anatomy, a procefs or protube¬
rance of a bone. See Anatomy.
APOPLEXY, a diftemper in which the patient is
fuddenly deprived of all his fenfes, and of voluntary
motion. 5ee Medicin£-/«</<?*.
APORIA, is a figure in rhetoric, by which the
fpeaker fhows, that he doubts where to begin for the
multitude of matter, or what to fay in fome ftrange and
ambiguous thing; and doth, as it were, argue the cafe
with himfelf. Thus Cicero fays. Whether he took them
from his fellows more impudently, gave them to a harlot
more lafcivioufly, removed them f rom the Roman people
more wickedly, or altered them more prefumptuoufly, 1
cannot well declare.
: APORON, or Aporime, a problem difficult to re-
folve, and which has never been refolved, though it be
not, in itfelf, impoffible.
The word is derived from which fignifies
fomething very difficult, and impradticable; being
formed from the privative a and -o-foc, pajfage. Such
we conceive the quadrature of tire circle ; the dupli-
cature of the cube; the trifeclion of an angle, &c.
When a queftion was propofed to any of the Greek
philofophers, efpecially of the fed of Academifts ; if
he could not give a folution, his anfwer was,
I cannot fee through it.—This word is alfo ufed by fome
law writers for an inexplicable fpeech or difcourfe.
APOSIOPESIS, in rhetoric, otherwife called re¬
tie ency, and fupprefjion; a figure, by which a perfon
really fpeaks of a thing, at the fame time that he
makes a fhow as if he would fay nothing of it. The
word comes from / am Jilent.—It is com¬
monly ufed to denote the fame with ellipsis. Jul.
Scaliger diftinguilhes them. The latter, according to
him, being only the fuppreffion of a word; as, me,
me; adfum qui feci: the former, the omitting to re¬
late fome part of the aftion; as,
Dixerat, atque Warn media inter talia ferro
Collapfam adfpiciunt 
where the poet does not mention how Dido killed her-
felf.—This figure *is of ufe to keep up the grandeur
and fublimity of a difcourfe.
APOSPH RACISM A, (from and /
fea',) in antiquity, the figure or impreffion of a feal.—
It was forbid among the ancients to have the figure or
image of God on their rings and feals. To this pur-
pofe the precept of Pythagoras, Jaktumu ©£» n*
raiftpipti*'. But in procefs of time, this was little re¬
garded ; it was ufual enough to have the figures of E-
gyptian and other deities, as well as of heroes, mon¬
gers, friends, anceftors, and even brutes, on their dac-
tyli. or ring-feals. Thus Caefar had the image of Ve¬
nus, Pollio of Alexander, Auguftus bf the fphinx, Pom-
pey of a frog, Lentulus of his grandfather, &c.
APO STACY, the abandoning the true religion.
The primitive Chriftian church diftinguifhed feveral
kinds of apoftacy. The firft, of thofe who went over
entirely from Chriftianity to Judaifm ; the fecond, of
thofe who mingled Judaifm and Chriftianity together;
and the third, of thofe who complied fo far with the
Voju. 11. Part L
Jews as to communicate with them in many of their Apoftacy
unlawful practices, without making,a formal profeffion i
of their religion. But the fourth fort was of thofe who,, P°“ate-,
after having been fome time Chriftians, voluntarily re- ’
lapfed into Paganifm.
The perverlion of a Chriftian to Judaifm, Paganifm,
or other falfe religion, was punifhed by the emperors
Conftantius and Julian with confifcation of goods ; to
which the emperors Theodofius and Valentinian added
capital punilhment, in cafe the apoftate endeavoured to
pervert others to the fame iniquity. A punilhment too
fevere for any temporal laws to inflid ; and yet the
zeal of our anceftors imported it into this country ; for
wre find by BraCton, that in his time apoftates were to
be burnt to death. Doubtlefs the prefervation of Chri¬
ftianity, as a national religion, is, abftrafted from its
own intrinfic truth, of the utmoft confequence to the
civil ftate : which a fingle inftance will fufficiently de-
monftrate. The belief of a future ftate of rewards and
punifhments, the entertaining juft ideas of the moral
attributes of the fupreme Being, and a firm perfuafion
that he fuperintends and will finally comperdate every
aCtion in human life (all which are clearly revealed in
the doCtrines, and forcibly inculcated by the precepts,
of our faviour Chrift), thefe are the grand foundation of
all judicial oaths ; which call God to witnefs the truth
of thofe faCts, which perhaps may be only known to
him and the party attefting : all moral evidence there¬
fore, all confidence in human veracity, muft be weak¬
ened by apoftacy, and overthrown by total infidelity.
Wherefore all affronts to Chriftianity, or endeavours to
depreciate its efficacy, in thofe w-ho have once profeffed
it, are highly deferving of cenfure. But yet the lofs
of life is a heavier penalty than the offence, taken in a
civil light, deferves ; and, taken in a fpiritual light,
our laws have no jurifdiCtion over it. This punifhment,
therefore, has long ago become obfolete ; and the of¬
fence of apoftacy was for a long time the objeCt only
of the ecclefiaftical courts, which corrected the offend¬
er pro falute aUimce. But about the clofe of the laft
century, the civil liberties to which wre -were then re-
ftored being ufed as a cloke of malicioufnefs, and the
moft horrid doCtrine fubverfive of all religion being
publicly avowed both in difcourfe and writings, it was
thought neceffary again for the civil power to interpofe,
by not admitting thofe mifereants to the privileges of
fociety, W'ho maintained fuch principles as deftroyed all
moral obligation. To this end it w7as enaCted by fta-
tute 9 and 10 W. III. c. 32. That if any perfon edu¬
cated in, or having made profeffion of, die Chriftian
religion, lliall by writing, printing, teaching, or ad-
vifed fpeaking, deny the Chriftian religion to be true,
or the holy Scriptures to be of divine authority, he ftiail
upon the firft offence be rendered incapable to hold any
office or place of truft; and, for the fecond, be render¬
ed incapable of bringing any aCtion, or of being guar¬
dian, executor, legatee, or purchafer of lands, and
fhall fuffer three years imprifonment without bail. To
give room however for repentance, if, within four
months after the firft conviction, the delinquent will in
open court publicly renounce his error, he is difehar •
ged for that once from all dilabilities.
APOSTASIS, in medicine, the fame with abfeefs.
APOSTATE, one wffio deferts his religion. Among
R. th«
A P O L 13° ] A P O
Apeftata the Romanifts, it fignifies a man who, without a legal
il difpenfation, forfakes a religious order of which he had
^ Apoftle . macje profeffio'n.' Hence,
" ^ ' APOSTAT A capiendo, in the Englilh law, a writ
that formerly lay againft a perfon who, having entered
into fome order of religion, broke out again, and wan¬
dered up and down the country.
A POSTERIORI, or demonftration a pofterioril
See Demonstra i ion.
APOSTIL, in matters of literature, the fame with
a marginal note.
APOSTLE properly fignifies a meflenger or perfon
fent.by another upon fome bufinefs; and hence, by way
of eminence, denotes one of the difciples commiffioned
by Jefus Chrift to preach the gofpel.
Our bleffed Lord felefted twelve out of the number
of his difcipjes to be invefted with the apoftlefliip.
Their names were Simon Peter, Andrew, James the
greater, John, Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Mat¬
thew, James the lefs, Jude furnamed Lebbeus or Thad-
deus, Simon the Canaanite, and Judas Ifcariot. Of
thefe Simon, Andrew, James the greater, and John,
were fifhermen ; and Matthew a publican, or receiver
®f the public revenues : of what profeffion the reft
were, we are not told in Scripture ; though it is pro¬
bable they were fifhermen.
There are various conjectures as to the reafon of our
Saviour’s making choice of twelve apoftles. The moft
probable is, that it might be in allufion to the twelve
patriarchs, as the founders of their feveral tribes; or to
the twelve chief heads or rulers of thofe tribes, of which
the body of the Jewifh nation confifted. This opinion
feems to be countenanced by what our Saviour tells his
apoftles, that, “ when the Son of man fhall fit in the
throne of his glory, they alfo fhall fit upon twelve
thrones judging the twelve tribes of Ifrael.”
Our Lord’s firft commiffion to his apoftles was in the
third year of his public miniftry, about eight months
after their folemn election ; at which time he fent them
eut by two and two. They were to make no provi-
fion of money for their fubfiftence in their journey,
but to expef! it from thofe to whom they preached.
They were to declare, that the kingdom of heaven,
©r the Meffiah, was at hand ; and to confirm their
dodtrine by miracles. They were to avoid going ei¬
ther to the Gentiles or to the Samaritans, and to con¬
fine their preaching to the people of Ifrael. In obe¬
dience to their Mailer, the apoftles went into all the
parts of Paleftine inhabited by the Jews, preaching
the gofpel, and working miracles. The evangelical hi-
ftory is filent as to the particular circumftances attend¬
ing this firft preaching of the apoftles ; and only informs
us, that they returned, and told their Mailer of all that
they had done.
Their fecond commiffion, juft before our Lord’s a-
fcenfion into heaven, was of a more extenfive and par¬
ticular nature. They were now not to confine their
preaching to the Jews, but to “ go and teach all na¬
tions, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and
of the Son, and of tha Holy Ghoft.” Accordingly
they began publicly, alter our Lord’s afcenfion, to ex-
ercife the office of their miniftry, working miracles
daily in proof of their miffion, and making great num¬
bers of converts to the Chriftian faith. This alarmed
the Jewilh Sanhedrim; whereupon, the. apoftles were
apprehended, and, being examined before the high- Apoftle.
prieft and elders, were commanded not to preach any u-—v—
more in the name of Chrift. But this injunftion did
not terrify them from perfifting in the duty of their
calling; for they continued daily, in the temple, and
in private houfes, teaching and preaching the gofpel.
After the apoftles had exercifed their miniftry for
twelve years in Paleftine, they refolved to difperfe
themfelves in different parts of the world, and agreed .
to determine by lot what parts each fhouldtake. Ac-:
cording to this divifion, St Peter went into Pontus,
Galatia, and thofe other provinces of the Leffer Afia.
St Andrew had the vail northern countries of Scythia
and Sogdiana allotted to his portion. St John’s was
partly the fame with Peter’s, namely the Lefl’er Afia.
St Philip had the Upper Afia affigned to him, with
fome parts of Scythia and Colchis. Arabia Felix fell
to St Bartholomew’s ftiare. St Matthew preached in
Chaldaea, Perfia, and Parthia. St Thomas preached like-.
wife in Parthia ; as alfo to the Hyrcanians, Badlrians,
and Indians. St James the lefs continued in Jerufa-
lem, of which church he was bifhop. St Simon had
for his portion Egypt, Cyrene, Libya, and Maurita¬
nia ; St Jude Syria and Mefopotamia; and St Mat¬
thias, who was chofen in the room of the traitor Ju¬
das, Cappadocia and Colchis. Thus, by the difperfion
of the apoftles, Chriftianity was very early planted in
a great many parts of the world. We have but very
fhort and imperfed accounts of their travels and ac¬
tions.
In order to qualify the apoftles for the arduous talk
of converting the world to the Chriftian religion, they
were, in the firft place, miraculoully enabled to fpeak
the languages of the feveral nations to whom they were
to preach : and, in the fecond place, were endowed
with the power of working miracles, in confirmation
of the dodrines they taught; gifts which were unne-
ceflary, and therefore ceafed, in the after ages of the
church, when Chriftianity came to be eftablilned by the
civil power.
St Paul is frequently called the apofllet by way of
eminence ; and the apoftle of the Gentiles^ becaufe his
miniftry was chiefly made ufe of for the converfion of
the Gentile world, as that of St Peter was for the
Jews, who is therefore ftyled the apofile of the circum-
cifion. The feveral apoftles are ufually reprefented
with their refpedive badges or attributes: St Peter
with the keys; St Paul with a fword; St Andrew
with a erofs or faltier; St James minor with a fuller’s
pole ; St John with a cup, and winged ferpent flying
from it; St Bartholomew with a knife; St Philip
with a long ftaff, whofe upper end is formed into a
crofs ; St Thomas with a lance; St Matthew with
a hatchet; St Matthias with a battle-ax; St James
major with a pilgrim’s ftaff and a gourd-bottle ; St SL-
moivwith afaw ; and St Jude with a club.
This appellation was alfo given to the ordinary tra¬
velling minifters of the church.—Thus St Paul, in the
epiftle to the Romans, xvii. 7. fays, “ Salute Andro-
nicus and Jenia, my kinfmen and feilow-prifoners, who
are of note among the apoftles.” It was likewife a
title given to. thofe fent by the churches to carry their
alms to the poor of other churches. This iifage they
borrowed from the fynagogues, who called thofe whom
they fent on this meflage by the fame name; and the
function
A P O
[ 131 ]
A P 0
Apaftle. funAion or office itfelf apoflle, q. d. mijfion.
^ Thus St Paul, writing to the Philippians, tells them,
that Epaphroditus their apollle had miniftred to his
wants, ch. ii. 1>.
The appellation is given in like manner to thofe per-
fons who firft planted the Chriftian faith in any place.
of fentences jointly contributed, after the manner of Apoftle
perfons paying each their club (fymbolum) or (hare of I
a reckoning. po o a .
But there are reafons which may induce us to que- *
ftion whether the apoftles compofed any fuch creed as
this. For, firft, neither St Luke in the A&s, nor any
Thus Dionyfms of Corinth is called the apoftle of other ecclefiaftical writer before the 5th century, make
Francs ; Xavier the apoftl; of the Indies, &c. In the
Eaft Indies the Jefuit miffionaries are alfo called a-
pofiles.
Apostle is alfo ufed among the Jews for a kind
©f officer anciently fent into the feveral parts and pro¬
vinces in their jurifdi<5iion, by way of vifitor or com-
any mention of an affembly of the apoftles in order to
the compofmg of a creed. Secondly, the fathers of
the three firft centuries, in difputing againft the here*-
tics, endeavour to prove that the do&rine contained in
this creed was the fame which the apoftles taught; bujt
they never pretend that the apoftles compofed it.
miffary, to fee that the laws were duly obferved, and Thirdly, if the apoftles had made this creed, it would
to receive the monies collefted for the reparation of have been the fame in all churches, and in all ages
the temple, and the tribute payable to the Romans.
The Theodcfian code, lib. 14. De fudais, calls thofe
apofloli, qui ad exigendum aurutn atque argentum a pa-
triarcha certo tempore diriguntur. Julian the apoftate
remitted the Jews the apofiole, ; that is, as he
himfelf explains it, the tribute they had been accu-
ftomed to fend him. Thefe apoftles were a degree
below the officers of the fynagogues called patriarchs,
and received their commiffions from them. Some au¬
thors obferve, that St Paul had borne this office ; and
that it is this he alludes to in the beginning of the
and all authors would have cited it after tire fame man¬
ner. But the cafe is quite otherwife. In die fecond
and third ages of the church, there were as many
creeds as authors, and one and the fame author fets
down the creed after a different manner in feveral pla¬
ces of his works $ which is an evidence that there was
not at that time any creed which was reputed to be
the apoftles. In the 4th century, Ruffinus compares
together the three ancient creeds of the churches of
Aquileia, Rome, and the Eaft, which differ very con-
fiderably in th,e terms. Befides, thefe creeds differed
epiftle to the Galatians : as if he had faid, Paul, no not only in the terms and expreffions, but even in the
longer an apoftle of the fynagogue, nor fent thereby articles, feme of which were omitted in one or other
•to maintain the law of Mofes, but now an apoftle and
envoy of Jefus Chrift, &c. St Jerom, though he does
not believe that St Paul had been an apoftle of this
kind, yet imagines that he alludes to it in the paffage
juft cited.
Apostle, in the Greek liturgy, is particularly
ufed for a book containing the epiftles of St Paul,
printed in the order wherein they are to be read in
churches, through the courfe of the year. Another
of them; fuch as thofe of the defcent into hell, the com¬
munion of the faints, and the life everlafling. From
thefe reafons it may be gathered, that tho’ this creed
may be faid to be that of the apoftles in regard to the
doArines contained therein, yet it is not to be referred
to them as the authors and firft compofers of it. Who
was the true author of it, is not fo eafy to determine ;
though its great antiquity may be inferred from hence,
. that the whole form, as it now ftands in the Engliih
book of the like kind, containing the Gofpels, is called liturgy, is to be found in the works of St Ambrofe
Evarytxio,, Cofpel.—The apoftle, of late days, has alfo. and Ruffinus, the former of whom flouriffied in the
contained the other canonical epiftles, the A<5ts of the
Apoftles, and the Revelations. Hence it is alfo called
Ads of the Apoflies, nja£<*»»roAof; that being the firft
book in it.
Apostle is alfo thought by many to have been the
original name for biffiops, before the denomination bifisop
3d century, and the latter in the 4th century.
The primitive Chriftians, in regard they always con¬
cealed this and their other myfteries, did not publicly
recite the creed, except at the times of baptifm; which,
unlefs in cafes of neceffity, were only at Eafter and
Whitfuntide. The conftant repeating it was not i
was appropriated to their order. Thus Theodoret fays troduced into the church till the end of die 5th cen-
exprefsly, the fame perfons were anciently called pro-
mifcuoufly both biftiops and prelbyters, w'hilft thofe
who are now called biftiops were called apoftles In
the arfenal of Bremen, there are twelve pieces of can¬
non called the Twelve Apojlles, on a fuppofition that
the whole world muft be convinced, and acquiefce in
the preaching of fuch apoftles.
Apostles Creed; A formula, or fummary, of the
Chriftian faith, drawn up, according to Ruffinus, by
the apoftles themfelves ; who, during their ftay at Je-
rufalem, foon after our Lord’s afcenfion, agreed upon
this creed, as a rule of faith, and as a word of difiinc-
tion by which they were to know friends from foes.
Baronius, and fome other authors, conjedure, that
they did not compofe it till the fecond year of the reign
of Claudius, a little before their difperfion. As to
their manner of compofing it, fome fancy, that each
tury ; about which time Petrus Gnapheus, biftiop of
Antioch, prefcribed the recital of it every time divine
fervice was performed.
APOSTOLARE, Apostolicare, apoflolizing, in
fome middle-age writers, denotes the being preferred to
the dignity of pope.
APOSTOLATE, in a general fenfe, is ufed for
miffion. In this fenfe, Olearius has a difcourfe con¬
cerning the apoftolate of Chrift.
Apostolate more properly denotes the dignity or
office of an apoftle of Chrift ; but it is alfo ufed, ia
ancient writers, for the office of a biftiop. In this
fenfe we meet with feveral letters, petitions, requefts,
&c. direded to bilhops under the title of your apoflo-
late, or apo iolatus vefler But as the title apoflolicus
had been appropriated to the pope, fo that of apofto-
late became at length reftrained to the foie dignity of
apoftle pronounced his article, v. hich is the reafon of the popedom. Every biftiop’s fee was anciently dig¬
its being called fy mb slum apojlolicutn, it being made up nified with the title of fedes apoflolica, an apoftolical
R .2 fee.
A P O [ i.
Apoftoli fee,'^ichis now the peculiar denomination of the fee
I of Rome.
. pQ1 “ 1C1*. APOSTOLI, in law, denote thofe letters miflive
which are demanded in cafes of appeal.
APOSTOLIC, Apostolical, fomething that re¬
lates to the apofries, or defcends from them. Thus we
fey, the apojlohcal age, apojlolical dodhine, apojlolical
character, conftitutions, traditions, &c.
Apostolic, in the primitive church, was an appel¬
lation given to all fuch churches as were founded by
the apofrles ; and even to the bifhops of thole churches,
as being the reputed fucceflbrs of the apoftles—Thefe
were confined to four, viz. Rome, Alexandria, Anti¬
och, and Jerufalem. In after-times, other churches
affumed the fame quality, on account, principally, of
the conformity of their dodtrine with that of the chur¬
ches which were apoftolical by foundation, and becaufe
all bifhops held themfelves fuccelfors of the apofrles, or
adled in their diocefes with the authority of apoftles.
The firft time the term apojfolical is attributed to
bifhops, as fuch, is in a letter of Clovis to the council
of Orleans, held in yn, though, that king does not
there exprefsly denominate them apojioliced, but (npr>-
flollca fide dignijjimi) highly worthy of the apoftolical
fee. In 581, Guntram calls the bilhops, met at the
council of Mafon, apojlolical pontiffs, apojlolici ponti-
Jjeet. ■
In progrefs of time, the bi'fhop of Rome growing in
power above the reft, and the three patriarchates of
Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerufalem, falling into the
hands of the Saracens, the title apojlolical was reftrain-
ed to the pope and his church alone. Though feme
of the popes, and St Gregory the Great, not content¬
ed to hold the title by this tenure, began, at length,
to infift, that it belonged to them by another and pecu¬
liar right, as being the fucceffors of St Peter. The
country of Rheims in 1049 declared that the pope was
the foie apoftolical primate of the tmiverfal church.
And'hence a great number of apoftolicals ; apojlolical
fee, apojholical mmz\o,apofioiical notary, apojlolical brief,
apojlolical chamber, apojlolical vicar, &c.
Apostolical C'ovflitutions. See Constitution.
Apostolical Traditions. See Tradition.
Apostolical Fathers "is an appellation ufually given
to the writers of the firft century who employed their
pens in the caufe of Chriftianity. OP thefe writers,
Gotelerius, and after him Le Cl ere, have publifhed a
colledtion in two volumes, accompanied both with their
own: annotations and the remarks of other learned
men.
APOSTGLIANS, a fe<5t of the Mennonites,
which firft fprung up in the year 1664, and derived its
name from Apoftool, one of the Mennonite minifters
at Amfterdam. They concurred with them in doc¬
trine, and admitted to their communion thofe only
who profeffed to believe all the fentiments which are
contained in their public confeffion of faith:
APOSTOLICI, or Apostoltcs, was a name af¬
firmed by three different fefts, on account of their pre¬
tending to imitate the manner and practice of the apo¬
ftles.. The .firft’apoftolici, otherwife called ApotaClitte
and Apotaftici, rofe out of the Encratitje, and Cathari,
in the third century. They made profeffion of ab-
ftaiiiing from marriage, and the ufe.of wine, flefh, mo-
aey^Scc..
\2 ] A P O
Gerhard Sagarelli was the founder of the fecond ApofioR-
fedt; he obliged his followers to go from place to cura
place as the apoftles did, to wander about cloathed in . ^
white, with long beards, difhevelled hair, and bare l*
heads, accompanied with women, whom they rallp.L t
their fpiritual fifters. They likewife renounced all
kinds of property and poffeflions, inveighed againft the
growing corruption of the church of Rome, predicted
its overthrow, and the eftabliihment of a purer church
on its ruins. Sagarelli was burnt alive at Parma in the
year 1300, and was afterwards fucceeded by Dulci-
nus, who added to the character of an apoftle thofe of
a prophet and a general, and carried on a bloody and
dreadful war for the fpace of more than two years a-
gainft Raynerius, biihop of Vercelli; he was at length
defeated, and put to death in a barbarous manner in
the year 13 7. Neverthelefs, this feft fubfifted in
France, Germany, and in other countries, till the be¬
ginning of the fifteenth century, when it was totally
extirpated under the pontificate of Boniface IX.
The other branch of apoftolici were of the twelfth,
century. Thefe alfo condemned marriage, preferring
celibacy, and calling themfelves the chafte brethren
and fifters; though each was allowed a fpiritual fifter,
with whom he lived in a domeftic relation ; and on this
account they have been charged with concubinage :
they held it unlawful to take an oath; they fet a fids
the ufe of baptifm ; and in many things imitated the
Manichees. Bernard wrote againft this fed of apo-
ftolici.
APOSTOLICUM is a peculiar name given to a
kind of fong or hymn, anciently ufed in churches.
The apoftolicum is mentioned by Greg. Thaumaturgus
as ufed in his time. Voflius underftands it as fpoken
of the apoftles creed : Suicer thinks this impoffible, for
that this creed-was then unknown in the churches of
the eaft.
APOSTROPHE, in rhetoric, a figure by which
a perfon who is either abfent or dead is addreffed as if
he were prefent, and attentive to us. This figure is,
in boldnefs, a degree lower than the addrefs to per-
fonified objeds (fee Personification) ; lince it re¬
quires a lefs effort of imagination to fuppofe perfons
preferit who are dead or abfent, than to animate infen-
fible beings and dired our difeourfe to them. The
poems of Offian. abound with the moft beautiful in-
ftances of this figure. “-Weep on the rocks of roar¬
ing winds, O Maid of Iniftore ! Bend, thy fair head
over the waves, thou fairer than the ghoft of the hills-
when it moves in a fun-beam at noon over the. iilence
of Morven ! He is fallen ! Thy youth is low; pale
beneath the fword of Cuchullin !”
Apostrophe, in. grammar, the contradron of a
word by the ufe of a comma : as call’d for called, tko*
for though.
APOTACTITaE, or Apotactici, amancient fed,
who affeding to follow the evangelical counfels of po¬
verty, and the examples of the apoftles and primitive
Chriftians, renounced all their effeds and poffeffions.
It does not appear, that they gave into any errors du¬
ring their firft ftate; fome ecclefiaftical writers affure
us they had divers holy virgins and martyrs under the
perfection of Dioclefian, in the fourth century ; but
they afterwards fell into the opinions of the Encratita,
and.taught that the. renouncing of all riches was net.
A P O [ 133 ] A P P
Ape tekhif-only a matter of counfel and advice, but of precept
mns and neceffity. And hence the fixth law in the Theo-
I r docian code joins the Apotadtitse with the Eunomians
. p ] ‘r and Arians.
v ' APOTEICHISMUS, in the ancient military art,
a kind of line of circumvallation drawn round a place
in order to befiege it. This was alfo called periteichif-
mus. The firft thing the ancients went about, when
they defigned to lay clofe fiege to a place, was the apo-
teichifmus ; which fometimes eonfifted of a double wall
or rampart, raifed of earth ; the innermoft to prevent
fudden iallies from the town, the outermoft to keep off
foreign enemies from coming to the relief of the be-
fieged. This anfwered to what are called lines of con-
travallathn and circumvallation among the moderns.
APOTHECARY, one who pradtifes the art of
pharmacy. In London, the apothecaries are one of the
city-companies. They were incorporated. by a char¬
ter from king James I. procured at the felicitation
of Dr Mayeme and Dr Aitkins : till that time they
only made a part of the grocers company ; plums,
fugar, fpice, Venice treacle, mithridate, &c. were
fold in the fame Ihop and by the fame perfon. The
reafon of feparating them was, that medicines might
be better prepared, and in oppofition to divers per-
fons who impofed unwholefome remedies on the people.
By an adl which was made perpetual in the ninth year
of George 1. they are exempted from ferving upon ju¬
ries, or in ward and parifh offices. They are obliged
to make up their medicines according to the formulas
preferibed in the college difpenfatory ; and are liable
to have their fhops vifited by the cenfors of the college,
who are empowered to deftroy fuch medicines as they
think not good.
They have a hall in Black Friars, where there are two
fine laboratories, out of which all the furgeons chefts are
fupplied with medicines for the royal Britiffi navy.
• To his majefty belong two apothecaries : the falary
to the firft, 3201. to the fecond, 27jl.—To the house¬
hold belong alfo two.
The charitable difpenfation of medicines by the
Chinefe is well deferving notice. They have a ftone,
, which is ten cubits high, eredted in the public fquares
of their cities ; on this ftone are engraved the names
of all forts of medicines with the price of each; and
when the poor ftand in need of any relief from phyfic,
they go to the treafury, where they receive the price
each medicine is rated at.
Apothecary, ApothccariuSyin-writers of the middle
age, denotes a fhop-keeper, or ware-houfe keeper.
AroTHECARius is alfo ufed to denotea ftore-keeper,
or officer appointed to have the diredtion of a maga¬
zine, granary, &c. In which fenfe apothecarii is fome¬
times rendered by horearii and raiionarii.
APOTHEGME, in antiquity, an heathen cererao
ny, whereby their emperors and great men were placed
among the gods. The word is derived from a*™, and
«*•?. Cod.
After the apotheofis, which they alfo called deifica¬
tion and confiecratton, temples, altars, and images, were
eredted to the new deity ; facrifices, &c. were offered,
and colleges of priefts inftituted.
It was one of the dodfrines of Pythagoras which he
had borrowed from the r haldees, that virtuous perfons
after, their death were, railed into the order of the gods.-
And hence the ancients deified all the inventors of Apotheofis
things ufeful to mankind ; and thofe who had done •
any important fervice to the commonwealth.—Tiberi-, >Jiatus*
us propofed to the Roman fenate the apotheofis of Je- ~
fus Chrift, as is related by Eufebius, Tertullian, and
Chryfdftom,
Juvenal rallying the frequent apotheofes, introduces
poor Atlas, complaining that he was ready to fink un¬
der the burden of fo many new gods as were every day
added to the heavens. Seneca ridicules the apotheofis
of Claudius with admirable humour.
The ceremony, according to Herodian’s defeription,
was as follows : After the body of the deceafed had
been burnt with the ufual folemnities, an image of wax,
exaftly refembling him, was placed on an ivory couch,
where it lay for feven days, attended by the fenate and
ladjes of the higheft quality in mourning; and then
the young fenators and knights bore the bed of ftatc
through the via facra to the old forum, and from thence
to the Campus Martius, where it was depofited upon
an edifice built in form of a pyramid.. The bed being
thus placed amidft a quantity of fpices and other com-
buftibles, and the knights having made a folemn pro-
ceffion round the pile, the new emperor, with a torch
in his hand fet fire to it, whilft an eagle, let fly from
the top of the building, and mounting in the air with
a firebrand, was fuppofed to convey the foul of the de¬
ceafed to heaven ; and thenceforward he was ranked
among the gods.
We often meet with the confecration or apotheofis
of emperors reprefented on medals ; where we fee the
pyramids of feveral ftories, each growing lefs and lefs ;
we fee alfo the eagles flying, away with the fouls of the
deceafed emperors. A gem in the mufseum of Bran¬
denburg reprefents the apotheofis of Julius Ctefar,
mounted upon the celeftial globe, an^ holding an helm
in his hand, as if he were now the governor of heaven,
as before of the earth. See Deification.
APOTHERAPIA, (from / cure), in
phyfic, properly denotes a complete or finiftied cure.
Apotherama is alfo ufed in the gymnaftic art, for
the laft part of all regular exercife, viz. friftion or unc¬
tion with oil, before as well as after bathing. The de--
fign of this was partly to cleanfe the Ikin from any filth
or dull it might have contracted during the exercife,
and partly to remove wearinefs.
APOTOME, in geometry, the difference between
two incommenfurable lines.
Apotome, in mufic, the difference between a great¬
er and leffer femi-tone; exprefledby theratio, 128 ; 125.
APOTROPiEA, (from aw'Tp(CTU) / avert), in the
ancient poetry, verfes compofed for averting the wrath
of incenfed deitiesand the deities invoked for avert¬
ing any threatened misfortune were called Apotrcpeans:
they were alfo called Alexicaci, from I drive away;.
and AWrawcr from averrunco, which denotes the fame.
APOZEM, in medicine, the fame with deco&ion.
See Decoction.
APPARATUS, a term ufed to denote a complete
fet of inftruments, or other utenlils, belonging to any
artift or machine.
Apparatus is frequently ufed for the operation of
cutting for the ftone. For this there are three forts-
of apparatus, viz. the fmall, great, and high apparatus,.
See Surgery.-
Appa--
A P P L 134 ] A P P
Apparatus Apparatus is alio ufed as a title of feveral books
II compofed in form of catalogues, bibliothecas, didHo-
.« PPa-ritloanaries. &c. for the eafe and conveniency of ftudy. The
apparatus to Cicero is a kind , of concordance, or Col-
ledlion of Ciceronian phrafes, &c. The apparatus facer
of Poifevin, is a colledion of all kinds of ecclefiaftical
authors printed in 1611, in three volumes.—GlofTaries,
comments, &c. are alfo frequently called apparatujss.
APPARENT, in a general fenfe, fomething that is
vifible to the eyes, or obvious to the underftanding.
Apparent, among mathematicians and aftronomers,
denotes things as they appear to us, in contradiftindion
from real or true ; thus we fay, the apparent diameter,
diftance, magnitude, place, figure, &c. of bodies.
Apparent Heir, inlaw. No inheritance can veil, nor
can any perfon be the adual complete heir of another,
till the anceftor is previoufly dead. Nemo eft hares vi-
ventis. Before that time the perfon who is next in the
^ine of fucceffion is called an heir apparent, or heir pre-
fumptive. Heirs apparent are fuch, whofe right of in¬
heritance is indefeafxble, provided they outlive the an-
cefior ; as the eldeft fon or his iffue, who muft by the
courfe of the common law be heirs to the father when¬
ever he happens to die. Heirs prefumptive are fuch,
who, if the anceftor fliould die immediately, would in
the prefent circumftanees of things be his heirs: but
whofe right of inheritance may be defeated by the con¬
tingency offome nearer heir being born ; as a brother,
or nephew, whofe prefumptive iucceflion may be de-
itroyed by the birth of a child; or daughter, whofe
prefent hopes may be hereafter cut off by the birth of
a fon. Nay, even if the eftate hath defcended, by the
death of the owner, to fuch brother, or nephew, or
daughter, in the former cafes, the eftate (hall be di-
vefted and taken away by the birth of a pofthumous
child ; and, in the latter, it (hall alfo be totally divefted
by the birth of a pofthumpus fon.
APPARITION, in a general fenfe, denotes fimply
the appearance of a thing. In a more limited fenfe,
it is ufed for a fpe&re or ghoft.—Several inftances of
apparitions occur in the Bible ; that of Samuel, raifed
by the witch of Endor, has occafioned great difputes.
XV e find great controverfies among authors, in relation
to the reality, the exiftence or non-exiftehce, the poffi-
bility, or impoffibility, of apparitions. The Chaldeans,
the Jews, and other nations, have been the fteady af-
ferters of the belief of apparitions. The denial of
fpirits and apparitions is by fome made one of the
marks of infidelity, if not of atheifm. Many of the
apparitions we are told of in writer*, are doubtlefs mere
delufions of the fenfe ; many others are fiftitious, con¬
trived merely to amufe, oranfwerfome purpofe. Ap¬
paritions, it is certain, are machines that on occafion
have been of good fervice both to generals, to minifters
of ftate, to priefts, and others.
Partial darknefs, or obfeurity, are the moft powerful
means by which the fight is deceived : night is there¬
fore the proper feafon for apparitions. Indeed the ftate
of the mind, at that time, prepares it for the admiflion
of thefe delufions of the imagination. The fear and
caution which muft be obferved in the night; the op¬
portunity it affords for ambufeades and aftaflinations ;
depriving us of fociety, and cutting off many pleafing
trains of ideas, which objefts in the light never fail to
introduce, are all circumftances of terror: and perhaps,
on the whole, fo much of our happinefs depends upon Appariti**
our fenfes, that the deprivation of any one may be at- I
tended with proportionable horror and uneafinefs. The, APP6*1- _
notions entertained by the ancients refpefting tire foul, * ' J
may receive fome illuftration from thefe principles. In
dark or twilight, the imagination frequently transforms
an inanimate body into a human figure ; on approach¬
ing, the fame appearance is not to be found: hence
they fometimes fancied they faw their anceftors; but
not finding the reality, diftinguifhed thefe illufions by
the name of /hades.
Many of thefe fabulous narrations might originate
from dreams. There are times of flumber when we are
not fenfible of being afleep. On this principle, Hobbes
has ingenioufly accounted for the fpeftre which is faid
to have appeared to Brutus. “We read,” fays he,
“ of M. Brutus, that at Philippi, the night before he
gave battle to Auguftus Caefar, he faw a fearful appa¬
rition, which is commonly related by hiftorians as a
vifion ; but, confidering the circumftances, one may
eafily judge it to have been but a fhort dream. For
fitting in his tent, penfive, and troubled with the hor¬
ror of his rafh ad, it was not hard for him, number¬
ing in the cold, to dream of that which moft affright¬
ed him ; which fear, as by degrees it made him wake,
fo it muft needs make the apparition by degrees to
vanifh: and having no affurance that he flept, he could
have no caufe to think it a dream, or any thing but a
vifion. ”—The well known ftory told by Clarendon, of
the apparition of the Duke ©f Buckingham’s father,
will admit of a fimilar folution. There was no man
in the kingdom fo much the fubjed of converfation as
the Duke ; and from the corruptnefs of his charader,
he was very likely to fall a facrifice to the enthufiafm
of the times. Sir George Villiers is faid to have ap¬
peared to the man at midnight: therefore there is the
greateft probability that the man was afleep ; and the
dream affrighting him, made a ftrong impreffion, and
was likely to be repeated.
APPARITOR, among the Romans, a general term
to comprehend all attendants of judges and magiftrates
appointed to receive and execute their orders. Appa¬
ritor, in England, is a meffenger that ferves the procefs
of a fpiritual court, or a beadle in an univerlity who
carries the mace.
APPAUMEE, in heraldry, denotes one hand ex¬
tended, with the full palm appearing, and the thumb
and fingers at full length.
APPEAL, in law, the removal of a caufe from an
inferior to a fuperior court or judge, when a perfon
thinks himfelf aggrieved by the fentenee of the inferior
judge. Appeals lie from all the ordinary courts of ju-
ftice to the Houfe of Lords. In ecclefiaftical cafes, if
an appeal is brought before a bifhop, it may be remo¬
ved to the archbiihop ; if before an archdeacon to the
court of arches, and thence to the archbifhop ; and
from the archbilhop’s court to die king in chancery.
Appeal, in common law, denotes an accufation by
a private fubjedt againft another, for fome heinous
crime ; demanding punifhment on account of the par¬
ticular injury fufiered, rather than for the offence againft
the public.
This private procefs, for the punifhment of public
crimes, had probably its original in thofe times, when
a private pecuniary iatisfadion, called a useregild, was
conftantly
API* [ »35 ] A P P
|tf Appeal, conftantly paid to the party injured, or his relations, to
... ■'■-v-'—1 expiate enormous offences. This wasa cuftom derived
, to the Englifh, in common witli other northern nations,
from their anceftorsthe ancient Germans; among whom,
according to Tacitus, luitur bomicidium certo armento-
rum ac pecorum numero ; recipitque fatisjaftionem uni~
verfa d'nnus. In the fame manner, by the Irifh Brehon
law, in cafe of murder, the brehon or judge was ufed
to. compound between the murderer and the friends of
the deceafed who profecuted him, by caufmg the male-
facftor to give unto them, or to the child or wife of him
that was flain, a recompence which they called an eriacb.
And thus we find in the Anglo-Saxon laws (particular¬
ly thofe of king Athelftan) the feveral weregilds for
homicide eftabiiihed in progreffive order, from the death
of the ceorl or peafant, up to that of the king himfelf.
And in the laws of Henry I. we have an account of
what other offences were redeemable by weregild, and
what were not fo. As therefore, during the conti¬
nuance of this cuftom, a procefs was certainly givei>
for recovering the weregild by the party to whom it
was due ; it feems that, when thefe offences by degrees
grew no longer redeemable, the private procefs was ftill
continued, in order to infure the inflidtion of punifti-
ment upon the offender, though the party injured was
allowed no pecuniary compenfation for the offence.
But though appeals were thus, in the nature of pro-
fecutionsforfomeattrocious injury, committed more im¬
mediately againft an individual, yet it alfo was ancient¬
ly permitted, that any fubjedt might appeal another
fubjeft of high-treafon, either in the courts of common
law, or in parliament, or (for treafons committed be¬
yond the feas) in the court of the high conftable and
marfhal. The cognizance of appeals in the latter ftill
continues in force; and fo late as 1631, there was a
trial by battle awarded in the court of chivalry, onfuch
an appeal of treafon : but that in the firft was virtu¬
ally aboliftied by the ftatutes 5 Edw. III. c. 9. and
a Edw. III. c. 24. and in the fecond exprefsiy by fta-
tute 1 Hen. IV. c. 1 4. So that the only appeals now
in force for things done within the realm, are appeals
©f felony and mayhem.
An appeal of felony may be brought for crimes com¬
mitted either againft the parties themfelves or their re¬
lations. The crimes againft the parties themfelves are
larceny, raps, and arfnn. And for thefe, as well as for
mayhem, die perfons robbed, ravifhed, maimed, or
whofe houfes are burnt, may inftitute this private pro¬
cefs. The only crime againft one’s relation, for which
an appeal can be brought, is that of killing him, by ei¬
ther murder or manflaughter. But this cannot be
brought by every relation; but only by the wife for
the death of her hulband, or by the heir-male for the
death of his anceftor; which heirlhip was alfo confined
by an ordinance of Henry I. to the four neareft de¬
grees of blood. It is given to the wife on account of
the lofs of her hulband; therefore, if ihe marries again,,
before or pending her appeal, it is loft and gone ; or,
if Ihe marries after judgment, Ihe fhall not demand ex¬
ecution. The heir, as was faid, mult alfo be heir-male,
and fuch a one as was the next heir by the courfe of the
common law at the time of the killing of the anceftor.
But this rule has three e xceptions : 1. If the perfon
killed leaves an innocent wife, Ihe only, and not the
heir, Ihall have the appeal: a. If there be no wife,, and
the heir be accufed of the murder, the perfen, who Appeal,
next to him would have been heir-male, fhall bring the v~"—-
appeal: 3. If the wife kills her hulband, the heir may
appeal her of the death. And, by the ftatute of Glou-
cefter, 6 Ed. I c, 9. all appeals of death muft be fued
within a year and a day after the completion of the fe¬
lony by the death of the party: which feems to be only
declaratory of the old common law; for in the Gothic
conftitutions we find the fame lipreferiptio annalis, qua
currit adverjus aClorcm, fi de homicida ei non conjlat in¬
fra annum a cade faila, nec quenquam inters a arguat
et accufet."
Thefe appeals may be brought previous to any in¬
dictment; and, if the appellee be acquitted thereon, he
cannot be afterwards indicted for the fame offence. In
like manner as by the old Gothic conftitution, if any
offender gained a verdict in his favour, when profecu¬
ted by the party injured, he was alfo underftood to be
acquitted of any crown-profecution for the fame of¬
fence: but, on the contrary, if he made his peace with
the king, ftill he might be profecuted at the fuit of the
party. And fo, in England, if a man be acquitted on
an indictment of murder, or found guilty, and pardoned
by the king, ftill he ought not (in ftriCtnefs) to go at
large, but be imprifoned or let to bail till the year and
day be paft, by virtue of the ftatute 3 Hen. VIII. c. r.
in order to be forthcoming to anfwer any appeal for
the fame felony, not having as yet been punilhed for it:
though, if he hath been found guilty of manflaughter
on an indictment, and hath had the benefit of clergy, and
fuffered the judgment of the law, he cannot afterwards
be appealed ; for it is a maxim in law, “ that nemo bis
punitur pro eodem dditto" Before this ftatute was
made, it was not ufual to indict a man for homicide
within the time limited for appeals; which produced
very great inconvenience.
If the appellee be acquitted, the appellor (by vir¬
tue of the ftatute of Weftm. 2. 13. Edw. I. c. 12.)
Ihall fuffer one year’s imprifonment, and pay a fine to
the king, befides reftitution of damages to the party
for the imprifonment and infamy which he has fuftain-
ed: and, if the appellor be incapable to make reftitu¬
tion, his abettors Ihall do it for him, and alfo be liable
to imprifonment. This provillon, as was forefeep by
the author of Fleta, proved a great difeouragement to
appeals ; fo that thenceforward they ceafed to be in
common ufe.
If the appellee be found guilty, he Ihall fuffer the fame
judgment, as if he had been convicted by indictment:
but with this remarkable difference, that on an indict¬
ment, which is at the fuft of the king, the king may
pardon and remit the execution ; on an appeal, which
is at the fuit cf a private fubjeCt, to make an atone¬
ment for the private wrong, the king can no more par¬
don it, than he can remit the damages recovered on an
aClion of battery. In like manner as, while the were¬
gild continued to be paid as a fine for homicide, it
could not be remitted by the king’s authority. And
the ancient ufage was,fo late as Henry IV.’s time, that
all the relations of the flain Ihould drag the appellee to*
the place of execution: a cuftom, founded upon that
favage fpirit of family-refentment which prevailed uni-
verfally through Europe after the irruption of the nor¬
thern nations, and is peculiarly attended to in their fe¬
veral codes of law y and which prevails even now among.
A P P [ 136 ] A P P
Appear- the wild and untutored inhabitants of America : as if
rauce. the finger Gf natUre had pointed it out to mankind, in
Appeiia- the‘r rude and uncultivated ftate. However, the pu-
tfon. niihment of the offender may be remitted and difehar-
——v——' ged ^7 Ae concurrence of all parties interefted ; and as
the king by his pardon may fruftrate an indi&ment, fo
the appellant by his releafe may difeharge an appeal:
“ nam quilibet potejl renunciare juri pro fe introduilo."
APPEARANCE, in a general fenfe, the exterior
furface of a thing, or that which immediately ftrikes
the fenfes.
Appearance, in law, fignifies a defendant’s filing
a common or fpecial bail, on any procefs iffued out of
a court of judicature.
APPELLANT, in a general fenfe, one who ap¬
peals. See Appeal.
Appellants, in church hiftory, an appellation gi¬
ven to fuch of the catholic clergy as appeal from the
conftitution unigenitus to a general council.
APPELLATION, the name by which any thing
is known or diftinguiflied when fpoken of. See Name.
Nothing can be more foreign to the original mean¬
ing of many words and proper names, than their pre-
fent appellations, frequently owing to the hiltory of
thofe things being forgotten, or an ignorance of the
language in which they were expreffed. Who, for
example, when the crier of a court bawls out, “ O yes,
O yes,” would dream that it was a proclamation com¬
manding the talkers to become hearers, being the French
word Cty<?z,“liften,” retainedin our courts ever fmee the
pleadings were held in law French ? Or would any
perfon luppofe that the head-land on the French coaft,
near Calais, called by our feamen Blacknefs, could be
fo titled from its French name of Blanc Nez, or, the
White He ad-land ?
King Henry the Eighth having taken the town of
Bullogne in France, the gates of which he brought to
Hardes in Kent, where they are flill remaining, the
flatterers of that reign highly magnified this adion,
which, Porto Bello like, became a popular fubjedt
for figns ; and the port or harbour of Bullogne, called
Bullogne mouth, was accordingly fet up at a noted
inn in Holburn ; the name of the inn long out-living
the fign and fame of the conqueft, an ignorant painter
employed by a no lefs ignorant landlord, to paint a
new one, reprefented it by a bull and a large gaping
human mouth (anlwering to the vulgar pronunciation
of Bull and Mouth). The fame piece of hiftory gave
being to the bull rfWjutf^-originally meant for Bullogne
gate, and reprefented by an embattled gate or entrance
into a fortified town.
The barber': pole has been the fubjedt of many con-
jedtures; fome conceiving it to have originated from
the word poll, or head, with feveral other conceits as
far-fetched and as unmeaning: but the true intention
of that party-coloured ftaff was to fhow that the ma¬
iler of the fhop pradtifed furgery, and could breathe a
vein as well as mow a beard; fuch a fluff being to this
day, by every village-pradtitioner, put into the hand of
a patient undergoing the operation of phlebotomy.
Tiie white band which encompaifes the fluff, was meant
to reprefent the fillet, thus elegantly twined about it.
Nor were the Chequers (at this time a common fign
of a public-houfe) lefs expreffive, being the reprefenta-
rion of a kind of draught-board called tables, and
N* 24.
fhowed that there that game might be played. From Appella-
their colour which was red, and the fimilarity to a lattice, tl0K*
it was coruptly called the red lettuce, which word is fre- App“etitet
quently ufed by ancient writers to fignify an alehoufe. ■ ^ ^
The Spedfator has explained the fign of the betlfavage ^
inn plauiibly enough, in fuppofmg it to have been ori¬
ginally the figure of a beautiful female found in the
woods, called in French la belle fauvage. But ano¬
ther reafon has fmee been affigned for that appellation,
namely, that the inn was once the property of Ladjr
Arabella Savage, p.nd familiarly called Bell Savage’s
inn, probably reprefented, as at prefent, by a bell and
a favage or wild man, which was a rebus for her
name; rebuffes being much in fafliion in the 16th cen¬
tury, of which the bolt and tun is an inflance.
The three blue balls prefixed- to the doors and win¬
dows of pawn-brokers Ihops, by the vulgar humorouflf
enough laid to indicate that it is two to one that the
things pledged are ever redeemed, was in reality the
arms of a fet of merchants from Lombardy, who were
the firii that publicly lent money on pledges. They
dwelt together in a flreet, from them named Lom-
bard-flreet, in London, and alfo gave their name to
another at Paris. The appellation of Lombard was
formerly all over Europe confidered as fynonimous to
that of ufurer.
At the inflitution of yeomen of the guards, they
ufed to wait at table on all great folemnities, and were
ranged near the buffets ; this procured them the name
of buffetiers, not very unlike in found to the jocular
appehation of beep-eaters, now given them ; though
probably it was rather the voluntary mifnomer of fome
wicked wit, than an accidental corruption arifing from
ignorance of the French language.
The opprobrious title of bum-bayhffe, fo conflantly
beflowed on the fheriffs officers, is, according to Judge
Blackitone, only the corruption of bound bayliffe, every
fheriff’s officer being obliged to enter into bonds and
to give fecurity for his good behaviour, previous to his
appointment.
A cordwainer feems to have no relation to the occu¬
pation it is meant to exprefs, which is that of a fhoe-
maker. But cordonier, originally fpelt cordaunter, is
the French wrord for that trade ; the befl leather ufed
for Ihoes coming originally from Cordua in Spain. Spa-
Xlifh-leather Ihoes were once famous in England.
APPELLATIVE names, in grammar, in contra-
diftinction to proper names, are fuch as Hand for uni-
verfal ideas, or a whole rank of beings, whether gene¬
ral or fpecial. Thus filh, bird, man, city, river, are
common or appellative names ; and fo are trout, eel,
lobfter; for they all agree to many individuals, and
fome to many fpecies. See Name.
APPELLEE, among lawyers, the perfon againil
whom an appeal is brought. See Appeal.
APPENDIX, in literature, a treatife or fupple-
ment added at the end of a work, to render it more
complete.
APPERCEPTION, or Apperception, a term
ufed by Leibnitz and his followers for confcioulhefs.
APPETITE, in a general fenfe, the delire of en¬
joying fome object, fuppofed to be conducive to our
happinefs. When this inclination is guided by reafon,
and proportioned to the intrinfu value of the object, it
is called rational appetite \ as, on the other hand, it is
denominated
A P P [ >37 1 A P P
Appetite denominated fsnfitive appetite, when we have only a
5 blind propenfity to a thing, without determinate ideas
Applaufe. 0f the g00d qualities for which we defire it.
' Appetites are paflions directed to general objeits, in
contradiftindtion to paffions directed to particular ob¬
jects, which retain their proper name. Thus we fay,
an appetite for fame, for glory, for conqueft, for riches;
but we fay the pajfion of love, of gratitude, of envy,
&c. Appetite may be alfo diftinguifhed from paflion,
fmce the latter has no exiftence till a proper objeft be
prefented : whereas the former exifts firft, and then is
directed to an objedt.
Appetite, in medicine, a certain painful or uneafy
fenfation, always accompanied witli a defire to eat or
drink.—An exceffive appetite is called by phyficians
bulimy or fames canina; a defedt or lofs of it, anorexy;
and that after things improper for food, pica.
APPIA via, a way reaching from Rome through
Capua to Brundufium, between 330 and 350 miles long.
Appius Claudius, furnamed Cxcus, in the year of the
city 441, carried it from the Porta Capena to Capua.
(Livy, Frontinus). It was afterwards carried on to
Brundufium; but by whom, or when, is uncertain. It
was laid with very hard ftone, brought from a great di-
ftance, large and fquared (Diodorus) ; and it was fo
wide, that feveral waggons could go abreaft. Statius
calls it the queen of roads. Its courfe is defcribed by
Horace, Strabo, and Antonine.
APPI AN, an eminent writer of the Roman hiftory
in Greek, under the reign of Trajan and Hadrian. He
was of a good family in Alexandria in Egypt; whence
he went to Rome, and there diftinguilhed himfelf fo
well as an advocate, that he was chofen one of the pro¬
curators of the empire, and the government of a pro¬
vince was committed to him. He did not complete the
Roman hiftory in a continued feries; but wrote diftindt
hiftories of all nations that had been conquered by the
Romans, in which he placed every thing relating to
thofe nations in the proper order of time. His ftyle is
plain and 'Simple : in the opinion of Phocius, he has
fhown the greateft knowledge of military affairs, and
the happieft talent at defcribing them, of any of the
hiftorians; for while we read him, we in a manner fee the
battles which he defcribes. Of all this voluminous work
there remains only what treats of the Punic, Syrian,
Parthian, Mithridatic, and Spanilh wars, with thofe
againft Hannibal, the civil wars, and the wars in Illy-
ricum, and fome fragments of the Celtic or Gallic wars.
APPIUS ct-audius, a Sabine by birth, one of the
principal inhabitants of Regillum : His Ihining merit
having drawn the envy of his fellow-citizens upon him,
he retired to Rome with all his family. Appius was
admitted into the fenate, and was made conful, with
Publius Servilius Prifcus, in 258 from the building of
Rome: but he was hated by the Plebeians, being an-
auftere oppofer of their clamours and feditions. The
Claudian family continued long one of the moft illuftri-
ous of the patrician families in Rome ; and feveral in
fucceffion of the name of Appius fupported the fame
ftem charafter that diftinguiihed their firft founder.
APPLAUSE, an approbation of fomething, figni-
fied by clapping the hands, ftill pradtifed in theatres.
—Applaufe, in antiquity, differedfrom acclamation,
as the latter was articulate and performed with the
voice, the former with the hands. Among the ilo-
Vol. II. Parti..
mans, applaufe was an artificial mufical kind of noife, Apple
made by the audience or fpedlators to exprefs their fa- A 0jntee
tisfadlion. There were three fpecies of applaufe, de- "PPoin ee
nominated from the different noifes made in them, viz.
Bombus, Imbrices, and Tejfee; the firft a confufed din,
made either by the hands or the mouth; the fecond
and third, by beating on a fort of founding veffels pla¬
ced in the theatres for this purpofe. Perfons were in-
ftrudted to give applaufe with fkill; and there were
even mafters who profeffed to teach the art. The pro¬
ficients in this way let themfelves out for hire to the
vain-glorious among the poets, adtors, &c. and were
properly difpofed to fupport a loud applaufe. Thefe
they called LaMdicaeni, and At the end of
the play, a loud peal of applaufe was expedted, and
even afked of the audience, either by the chorus or
the perfon who fpoke laft. The formula was, Spetta-
tores plaudite, or Valete et plaudite. The plaufores, or
applauders, were divided into chori, and difpofed in
theatres oppofite to each other, like the chorifters in
cathedrals, fo that there was a kind of concert of ap-
plaufes.
APPLE, the fruit of the pyrus malus. See Pyrus.
sfppLF. of the eye, a name not unfrequently given to
the pupil. See Anatomy.
Apples of Love. See Lycopersicon.
Mad Apples. See Melongena.
APPLEBY, the county-town of Weftmoreland,
where the aflizes are held, is feated on the banks of the
river Eden, which almoft furrounds it. It was for¬
merly a very confiderable town, and had great privi¬
leges ; but it is long ago gone to decay, and now only
confifts of mean houfes in one broad ftreet, which runs
with an eafy afcent from north to fouth ; at the head
of which is the caftle, almoft entirely furrounded by
the river. It has two churches ; a town-hall, in which
the affizes are held; a county jail; and an hofpital for
a govemefs and twelve widows, founded in 1651 by a
daughter of lord Clifford. It is governed by a mayor,
twelve aldermen, a common council, and two feargents
at mace, &c. Here is faid to be the beft corn-market
in thefe northern parts. It fends two members to'
parliament. W. Long. 3. 52. N. Lat. 54. 30..
APPLICATION, in a general fenfe, is the laying:
two things together, in order to difcover their agree¬
ment or difagreement.
Application, in geometry, is ufed either for di--
vifion, for applying one quantity to another, whofe a-
reas, but not figures, ftiall be the fame ; or, for tranf- ■
ferring a given line into a circle, or other figure, fo ’
that its ends fhall be in the perimeter of the figure.
Application, in theology, is particularly ufed, by
fome divines, for the aft whereby our Saviour transfers,,
or makes over to us, what he had earned or purchafed;
by his holy life and death. Accordingly it is by this-
application of the merits of Chrift that We are to be
juftified, and intitled to grace and glory. The facra--
ments are the ordinary means or inftruments whereby
this application is effefted.
APPOG1ATURA, in mufic, a fmall note inferred’
by the praftical mufician, between two others, at fome:
diftance.
APPOINTEE, a foot-foldier in the French army,.
&c. who for his long fervice and bravery receives pay
above private fentinels. Thefe have been fuppreffed in’
S. France,.
a p p r 138 i a p p
Appointee France, except in the regiment of French guards,
5 where forty appointees are ftili retained to each com-
^ice”' P^y °f 150 men.
. ' . Till the year J670, they had alfo captains and lieu¬
tenants under the appellation of appointees, who, with¬
out reflding in the regiment, received their pay.
Appointee, in heraldry, the fame as aguifee: Thus
we fay, a crofs appointee, to fignify that with two
angles at the end cut off, fo as to terminate in points.
APPOINTMENT, in a general fenfe, the fame as
Assignation.
Appointment, in a particular fenfe, denotes a pen-
fion or falary given by great lords and princes to per-
fons of worth and parts, in order to retain them in their
jfervice. The term is chiefly ufed among the French.
The king of France gives large appointments to feveral
of the officers in his fervice. Appointments differ
from wages, in that the latter are fixed and ordinary,
being paid by the ordinary treafurers ; whereas ap¬
pointments are annual gratifications granted by bre¬
vet for a time uncertain, and are paid out of the privy
purfe.
APPOSER fignifies an examiner. Jn the court of
exchequer, there is an officer called the foreign appofer.
In the office of confirmation, in the firft liturgy of
Edward VI. the rubric dire&s the bifhop, or fuch as he
lhall appoint, to appofe a child; and a bilhop’s exa¬
mining chaplain was anciently called his pofer.
APPOSITION, in grammar, the placing two or
more fubftantives together in the fame cafe, without
any copulative conjunction between them ; as, Ardebat
Alexim, delicias domini,
APPRAISER (from ad, “to,” and pretium, “value”),
one who rates or fets a value upon goods, &c. He
muff be a fkilful and honeft perfon. It is not a bufi-
nefs of itfelf, but is pradtifed by brokers of houfehold-
furniture 5 to which fet of men the word is chiefly ap¬
plied : Yet upholfterers and other brokers are employ¬
ed, or even any perfon or perfons who are fuppofed to
be (killed in the commodities to be appraifed or valued.
They are employed in cafes of death, executions
brought in upon goods, or of flock to be turned over
from one perfon to another, or divided between co¬
partners ; and are called fwom appraifers, from their
taking an oath to do juftice between party and party.
They fometimes appraife on behalf of both fides, each
party agreeing to have the fame appraifer or apprai¬
fers ; fometimes in oppofition, each party choofmg one
or more of a fide; and fometimts by commiflion or
deputation of truftees, mafters in chancery, &c.
APPRAISING, the adl of rating, valuing, or fet-
ting a price on goods, by a perfon who is a competent
judge, and is authorifed thereto. See Appraiser.
APPREHENSION, in logic, denotes the fimple
attention of the mind to an objeCl prefented either to
our fenfe or pur imagination, without paffing a judge¬
ment or making any inference.
Apprehension, is likewife ufed to exprefs an ina¬
dequate and imperfeCt idea: and thus it is applied to
our knowledge of God, in contradiftinCtion to compre-
henfion.
Apprehension, in law, fignifies the feizing a cri¬
minal, in order to bring him to juftice.
APPRENTICE, (from apprendre, “to learn,”) one
who is bound by covenant to ferve a tradefman or ar¬
tificer a certain time, upon condition of the mailer's Appren-»
inftruCting him in his art or myftery. ticefhip.
Apprentices may likewife be bound to hulbandmen,' <
or even to gentlemen; and they, as well as tradefmen,
in England, are compellable to take the children of the
poor, whom the overfeers, with the confent of two
juftices, may bind till the age of twenty-four years.
Apprentices may be difcharged on reafonable caufe;
but if any, whofe premium has been lefs than ten
pounds, run away from their mafters, they are compel¬
lable to ferve out the time of abfence, or give fatisfac-
tion for it, at any period within feven years after expi¬
ration of the original contract. Apprentices gain a
fettlement in that parifh where they laft ferved forty-
days ; and by the jth of Elizabeth, c. 4. they have aa
exclufive right to exercife the trade in which they have
been inftruCted, in any part of England. However,
the refolutions of the courts have in general rather con¬
fined than extended the reftriCtion of this ftatute. See
Blackftone’s Com. Vol. I. p. 426, &c.
In France, the fons of tradefmen, living in their fa¬
ther’s houfe till feventeen years of age, are reputed to
have ferved an appreuticelhip. In that country, the
times of ferving are different in the different profeffions,
from three years to eight. After ferving out an ap-
prenticefhip, the perfon becomes what they call an af-
pirant, or candidate for mafterftiip, and is to be exa¬
mined by proper officers as to his (kill and proficiency,
and alfo to exhibit a chef d’oeuvre or mafterpiece in
the art he has been bred to, before he be fuffered to
fet up to praCtife for himfelf. And the cuftom of
France in regard to apprentices, is not unworthy the
imitation of other nations.
Anciently, benchers in the inns of court were called
apprentices of the law, in Latin apprenticii juris n$-
biliores ; as appears by Mr Selden’s note on Fortef-
cua: and fo the learned Plowden ftyles himfelf. Sir
Henry Finch, in his Nomotechnia, writes himfelf, ap¬
prentice de ley : Sir Edward Coke in his Infi. fays,
Apprenticii legis, in pleading, are called homines con/i-
liarii et in lege periti; and in another place, apprentices
and other counfellors of law.
Apprentices indentures and articles of clerklhip, pay
of duty fix (hillings. Pariih indentures are excepted,
and pay fixpence only, by 5 W. 3. c. 21. For fees
given with apprentices, clerks, or fervants, bound or
articled by indentures, from 11. to 50I. mafters pay for
every pound fixpence ; and for fees above jo 1. one
Ihilling in the pound. 8 Ann. c. 9.
APPRENTICESHIP, the fervitude of an appren¬
tice, or the duration of his indenture.
Seven years feem anciently to have been, all over
Europe, the ufual term eftablifhed for the duration of
apprenticeihips in the greater part of incorporated
trades. All fuch incorporations were anciently called
univerfities; which, indeed, is the proper Latin name
for any incorporation whatever. The univerfity of
fmiths, the univerfity of taylors, &c. are expreffions
which we commonly meet with in the old charters of
ancient towns. When thofe particular incorporations
which are now peculiarly called univerfities were firft
eftablifhed, the term of years which it was neceffary to
ftudy, in order to obtain the degree of mafter of arts,
appears evidently to have been copied from the term of
apprenticelhip in common trades, of which the incor¬
porations
A P P [ >39 ] A P P
Apprem- porations were much more ancient. As to have
, ticeimp, v.rpought; feven years under a mafter properly qualified
T was necefiaryin order to intitle any perfon to become
a mafter, and to have himfelf apprentices in a common
trade ; fo to have ftudied feven years under a mafter
properly qualified was neceftary to intitle him to be¬
come a mafter, teacher, or doftor (words anciently
fynonimous), in the liberal arts, and to have fcholars
or apprentices (words likewife originally fynonimous)
to ftudy under him.
By the 5th of Elizabeth, commonly called the Jla-
tute of apprent'icefhip, it was enadted, that no perfon
ftiould for the future exercife any trade, craft, or my-
ftery at that time exercifed in England, unlefs he had
previoufly ferved to it an apprenticeihip of feven years
at leaf!; and what before had been the bye-law of
many particular corporations, became in England the
general and public law of all trades carried on in
market-towns. For though the words of the ftatute
are very general, and feem plainly to include the whole
kingdom, by interpretation its operation has been li¬
mited to market-towns ; it having been held, that in
country villages a perfon may exercife feveral different
trades, though he has not ferved a feven years appren-
ticefhip to each, they being neceffary for the conve-
niency of the inhabitants, and the number of people
frequently not being futficient to fupply each with a
particular let of hands.
By a ftridt interpretation of the words, too, the
operation of this ftatute has been limited to thofe
trades which were eftabliftted in England before the
5th of Elizabeth, and has never been extended to fuch
as have been introduced fince that time. This limita¬
tion has given occafion to feveral diftin&ions which,
confidered as rules of police, appear as foolifti as can
well be imagined. It has been adjudged, for example,
that a coachmaker can neither himfelf make, nor em¬
ploy journeymen to make, his coach wheels, but muft
buy them of a mafter wheelwright ; this latter trade
having been exercifed in England before the 5th of
Elizabeth. But a wheelwright, though he has never
ferved an apprenticeihip to a coachmaker, may either
himfelf make, or employ journeymen to make,coaches;
the trade of a coachmaker not being within the ftatute,
becaufe not exercifed in England at the time wdien it
was made. The manufacturers of Manchefter, Birming¬
ham, and Wolverhampton, are many of them upon this
account not within the ftatute; not having been exer¬
cifed in England before the 5th of Elizabeth.
In France, the duration of apprenticelhips is differ¬
ent in different towns and in different trades. In Pa¬
ris, five years is the term required in a great number ;
but before any perfon can be qualified to exereife the
trade as a malter, he muft, in many of them , ferve five
years more as a journeyman. During this latter term
He is called the companion of his mafter, and the term
itfelf is called his companionjhip.
In Scotland there is no general law which regulates
univerfally the duration of apprenticelhips. The term
is different in difterent corporations. Where it is long,
a part of it may generally be redeemed by paying a
fmall fine. In moft towns, too, a very fmall fine is
fufficient to purchafe the freedom of any corporation.
The weavers of linen and hempen cloth, the principal
manufactures of the country, as well as all other arti¬
ficers fubfervient to them, wheelmakers, reelmakers, Appren-
&c. may exercife their trades in any town corporate bceftpp-
without paying any fine. In all towns corporate, all, APP|'1 nlS;
perfons are free to fell butcher’s meat upon any lawful
day of the week. Three years is in Scotland a com¬
mon term of apprenticelhip, even in fome very nice
trades ; and in general there is no country in Europe
in which corporation laws are fo little oppreflive.
Apprenticefhips were altogether unknown to the
ancients. The reciprocal duties of mafter and appren¬
tice make a confiderable article in every modern code.
The Roman law is perfectly filent with regard to them.
There is no Greek or Latin word which expreffes the
idea we now annex to the word apprentice ; afervant
bound to work at a particular trade for the benefit of
a mafter during a term of years, upon condition that
the mafter fhall teach him that trade.
Long apprenticelhips Dr Smith confiders as alto- Wealth tf
gether unneceffary. The arts, which are much fupe-
rior to common trades, fuch as thofe of making clocks vo1' I* P'
and watches, contain no fuch myftery as to require a1^0,
long courfe of inftrudlion. The firft invention of fuch
beautiful machines, indeed, and even that of fome
of the inftruments employed in making them, muft, no
doubt, have been the work of deep thought and long
time, and may jultly be confidered as among the hap-
pieft efforts of human ingenuity : But when both
have been fairly invented and are well underftood ; to
explain to any young man, in the completeft manner,
how to apply the inftruments and how to conftrudt
the machines, cannot well require more than the lef-
fons of a few weeks; perhaps thofe of a few days might
be fufficient. In the common mechanic trades, thofe
of a few days might certainly be fufficient. The dex¬
terity of hand, indeed, even in common trades, cannot
be acquired without much practice and experience.
But a young man would praiftife with much more
diligence and attention, if from the beginning he
wrought as a journeyman, being paid in proportion
to the little work which he could execute, and pay¬
ing in his turn for the materials which he might
fometimes fpoil through awkwardnefs and inexperi¬
ence. His education in this way generally would be
more effedlual, and always lefs tedious and expenfive.
The mafter, indeed, would be a lofer ; he would lofe
all the wages of the apprentice, v hich he now faves,
for feven years together. In the end, perhaps, the
apprentice himfelf would be a lofer. In a trade fo
eafily learnt he would have more competitors; and his
wages, when he came to be a complete workman,
would be much lefs than at prefent. The fame in-
creafe of competition would reduce the profits of the
matters as well as the wages of the workmen. The
trades, the crafts, the myfteries, would all be lofers :
but the public would be a gainer ; the work of all ar¬
tificers coming in this way much cheaper to market.
APPRISING, in Scots law, the name of that ac¬
tion by which a creditor formerly carried oft'the eftate
of his debtor for payment. It is now abolifhed, and
adjudications are appointed in place of it—Adju¬
dications, charter, refignation, clare conftat, cogni¬
tion of heirs, heritable right, confirmation, novocia-
mus, principal and original inftrument of furrencer,
retour, feifin, and fervice, in Scotland, pay by differ¬
ent aits 4.S. 9 d. duty.
S * AT-
A P P
[ 140 ]
A P P
Approach APPROACH, or Approaching, In a general
. II . fenfe, the acceding or coming together of two or more
atioT1'things.
■ ' ■ Approaches, in fortification, the works thrown up
■by the befiegers, in order to get nearer a fortrefs, with¬
out being expofed to the enemy’s cannon.
APPROACHING, in fowling, a term ufed to ex-
prefs fuch devices as are contrived for the getting with¬
in fliot of Ihy birds. It is principally ufed in marfhy
low places. The beft method of approaching is by
means of three hoops tied together at proper diftances
according to the height of the man that is to ufe it,
and having boughs of trees tied all round it, with cords
to hang it over his fhoulders; a man getting into this,
conceals himfelf, and approaches by degrees towards
his game in the form of a moving bufh. Geefe, ducks,
and teal, quit the waters in the evening, and pafs the,
night in the fields; but at the approach of morning
they return to the water again, and even when on the
water they will retire to great diftances, on the ap¬
proach even of a horfe or cow, fo that the bufmefs of
the ftalking-horfe is of little ufe ; but this device of
approaching by the moving bufh fucceeds tolerably
well with them.
Approaching, in gardening, the inoculating or in¬
grafting the fprig of one tree into another, without
cutting it off the parent-tree.
APPROBATION, a ftate or difpofition of the
mind, wherein we put a value upon, or become pleafed
with, fome perfon or thing. Moralifts are divided on
the principle of approbation or the motive which de¬
termines us to approve and difapprove. The Epicu¬
reans will have it to be only felf-intereft : according to
them, that which determines any agent to approve his
own action, is its apparent tendency to his private hap-
pinefs; and even the approbation of another’s aftion
flows from no other caufe but an opinion of its ten¬
dency to the happinefs of the approver, either imme¬
diately or remotely. Others refolve approbation into a
moral fenfe, or a principle of benevolence by which we
are determined to approve every kind affeftion either
in ourfelves or others, and all publicly ufeful actions,
which we imagine to flow from fuch affedion, without
any view therein to our own private happinefs.
Approbation, is more particularly ufed, in fpeak-
ing of recommendations of books, given by perfons qua¬
lified or authorifed to judge of them. Thofe appointed
to grant licences and imprimatures, frequently exprefs
their approbations of books. Books were formerly
fubjeded to a licenfer in England (fee 13th Car. II.
c. 33.), which ad is long fince expired; and being
incompatible with the noble principles of the Revolu¬
tion, has never fince been, and it is hoped never will
be, revived.
APPROPRIATION, in the canon law, a fever¬
ing of a benefice ecclefiaftical to the proper and per¬
petual ufe of fome religious houfe. bee the article
Parson.
The contrivance of appropriations feems to have
Iprung from the policy of the monadic orders, who
have never been deficient in fubtile inventions for the
increafe of their own power and emoluments. At
the firft eftablifhment of parochial clergy, the tithes
of the parifh were 'diftributed in a fourfold divifion;
one for the ufe of the biftiop, another for main¬
taining the fabric of the church, a third for the Aprpropri^
poor, and the fourth to provide for the incum- ation-
bent. When the fees of the bifhops became otherwife
amply endowed, they were prohibited from demanding
their ufual ftiare of thefe tithes, and the divifion was
into three parts only. And hence it was inferred by
the monafteries, that a fmall part was fufficient for the
officiating pried; and that the remainder might well
be applied to the ufe of their own fraternities (the en¬
dowment of which was conftrued to be a work of the
moft exalted piety), fubjeft to the burden of repairing
the church and providing for its conftant fupply. And
therefore they begged and bought, for maffes and o-
bits, and fometimes even for money, all the advowfons
within their reach, and then appropriated the benefices
to the ufe of their own corporation. But, in order to
complete fuch appropriation effeftually, the king’s li¬
cence, and confent of the biftiop, mud firft be obtain¬
ed ; becaufe both the king and the biftiop may fome
time or other have an intereft, by lapfe, in the pre-
fentation to the benefice ; which can never happen
if it be appropriated to the ufe of a corporation,
which never dies : and alfo becaufe the law repofes a
confidence in them, that they will not confent to any
thing that fhall be to the prejudice of the church. The
confent of the patron alfo is neceffarily implied, be¬
caufe the appropriation can be originally made to
none but to fuch fpiritual corporation as is alfo the
patron of the church ; the whole being indeed nothing
elfe but an allowance for the patrons to retain the
tithes and glebe in their own hands, without prefent-
ing any clerk, they themfelves undertaking to provide
for the fervice of the church. When the appropriation
is thus made, the appropriators and their fucceffors are
perpetual parfons of the church ; and muft fue and be
iued, in all matters concerning the rights of the church,
by the name of parfons.
This appropriation may be fevered, and the church
become difappropriate, two ways ; as, firft, if the pa¬
tron or appropriator prefents a clerk, who is inftituted
and induced to the parfonage : for the incumbent fo
inftituted and induced is to all intents and purpofes
complete parfon; and the appropriation being once fe¬
vered, can never be reunited again, unlefs by a repe¬
tition of the fame folemnities. And, when the clerk
fo prefented is •diftindt from the vicar, the reftory thus
vefted in him becomes w'hat is called a fine-cure ; be¬
caufe he hath no cure of fouls, having a vicar under
him to whom that cure is committed. Alfo, if the
corporation which has the appropriation is diffolved,
the parfonage becomes difappropriate at common law:
becaufe the perpetuity of perfon is gone, which is ne-
ceffary to fupport the appropriation.
In this manner, and fubjedt to thefe conditions, may
appropriations be made at this day : and thus were
moft if not all of the appropriations at prefent ex filing
originally made ; being annexed to bfihopricks, pre¬
bends, religious houfes, nay, even to nunneries, and
certain military orders, all of which were fpiritual cor¬
porations. At the diffolution of monafteries, by ftatutes
27 Hen. VIII. c. 28. and 31 Hen. VIII. c. 13. the
appropriations of feveral parfonages, which belonged
to thofe refpedtive religious houfes, (amounting to more
than one third of all the par filies in England), would
have been by the rules of the common law difappro-
priated }
APR t 141 1 APT
Appt'ove’' prfated ; had not a claufe in thofe (latutes intervened,
1. to give them to the king in as ample a manner as the
Apries. abbots, &c. formerly held the fame at the time of
their diffolution. This, though perhaps fcarcely de-
fenfible, was not without example : for the fame was
done in former reigns, when the alien priores (that
is, fuch as were filled by foreigners only) were diffol-
ved and given to the crown. And from thefe two
roots have fprung all the lay-appropriations or fecular
parfonages which we now fee in the kingdom; they
having been afterwards granted out from time to time
by the crown. See the article Parson and Vicar.
APPROVER, in law, one who, confefling felony
in himfelf appealeth or impeacheth another or more of
his accomplices. He is fo called from the French
approuver, comprobare, becaufe he muft prove what he
hath alleged in his appeal. This proof was anciently
either by battle, or by the country, at the choice of
the appellee: and the form of this accufation may be
found in Crompt. Juft. 250.
Approvers of the king are thofe who have the
letting of the king’s demefnes in fmall manors, &c. In
the ftatute of the ift of Ed. III. c. 8. ftieriffs are called
the king’s approvers.
It being in the difcretion of the court to fuffer one
to be an approver, this method of late hath feldom
been pra&ifed. But we have in cafes of burglary and
robbery on the highway, what feems to amount to the
fame by ftatute ; it being ordained, that where perfons
charged with fuch crimes out of prifon, difcover two
others concerned in the crime, they fhall have a par¬
don, &c. Stat. Jth Anne, c. 31.
Approver is particularly ufed in ancient law wri¬
ters, for a bailiff or land-fteward, appointed to have the
care of a manor, franchife, or the like, and improve
and make the moft of it for the benefit of his matter.
In this fenfe, the word is alfo written appruare.
APPROXIMATION, in arithmetic and algebra,
the coming nearer and nearer to a root, or other quan¬
tity fought, without expefting to be ever able to find
it exaftly.
APPUI, in the manege, {q. d. reft or flay upon
the hand), is the reciprocal effort between the horfe’s
mouth and the bridle-hand, or the fenfe of the adtion
of the bridle on the hand of the horfeman.
A juft appui of the hand, is the nice bearing up or
flay of the bridle, fo that the horfe, being awed by the
fenfibility and tendernefs of his mouth, dares not reft
too much upon the bit-mouth, nor check or beat up¬
on the hand to withftand it. A horfe is faid to have
no appui, when he is too apprehenfive of the hand,
and cannot bear the bit. He is faid to have too much
appui, when he relts or throws himfelf too much upon
the bit Horfes defigned for the army ought to have
a full appui upon the hand. To give a horfe a good
appui, he fhould be galloped, and put often back.
APPULSE, in aftronomy, the approach of any
planet to a conjunction with the fun, or a ftar. It is a
itep towards a tranfit, occultation, conjunction, eclipfe,
&c. M. Flamfted, M. de la Hire, and others, have
given obfervations of the moon’s appulfes to the pleia-
des. Phil. Tranf. N* 76. p. 361. M. Acad. Science, an.
1708.
APRICOT, in botany. See Prunus.
APRIES, fon of Pfammis, king of Egypt; the
fame with Pharaoh Hophrah in Jeremiah and Ezekiel.
He ruined Sidon, and fome fay he put Jeremiah to
death. He thought neither God nor man could de¬
throne him; which yet was eafily done by Amafis, and
he himfelf was ftrangled by the Egyptians.
APRIL, the fourth month of the year, according
to the common computation ; but the fecond, accord¬
ing to that of the aftronomers. It contains 30 days.—
The word is derived from aprilis of aperio, “ I open
becaufe the earth, in this month, begins to open her
bofom for the production of vegetables. In this month
the fun travels through the fign Taurus.
APRIOR1, a kind of demonftration. See De¬
monstration.
APRON, in naval architecture, is a piece of curved
timber fixed behind the lower part of the ftern, imme¬
diately above the foremoft end of the keel.
Apron is alfo a name given to a platform or
flooring of plank, raifed at the entrance of a dock,
againft which the dock-gates are fhut.
Apron, in gunnery, a piece of lead which caps or
covers the vent or touch-hole of a great gun.
APSIS or absis, fignifies the bowed or arched
roof of a houfe, room, or oven, &c. as alfo the ring
or compafs of a wheel.
Apsis in ecclefiaftical writers, denotes an inner part
in the ancient churches, wherein the clergy fat, and
where the altar was placed. It is fuppoied to have
been thus called, becaufe covered with an arch or
vault of its own, by the Greeks called “T-r, by the
Latins abfis. Apfis, in this fenfe, amounts to the
fame with what is otherwife called choir, concha, came¬
ra, and prejbyterium-, and Hands oppofite to the ?iave
or body of the church.
Apsis is more particularly ufed for the bilhop’s feat,
or throne, in ancient churches. This was peculiarly
called apfis gradata, becaufe raifed on fteps above the
ordinary flails.—It was alfo denominated exedra, and
in latter times tribune.
Apsis is alfo ufed for a reliquary, or cafe, wherein
the relics of faints were anciently kept. It took the
name apfis, from its being round, or arched at the
top; or perhaps from the place where it was kept.
The apfis was commonly placed on the altar : it was
ufually of wood, fometimes alfo of gold and filver, with
fculptures, &c.
Apsis, in aftronomy, a term ufed indifferently for
either of the two points of a planet’s orbit, where it
is at greateft or leatt diflance from the fun or earth ;
and hence the line conne&ing thofe points is called the
line of the apjides. The word is Greek, and derived
from a*™, to conneCl. The apfis at the greateft dif-
tance from the fun is called the aphelion, and at the
greateft diftance from the earth the apogee ; while that
at the leaft diftance from the fun is termed the perihe¬
lion, and at the leaft diftance from the earth the peri¬
gee.
APSIRTIDES. See Absorus.
APTA, or Apta Julia, (Pliny); now Apte, in
Provence, on the river Calavon, feven leagues to the
north of Aix, and nine to the north of Avignon. In
the Notitiae it is called Civitis Abtenfium: Pliny rec¬
kons it among the Latin towns. That it was a co¬
lony, appears from an infcription on a ftone found at
Arles, (Sirmond). E. Long. 5.56. Lat. 43. 23.
A P U [ 142 ] A P U
Aptera, APTERA, (Strabo, Stephanus); Apteron, (Pli-
• . ny); Apteria, (Ptolemy): An inland town of Crete,
■ p” eitis-. whole port was Cifamus, on the weft fide of the ifland,
^ ' (Strabo); 12 miles to the fouth of Sydonia towards
the Montes Leuci, and as many from the Sinus Am-
phimales. So called from the Sirens, who, being
there vanquifhed in fong by the Mules, ftript them-;
felves of their wings, and out of grief leaped into the
fea, (Stephanus), There was a town of Lycia of the
fame name. E. Long. 25. Lat. 35. 50.
Apr era, a term ufed by Linnaeus for his feventh
order of infedts, comprehending fuch as have no wings.
APTH ANE, a title anciently given to the higher
degrees of nobility in Scotland. See T h a n e.
APTITUDE, (from aptus “ fit”), the natural dif-
pofition any thing hath to ferve for fuch or fuch a pur-
pofe.-- Thus, oil hath an aptitude to bum, and water
to extinguilh fire.
Ar 1 itude, or Aptness, is often ufed, in fpeaking
of the talents of the mind, for a promptitude, or dif-
pofition to learn things with eafe and expedition. In
which fenfe aptnefs amounts to the fame with what the
Greeks call bona indoles, and we fometimes do¬
cility. Charlton divides aptnefs into thefe parts, viz.
acutenefs, fagacity, and memory.
APTOTE, among grammarians, an undeclinable
noun, or one which has no variation of cafes.
APULEIUS (Lucius), a Platonic philofopher,
univerfally known by his performance of the Golden
Afs. He lived in the fecond century, under the An-
tonines ; and was bom at Madaura, a Roman colony
in Africa. He ftudied firft at Carthage, then at A-
thens, and afterwards at Rome, where he learned the
Latin tongue without the help of a mafter. He was
a man of a curious and inquifitive difpofition, efpecial-
ly in religious matters : this prompted him to take fe-
veral journeys, and to enter into feveral focieties of re¬
ligion. He fpent his whole fortune almoft in travel¬
ling ; fo that, at his return to Rome, when he was about
to dedicate himfelf to the fervice of Ofiris, he had not
rnoney enough to defray the expence attending the ce¬
remonies of the reception, and was obliged to pawn
his clothes to raife the neceflary fum. He fupported
himfelf afterwards by pleading caufes ; and asy he was
a great mafter of eloquence,, and of a fubtile ’genius,
many confiderable caufes were trufted to him. But he
availed himfelf more by a good marriage than by his
pleadings : a widow, named Pudentilla, who was nei¬
ther young nor handfome, but wanted a hufband and
was very rich, took a great fancy to him. This mar¬
riage drew upon him a troublefome law-fuit. The la¬
dy’s relations, pretending he made ufe. of forcery to
gain her heart and money, accufed him of being a ma¬
gician before Claudius Maximus procoirful of Africa.
Apuleius was under no great difficulty of making his
defence. As Pudentilla was determined from confi-
derations of health, to enter upon a fecond marriage,
even before fhe had feen this pretended magician, the
youth, deportment, pleafing converfation, vivacity, and
other agreeable qualities of Apuleius, were charms fuf-
ficient to engage her heart. He had the moft favour¬
able opportunities too of gaining her friendfhip, for he
lodged’ fome time at her houfe : Pudentilla’s eldeft fon
having a great friendfhip for him, was iikewife. defirous
of the match, and folicited him in favour of Pudentil- Apuleiaj,
la. “ Do you make a wonder (faid Apuleius, in his I
defence) that a woman fhould marry again, after ha-, Apas' f
ving lived a widow 13 years .? it is much more wonder- v
ful that fhe did not marry again fooner. You think
that magic muft have been employed to prevail with a
widow of her age, to marry a young man; on the con¬
trary, this very circumftance fhows how little dceafion
there was for magic.” He offered to prove by his
marriage-contradt, that he got nothing of Pudentilla
but a promife of a very moderate fum, in cafe he fur-
vived her and had children by her. He was alfo obli¬
ged to make fuch confeffions in court as Pudentilla
would.gladly have excufed. He faid fhe was neither
handfome nor young, nor fuch as could any ways tempt
him to have recourfe to enchantments : moreover, he
added, that Pontianus her fon propofed the marrying
his mother to him only as a burden, and the a&ion of
a friend and philofopher. He alfo took notice of ma¬
ny inconveniences which attend the marrying of wi¬
dows, and fpoke highly of the advantages of a maid
above a widow : “ A handfome virgin (faid he,) let
her be ever fo poor, is abundantly portioned; Ihe
brings to her hufband a heart quite new, together with,
the flower and firft-fruits of her beauty. It is with
great reafon that all hufbands fet fo great a. value upon
the flower of virginity: all the other goods which a
woman brings her hufband are of fuch a nature, that
he may return them again, if he has a mind to- be un¬
der no obligation to her; that alone cannot be refto-
red, it remains in the pofleffion of the firft hufband. If
you marry a widow, and fhe leaves you, fhe carries a-
way all that Ihe brought you.” Upon which paflage
Mr Bayle makes a very coarfe remark, viz. “ That
this good which is never taken back out of the hands
of a hufband, is very chimerical; and that there is ne¬
ver a baker nor a butcher, who would lend fixpence.
upon this unperifhable pofieffion.’’ The apology is
ftill extant, and is reckoned a very fine piecq. Apu¬
leius was extremely indefatigable in his ftudies; and
compofed feveral books, fome in verfe, and others in
profe ; but moft of them have been loft. He took
great pleafure in declaiming, and was heard generally
with great applaufe : When he declaimed at Oeca, the-
audience cried out with one voice, that they ought ta--
confer upon him the honour of citizen. The citizens
of Carthage heard him with great fatisfariion, and e-
redled a ftatue to him ; and feveral other cities did him
the fame honour. Several critics have publifhed notes
on Apuleius’s Golden Afs, and there have been tranf-
lations of it into different languages.
APULIA, now Puglia, a territory of Italy, bor¬
dering on the Adriatic, and extending from the river
F-rento to Tarentum in length, and from the Adriatic
to the Lucani in breadth. Jpuli the people, (Ho¬
race); divided into the Apulia Daunia, now called Pu¬
glia Pinna, or the Capitaxata; and into the Apulia.
Paucetia, now Terra di Barri, (Pliny, Ptolemy). A-
pulia abounded in fheep, which yielded the fineft wool,.
(Martial )• It is now the eaft fide of the kingdom of Naples.
APUS, Avis Indica, in aftronomy, a conftellation o£
the fouthern hemifphere placed near the pole, between,
the triangulum auftrale and the chameleon, fuppofed;
to reprefent the bird of paradife.
APYCNT
A Q_ U [ 143 ] A U
Apycnl APYCNI Strom, in mufic, founds diftant one or
i more o<flaves, and yet concord.
A(lua- i APYCNOS, in mufic, is faid of the diatonic genus,
“’”’v on account of its having fpacious intervals, in compa-
rifon of the chromatic and enharmonic.
APYREXY, among phyficians, denotes the inter-
mi flion of a fever.
APYROUS, a word applied to denote that proper¬
ty of fome bodies, by which they refill the moll violent
fire without any fenfible alteration. Apyrous bodies
ought to be dillinguilhed from thofe which are refrac¬
tory. Refra<ftory fubllances are thofe which cannot
by violent heat be fufed, whatever other alteration they
may fullain. But a body, properly fpeaking, apy¬
rous, can neither be fufed by heat, nor can undergo
any other change. Diamonds were long thought to
be polfelfed of this property. But fome late experi¬
ments have Ihown, that diamonds may be entirely dif-
fipated or evaporated by heat, and are therefore not
intitled to be ranked among apyrous fubftances. Per¬
haps there is no body in nature eflentially and rigorouf-
ly apyrous. But it is fufficient that there be bodies a-
pyrous relatively to the degree of fire which art can
produce, to intitle them to that name.
AQUA, a term frequently met with in the writings
of phylicians, chemifts, &c. for certain medicines, or
menftruums, in a liquid form, diftinguilhed from each
other by peculiar epithets, as Aqua Alexiteria, A$va
Aluminofa, Aqua Mirabilis, &c. for which fee Phar¬
macy.
Aqua Extintfa, or Extinguijhed Water, as aquafor¬
tis into which fome river-water has been poured, in or¬
der to qualify it, and render it lefs corrofiye. Its ufe
is to get the filver from the aquafortis that ferved to
part gold from it.
Aqua Forth, a name given by artifts to nitrous a-
cid of a certain ftrength, from its dilfolving power:
that which is concentrated and fmoking, is called fpirit
of nitr. . The aquafortis ufed by dyers, brafs-founders,
&c. is not only weaker than fpirit of nitre, but con-
t<yris a portion of vitriolic acid. It may be made by
dillilling crude nitre with calcined vitriol, equal parts.
The nitrous acid, expelled by the vitriolic, will rife in
red fumes, and pafs into the receiver. The vitriolic
acid, uniting with the alkaline bafis of the nitre, forms
vitriolated tartar; but, there being more vitriolic acid
than is requifite to faturate the alkali, the furplus rifes
with the nitrous acid : aquafortis, therefore', is a mix¬
ture of thefe two acids. It may alfo be made by di-
ftilling crude nitre with fomewhat more than half its
weight of oil of vitriol; or by mixing one part of oil
of vitriol with nine parts pure fpirit of nitre. See
Chemistry-/*^*.
Aqua Marina, a name by which the jewellers call
the beryl, on account of its fea-green colour. See Be¬
ryl.
Aqua Regia, a compound of nitrous and marine a-
cid, in different proportions according to the purpofe
for which it is intended. It is ufuaily made by diffol-
ving, in nitrous acid, fal ammoniac, or common fait,
both which are combinations of marine acid with alka¬
li. When made with fal ammoniac, the common pro¬
portion is one part of this fait to four parts of nitrous
acid ; but to diffolve platina, equal parts are requifite.
A puree aqua regia may be made by fimply mixing the
two acids.
Aqua regia is particularly ufed as a menftruum for
gold ; it likewife diffolves all other metals, except fil¬
ver. The gold diffolved in aqua regia is, in fadt, dif-
folved in the dephlogifticated marine acid only, which,
being deprived of its phlogifton by the nitrous acid, re¬
covers it from the gold, and thus renders gold foluble;
for metals are not foluble in acids until they lofe a part
of their phlogifton. See Chemistry-2W<?x.
Aqua Secunda, aquafortis diluted with much pure
water. It is employed in feveral arts, to clean the fur-
face of metals and certain ftones, and for various other
purpofes.
Aqua Vita:, is commonly underftood of what is o-
therwife called brandy, or fpirit of wine, either fimple,
or prepared with aromatics. Some, however, diftin-
guifli between them; appropriating the term brandy to
what is drawn from wine, or the grape; and aqua
vita: to that drawn after the fame manner, from malt.
Aquae Augufta, (Ptolemy); Aqua Tarbcllicx, (An-
tonine); Aquenjis Civitas, in the Notitia. Now Acqs,
or Dax, a town in Gafcony, on the river Adour, fa¬
mous for its baths. W. Long. 1. 40. N. Lat. 43.
56.
Aquae Bilbiiitana, (Antonine); baths 24 miles to
the weft of Bilbilis Now Banos de Albania, in Ar-
ragon.
'Aquae Calida, (Ptolemy); Aqua Solis, (Antonine)-;
a place of the Belgs in Britain, famous for its hot wa¬
ters. Now Bath, in Somerfet-lhire. W. Long. 1. f.
Lat. $r. 20.
Aquae Cahda, (Ptolemy) ; Aquicaldenfts, (Pliny) ;
formerly in great repute, and a public bath; whole
ruins ftill remain teftimonies of the Roman grandeur.
Now Orenfe, in Gallicia, ftill famous for its baths ; on
the river Minho, 54 miles fouth-eaft of Compoftella.
W. Long. 8. 30. Lat. 42. 30. Alfo a place in the bay
of Carthage, (Strabo). Other Aquicaldenfes, to the
north of Gerunda in Catalonia, (Ptolemy).
Aquae Calida, a colony between the rivers Serbetes
and Savus, in Mauretania Csefarienfis, (Ptolemy).
Aquae Cclenia, (Ptolemy); or Cilina, (Antonine).
Now Gaidar, a hamlet on the Minho, in Gallicia.
Aquae Convenarum, a hamlet of Gaul, in Aquitaine,
(Antonine), and on the borders of the Convenae, or
le Cominge, at the foot of the Pyrenees,.near the fource
of the Garonne. Now Bagneres. W. Long. 3. 39.
Lat. 42. 20.
Aquae Cutilia, a lake of the Sabines, in the territo¬
ry of Reate (Pliny); Lacus Cutilienjis, (Varro) ; with
a moveable ifland in it, (Seneca, Pliny); fuppofed to be
the centre of Italy, (Varro). The waters were medi¬
cinal, and extremely cold, good for a weak ftomach
and in weak nerves; they feemed to adt by a kind of
fudfion, which approached to a bite, (Pliny). Vefpa-
fian ufed them every fummer; and there he died, (."rue-
ton, Xiphilin from Dio). Now Lago di Contig iano.
Aquae Flavia, a town on the confines of Gallicia
and Portugal, fo called from Vefpafian and Titus.
The inhabitants are called - quifiavietifes, coins. Now
called Chiaves, a mean hamlet: but the ruins of its
bridge teftify its former grandeur. W. Long. 6. 6.
Lat. 41. 40.
Aquae Helvetia, deferibed by Tacitus as a munici¬
pal town, and much frequented for its excellent water:,
and though he does not mention its name, Cluverius
Hup-
A Q. U
t >44 ]
A Q_ U
Aguadnft. fuppofes it to be Baden, in Switferland, on the rivulet
 1 Limat, which foon after falls into the Aar. It is cal-
ed the Upper, to diiHnguifh it from another called the
Lower Baden, in Alface. E. Long. 8. 49. Lat. 47. 55.
Aquae Merom (Jofhua), famous for the defeat of
Jabin : fuppofed to be the lake called Saniachonitis, or
Semechonitis, by Jofephus ; into which the river Jordan
falls, before it comes to the fea of Genefereth, or Ga¬
lilee.
Aquae Pannonia famous baths of Auftria, now
called Baden, 28 miles to the fouth of Vienna.
Aquae Patavina, are baths in the territory of Ve¬
nice near Padua, (Pliny); called Fantes Aponi (Livy,
Martial). Now Bagn't d'Abano. E. Long. 13. 48.
Lat. 45. if.
Aquae Quintiance, put by Ptolemy in room of the
Aqua Ciltna of Antonine. Now fuppofed to be Sar-
ria, a town of Gallicia, on a rivulet of the fame name,
three leagues to the fouth of Lugo.
Aquae Sextia, a colony to the north of Marfeilles,
fo called, both from the founder Sextius Calvinus, and
from its quantity of water, and number of cold and
hot fprings ; built after the defeat of the Salyes,. or
Salvii, whofe territory in the fouth of Provence reach¬
ed from the Rhone to the borders of Italy, (Livy, Vel¬
leius, Strabo, Ptolemy). By an infcription the colo¬
ny appears to have been either increafed or renewed
by Auguftus. In the Notitia it is called Civitas Aquen-
Jis. Now Aix. Here the Teutones and Cimbri were
defeated with a great flaughter by Marius. E. Long.
6. 4. Lat. 48. 4.
Aquae Statiella, or Statiellcrum, (Pliny), a town in
Liguria, on the river Bormia. Now Acqui, a town of
Montferrat. E. Long. 8. 40. Lat. 44. 45.
Aquae Tauri, hot waters or baths in Tufcany, at
the diftance of three miles from the fea, faid to be dif-
covered by a bull, hence the appellation. There are
ftill to be feen the ruins of thefe baths. Now Acqua-
pendente, in Orvieto. E. Long. 12. 40. Lat. 42. 4®.
AQUiEDUCT, in hydraulics and architecture, a
ftruCture formed for conveying water from one place to
another, over grounds that are unequal. The word is
compounded of the Latin fubftantive aqua water, and
_ duel us a channel by which that water may be con¬
ducted..
Architects diftinguilh two kinds of aquaeduCts; the
vijibb, and the fubterraneous—The vifibie are conftruc-
ted in valleys or marfhes, and protracted in longitude
or latitude as the fituation requires. They are compo-
fed of adminicula for fupporting the arches and con¬
fining the. ftream, and of arcades.—The fubterraneous.
are formed, by piercing the mountains, and.conducting
them below the furface of the earth. They are built of
ftone, hewn or rough ; and covered above with vaults,
or with flat ftones, which may be termed fiags ; thefe
Sags fhelter the waters from the heat of the fun.
They divide them ftill into double and triple aquae-
duCts; that is to fay, fuch as are fupported either by
two or by three ranges of arcades. Such was the aquae-
duCt which Procopius records to have been built by
Cofroes king of the Perfians,. for the city of Petra in
Mingrelia: it had three conduits upon the fame line,
each elevated above the other.
Frequently aqusedufts are paved. Sometimes the
waters flow through a natural channel of clay. Fre-
'!
quently they are conveyed by pipes of lead into refer- AqnaednCh
voirs of the fame metal, or into troughs of hewn ftone. ‘
The channels are cut with an imperceptible defeent,
that the current may be accelerated by its own weight.
Parallel to its courfe, on each fide, is cut a narrow foot
path, where people may walk when neceflary. By con¬
duits, or grooves, the waters are conveyed into large
cifterns, but not forced above their original level. To
make them rife and iflue from their apertures with
force, they muft be confined in tubes of a fmall diame¬
ter, and abruptly fall from a confiderable declivity.
Aqusedudts of every kind were long ago the wonders
of Rome ; the vaft quantity of them which they had ;
the prodigious expence employed in conducing Waters
over arcades from one place to another, at the diftance
of 30, 40, 60, and even 100 miles, which were either
continued or fupplied by other labours, as by cutting
mountains and piercing rocks; all this ought to fur-
prife us ; nothing like this is undertaken in our times:
we dare not even think of purchafing public conveni-
ency at fo dear a rate. Appias the cenfor advifed and
conftrudted the firft aquasduift. His example gave the
public luxury a hint to cultivate thefe obje&s ; and the
force of prodigious and indefatigable labour diverted
the courfe of rivers and floods to Rome. Agrippa, in
that year when he was aedtle, put the laft hand to the
magnificence of thefe works. It is chiefly in this re-
fpedt that the modern fo much refembles the ancient
city of Rome. For this advantage, ftie is peculiarly
indebted to Sextus V. and to Paul V. who for gran¬
deur and magnificence emulated the mafters of the uni-
verfe *. There are ftill to be feen, in different places* See Net*-
contiguous to Rome, ftriking remains of thefe aquse- Memoirs
dudts; arches continued thro’ a long fpace, over which °f
were extended the canals which carried the water tovol*_u
the city. The arches are fometimes low, fometimes
raifed t® a vaft height, to humour the tumidities or de*
preffions of the ground. There are fome which have
two arcades, one conftrudted above the other; and this
precaution was obferved, left the height of a Angle ar¬
cade, if extended as far as the fituation required, might
render the ftrudture lefs firm and permanent. They are
commonly of bricks ; which by their cement cohere fo
ftrongly, that the parts are not feparated without the
utmoft difficulty..—When the elevations of the ground,
were enormous, it became neceffary to form fubterrane~
aquffidutfts. Thefe carried the waters to fuch aquse¬
dufts as were raifed above ground, in the declivity or at
the foot of mountains. If the artificial channel of the
water was not fufceptible of a downward bias but by
palling through a rock, through this they cut a paflage
at the fame height with the fuperior aquseduft : fuch
an one may be feen above the city of Tivoli, and at the
the place called Vicavaro. The canal which formed the
courfe of the aquseduft is hewn out of the rock to the
extent of more than a mile, about five feet in height
and four in breadth.
There is one thing, however, which deferves to be
remarked. It is, that thefe aqusedufts, which might
have been direfted in a ftraight line to the city, did not
arrive at it but by frequent and winding mazes. Some
have faid that this oblique traft was purfued to avoid
the expence which muft attend the building of arcades
to an extraordinary height: others, that it was their
intention to diminilh the impetuofity of the current
which*
A Q_ U [ 145 ] A (l tJ
which, rolling in a ftraight line through an immenfe
v—-/ fpace,muft always have increafed its velocity,muft have
worn the canals by perpetual and forcible attrition,
and of confequence afforded an impure and unwhole-
fome draught to the inhabitants. But fmce there was fo
great a defcent between the cafcade of Tivoli and Rome,
it is demanded why they fhould go to draw water from
the fame river at the diftance of more than 20 miles
higher ; nay, of more than 30 miles, if we reckon the
curvatures of its direction through- that mountainous
country ? It is replied, the motive of obtaining the
water more falubrious, and more limpid, was fufficient
to make the Romans think their labour neceffary, and
their expence properly beftowed; and to thofe who re-
fleed that the waters of this river were impregnated with
mineral particles, and by no means wholefome, the an-
fwer will appear fatisfadtory.
IVol. IV. If any one will caft his eyes upon plate 128th of the
Antiquities of Father Montfaucon, he will fee with how
much care thefe immenfe works were conftru<5ted.
From diftance to diftance fpiramenta were left, that, if
the water fhould happen to be flopped by any accident,
it might gradually difembogue, till they could clear its
ordinary paffage. There were likewife, even in the very
canals which conveyed the water, cavities confiderably
deeper than its internal furface, into which the ftream
was precipitated, and where it remained ftagnant till
it was refined from mud and feculence; and ponds,
where it might expand itfelf till it was purified.
The aqiitedudl of the nqua Marcia had an arch of 16
feet in diameter. The whole was compofed of three
different kinds of ftone 5 one of them reddifh, another
brown, and a third of an earth colour. Above, there
appeared two canals ; of which the higheft was fed by
the new waters of the Tiverone, and the lower by what
they call the Claudian river. The entire edifice is 70
Roman feet high. Near this aqusedudl, we have in Fa¬
ther Montfaucon the plan of another with three canals;
the higheft fupplied by the water called.that in
the middle from Tepula, and the loweft from the aqua
Marcia.
The arch of the aquseducl of the aqua Claudia is of
hewn ftone, very beautiful; that of the aqusedudl of the
aqua Neronia is of biicks: they are each of them 72
Roman feet in height.
The canal of the aquseducl which was called the aqua
adppi a, deferves to be mentioned for a fingularity which
is obferved in it; for it is not, like the others,-plain,
nor gradual in its defcent; but much narrower at the
lower than the higher end.
The conful Frontinus, who fupetintended the aquse-
dudts under the emperor Nerva, mentions nine of them
which had each 13,594 pipes of an inch in diameter.
Vigerus obferves, that, in the fpace of 24 hours, Rome
received 500,000 hogftieads of water.
We might likewife have mentioned the aqusedudl of
Drufus, and that of Riminius: but we Ihail fatisfy
ourfelves with obferving here, that Auguftus caufed all
the aqusedudls to be repaired ; and afterwards pafs to
other monuments of the fame kind, and Hill more im¬
portant, which give the moft linking ideas of Roman
magnificence.
One of thefe monuments is the aquaedudl of Metz, of
which a great number of arcades ftill remain. Thefe
arcades croffed the Mofelle, a river which is broad
Vol. II. Parti.
and vaft at that place. The copious fources of Gorze Aquambe/c
furnilhed water for the reprefentation of a fea-fight. H -
This water was colledted in a refervoir: from thence it.Ac]Ui* USV
was condudted by fubterraneous canals formed of hewn
ftone, and fo fpacious that a man could walk eredt in
them : it traverfed the Mofelle upon its fuperb and'lof¬
ty arcades, which may ftill be feen at the diftance of
two leagues from Metz; fo nicely wrought-and fo
firmly cemented, that, except thofe parts in the mid¬
dle which have been carried away by the ice, they have
refilled, and wall ftill refill, the fevereft Ihocks of the
moft violent feafons. From thefe arcades, other aquae-
dudls conveyed the waters to the baths, and to the
place where the naval engagement was mimicked.
If we may trull Colmenarus, the aquaedudl of Sego¬
via may be compared with the moft admired labours
of antiquity. There ftill remain 159 arcades, wholly
confilling of Hones enormoully'large, and joined with¬
out mortar. Thefe arcades, with what remains of
the edifice, are 102 feet high; there are two ranges
of arcades, one above another. The aquaduQ flows
through the city, and runs beneath the greatcll num¬
ber of houfes which are at the lower end.
After thefe exorbitant ftrudlures, we may be in lome
degree believed when we fpeak of the aquaduft which
Lewis XIV. caufed to be built near Maintenon, for
carrying water from the river Bucq to Verfailles : it is
perhaps the greatell aquaedudl which now fubfifts in the
world; it is 7000 fathoms in length, above 2560 in
height, and contains 242 arcades.
AQUAMBOE, one of the greateft monarchies on
the coaft of Guinea in Africa, ftretching 20 miles in
breadth, and ten times that fpace in length from eaft
to weft. According to Bol'man, the coaft is divided
into a great number of petty royalties, but all of them
fubjedt to the king of Aquamboe, who indifcriminately
ufes an unlimited authority over them and the meaneft
of his fubjedls. His defpotifm gave rife to a prover¬
bial faying, that “ there are only two ranks of men at
Aquamboe ; the royal family, and Haves.’’ The na¬
tives of this country are haughty,- turbulent, and war¬
like ; and their power is formidable to all the neigh¬
bouring nations. They grievoufly infeft fuch nations
as are tributaries to the king of Aquamboe, entering
their territories by troops, and carrying off from the in¬
habitants whatever they think proper; nor do they ever
meet with any oppofitiOn from the inhabitants, as they
are fenfible the king would not fail to refent this as an
indignity offered to him.
AQUARIANS, Chriftians in the primitive church
who confecrated water in the eucharift inftead of wine.
This they did under pretence of abftinence and tempe¬
rance ; or, becaufe they thought it univerfally unlaw¬
ful to eat flefti or drink wine. Epiphanius calls them
Eucratites, from their abftinence ; St Auftin, Aqua-
rians, from their ufe of water ; and Theodoret, who
fays they fprang from Tatian, Hydroporaftatae, becaufe
they offered water inftead of wine.
Befides thefe, there was another fort of Aquarians,
who did not rejedt the ufe of wane as unlawful; for they
adminiftered the eucharift in wine at evening fervice:
but, fn their morning affemblies, they ufed water, for
fear the fmell of wine fliould dilcover them to the hea¬
thens.
AQUARIUS, the water-carrier, in aftronomy,
T the
A Q_ U [146 ] A Q_ U
A<]mrtU the mh fign in the zodiac, reckoning from Aries; from
I . which alfo the nth part of the ecliptic takes its name.
Aquatmta,.—'pjie pun m0ves through Aquarius in the month of
January ; it is marked thus,
The poets feign, that Aquarius was Ganymede,
whom Jupiter ravilhed under the (hape of an eagle, and
carried away into heaven, to ferve as a cup-bearer, in
the room of Hebe and Vulcan ; whence the name.—
Others hold, that the fign was thus called, becaufe,
when it appears in the horizon, the weather ufually
proves rainy.
The ftars in the: conllellation Aquarius, in Ptolemy’s
catalogue, are 45; in Tycho’s 41; in Hevelius’s 47;
in Flam Head’s 108..
AQUARTIA, in botany, a genus of the tetran-
dria monogynia clafs. The calyx is campanulated;
the corolla is rotated, with linear divifions ; and the
berry is four-feeded. There is but one fpecies, the-
aculeata, a native of America.
AQUATIC, in natural hiftory, an appellation given
to fuch things as live or grow in the water.
AQUATINTA, a method of etching on copper,
lately invented, by which a foft and beautiful effeil is
produced, refembling a fine drawing in water-colours ,
or Indian ink.
Previous to the operation upon the plate, the fol¬
lowing powder muft be prepared^—Take of afphaltum
and fine tranfparent rofin, equal parts, fuppofe two
ounces of each, and pound them feparately. Through a
muflin fieve (which may be formed with partofa chip-
box of three or four inches diameter) fift upon a Iheet
of paper a thin llratum of the afphaltum, above which
fift a fimilar layer of the rofin, and upon this another
layer of afphaltum, continuing thefe alternate layers
till both of the powders are exhaufted : then pafs the
mixture through the fame fieve upon the paper once
or twice, or till both appear to be fufficiently incorpo¬
rated ; when the powder is ready for ufe. Home, in-
ftead of the above mixture, ufe gum fandarachpounded.
The main procefs is as follows.—A copper-plate be¬
ing poliihed in the ufual way, lay the etching ground
upon it, and etch the outlines of your defign in the
manner dire&ed under the article Etching : The
ground is then to be foftened with a little greafe, and
wiped off with a piece of rag ; leaving, however, as
much greafe upon the plate as jult to dim the cop¬
per. You now fift your powder upon the furface
of the plate ; after which, ftrike the other fide of
it pretty fmurtly againft the edge of the table, in
order to difcharge it of the loofe powder: This
done, with a hand-vice hold the back of the plate over
a chaffing-dilh of charcoal fire, till it become fo hot as
to give pain upon being touched with the back of the
liand ; and the powder which adhered to the greafe
will now be fixed to the plate. The plate being then
fuffered to cool, take turpentine varnilh mixed with
ivory black; and v'ith a hair-pencil dipt in it, cover
all the lights or places where there is no work or
fhades. A rim or border of bees-wax is now to be raifed
round the plate: Then having reduced the aquafortis
to a'proper ftrength by vinegar or water, you pour it
on, and let it Hand five minutes for the firft or lighteft
Ihade : after which, pour it off; and having wafhed
the plate with water, let it on edge to dry: Then with
the varnilh flop up your light lhades, pour on the aqua-Aquatintr
fortis for the fecond tint, and let it Hand five minutes II.
more; proceeding in the fame manner for every tint till, Ac]ul a‘.
you produce the darkelt lhades. If a bold open ground " v
is wanted in any part, this requires an after-operation:
The ground mull be laid as the other, by lifting on the
powder; only this powder is much coarfer, and the
plate muft be much more heated in order that the par-
ticles,of the powder may fpread, and form fmall cir¬
cles: evea good clean rofin will do by itfelf.
In etching landfl&ips, the Iky and dillant objects are
alfo performed by a fecond operation, and the powder
is lifted upon the plate with a finer fieve. If the tree;, or
any part of the fore-ground require to be higher iinifh-
ed, the plate muff be entirely cleanfed from greafe with
bread, and a ground laid in the common way of etch¬
ing ; when you may finifh as highly and neatly as you-
pleafe with the needle or point, by ftippling with dots,.,
and biting up thofe parts, or by a rolling-wheel.
The preceding is the method for prints of one fingle
tint. But if different colours are to be expreffed, there
will be required as many different plates, each plate
having only the part etched upon it which is defigned
to be charged with its proper colour: unlefs (as may
happen in particular fubjedfs) fome of the colours are
fo diftant from each other as to allow the printer room
to fill them in with his rubber without blending them ;.
in which cafe, two or more different colours may be
printed from the fame plate at once.—W here different
plates are neceffary, a feparate one, having a pin in
each comer, muft be provided as a foie or bottom to
the aquatinta plates ; and thefe again muft be exadtly
fitted, having each a finall hole in their corners for paf-
fing over the pins of the foie : the faid pins ferving the
double purpofe of "retaining the plates fuccefiively in
their due pofition, and of directing the printer in pla¬
cing the paper exadtly on each plate fo as not to ffiift}-
by which means each tint or colour will be exadfly re¬
ceived on its proper place.—This is the method prac-
tifed at Paris. A laridfcape or fimilar fubjedt, how¬
ever, may be printed off at once in the different pro¬
per colours, by painting thefe upon the plate. In this
cafe, the colours muft be pretty thick in their confift-
ence; and the plate muft be carefully wiped in the
ufual way after the laying on of each tint, as well as
receive a general wipe upon its being charged with all
the tints.
This art is kept as fecret as poffible by thofe who
pr adfile it; and it is believed that no particular expla¬
nation or diredfions, before the prefent, have been
communicated to the public. In order to fucceed, how¬
ever, great care and judgment are requifite ; and much
depends upon a certain nicety of management, which is
only attainable by pradlice.
AQUAVIVA, a town of the kingdom of Naples,
and province of Barri.
AQUEDUCT. See Aqueduct.
AQUEOUS, in a general fenfe, fomething parta¬
king of the nature of water, or that abounds with it.
Aqueous Humour. See Anatomy, p. 767.
AQUILA, in ornithology, a fynonime of the eagle.
See Falco.
Aquila, the Eague, in aftronomy, aconftellation of
the northern hemifphere; ufually joined with Antinous.
A Q^U t 147 1 A Q.. TJ
Thf ftars -in the caaftellation Aquila and Antlnons, in
Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 15 ; in Tycho’s, 19 ; in He-
veius’s, 42 ; in the Britannic catalogue, 71.
Aqu 1 la, a fine large city of Italy, and the capital
of Abru/.zo, feated on a hill, on die banks of the ri¬
ver Pefcara, near its fource. It has an ancient caftle,
and is a biihop’s fee immediately under the pope. The
land about it produces great plenty of faffron. It was
very near being all deftroyed by an earthquake, in Fe¬
bruary 1703. The firft Ihock .was fo terrible, that
the inhabitants abandoned the city; but returning to
vefpers, it being Candlemas-day, the fhocks followed
one another with fuch violence, that 24,000 people pe-
riflied, and great numbers were wounded; 800 were
killed in one fingle church; many other churches,
monafteries, noble buildings, and the town-houfe, were
either fwallowed up or overturned, together with the
greater part of the city and its walls. Aquila Hands
30 miles from the fea, and about 16 from.the confines
;of the Pope’s dominions. E. Tong. 14. 20. N. Lat.
42. 20.
AQU1LEGIA, columbine : A genus of the pen-
tagynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under the
26th order, Multijil'-qiue. It has no calyx ; the petals
are five, with a horn-like nedtarium inferted between
-each; and there are five feparate capfules.
Species. 1. The vulgaris, or wild columbine, with
blue flowers, is found growing wild in fome woods of
England. 2. The alpina, with long oval flowers,
grows naturally near Ingleborough-hill in Yorkfhire.
The flowers are much larger than thofe of the garden
columbine. 3. The inverfe, or garden columbine. Of
this there are great varieties, not only in the colour and
fulnefs of their flowers, but alfo in their form. Thefe
are commonly called rofe-columbines ; the colours are
chefnut, blue, red, and white, and fome are finely va¬
riegated with two colours. There are others with
fharp-pointed petals in form of a ftar, and of thefe
there are Angle and double flowers of the fame colours
with the former. 4. The canadenfis, or Canada co¬
lumbine, flowers almoft a month before the other forts,
and therefore is preferred in the gardens of the curious,
though not at all remarkable for its beauty. There is
a variety of this with taller flower-ftems.
Culture. Thefe plants are all propagated by fowing
the feeds, or parting the old roots; but the former me¬
thod is chiefly practifed, for the old roots are very apt
to degenerate. The feeds fhould be fown in a nurfery-
bed in Auguft or September; for thofe which are kept
till the fpring feldom grow well, or at leaf! remain in
the ground a whole year. The fpring following the
jlants will appear above ground, and fhould be kept
clear of weeds ; and if the feafon proves dry, they
mult be watered. In the middle or latter end of May,
they will be flrong enough to tranfplant; for which
purpofe, fome beds of good undunged earth fhould be
prepared, planting them therein at eight or nine inches
difiance from each other. In the following autumn, by
which time the plants will have acquired ftrength e-
nough to flower the year following, the roots fhould be
carefully taken up and planted in the borders of the
flower-garden : but where their roots are defigned to be
preferved in perfection, all the flower-ftalks muft
be cut off as foon as the flowers are paft. In order to
keep up a fucceflion of good flowers, frefh feeds fhould Aqnilek.
be fown every year ; and it will likewife be advanta-l—-v—•
geous to exchange the feeds with fomc brought from a
diftant place.
Medicinal Ufes. Columbine has been looked upon
as aperient; and was formerly in great efteem among
the common people for throwing out the fmall-pox
and meafles. A diftilled water, medicated vinegar,
and conferve, were prepared from the flowers; but
they have long given place to medicines of greater ef¬
ficacy.
AQUILEIA, a large city of the Garni; or Veneti,
and a noble Roman colony, which was led thither be¬
tween the firft and fecond Macedonian wars, (Livy).
It is wafhed by two rivers, the Natifo, and Turrus,
(Pliny). The reafon of leading this colony was, in
order to be a bulwark againft the neighbouring bar¬
barians. The colony was afterwards increafed with
1500 families by a decree of the fenate, (Livy); from
which it became a very famous port-town, (Herodian).
The emperor Julian aferibes the appellation to the au¬
gury of an eagle at the time of building it; but Ifaac
Voflius on Mela, to the great plenty of water, as if the
town were called Aquilegia. The harbour, at the
mouth of the Natifo, is diftant 60 ftadia from the city ;
fo that fhips of burden are towed up the river, (Stra¬
bo). In 452 it was befieged by Attila with an innu¬
merable hoft of barbarians. The trails were aflaulted
by a formidable train of battering rams, moveable tur¬
rets, and engines, that threw ftones, 'darts, and fire;
and the monarch of the Huns employed the forcible
impulfe of hope, fear, emulation, and intereft, to fub-
vert the only barrier which delayed the conqueft of
Italy. Aqnileia was at that period one of the richeft,
the moft populous, and the ftrongeft of the maritime
cities of the Hadriatic coaft. Three months vere
confumed without effeCl in the fiege ; till the want of
provifions and the clamours of his army compelled
Attila to relinquilh the enterprife, and reluctantly to
iflue his orders that the troops fhould ftrike their
tents the next morning and begin their retreat. But
as he rode round the wralls, penfive, angry, and dif-
appointed, he obferved a ftork preparing to leave her
neft in one of the towers, and to fly with her in¬
fant family towards the country. He feized, with the
ready penetration of a ftatefman, this trifling incident
which chance had offered to fuperftition ; and exclaim¬
ed, in a loud and cheerful tone, that fuch a domeftic
bird, fo confta^tly attached to human fociety, would
never have abandoned her ancient feats, unlefs thofe
towers had been devoted to impending ruin and foli-
tude. The favourable omen infpired an affurance of
victory; the fiege was renewed and profecuted with
frefti vigour; a large breach was made in the part of the
wall from whence the ftork had taken her flight; the
Huns mounted to the affault with irrefiftible fury ; and
the fucceeding generation could fcarcely difeover the
ruins of Aquileia. The place, however, which is ftill
called Aquileia, there are feveral inferiptions and an¬
tiquities to be feen in it, which are worthy of a tra¬
veller’s notice ; and, though dwindled into a poor vil¬
lage, it gives a title to the patriarch of Aquileia.
The patriarch is named by the Venetians, and refides
at Udino, becaufe the town of Aquileia belongs to the
Houfe of Auftria. E. Long. 13. 30. Lat. 46. 20.
T 2 AQUILICIUM,
A U [ 148 ] A R A
Aquiliciura AQUILICIUM, or Aquiliciana, in Roman an-
.1 tiquity, facrifices performed in times ..of exceffive
. ciUL”unl’l drought, to obtain rain of the gods.
v AQUILINE, fomething belonging to or refembling
an eagle: Thus, an aquiline nofe is one bent fomewhat
like an eagle’s beak.
AQUILO, is ufed by Vitruvius for the north-eaft
wind ; or that which blows at 450 from the north to¬
wards the eaft point of the horizon.—The poets gave
the name aquilo to all ftormy winds dreaded by the ma¬
riner.
AQUILUS, among the ancients, a dark, or dulky
colour approaching to black.—Hence fome of the Hea¬
then gods were called dti aqui'i, q. d. nigri.
AQUIMINARIUM, in antiquity, a kind of luftral
vefl'el, wherein the Romans carried their holy water for
expiation and other religious offices.
AQUINAS (St Thomas), ftyled the Angelical Doc¬
tor, was of the ancient and noble family of the counts
of Aquino, defcended from the kings of Sicily and
Arragon ; and was born in the caftle of Aquino, in
the Terra di Lavora in Italy, in the year 1224 or
1225. He entered into the order of the Dominicans ;
and, after having taught fchool-divinity in moft of the
univerfities of Italy, at laft fettled at Naples : where
he fpent the reft of his life in ftudy, in reading of lec¬
tures, and in adts of piety ; and was fo far from the
views of ambition or profit, that he refufed the arch-
bifhoprick of that city, when it was offered him by
Pope Clement IV. He died in 1274, leaving an ama¬
zing number of writings^ which were printed at Ve¬
nice in 17 vols folio, in the year 1490. He was ca¬
nonized by Pope John XXII. in the year 1323 ; and
Pius V. who was of the fame order with him, gave
him, in 1567, the title of the Fifth Dodtor of the
church, and appointed his feftival to be kept with the
fame folemnity as thofe of the other four dodtors. His
authority has always been of great importance in the
fchools of the Roman Catholics. Lord Herbert, in
his Life of Henry VIII. tells us, that one of the prin¬
cipal reafons which induced that king to write againft
Luther was, that the latter had fpoken contemptuous
ly of Aquinas.
AQUINO (Philip d’), in Latin Aquinas or Aqttini-
us, having turned from Judaifm, had a penfion from
the clergy of France ; and acquired much reputation
by his knowledge of the Hebrew language, which he
taught at Paris,, in the reign of Lewis XIII. and by
the books he publifhed, among which is his Dittiona-
riutn Hebrao-Chaldao-Thalmudico Rubbtmcuin. His
grandfon, Anthony D’Anquin, was firft phylician to
Lewis XIV.
Aquino, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and Terra di Lavora; a bifliop’s fee,, but ruined
by the emperor Conrade, and now confifting of about
35 houfes. It was the birth-place of the poet Juve¬
nal, and of Thomas Aquinas. E. Long. 14. 30.
N. Lat. 41. 32.
AQUINUM, (anc. geog.) a large municipal town,
and a Jloman colony on the borders of the. Samnites,
waflied by the river Melpha (Strabo). The birth¬
place of Juvenal,, as he himfelf teftifies. The inhabi¬
tants are called Aquinates ; now dquino, but almoft in
ruins, in the territory of. Lavaro. E., Long. 17. n.
Lat,, 4.1- $5,-
_ AQUITANIA (anc. geog.), one of the three prin-Aquitanl*
cipal divifions of Gallia Ccmata (Cafar); bounded by i .
the Garonne, the Pyrenees, and the Ocean: this is
the Aquitania CAejuriana^ or Veius. Auguftus fet v
different boundaries, viz. the Loire, the Cevennes, the
Pyrenees, and the Ocean (Strabo). It was called
Gallia A quit ante a (Pliny) ; and in the old Notitke,
Provincia Aquitanica. The people are called Aqui-
tani (Cafar). Now comprifmg Guienne (which feems
to be a corruption of Aquitania) and Gafcony.
AR (anc. geog.), the metropolis of Moab, in Ara¬
bia Petrsea (Mofes); and the royal rdidence fituate on
the eaft fide of the river Arnon. It was called alfo
Rabba (Jolhua) ; and to diftinguifti it frOm Rabba of
•the Ammonites, Rabbat Moab, and on coins Rabbath
Mloma (Reland). Eufebius fays it was called Areopo-
lis in his time, from zir and Polis. The inhabitants
are called Areopoltta. St Jerome fays that this city
was entirely deftroyed by an earthquake when he was
a young man.
,ARA THURiiiUi-i, the altar of incenfe, in aftrono-
my, a fouthern conftellation, not vifible in our hemif-
phere, confifting, according to Ptolemy, of feven ftars;
and according to Sharp’s Catalogue, annexed to that
of Mr Flamllead, of nine ftars.
Aka, in aftronomy, a fouthem conftellation, con¬
taining eight ftars.
ARAB, or Arabian horse. See Equps.
ARABESQUE, or Arabesk, fomething done af¬
ter the manner of the Arabians. Arabefque, Crotefquc,
and Morefquc, are terms applied to fuch paintings, or¬
naments of freezes, &c. wherein there are no human
or animal figures, but which confift wholly of imaginary
foliages, plants, ftalks, &c. The, words take their
rife from hence, that the Moors, Arabs, and other
Mahometans, ufe thefe kinds of ornaments ; their re¬
ligion forbidding them to make any images or figures
of men or other animals.
ARABIA, a country of Alia, famous from the re-
moteft antiquity for the independency of its inhabitant^
during the vaft conquefts of the Affyrians, Perfians,
Greeks, and Romans ; and, in latter times, for being
the centre of an empire equal, if not fuperior, in extent
to any that ever exifted. ,
This country, or at leaft the greateft part of it, was Whenae
in the earlieft ages called Arab ah. Concerning thenainc!i*
etymology of which word there are various conjec¬
tures. It has moft generally been derived from the
Hebrew word fignifying, the ruejl, mixture, or traf¬
fic ; but, according to M. Volney, Arab, in the ancient
language of thefe countries,.fignifies a folitude or defart.
In its largeft extent, Arabia lies between the 12th and
35th degrees of N. Lat. and the 36th and 61ft of E.
Long. Its greateft length from north to fouth is a-
bout 1430 miles, and its breadth from eaft to weft ^
is 1200. It is bounded on the weft by Paleftine.Eomularics
part of Syria, the ifthmus of Suez, and the Red&c.
lea, called by the Arabs the fea Al Kolzom; on the
eaft by the Euphrates, the Perfian gulf, and bay of
Ormos ; on the north, by part of Syria, Diyar-Becr*
Irak, and Khuzeftan; and on the fouth by the ftraits
of Babel-Mandel and the Indian ocean. It grows nar¬
rower as we approach the frontiers of Syria and Diyar-
Becr: and, by reafon of the proximity of the Euphra¬
tes to the Mediterranean, may be looked upon as a pe-
ninfirla,.
ARA [*49] ARA
Arabia, ninfula, and that one of the largefi: in the whole world,
"v——' —Arabia Proper, however, is much narrower, inclu¬
ding little more than what Was comprehended by the
ancients under the name of Arabia Felix, which we
fhall prefently defcribe ; and here the Arabs have been
3 fettled almoft fince the flood.
Divifion. The firlt divifion of the peninfula of Arabia was in¬
to Arab ah and Kedem, as we learn from fcripture ; the
firft of which implies the weft, and the other the eaft,
tienoting the fituation of the two countries.—Ptolemy
was the firft who divided the peninf'ula we fpeak of in¬
to three parts, Arabia Petrsca, Arabia Deferta, and A-
rabia Felix, which divifion has generally prevailed fince
his time.
A) abia Peinea, on the eaft, was bounded by Syria
and Arabia Deferta; on the weft, by Egypt, or
rather the ifthmus of Suez which feparates Afia from
Africa, and the Heroopolitan gulph or weftern arm
of the Red fea; on the north, by Paleftine, the lake
Afphaltites, and Coelofyna ; and on the fouth by Ara¬
bia Felix. This tratft did not admit of much cultiva¬
tion, the greateft part being covered with dry fands,
or rifmg into rocks, interfperfed here and there with
feme fruitful fpots. Its metropolis was Petra, which
by the Syrians was ftyled Rakam, and in Scripture Jok-
thsti Several other cities of Arabia Petraca are men¬
tioned by Ptolemy ; but as it is very improbable fuch
a barren country fhould abound with large cities, we
nmft look upon them as inconfiderable places.
Arabia Deferta was bounded on the north by the
Euphrates, which feparated it from Mefopotamia ; on
the weft, by Syria, Judrei, and Arabia Petraea ; on the.
eaft, by a ridge of mountains which feparated it from
Babylonia and Chaldea; on the fouth, by Arabia Felix,
from which it was likewife feparated by feveral ridges
of hills. By far the greateft part of this kingdom, as
well as the former, was a lonefome defart, diverfifred
only with plains covered with fand, or mountains con¬
fining of naked rocks and precipices ; nor were they
ever, unlefs fometimes at the equinoxes, refreftied with
rain. The few vegetables which they produced were
ftinted by a perpetual drought, and the nouriftiment af¬
forded them by the nocturnal dews was greatly impair¬
ed by the heat of the fun in the day-time. Through¬
out the defarts were found huge mountains of fand,
formed by the violence of the winds that continually
blew over them in the day-time, though they ceafed in
the night. Wells and fountains were for the moft: part
exceedingly rare ; however, notwithftanding the fteri-
lity of thefe countries, the vaft plains of fand juft now
mentioned were interfperfed with fruitful fpots, which
appeared here and there like fo many iflands in the
midft of the ocean. Thefe being rendered extremely
delightful by their verdure, and the more fo by the
neighbourhood of thofe frightful defarts, the Arabs en>-
camped upon them : and having confumed every thing
they found upon one, removed to another, as is the cu-
ftom of their defeendants the Bedoweens at this day.
Thefe fruitful fpots were likewife frequent in Lybia,
and by the Egyptians called ai*afesy or abafes, as we
learn from Strabo. The barren part of Arabia Felix,
bordering upon the Red Sea, was in like manner in¬
terfperfed with abafes ; which probably gave the name
©f Abafeni to a nation fettled there, and in the adja¬
cent fertile region. A body of thefe, it is laid, crofs-
ing the ftraits of Babel-Mandel, pafled into Ethiopia, Arabia,
which from them received the name of Abaffia. From' v—
this account of Arabia Deferta, we may reafonably
conclude, that the towns laid by Ptolemy to. have
been lituated in it were places of very little confe-
quence.
Arabia Felix was bounded on the north by the two
kingdoms juft deferibed; on the fouth, by the Red fea;
on the eaft and weft, by part of that fea, together with
the Arabian and Perfian gulfs. In Strabo’s time, it
was divided into five provinces, by the oriental hiftori-
ans called Tartan, Hejaz, Tehama, Najd, and Taviama,
In this diftriift flood feveral towns,- particularly Nyfa,
Famous for being the birth-place of Bacchus; and Mufa,
or Muza, a celebrated emporium or harbour, 'where
the Arabian merchants reforted with their frankincenfe,
fpices, and perfumes. Thefe two were fituated in the
province of Yaman. In that of Hejaz flood the ftill
more famous cities of Mecca and Medina; alfo Thaifa
or Taifa, Gjudda or Jodda, Yanbo or A1 Yanbo, and
Madian, the Modiana of Ptolemy, and the Midian or
Madian of Scripture. 4
At what time the abovementioned kingdoms wereWhen peoe-
firft peopled we have no certain accounts. The moftPled*
confiderable nations inhabiting Arabia Petraea, in the
early ages, were the Ifhmaelites, the Nabatei or Naba-
theans, the Cedraei or Kedareni, and the Agareni or
Hagareni; and of thefe the Ifhmaelites were the moft
powerful, if they did not comprehend all the reft; and
if the Hagareni were not the fame people with them.,
they muft at leaft have been nearly related. Kimchi,
an oriental hiftorian, infinuates, that they were origi¬
nally the children of Hagar by an Arab, after fhe had
left Abraham. In after ages, the names of all the na¬
tions fituated here were abforbed in that of Saracens,
by which the Ifhmaelites are diftinguifhed in the Jeru-
falem Targum. A nation alfo is mentioned by Pliny,
called Arraceni, and Saraceni by Ptolemy and Diofco-
rides, which was probably no other than the Ifhmael-
ites above mentioned. In Arabia Deferta feveral tribes
refided,all of whom were very obfeure, except the Aifitae
and Agraei. The former are fuppofed by Bochart to
have been Job’s countrymen, and the latter to have
been the fame with the Hagareni, Arraceni, or Sara¬
ceni, abovementioned. Arabia Felix was inhabited by
many different tribes ; the moft remarkable of which
were the Sabasi, Gerrasi, Minaei or Minnaei, Atramitae,
Maranitae, Catabani, Afcitae, Horneritas, Sapphorita*,
Omanitae, Saraceni, Nabathaei, Thamydeni, and Rni-
zomenas; but neither their limits nor fituation can now _
be determined with any manner of precifion. 5
■ According to the oriental hiftorians, the Arabs are Divifion of
to be divided into two claffes; viz. the old hjl Ara- ttle Arabs*
biaus, and the prefent. The moft famous tribes among
the former were thofe of Ad, Thamud, Tafm, Jad£s,
Jorham, Amalek, Amtem, Hafbem, Abil, and Bar.
Concerning thefe, though now entirely loft and fwal-
lowed up among other tribes, there are feme remark¬
able traditions, of which the following may ferve as a
fpecimen. 5
The tribe of Ad deduced their origin from Ad the Tradition •
fon of Aws, or Uz, the fon of Aram, the fon of Shem, concern-
who, after the confufion of tongues, fettled in A1 Ab- inS the
kaf, or the winding fands in the province of Hadra-tnbeofAd‘
mant, on the confines of Yaman, where his pofterity
greatly
A R A
t 150 1
A R A
Arabia, greatly multiplied. Their firfl: king was Sheddad, the
fon of Ad, who built a (lately palace and made a de¬
lightful garden in the defarts of Aden, which he defign-
ed as an imitation of the celellial paradife. This gar¬
den he called Irem: and when it was finilhed, he fet out
with a great retinue to take a view of it; but, having
fome thoughts of affuming divine honours, he was de-
ftroyed by a tempeft from heaven, while yet a day’s
journey from his paradife. Thp garden and palace,
however, were preferved, though invifible, as a monu¬
ment of divine vengeance.
After the death of Sheddad, the kingdom of Ad
was governed by a long feries of princes, concerning
whom many fables are related by the eailern writers.
The conclufion of their hidory, however, is as follows.
“ The Adites, in procefs of time falling from the
worfhip of the true God, into idolatry, God fent the
prophet Hud, fuppofed to be the fame with Heber, to
preach to and reclaim them. But they refufing to ac¬
knowledge his miffion or to obey him, God fent an hot
and fuftbcating wind, which blew feven nights and eight
days, and, entering at their nofirils, palled thro’ their
bodies, and deilroyed them all, a very few only accept¬
ed, who had liftened to Hud, and retired with him to
another place.” Others relate, “ that, before this ter¬
rible cataftrophe, they had been previoufly chaftifed
with a three years drought; and therefore fent Kail
Ebn Ithar, and Morthed Ebn Sdaa, with 70 other
principal men to Mecca, then in the hands of the tribe
of Amalek, whofe prince was Moawiyah Ebn Beer, to
obtain of God fome rain. Kail having begged of God
that he would dend rain to the people of Ad, three
clouds appeared, a white, a red, and a black one; and
a voice from heaven ordered him to choofe which he
would. Kail failed not to make choice of the laft,
thinking it wmuld be laden with moft rain ; but when
this cloud came over them, it proved to be fraught
with the Divine vengeance, and a tempeft broke forth
from it which deftroyed them all.”
Arabsfrem Prefent ■^ra^s> according to their own hifto-
•whom cie-r’ans) are fprung from Kahtan, the fame with Joktan,
-ftemled. the fon of Eber; and Adnan, defeended in a diredt line
from Ilhmael the fon of Abraham. The former of
thefe they call the genuine or pure Arabs, and the lat¬
ter the naturalized or infititious Arabs.
Joktan the f«n of Eber had 13 fons, who fome time
after the confufton of languages fettled in Arabia, ex¬
tending themfelves from Media to Sephar, a mountain¬
ous place in the fouth-eaftern part of that peninfula.
According to the Arabian hiftorians, he had 31 fons,
all of whom left Arabia and went into India, except
two, viz. Yarab and Jorham; the former of whom, they
fay, gave the name both to their country and language,
lihmael and his mother Hagar having been difmifled
by Abraham, entered into the wildernefs of Paran, as
related in the book of Genefis. The facred hiftorian
informs us, that during his refidence in the wildernefs
he married an Egyptian,; and the Arabian writers fay
that he alfo took to wife the daughter of Modad king
of Hejaz, lineally defeended from Jorham the founder
of that kingdom. By the Egyptian he was probably
the father of the Scenite or wild Arabs ; and having
allied himfelf to the Jorhamites, he is confxdered by
-the Arabians as the father of the greateft part of their
Ration.
Kahtan, or Joktan, is faid to have firft reigned, and Arabia,
worn a diadem in Yaman; but the particulars of his c——v—/
reign we no where learn. He was fucceeded by Yarab 8
already mentioned, he by Yaftiab, and Yaftiab by Abd^0^!1 th<5
Shems, He was fuccefsiul in his expeditions again ft ”rft klns‘
his enemies, carried off great fpoils, and took many 9
of them prifoners. He is faid to have built the city Refervoir
of Saba or Mareb, and above it a ftupenduous mound °f Saba,
or building which formed a vaft refervoir, containing
all the water that came down from the mountains. By
means of this refervoir the kings of Yaman not only
fupplied the inhabitants of Saba and their lands with
water, but likewife kept the territories they had fub-
dued in greater awe, as by cutting off their communica¬
tion with it they could at any time greatly diftrefs them.
Abd Shems was fucceeded by his fon Hamyar, from
whom the tribe of Hamyar is faid to take its name ;
and he by a feries of 17 kings, concerning whom we
have no remarkable particular, except that from one of
them called Ajricus the continent of Africa took its I(9
name. The laft of thefe was fucceeded by a daughter Balkls fup.
named Balkis or Belkis, whom fome will have to bepofedtobe
the queen of Sheba who paid a vifit to Solomon. Af-the qliee*
ter Balkis came Malea, furnamed Najhcrdncam on ac- of
count of his magnificence and liberality. Having had
bad fuccefs in an expedition, -where his army was over¬
whelmed by torrents of fand, he caufed a brafen ftatue
to be erecled with the following infeription in the old
Hamyaritic character. “ There is no paflage behind
me, no moving farther; the fon of Sharhabil.” He was
fucceeded by Shamar Yaraafh, fo called on account of ir
his being affedled with a conftant tremor. To this Samarcand
prince the city of Samarcand is faid to owe its exiftence. J>y'vhom^
After Shamar Yaraalh we have a lift of 15 kings, ofblu ^
whom nothing worth mentioning is recorded, ,except
of one Abu Carb Afaad, who adorned the Caaba or
temple of Mecca with tapeftry, and firft introduced
Judaifm among the Hamyarites. He was put to death
by his fubjedts, probably on account of i-eligion. The
laft of the 15 kings above mentioned was called Abra-
hah, who was fucceeded by his fon Sabban. He had
that famous fword called Samfannah, which afterwards
came into the hands of the khalif A1 Raftiid. This
prince was fucceeded by Dhu Shanater, who had fix
fingers on each hand. He was abandoned to unnatu¬
ral luft, and dethroned for abufingfome of the nobleft 12
youths in the kingdom. To him liicceeded Yufef, who Yufef, &
lived about 70 years before Mahomet. He perfecutedbl°odyper-
all thofe who would not turn Jews, putting them to1*2011101,
death by various tortures, the moft common of which
was throwing them into a glowing pit of fire ; whence
he had the appellation of the lord of the pit. This per¬
fection is taken notice of in the Koran. The laft of
the Hamyaritic monarchs was Dhu Jadan, according
to Abulfeda; but, according to others, the Yulef juft
mentioned, who was furnamed Dhu Nowas on account
of his flowing curls, and was the laft who reigned in
an uninterrupted fucceffion. He was a bigotted Jew,
as already mentioned; and treated his fubjefts with fuch r,
barbarity, that they were obliged to aik the afliftance Hisfubjefts
of Elelbaas or Elelbaan, king of Ethiopia, againft him. call in the
Dhu Nowas, not being able to make head againft thek'!?S ,of E'
Ethiopians, was at laft driven to fuch extremity, that^“p^
he forced his horfe into the fea, and loft both his life thrones*
.and crown together. Yufef.
The
A R A
[ I5I ]
A R A
TTie king of Ethiopia, having thus become mailer of returned to Chriftianity, and took refuge in Conilan-1 Arabia.
Yaman, eftabliihed there the Chriftian religion, and tinople. ' ^ '
^ * "" The kingdom of Hejaz was founded by Jorham the p 59
fon of' Kahtan, where princes of his line reigned till0i eJaa!>
the time oflffimael, who married the daughter of Mo-
dad one of thofe princes. Some author’s relate that
Kidar, one of Ilbrnael’s fons, had the crown refigned
ceeded by two other Ethiopian princes; but at laft Seif to him by his uncles the Jorhamites : but, according to
fixed upon the throne one Abryat an Ethicpian. He
jphriftian was fucceeded by Abraha Ebn-Al-Sabah, furnamed
V hr’a,11 ths JIh-mfed, from a wound he had formerly received
i Arabia. *n it. He was likewife ftyled lord of the elephant, from
a ftory too ridiculous to deferve notice. He was fuc¬
ceeded by two other Ethiopian pi
Ebn Dhu Yazan, of the old royal family of Hamyar,
having'oburined afiiilance from the king of Perfia which
had been denied him by the emperor Heraclius, reco-
i Ethiopian-, vered his throne, and drove out the Ethiopians ; but
iv Irivenont. was himfelf ilain by fome of them who were left be¬
hind. The fucceeding princes were appointed by the
16 Perfians, till Yaman fell into the hands of Mahomet.
Terrible We have already taken notice of the vaft mound or
a nundatioa referVoir made by Abd Shems, from which he fupplied
si leaking t^e c't:lr °*' Saba with water. This building Hood like
I I own of a mountain above the city, and was by the Sabteans
j :he refer- efteemed fo drong, that they were under no fear of its
1 reir of ever failiner. The
aiSaba.
others, the defeehdants of Ilhmael expelled that tribe ;
rvho, retiring to johainah, were after various adventures
deftroyed by an inundation. After the expulfion of
the Jorhamites, the government of Hejaz feems not to
have continued long in'the hands of one prince, but to
have been divided among the heads of tribes, almoil
in the fame manner as the Arabs of the defert are go- 2b
yerned at this day. The tribe of Kiiozaab, after theTribe of*
above-mentioned inundat ion of Saba, fled into the king-Kilozaab,
dom of Hejaz, and fettled themfelves in a valley call- 8
ed Marri near Mecca. Here they founded an ari-ment of-
ftocracy, afluming to themfelves both the government Mecca.
of ever failing. The water rofe almoft to the height of of the city of Mecca, and the cuftody of the Caaba or
— r-.i  —j ■ - —i— cai t 1- temple there. • They continued mafters of this city and
territory, as well as prefidents of the Caaba, for many
20 fathoms ; and was kept in on every fide by a work
fo folid, that many of the inhabitants had their houfes
upon it. About the time of Alexander the Great, ages ; till at length one Kofa, of the tribe of Koreifh,
however, a terrible inundation happened. According
to the Arabian htftorians, God being difpleafed at the
pride and infolence of the inhabitants of this city, re-
lalved to humble them ; and for this purpofe fent a
mighty flood, which broke down the mound by night
whilft the inhabitants were afleep, and carried away the
whole city with the neighbouring towns and people.
This inundation is ftyled in the Koran the inundation-
of AUHaram; and occafioned fo terrible a deftruction.
circumvented Abu Gablhan, a weak and filly man, of
whom,while in a drunken humour,he bought the keysof
the temple for a bottle of wine; but when Abu Gabftian
grew cool, and reflected on his imprudence, he fufficient-
ly repented of what he had done; whence the Arabian 2l
proverbs, More vexed with late repentance than Abu Folly of A- '
Gablhan ; ■ More foolifh than Abu Gabftian,” &c. ThebuGabihan,
tribe of Khozaab endeavoured afterwards to give fome
difturbance to the Koreilh in the pofteflion of the keys
that from thence it became a proverbial faying to ex- of the Caaba, which furnilhed the latter with a pretence
prefs a total difperfion, “ that they were gone and feat- for depriving them of the civil government of Mecca,
tered like Saba.”—By this accident no lefs than eight After the Koreifti hadpolfelTed themfelves of this city,
tribes were forced to remove their habitations; fome of they kept up the fame form of government which had
which gave rife to the kingdoms of Hira an,d Ghafian. '1'3 c—- x1*’ ' '' z' ’ ' ' *
j Origin,&c. The kingdom of Hira was founded by Malec, a de-
jof theking- feendant of Cahlan the brother of Hamyar; but after
dom of Hi-three defeents, the throne came by marriage to the
ra T ,1.1 ;  ...u_    _r r _ 1.1'r. .1, _ r-
prevailed there before. Befides thefe kingdoms, there
were many others of lefler note, of which we find no¬
thing remarkable.
Thus we have briefly mentioned the moft memorable
Lakhmians, who were defendants of Lakhm the fon events recorded by the Arabian hiftorians previous to
of Amru, the fon of Abd Ems. Thefe princes, whofe the time of Mahomet; but, before entering upon an
general name was Mondar, preferved their dominion; account of that famous impoftor and the kingdom found-
notwithftanding fome fmall interruption from the Per- ed by him, it will be proper to take notice of feveral
fians, till the khalifat of Abubecr, when A1 Mondar circumftances in different parts of the world, which
Maghrur, the laft of them; loft his life and crown by — •-1— —  —J - 1 r i ’
the arms of Khaled-Ebn-Al-Walid. This kingdom
continued 622 years and eight months, according to
Ahmed Ebn Yufef. Its princes were under the pro-
tedlion of the kings of Perfia, and were their lieute¬
nants over the Arabs of Irak, as the kings of Ghaffan tion with which the Chriftian religion was at that time
at that time concurred to facilitate his fcheme, and
without which, in all probability, he would never have
been able to accomplifti it. 22
The firft and great caufe of Mahomet’s fuccefs in Caufes °f
his impofture, was the grofs corruption and fuperfti- !^Iahojne •
1-inn Ttrifln txrlviz'li t-lo Q iVi o-r» •t-ol I rri nn wo o4-4-Vio«- UCCClS*
Tg were for the Roman emperors over thofe of Syria.*
OfGHaffan. The kingdom of Ghaffan was founded by the tribe
of Azd, who, according to fome, fettling in Syria Da-
mafeena, near a water called Ghaffan, from thence took
their name; but others fay they went under this ap¬
pellation before they left Yaman. Having driven out
the Dajaamian Arabs, who before poffeffed the country,
they made themfelves mafters of a confiderable terri¬
tory. Here they maintained themfelves, according to
obfeured in all parts of the world. Had the pure
dodtriries of Chriftianity been then as publicly known
as the ridiculous fopperies which deformed the Eaftern
and Weftern churches, Mahometanifm could never
, —   ,   —,— — _r. have got a hearing. But, along with the true reli-
pellation before they left Yaman. Having driven out gion, mankind feemed alfo to have loft the ufe of their
♦k» tv.: a A—t-‘ _r. 1 ’ rational faculties, fo that they were capable of fwal-
lowing the groffeft abfurdities ; fuch as it now appears
almoft incredible that any of the human race could
fome 400, according to others 600, and according to receive as truths. Another caufe was, the manner of
Abulfeda 6i 3 years, when the laft of their kings fub-
mitted to the khalif Gmar, and embraced the Maho¬
metan religion; but receiving afterwards a difguft, foon
government and way of life among the Arabs. Di¬
vided into fmall independent tribes, they never were ‘
capable of a firm union but by fuperftition; and had ‘
Mahomet -
A R A
[ 15* 1
A R A
A-aWa. Mahomet attempted their conqueft in any other way
it was impoffible he could hare fucceeded. As there
were alfo among them Jews, Pagans, and Chriftians of
all forts, this impoftor, by adopting fomething out of
every religion then extant, cunningly ‘recommended
himfelf to the profeffors of every one of them. Add
to all this, that, by allowing of polygamy, and fetting
forth his paradrfe as confiding in the enjoyment of wo¬
men, he adapted himfelf to the corrupt difpofitions of
mankind in general.
If the diilradted date of religion favoured the de-
figns of Mahomet on the one hand, the weaknefs of
the Grecian and Perfian monarchies affided him no lefs
powerfully on the other. Had thofe once formidable
empires been in their vigour, either of them would have
been fufficient to crufh Mahometanifm in its birth; but
both of them were then drangely reduced. The Ro¬
man empire had continued to decline after the time of
Condantine ; the wedern parts of it were then entirely
over-run by the Goths and other barbarous nations;
and the eadern, or Greek empire, was fo much redu¬
ced by the Huns on one hand, and the Perfians on the
other, as to be incapable of making any great effort.
The Perfian monarchy itfelf was in little better con¬
dition. It is true, they ravaged the dominions of the
Greeks, and often overcame them in the field : but
that was more owing to the weaknefs of the Grecian
empire, than to the drength of the Perfians; and fo
effectually did the intedine broils, which, arofe chiefly
on account of religion, weaken the kingdom of Perfia,
that the mod confiderable part of it was annexed by
the khalif Omar to his dominions.
As the Greeks and Perfians were then in a languifh-
ing fituation, fo the Arabs were drong and flouriming.
Their country had been peopled at the expence of the
Grecian empire ; whence the violent proceedings of the
different religious feftaries forced many to take refuge .
in Arabia. - The Arabs were not only a populous na¬
tion, but unacquainted with the luxuries and delicacies
of the Greeks and Perfians. They were inured to hard-
fhips of all kinds, and confequently much better fitted
than their effeminate neighbours to endure the fatigues
2} of war, as the event very fully verified.
Mahomet’.- Mahomet was born in the year of Chrid 569. Ac-
birth, »!e- COrding to the Eadern hidorians, he was defeended in
Icent, &c. a cpre(q};ne fr0m Iflimael. Kedar, or, as the Arabians
call him Ktdtr, after his father Ifhmael’s death, com¬
municated his name to the greated part of Arabia Pe-
traea. He was fucceeded in his authority and poffef-
fions by his fon Hamal; Hamal by Nabet, and Nabet
by Salaman. After Salaman came A1 Homeifa, then
A1 Yafa, whofe fon Odad was fucceeded by Odd the
father of Adrian. Counting ten generations forward in
the fame line, we come at lad to Fehr, who feems to
Fehr head ^ave didinguifhed himfelf by fome glorious aftions, as
or theKo he was denominated Korei/fj, on account of his bravery,
reifh. He is to he confidered as the root of the polited and
mod celebrated tribe of the Arabs. He had three fons,
Galeb Moh'ireb, and A1 Hareth. From Mohareb the
Banu Mohareb, denominated likewife Shi than, took
their origin ; from A1 Hareth, the Banu A1 Kholoj ;
and from Galeb, in a direct line, the impodor Mahomet.
Caleb was the father of Lowa; and he of Caab, whofe
fon Morrah had for his immediate defeendant Kelab
the father of Kofa. It was this Kofa who aggrandized
N° 24.
the tribe of the Koreifli, by purchafing the keys of the Arabia.
Caaba from Abu Gabflian, as we have already related.
By this he not only aggrandized his tribe, but became
the prince of it himfelf. He was fucceeded by his fe-
cond fon Abd Menaf, to whom the prophetic light,
which is faid to have manifeded itfelf in his face, gave
the right of primogeniture. Abd Menaf was fucceed-
ed by his fon Amni, fumamed Hdjhem, or “one that genero£ty,
broke bread,” on account of his fingular generofity
during a famine at Mecca. Having amaffed great fums
of money, he took a journey into Syria, where he pur-
chafed a vad quantity of meal, which he made into
cakes and divided with his own hands amongd the peo¬
ple of Mecca. He likewife killed a prodigious number
of camels, with which he fed them, and relieved them
in the time of their didrefs; and finding that the foil
about Mecca Was fo barren as- to produce no fruits
but what are common in the defarts, and confequently
no corn or grain, which the Mecans are obliged to
bring from other places, he appointed two caravans to
fet out yearly for that purpofe, the one in dimmer, and
the other in winter; by means of which, the city was
amply fupplied with provifions of all kinds. The pro-
vifi«ns brought by them were didributed twice a-year;
and Hafhem, by his prudent conduft, raifed the glory
of his people to the highed pitch i infomuch, that all
the neighbouring great men and heads of tribes made
their court to him. Nay, fo great veneration is the
memory of Hafliem held in by the Arabs, that from
him the family of Mahomet among them are called
Hufheviites; and he who prefides over Mecca and Me¬
dina, who mud always be of the race of Mahomet, has
to this day the title of the “ Chief or Prince of the
Hafliemites.”
Hafliem died at Gaza in Syria, and was fucceeded
by his fon Abdal Motalleb or Mateleb. He is faid to
have been extremely affable and eafy of accefs, as well
as jud and generous to a great degree ; fo that, in the
beginning of the month Ramadan, he entertained the
poor upon the flat roof of his houfe, and afterwards
fupplied the fowls of the air and wild beads of the
field with provifions of various kinds, which he ordered
his fervants to leave upon the fummits of the neighbour-
ing mountains. The well which God fliowed to Hagar We]|Zem.
in the wildernefs is faid to have been miraculoufly dif-zem dife o-
covered to Abdal Motalleb, about jo® years after itvered by
had been filled up by Amru prince of the Jorhamites. A1jdalMo-
This well is by the Arabs called Zetnzetn ; which fometa e
derive from her calling to Iflimael, when die fpied it,
in the Egyptian tongue, Zem, Zem, i. e. Stay, Stay ;
though others aferibe it to a different origin. The
water of this well, which is on the ead fide of the
Caaba, .and covered with a fmall building and cupola,
is highly reverenced; being not only drank with parti¬
cular devotion by the pilgrims, but alfp lent in bottles
as a great rarity to mod parts of the Mahometan do¬
minions. .
Abdalla the father of Mahomet, was a younger fon
of Abdal Motalleb, and remarkable for his beauty.
In his 24th or 25th year, he married Amina, the
daughter of Waheb, the fon of Abdal Menaf. She is
reprefented as the mod beautiful, prudent, and virtuous
lady of her tribe; and confequently the mod worthy
of fuch an extraordinary perfon as Abdalla. He died
young, and, in his father’s life-timb, left his widow
and
A R A
[ 153 J
A R A
*K Arabia, and Infant fon in very mean circumftances ; his whole
fubftance confifting only of five camels and one female
Ethiopian Have. Abdal Motalleb was, therefore, obli¬
ged to take care of his grandfon Mahomet; which he
not only did during his life, but at his death enjoined
27 his elded fon Abu Taleb to provide for him for the fu-
lalMahomet ture. Abu Taleb was extremely kind -to his nephew,
E|at fit-ft a and inftrudled him in the bufinefs of merchandife ; for
lamerchant. wbich purpofe he took him into Syria when he was
but 13 years of age, recommending him to Khadijah,
a noble and rich widow, for her fadtor; in whofe fer-
he behaved fo well, that die married him, and
to open his mind to them 5 but Abu Taleb, one of Arabia,
Mahomet’s uncles, making the company break up be-—\r“—^
fore the prophet had an Opportunity of fpeaking to
them, he was’ obliged to invite them again the next
day. Having now propofed the matter, he afked which
of them would become his wazir, prime minider, or
vicegerent. This was accepted by Ali; upon which
Mahomet faid to him, “ This is my brother, my de¬
puty, and my (khahf) fucceffor, or vic^r ; therefore ^
fhow yourfelves fubmiffive and obedient to him.” At Rejected
this fpeech all the company fell a-laughing, telling Abu by the Ko-
Taleb that he mud now pay obedience and fubmidion reiflu
to his own fon. Notw ithdanding this repulfe, how¬
ever, Mahomet was fo far from being difcouraged, that
thus raifed him to an equality with the riched in
Mecca. ^ -
Though Mahomet had probably formed a defign of he began to preach to the people in public. They
48 introducing his new religion pretty early, he did not heard him with fome patience till he began to upbraid
’s Begins to think proper to avow it till the 40th year of his age. them with the idolatry, obdinacy, and perverfenefs of
vine nature, which he pretended was violated by the them, that they openly declared themfelves his enemies,
Jews and Chridians no lefs than by the Pagans ; for except fome few who were converted. The prophet was
which reafon, he refolved to make an attempt to refcue now protected by the authority of his uncle Abu Ta-
the world from the ignorance and fuperdition which leb ; who, however, was eamedly folicited to perfuade
prevailed at that time. This reformation he intended his nephew to defid, and at lad threatened with an
fhould begin in his own family ; and therefore, having open rupture in cafe he could not prevail on him fo to
retired with his houfehold to a cave in Mount Hara, do. This had fuch an effett upon Abu Taleb, that he
near Mecca, he there opened the fecret of his miffion advifed his nephew not to pufh the matter any farther;
to Khadijah; acquainting her that the angel Gabriel reprefenting the great danger he and his followers
had jud appeared to him, and told him that he was would otherwife run: but our prophet was not to be
appointed the Apodle of God. He alfo repeated to fo intimidated ; and told his uncle plainly, that “ if „.s r^ojtt%
her a palfage which he faid had been revealed" to him they fet againd him the fun on his right hand, and the 0 u*
by the minidry of the angel, with an account of many moon on his left, he would not abandon hjs enter-
prodigies which happened at his birth (See Maho- prize.” Abu Taleb, therefore, finding him fo firmly
met). This pretended revelation was received by refolved, ufed no further arguments, but promifed to
Khadijah with the greated joy ; and in a kind of ec- dand by him to the utmod of his power: fo that not-
withdanding the people of his tribe came to a determi¬
nation to expel both Mahomet and his followers, he
found a powerful fupport in his uncle againd all their
machinations.
Mahomet now entered upon his apodolic fundion
with uncommon diligence and application} and foon
gained over his uncle Hamza, and Omar Ebn A1
Khattah, a perfon very much edeemed, and who be¬
fore had been, his violent oppofer. Notwithdanding a
this fuccefs, however, the Koreidi continued their op- HisfolW-
pofition, and came to a refolution to profcribe all whoers perfe-
had embraced Mahomet’s doftrine. In confequence of cuted.
this refolution, the Moflcms, as his followers were cal-
dafy die immediately communicated the good news to
her coufin Waraka Ebn Nawfal, who, being a Chridi-
an, could write in the Hebrew charadter, and was pret-
29 ty well verfed in the Scriptures both of the Old and
’Converts New Tedament. He very readily came into her opi-
1 caiifiV* xfr nion, fwore by God that what die faid was true, and
’ "that “ Mahomet was the great prophet foretold in the
law by Mofes the fon Amram.”
Mahomet finding his fird" dep fo fuccefsful, as Wa¬
raka was a very confiderable perfon, began to entertain
great hopes of accomplhhing his defign. He next
converted his fervant Zeid, to whom he gave his liber¬
ty on the occafion, which afterwards became a rule to
his followers; and then Ali the fon of Abu Taleb, led, were now treated with fuch feverity, that they found
though at that time only nine or ten years of age. This it no longer fafe to continue in Mecca ; nay, feveral of
lad, however, making no account of the other two, he
ufed to call the fir ft of believers. The next peribn he
applied to was Abu Beer, a man of very confiderable
authority among the Koreidi. He was eafily gained
over, and by his influence feveral others ; fo that Ma¬
homet now made his million no longer a fecret. To
Abu Beer he gave the name of Al Saddik, or the faith
ful -witnefs; becaufe he not only vouched for every thing
he faid, but alfo greatly increafed the number of his
followers. Mahomet likewife complimented him with
the title of Atik, or prefirved; intimating thereby that
he was certainly faved from hell-fire.
them in the fifth year of his miflion found themfelves
obliged to fly into Ethiopia, where they were kindly
received by the Najaflii or king of that country, who
refufed to deliver them up to thofe whom the Kortilh
fent to demand them. At this refufal they were fo ex-
afperated, that they .came to a refolution to fupprefs
effe&ually the new religion which had now made a
confiderable progrefs. In order to this, they entered
into a folemn league or covenant againd the Halhe- The Kore-
mites, and the family of Abdal Motalleb in particu-hh enterin-
lar, engaging themfelves to contract no marriages withto ahague
them, nor to have any manner of communication with
Having given out that he was commanded from hea- them otherwife ; and, to give this the greater w'eight,
ven to. admonifli his near relations, Mahomet dir. ded they reduced it into writing, and laid it up in the
Ali to prepare an entertainment, and invite to it the Caaba Upon this the tribe became divided into two
fons and defeendants of Abdal Motalleb. He intended fadkn.s ; and all the family of Haflxem, both Mof-
Vot. II. Part I. U lems
A R A
[ >54 ]
ara
34
Theinvrit-
iagdeftroy-
cd by a
worm.
lems and unbelievers, repaired to ABu Taleb as their diately to embrace it. Thefe converts of the tribe of Arabia,
head; except only Abdal Uzza, furnamed Abu La- Khazraj are by the Arab writers called Al Anfar, AT—-v—
heb, the fon of Abdal Motalleb, who, out of hatred Anfarii, or Anfars ; that is, atMants, favourers, fup- 36
to his nephew and his dodtrine, went over to the op- porters, &c. becaufe they affifted and fupported theAnfars»
polite party. After this the authority of Abu Taleb prophet when- he was purfued to the very brink of de-wha‘
was fcarce fufficient to protect Mahomet from the fury ftrudtion. They firft met Mahomet on a little hill cal-
of the Koreifh,; who, according to Al Jannabi, made led Al Akabah, where a temple flood, and where they
frequent attempts upon him ;Tometimes endeavouring firft took an oath to exert themfelves in fupport of their
to deftroy him by force, at other times by fecret wiles new apoftle and his religion. An uninterrupted friend-
and machinations : nay, to compafs their end, he tells fhip and harmony reigned for a long time amongft the
us that they had recourfe to magic, inchantments, and members of the Jewi.h tribes of Khazraj, Koreidha,
diabolical illuftons. In fhort, they gave him at laft. fo and Nadir, whofe great progenitor, fay the Arabs,
much trouble, that he was obliged to change his habi- was Aaron the fon of Amram. Mahomet therefore
ration, and feek a new afylum for himfelf and his com- infinuating himfelf into the good graces of tire Anfars,
panions. This he found in the houfe of one Orkam, they readily embraced his religion, and proved of very
which was advantageoufly fituated on a hill called Safa, conliderable, fervice.
Here he converted Orkam’s family, and the houfe was The next remarkable thing recorded of Mahomet is Mahomet^t
afterwards held in high eftimatioh by the Moflems. the invention of his night-journey to heaven. This he j°l'riieyto •
The two factions into which the tribe of Koreifh probably intended to fupply the place of miracles. 1'eaven*
was divided, fubfifted for five years, when they were The abfurdities contained in that relation, however,
put an. end to by a very ftrange accident. Mahomet are fo great, that when he related it to his uncle Al
told his uncle Abu Taleb, that God had manifeftly Abbas, and Omm Hanna the daughter of Abu Taleb,
fhowed his difapprobation of the covenant entered into they endeavoured to diffuade him from making it pu-
againft them, by fending a worm to eat out every word blic. This advice he was fo far from following, that
of the inftrument except the name of God. With he related the whole to Abu Jahl, one of his moft in-
this particular Abu Taleb immediately-acquainted the veterate enemies, who ridiculed him for it, and placed
Koreifh ; offering, in cafe it proved falfe, to deliver up the ftory in fuch a ridiculous light to the Koreifh, that
his nephew to them; but if it fhould prove true, he they were on the point of infulting him; feveral of his jg.
infilled that they ought to lay afide their animofity, followers alfo left him ; and the whole delign had pro- Aim oft
and annul the league they had made againft the Hafhe- bably been ruined, had not Abu Beer vouched for his proves the
mites. To this they acquiefced ; and going to infpeft veracity, and declared, that, if M
35
Mahomet
ftifl perfe-
euted by
the Ko-
xeifh.
Mahomet affirmed it to ruin of
the writing, found, it to be as Abu Taleb had told be true,, he firmly believed the whole. This declara-caufe‘
them; the words “ In thy name, O God,” being the tibn not only retrieved the prophet’s credit, but increa-
only ones which remained. On fo remarkable a proof fed it to fuch a degree, that he was fure of making his
of the divine difpleafure, the league was immediately difciples fwallow whatever he pleafed ; and on this oc~
annulled, and. all a&s of hoftility between the two par- cafion it is laid by fome that he gave Abu Beer the
ties ceafed. name of the faitkjul tuHuejs,, as we have already re-
After this memorable event Mahomet remained with lated.
his uncle Abu Taleb, who furvived the reconciliation In the twelfth year of Mahomet’s miffion, twelve
only about eight months. The fame year alfo died men of Yathreb, or Medina, of whom ten were of
Khadijah, Mahomet’s wife. Her death, as well as that the tribe of Kharai, and two of that of Aws, came
of his uncle, proved a great detriment to his affairs ; to Mecca, and took an oath of fidelity to the prophet
for the Koreiilij-notwithftanding the former reconcilia-r at the hill Al Akaba. When they had folemnly en-
tion, began now to profecute him with more violence gaged to do all required of them, Mahomet lent one:
than ever. He was therefore obliged to fly for flicker to of his difciples, named Mafab Ehn Otnair, home with
Al Tayef; which he chofe on account of its being the them, to inftruft them more fully in the grounds of
refidence of his uncle Al Abbas, whofe protection he their new religion. Mafab being arrived at Medina,
imagined he would be able to fecure. In this, how- with the affiftance of the new profelytes, gained feve-
ever, he found himfelf miftaken ; and though he ftaid ral others ; and acquainting Mahomet with the fuccefs
a month in the city, during which time he gained over of his miffion, defired leave to form a congregation of
a few, yet at laft the lower fort of. people rofe againft Moflems at Medina. This the prophet readily grant-Congrega-
him and obliged him to return to Mecca. This refu- ed ; in .confequence of which, the new Moflems regu-tionofMo-
fal, though it greatly difeouraged the new converts, , larly affembled, to the number of forty perfons, in the flemslbrm-
did notin the lead abate the zeal of Mahomet: on the houfe of Saad Ebn Khaithama. The next year Ma-®? at Me'
contrary, he. continued to preach boldly to the public fab returned to Mecca, accompanied by feventy-threedlna*
affemblies at the pilgrimage to Mecca, exclaiming a- men and two women of Medina, who had profeffed
gainft idolatry, and particularly againft the worftiip .of MaKometanifm, befides feveral others who were yet un- •
two idols Allat and Al Uzza, to which the tribes, e- believers. On their arrival , they fent immediately to
fpecially the women of that of. Thakif, were very much Mahomet, and offered him their affiftance, of which.
addicted. By this the prophet was often, expofed to he now ftood in the greateft need; for his adverfaries
great danger: however, he gained fome converts, and were by this time grown fo powerful in Mecca, that
amongft them fix of the inhabitants of Yathreb, of the he could not ftay there much longer without imminent
Jewifti tribe of Khazraj; who, on their return home, danger. He therefore accepted their propofal, and
failed not to fpeak much in commendation of their met them one night by appointment at the hill Al A-
new religion, and exhorted their fellow-citizens imme- kaba. At this interview he was attended by his uncle
A R A [ 155 ] A R A
Arabia. A1 Abbas; who, though then an unbeliever, wifhed
t| " ' * his nephew well, and made a fpeech to the people of
Medina; wherein he told them, that as Mahomet was
obliged to quit his native city and feek an afylum elfe-
where, and as they had offered him their protection,
they would do well not to deceive him ; and if they
were not firmly refolved to defend, and not to betray
him, they had better declare their minds, and let him
feek for protection fomewhere elfe. Upon their pro-
tefting their fmcerity, Mahomet fwore to be faithful
to them, a part of the Koran being read to all prefent,
on condition they fhould protect him againft all infults,
as heartily as they would do their own wives and fa¬
milies. They then afked him what recompence they
were to expeCt if they fhould happen to be killed in
his quarrel: he anfwered, Paradife ; upon which they
pledged their faith to him, after Mahomet had chofen
twelve out of their number, who were to have the
fame authority under him that the twelve apoftles had
under Chrift.
Finding now a confederacy formed in his favour,
our prophet began to pull off the mafk as to his true
fentiments concerning the means of reformation. Hi¬
therto he had propagated his religion by fair means on¬
ly ; and in feveral paffages of the Koran, which he pre¬
tended were revealed before this time, he declared, that
his bufinefs was only to preach and admonifh; that he
had no authority to compel any perfon 5 and that
whether they believed or not, was none of his concern,
but belonged folely to God. But no fooner did he find
himfelf enabled, by the alliance abovementioned, to
refift his enemies, than he gave out that God had al¬
lowed him and his followers to defend themfelves ; and
at length, as his forces increafed, he pretended not
only to have leave to aCt on the defenfive, but to attack
the infidels, deflroy idolatry, and fet up the true re¬
ligion by the power of the fword. To this he was ex¬
cited by an apprehenfion that pacific meafures would
greatly retard, if not entirely overthrow, his defigns;
and therefore he determined to ufe the mo ft violent
methods to convert the Pagan Arabs, or rather to ex-
40 tend his own authority.
The Kore- The Koreifh, in the mean time,-finding that Maho-
ilh refolve met had confiderably extended his influence, and hear-
to put Ma- jng 0f tlie league concluded with the Anfars, began to
de'^h*” t0 ^ abfolutely neceffary that he fhould be prevent-
ea ' ed from efcaping to Medina ; and, in order to do this
the more effectually, they refolved in a council, wherein
it is faid the devil aflifted in perfon, to put an end to
his life. To accomplifh this with the greater fafety,
they agreed that a man fhould be chcfen out of every
tribe, and that each fhould have a blow at him ; that
fo the guilt of his death might fall equally on all the
tribes; and thus the Hafhemites would be prevented
from attempting to revenge the death of their kinfman,
as they were much inferior in power to die reft of the
tribes put together. Mahomet now directed his com¬
panions to repair to Medina, where, in confequence of
the late treaty, they might be allured of protection.
This they accordingly did : but he himfelf, with Abu
Beer and All, remained behind ; not having received,
as he pretended, the divine permiffion to retire. Here
he narrowly watched the motions of the Koreifh, and
was foon apprifed of their machinations: for the above-
mentioned confpiracy was fcarce formed, when by feme
means or other it came to Mahomet’s knowledge ; and Arabia,
he gave out that it was revealed to him by the angel'~—v J
Gabriel, who alfo commanded him to retire from Mec¬
ca. The ponfpirators were already afl'embled at the
prophet’s door; but he, to amufe them, ordered Ali
to lie down in his place, and wrap himfelf in his green 4T
cloak : this Ali complied with, and Mahomet miracu-He outwits
loufly, according to the Arabs, efcaped to the houfe^J11^11*
of Abu Beer. The confpirators, in the mean time, p
perceiving through a crevice Ali wrapped up in the
green cloak, took him for Mahomet himfeli, and
watched there till morning, when Ali arofe, and they
found themfelves deceived. The prophet next retired 42
in company with Abu Beer to a cave in mount Thur,In great
an hill a little fouth of Mecca. Here he had ftill a more danSer
narrow efcape ; concerning which we have the follow-
ing account from an Arabic tradition. “ The Ko¬
reifh having detached a party from Mecca to recon¬
noitre the mouth of the cave, when they came there,
found it covered by a fpider’s web, and a neft built at
the entrance by two pigeons which they faw, and
which had laid two eggs therein. On fight of this
they reafoned with themfelves in the following man¬
ner : “ If any perfon had lately entered this cavern,
“ the eggs now before us would infallibly have been
“ broke, and the fpider’s web demolifhed; there can
“ therefore be no body in itaftei which, they im¬
mediately retired. As the prophet, therefore, and his
friend, were now faved fo miraculoufly by means of
the pigeon’s eggs and the interpofition of the fpider’s
web, he afterwards enjoined his followers, in memory
of fo remarkable an event, to look upon pigeons as a
kind of facred animals, and never to kill a fpider.” 4?
The prophet and Abu Beer having ftaid in this cave!16 is PU1>
three days in order to recover a little from their con-
ftemation, fet out for Medina; but the Koreilh, being t,ut g_
informed of the route they had taken, fent a party af- fcapes.
ter them, under the command of Soraka Ebn Malec.
Thefe overtook them ; and, as the Arab hiftorians tell
us, Soraka’s horfe fell down when he attempted to
feize Mahomet. Upon this he recommended himfelf to
the prophet’s prayers, and remounted his horfe without
hurt: but, as he ftill continued the purfuit, his horfe
fell down with him a fecond time; upon which he re¬
turned to Mecca, without offering any farther violence ;
and Mahomet, thus happily delivered from the greateft
dangers, arrived without farther moleftation at Medina,
where he was received with tire greateft demonftrations
of joy—This flight of the prophet from Mecca to Me¬
dina was reckoned fo remarkable by the Moflems, that
they made it the tera from whence all their remarkable 44
tranfacHons were dated, calling it the AY a of the He- AYa of tfee
gira, or f ight. The beginning of the Hegira corre- Hvgira.
fponded with the 16th of July, A. D. 622.
On Mahomet’s arrival at Mecca, his firft care was to
build a mofque for his religious worfhip, and an houfe
for himfelf. The city of Medina at that time was inha¬
bited partly by Jews and partly by heretical Chriftians,
that formed two fa&ions which perlecuted one another
with great violence. This gave the impoftor fuch an
opportunity of propagating his new religion, that in a
fhort time the city was entirely at his devotion. Here
he ftrengthened himfelf by marrying Ayeftia the daugh¬
ter of Abu Beer, though then only feven years of ag£,
and gave his own daughter Fatima in marriage to Ali,
U 2 the
A R A
[ 156 1
A R A
Arabia, the fon of Abu Taleb. The next point he had in view
  J was the union of die Mohajerin, or thofe who fled from
. 45 Mecca on account of their religion, with die Anfars a
Union of bove mentioned. To facilitate this, after his mofque
and Moha-anc* houfe were finilhed, he enablifhed among the Mof-
jerin. lems a fraternity, the principal flatute of which was,
that they fhould not only treat one another like bre¬
thren, but likewife molt cordially love, and mutually
cherilh, one another to the utmofl of their power. But,
led even this fhould prove infufficient, he coupled the
individuals of the two bodies of Anfars and Mohajerin;
and this was the lafl: tranfadlion of the firit year of the
Hegira.
The next year was ufliered in, according to Abulfe-
da, with a change of the Kebla, or place whither the
"Mahometans were to turn their faces in prayer. At
fird it had been declared to be perfe&ly indifferent
where they turned their faces. Afterwards he directed
them to pray with their faces towards the temple of
Jerufalem, probably with a view to ingratiate himfelf
with the Jews ; and now, in order to gain the Pagan
Arabs, he ordered his followers to pray with their fa¬
ces towards the eaft. This inconftancy gave great of¬
fence, and occafioned the apoftacy of many of his dif-
ciples. About this time Mahomet receiving advice
that a rich caravan of the Koreifh was on the road from
Syria to Mecca, he detached his uncle Hamza, at the
head of 30'horfe, to feize upon it; who accordingly
lay in wait for it in one of the woods of Yamama, thro’
which it was to pafs ; here, however, he was inform¬
ed that the caravan was guarded by 300 men, fo that
he returned without making any attempt; but the
prophet made the proper difpofitions for a&ing here¬
after againft the Koreilh with fuccefs. This year alfo
Mahomet fent out a party of 60 or 80 horfe, all Mo¬
hajerin, except one who was an Anfar, to make re-
prifals on the Koreifh. They were met by a party of
their enemies, and both fides immediately prepared for
an engagement: however, they parted without blood-
fhed, except one of the Koreifh, who was killed by an
46 arrow fhot by one qf the Moflems.
Mahomet Mahomet, having now put himfelf into an offenfive
takes a ca pofture, began in earneft to make reprifals on the Ko-
rayan, and reifh. His firft exploit was the taking of a caravan
gams the attended by a fmall guard ; and this being accomplifh-
Bedr °r ec* by a party confifting only of nine men, contributed
greatly to encourage the Moflems. But what moft e-
Itablifhed the impoftor’s affairs, and was indeed the
true foundation of all his future greatnefs, was his gain¬
ing the battle of Bedr ; of which we have the follow¬
ing account. The prophet being informed that Abu,
Sofian Ebn Harb efcorted a caravan of the Koreifh
v. ith only 30 or 40 men, refolved to advance at the
head of a fmall detachment of his troops to intercept
it. To this he was excited by the riches of the cara¬
van, which confifted of a large quantity of merchan¬
dize, confifting of the riches of Syria, carried on the
backs of a thoufand camels. He therefore fent out a
party to reconnoitre it, with orders to wait in fome
convenient place, where they might remain undifeo-
vered. But Abu Sofian having notice of Mahomet’s
motions, difpatched a courier to Mecca, requefting
fuccours from his countrymen, that he might be able to
defend the caravan. Upon this Mahomet drew toge¬
ther all his forces, which amounted to no more than
313, while his enemies confifted of very near TOGO, Arabia.
Abu Sofian having been reinforced by the Meccans1 v~" -*
with 950 men. The two armies did not long remSin
in a ftate of inadlion: but before the battle three cham¬
pions from each party engaged each other in Angle
combat. In this the Moflem champions were victo¬
rious, and the event greatly difeouraged the Koreifh.
Mahomet, in the mean time, taking advantage of
this lucky event, offered up his prayers to God with
great fervency and vehemence ; after which, feigning
himfelf in a trance, he pretended that God had aflured
him of victory. Then throwing an handful of duft or
f ravel towards the enemy, he cried out, “ May the
ices of them be confounded ;” and attacked the Ko-
rcifh with fetch bravery, that they were foon put to
flight, leaving 70 dead on the fpot, and having as many
taken prifoners. The lofs on Mahomet’s fide was only
14 men, and among the prifoners was Al Abbas the
prophet’s uncle.
Though this aCtion may feem of little confequence
in itfelf, it was of very great advantage to Mahomet’s
affairs at that time. He was immediately treated with
the higheft refpeCt by the Najafhi, or king of Ethio¬
pia, who received a particular account of the victory
foon after it was gained; while the fuperftitious Moi-
lems did not fail to look upon it as an evident declara¬
tion of heaven in their favour. Nay, notwithftanding
the fmall number of enemies to be overcome, and who
were only mortal men, thefe ignorant bigots did not
hefitate to own the afliftance of no lefs than 4000 an¬
gels, who, according to them, rode on black and white
horfes, having on their heads white and yellow fafhes,
that hung down between their fhoulders !
Notwithftanding this difafter, however, Abu Sofian
made a pretty good retreat, and conducted the greateft
part of the caravan to Mecca. This chagrined the
Moflems, though they found great fpoil on the field
of battle ; the divifion of which had likely to have
proved fatal to their caufe, by the quarrels that it oc¬
cafioned among them. So hot, indeed, were the dif-
putes on this occafion, that the impoftor was obliged ,
to pretend an immediate revelation from heaven, em- His law
powering him to retain a fifth part for religious pur- concerning
pofes, and to diftribute the reft equally. This became tbedivifion
a law for his fucceflbrs; but, with regard to himfelf, the of
prophet often took the liberty of infringing it; for
which, no doubt, a new revelation was always a ready
and convenient falvo. As for thofe who were flain on
Mahomet’s part in this battle, they were all looked
upon by the Moflems as martyrs; and the prophet per¬
ceiving among the prifoners two of his inveterate ene¬
mies, immediately caufed their heads to be ftruck off.
The Koreifti, in order to be revenged on Mahomet
for their late defeat at Bedr, fent Amru Ebn Al As,,
who afterwards conquered Egypt, with fome other of
their principal people, on an embaffy to the king of
Ethiopia, in order to intereft him in their quarrel. To
do this the more effectually, they accufed Mahomet
and his followers of fpeaking difrefpeCtfully of Jesus
and of his mother Mary ; which accufation they ho¬
ped would likewife induce him to deliver up the Mof¬
lem refugees that were then at his court. But the bad
fuccefs that had attended the arms of the Koreifh hi¬
therto, joined to the excufes made by the refugees*
not only hindered the Najafhi from delivering them up*
but
AHA
[ iJ7 ]
A R A
49
twattle of
)hod.
but alfo prompted him to difmifs the ambafladorsj and
return the prefents they had brought him. In the
mean time, Abu Sofian, who had fworn never to ufe
perfumes or enjoy women till he had another battle
with Mahomet, fet out from Mecca with a body of 200
horfe. He advanced to a poll within three miles of
Medina; from whence he fent a detachment, who
burnt a barn, together with a man it it that was win*
nowing wheat. Mahomet, being informed of this
outrage, moved immediately towards him with a de¬
tachment of cavalry ; but Abu Sofian was fo intimi¬
dated by his approach, that he fled with precipitation,
leaving behind him all the facks of flour or meal that
had been brought for the fubflftence of his troops. In-
ftead therefore of coming to an engag_ement with the
impoftor, as he had fworn, he contented himfelf with a-
larming the country, and pillaging fuch as he fufpec-
ted of favouring Mahometanifm.—This year alfo Ma¬
homet conquered the tribes called Banu Solaim, Chat-
fan, and the Banu Kainoka; plundering likewife a
rich caravan belonging to the Koreifh, and acquiring
from thence 2j,ooo dirhems for his own {hare of the
plunder.
In the year of Chrift 625, being the third of the He¬
gira, the Koreifh aflembled an army of 3000 men, a-
mong whom were 200 horfe and 700 armed with coats
of mail. The command of this army was given to
Abu Sofian, who was attended by his wife Henda
Bint Otba, and fat down at a village about fix miles
diftant from Medina Mahomet, being much inferior
to the enemy, refolved at firfl: to keep himfelf within
the town, and receive them there ; but afterwards, by
the advice of his companion's, marched out again fl
them at the head of 1000 according to fome, 1050
according to others, or, as fome fay, only 900 men.
Of thefe 200 were cuirafliers; but he had only one
horfe befides his own in the whole army. He diftri-
buted three fiandards among his troops ; of which one
was given to the tribe of Aws, another to that of
Khazraj, and the third to the Mohajerin. The grand
ftandard was carried before the prophet by Mofaab
Ebn Omair. With thefe forces Mahomet formed a
camp in a village near Ohod, a mountain about four
miles north of Medina, which he contrived to have on
his back ; and the better to fecure his men from being
furrounded, he placed 50 archers, the flower of his
troops, in the rear, with ftridt orders not to quit their
port. On the other hand, the army of the Koreifh was
drawn up in the form of a crefcent, and made a very
good appearance. The right wing was commanded
by Khaled Ebn A1 Walid, afterwards fo terrible to
the Greeks ; the left by Acrema Ebn Abu Jahl; and
the centre by Abu Sofian. The corps de referve
was headed by Abu Sofian’s wife, accompanied by 15
other matrons, who performed the office of drummers,
lamenting the fate of their countrymen flain at Bedr,
in order to animate the troops who attended them.
The attack was begun by the Moflems, who fell upon
the enemy with fuch fury, that their centre immedi¬
ately began to give way. Ali, or, according to Abul-
feda, Hamza, flew Arta the enemy’s great ftandard-
bearer ; which ftruck them with fuch terror, that they
foon betook themfelves to flight, falling foul upon
their own corps de referve. Vidory had now been
no longer doubtful, notwithflanding the vaff inferiori¬
ty of Mahomet’s troops, had not the 50 archers, con- Arabia,
trary to the prophet’s exprefs command, quitted their1 v 1
poft to pillage the enemy. Upon this Khaled, per¬
ceiving the Moflem army to be greatly expofed, at¬
tacked them in the rear with fuch bravery, that he
turned the fortune of the day. Not content with put¬
ting the troops there in diforder, he cried out with all
his might, “ Mahomet is flainand this had fuch an
effeft upon the Moflems, that they immediately took
to their heels, nor could the utmoft endeavours of the 5o
prophet himfelf afterwards rally them. He therefore Ma.homet
found himfelf obliged to quit the field of battle; indefeated,
doing which he was very near lofing his . life, being
ftruck down by a fhower of ftones, and wounded in
the face by two arrows, which occafioned the lofs of
two of his fore-teeth He likewife received a contu-
fion os his upper-lip ; and had even been killed on the
fpot, had not one of his companions, named Telha,
Abu Beer’s nephew, received a blow that was levelled
at him. On this occafion Telha received a wound in his
hand, which deprived him ever after of the ufe of tome
of his fingers. Of the Moflems 70 were flain ; among
whom were Hamza the prophet’s uncle, and Mofaab
the ftandard-bearer. Amongft the wounded were A-
bu Beer, Omar, and Othman ; but as foon as they un-
derftood that the prophet was fafe, they returned to
the charge with a contiderable body, and, after an ob-
ftinate difpute, Carried him off. The good retreat made
by thefe champions fo difeouraged the troops of Abu
Sofian, that they did not purfue the flying enemy, but
contented themfelves with remaining mafters of the
field of battle ; nor did that general, tho’ he exulted
not a little in his victory, make any farther ufe of it
than to give Mahomet a challenge to meet him the
next year at Bedr, which was accepted; and after his
return to Mecca, he defired a truce with the Moflems,
which was readily granted. sx
This defeat had like to have proved the total ruin of He apolo-
the impoftor’s affairs, and muft inevitably have done fogjzes for
had the conquerors made the leaft ufe of their vi6lory.his def«at.
Some of his followers now aflerted, that had he , been
really a prophet fent from God, he could not have
been thus defeated; and others were exafperated on ac¬
count of the lofs of their friends and relations who had
been flain in the late engagement. To ftill the mur¬
murs of the former, he laid the blame on the fins of
thofe who had accompanied him; and, to pacify the
latter, he pretended a revelation from heaven, wherein
the period of all mens lives was faid to be unalterably
fixed without regard to their own adtions, or to any
external objedts ; fo that thofe who were killed in bat¬
tle behoved to have died, though they had remained at
home in their own houfes. By the aflilfance of this
laft dodlrine he encouraged his followers to fight, with¬
out fear, for the propagation of their faith, as all their
caution would not be fufficient to avert their deftiny,
or prolong their lives even for a fingle moment.
The next year, (A. D. 626.), Mahomet, befides fe!
veral other lefs confiderable fuccefles, reduced a fortrefs
belonging to the Jewiih tribe of A1 Nadir, who had
revolted on account of the defeat at Ohod: on tins
occafion, by an exprefs revelation, as he pretended, he
kept the whole booty to himfelf; and, about the fame
time, forbad his followers the ufe of wine, or to play
at games of chance, on account of the difturbances and
quarrels
A R A [ 158 3 A R A
Arabia, quarrels which were likely to be excited by that means
among them. This year alio he marched with a body
of infantry to Bedr, to meet Abu Sofian, as he had
promifed the year before : but that general's heart fail¬
ing him, he returned home without facing the prophet;
and this piece of cowardice the Moflems did not fail to
J2 impute to a terror fent immediately from God. The
Siege of year following, however, the Koreifh, in conjundlion
Medina, with the tribe of Ghatfan, and the Jews of A1 Nadir
and Koreidha, alfembled an army of 12,000 men, with
which they formed the fiege of Medina; thusthreaten-
ing the impoftor and all his followers with utter de-
ftru&ion at once. On the enemy’s approach, Maho¬
met, by the advice of a Perfian named Salman, or¬
dered a deep ditch to be dug round the city, and went
out to defend it with 3000 men. The Arabs having
inverted the town, both fictes remained tn a rtate of in-
a&ivity for fome time; which was fo well employed by
the impoftor, that he found means to corrupt fome of
the leading men in the enemy’s camp. The good elfe&s
of this foon appeared ; for a champion having advan¬
ced to the Mortem entrenchments, and challenged the
bell man in .their army to fight him in fmgle combat,
the challenge was immediately accepted by Ali, who
:flew him and another that came to his alllftance; after
which, thole who had been corrupted by Mahomet’s
agents fo Toured a confiderable part of the forces, that
they deferted their.xamp; upon which all the reft were
obliged to raife the fiege and return home.
SThe fiege The prophet, being now happily delivered from the
railed. moft powerful combination that had ever been formed
againft him, was vifited by the angel Gabriel; who
alked him, whether he had fuffered his men to lay down
their arms, when the angels had not laid down theirs?
ordering him at the fame time to go immediately againft
the tribe of .Koreidha, and alluring him that he hfmfelf
would lead the way. Upon this Mahomet immediate¬
ly fet out for the fortrefs of the Koreidhites, and pufh-
ed on the fiege w ith fo much vigour, that, tho’it was
deemed impregnable, he obliged the garrifon to capi¬
tulate in twenty-five days. The Koreidhites, not daring
to trull themfelves to the impoftor’s mercy, furrender-
ed at dilcretion to Saad Ebn Moadh, prince of the
tribe of Aws, hoping that he, being one of their old
friends and confederates, would have fome regard for
them. Here, however, they found themfelves difap-
pointed ; for Saad, being highly provoked at them for
aflifting the .Koreilh while in league w,ith Mahomet,
ordered the men to be put to the fword, the women
and children made .flaves, and their goods divided
among the Moflems. This fentence was no fooner
heard by Mahomet, than he cried out that Saad had
54 pronounced the fentence of God.; and, in confequence
■bftewnaf- ^scifion, ordered the men, to the number of
Taeied. 6co or 700, to be immediately maflacred. The wo¬
men and children were alfo carried into captivity.
Their immoveable poftaftions were given to the Moha-
jerin, and the goods divided equally.
Mahomet now continued to be fuccefsful, gradually
Beducipg the Arab tribes one after another. In 6,28,
he fent an agent tOjConftaptinople, defiringdeave of the
Greek emperor to trade with his iubjefls ; which was
immediately granted. The fame year alfo he conclu-
.ded a peace for ten years with the inhabitants of Mecca,
gpd obtained diberty the next year to perform his devo¬
tions at the Caaba. What tended confiderably to bring Arabia.
about this pacification was an account brought to the 1   * -
ICoreifh by one whom they had fent with an acftual de- 55 j
fiance to Mahomet, of the prodigious veneration which Prodigi<?'u#i
his followers had for him. This meffenger acquaintedforMaha*
them that he had been at the courts both of the Ro-met. :
man emperors and of the kings of Perfia, but never
faw any prince fo highly refpedted as Mahomet was
by his companions. Whenever he made the ablution,
in order to fay his prayers, they ran and caught the
water which he had ufed ; whenever he fpit, they licked
it up, and gathered up every hair that fell from him,
with great veneration. This intimated how defpe-
rately they would fight in his defence, and probably 56 ,
inclined his enemies to avoid hoftilities. In 629, the He invicesj
impoftor began to think of propagating his religion be-fo!'ei&n j
yond the bounds of Arabia, and fent meflengers to fe- Pri?ces t* i
veral neighbouring princes to invite them to embrace^1 1
Mahometanifm; but, before fending the letters, he g;on. I
caufed a ftlver feal to be made, on which ■were engra¬
ved, in three lines, the following words, “ Mahomet
the Apostle of God.” This feal,he believed, would
procure the letters to which it was affixed a more fa¬
vourable reception at the courts of thofe princes whi¬
ther they were directed. The firft to whomffie applied
was Khofru Parviz the king of Perfia ; but he, finding
that Mahomet had put his own name before his, tore the
letter in pieces, and fent away the meflenger very ab¬
ruptly. He alfo fent a letter to the fame purpofe toCon-
ftantinople ; but though the emperor Heraclius difmif-
fed his melfengers honourably, he refufed to abandon
the Chriftian faith. Befides thefe, he wrote five other
letters, which he diftributed among thofe who bethought
would be^moft likely to acknowledge him for an apoftle.
However, we do not hear that by means of letters he
ever introduced his religion into a foreign country.—
But while our impoftor uTas thus going on in the full Is poifon.
career of fuccefs, and induftrioufly propagating his in-ed, but re-
.famous falfehoods by all the means he could think of, he covers,
was poifoned by a maid, who wanted, as fhe faid, to
make an experiment whether he was a prophet or not.
This was done by communicating fome poifon to a
fhoulder of mutton, of which one of his companions na¬
med Bajbar Ebn Al Bara, eating heartily, died upon
the fpot; and Mahomet himfelf, though he recovered
a little, and lived three years after, yet never enjoyed
perfect health. Notwithftanding this misfortune, how¬
ever, he ft ill continued his enterprizes. The year 630
proved remarkably fortunate. It was ufhered in by
the converfion of Khalid Ebn Al Walid, Amru Ebn
Al As, and Otbman Ebn Telha, three of the moft
conftderable perfons among the Koreifti; and this foon
enabled him to become mailer of the whole peninfula 5g
of Arabia. This year alfo the inhabitants of Mecca Meccans |
took it into their heads to violate the treaty concluded viol .te the
with Mahomet; for the tribe of Beer, who were the treaty with
confederates 6f the Koreifli, attacking thofe of Kho-Mah®niet* j
zaab, who were in alliance with Mahomet, maflacred
20 of them, and afterwards retired ; being fupportecl
in this action by a party of the Koreifti themfelves.—
The confequence of this violation was foon apprehended;
and Abu Sofian himfelf made a journey to Medina, in
order to heal the breach and renew the truce : but in
vain ; for Mahomet, glad of this opportunity, refufed
te fee diim. Upon this he applied to Abu Beer, Ali,
Omar,
ARA [159] ARA
> liiiArabia. Omar, and Fatima, to intercede for their countrymen
-Jrjj—-v—with the prophet; but fome of thefe giving him rough
anfwers, and others none at all, he was obliged to re¬
'll “ turn to Mecca as he came. Mahomet immediately gave
orders for the neceifary preparations, that he might, fur-
prife the Meccans, who were by no means in a condition
to receive him; but Hateb Ebn Abu Baltaa, hitherto
a faithful Moilem, attempted to give thehn notice of
their danger by a letter, though without effeft. His
letter was intercepted : and he alleged in his excufe,
that the only reafon he had for his conduft was to in¬
duce the Koreiih to treat his family with kindnefs.
This excufe the prophet' accepted, as he had greatly
diitinguilhed himfelf at the battle of Bedr, but ftriftly
forbad any fuch practices for the future; which having
done, he immediately made the neceifary difpolitions
for fetting forward.
Mahomet’s army, on this occafion, was compofed of
Mohajerin, Anfars, and other Arabs, who had lately
become profelytes. As they drew near to Mecca, he
fet up his ftandards, and advanced in order of battle
to Mar A1 Dharan, a place about four parafangs from
I Mecca, where the whole army encamped. Here he
ordered 10,000 fires to be lighted, and committed
the defence of the camp to Omar, who cut off all com¬
munication with the town, fo that the Meccans could
receive no certain advice of their approach. Among
others that came from Mecca to reconnoitre the Mo-
flem camp, Abu Sofian Ebn Harb, Hakim Ebn He-
zam, and Bodail Ebn Warka, fell into Omar’s hands ;
and being conduced to Mahomet, were obliged to
embrace Mahometanifm in order to fave their lives.
The firft rumour of this expedition had not a little
terrified the Koreiih, though they were not apprized
that the prophet had refolved upon a war; but percei¬
ving now, upon the report of Abu Sofian, who had been
fent back to them, that the enemy was at their gates,
they were thrown into the utmoft conftemation. Of
this Mahomet being informed, he refolved to take ad¬
vantage of the confufion that then reigned among them.
He therefore firft difpatched Hakem and Bodail to the
Meccans, inviting them to take an oath of allegiance
to him, and become converts to his new religion; after
which, he made the following difpofition of his forces.
A1 Zobier was ordered to advance with a detachment
towards the town on the fide of mount Cada. Saad
Ebn Obad, prince of the tribe Khazraj, marched by
his order with another detachment towards the height
of Coda, which commands the plain of Mecca. Ali
commanded the left wing of the army, confifting of An¬
fars and Mohajerin. The prophet put into his hands
the great ftandard of Mahometanifm, with orders to
poft himfelf upon mount A1 Hajun, and to plant the
ftandard there ;, ftriftly enjoining him, however, not
to ftir from thence till he himfelf arrived, and till-a
proper fignal ihould be given him from Saad for that
purpofe. Khaled led the right wing, confifting of the
Arabs lately converted, with which he was to poflels
himfelf of the plain of Mecca. Abu Obeidah com¬
manded in the centre, which confifted entirely of infan¬
try : the prophet himfelf remained in the rear, from
whence he could moft eafily difpatch his orders to all
the generals as occafion Ihould require. He exprefsly
prohibited Khaled and all his other officers to ad of-
fenftvely unlefs they were firft attacked. Things being
in this fituation, the army upon a fignal given put itfelf Arabia,
immediately in motion. The prophet mounted histT“,“-rf
camel with great alacrity, and was that day cloathed
in red. A1 Zobeir purfued the route aftigned him with¬
out oppofition; nor did Saad difcover the fainteft: tra¬
ces of an enemy : Ali took pofleflion of his poft with¬
out the lofs of a man ; and in like manner Abu Obeidah
feized on the fuburbs. Khaled, however, in his march
to the plain, was met by a large body of the Koreifh
and their confederates, whom he immediately attacked
and defeated, putting 28 of them to the fword. Not 59
content with this, he purfued them into the town, andMecca ta“
maflacred a great number of the inhabitants; which fo^en*
terrified the reft, that fome flint themfelves up in their
houfes, while others fled different ways in order to avoid
the fury of the mercilefs and impious tyrant, who was
now become mafter of the city. Thus was Mecca re¬
duced, with the lofs only of two men on the fide of the
impoftor.
Mahomet being now mafter of the city, made his
public entry into it exactly at fun-rifmg. When the firft
tumult was over, he went in proceflion round the Caaba
feven times, touching the corner of the black ftone with
the ftaff in his hand, as often as he paifed it, with
great devotion. Then he entered the Caaba; where
obferving feveral idols in the form of angels, and the
ftatues of Abraham and Ifhmael, with the arrows of
divination in their hands, he caufed them all to be de-
ftroyed. He alfo broke in pieces with his own hands
a wooden pigeon, that had long been efteemed a deity
by the idolatrous Koreilh. Afterwards entering into
the interior part of the Caaba, he repeated with a loud
voice the form ufed at this day by the Mahometans,
“ Allah Akbar, God is great,” &c. turning towards
every part of the temple. Then he prayed between
the two pillars there, with two inclinations, as well as
without the Caaba; faying to thofe that attended him,
“ This is your Kebla, or the place towards which you •
are to turn your faces in prayer.’’
Having thus effedlually fubdued the KorafE, put
an end to all commotions, and purged the Caaba of
360 idols, the prophet’s next care was to ingratiate
himfelf with the people. Sending therefore for feme
of the principal of them, he aiked then* what kind of
treatment they expected from him, now he had con¬
quered them ? To this they replied, “ None but what
is favourable, O generous brotherupon which he .
difmifled them, telling them they were from that mo¬
ment a free people. After this, pretending a new re¬
velation, he reltored the keys of the Caaba to Othman
Ebn Telha, who was in pofleflion of them before; and
who was now fo much affe&ed by this piece of juftice,
that he immediately became a profelyte. Next day
the prophet declared Mecca an afylnm, and publicly
gave out that he would maintain to the utmoft of his
power the inviolable fecurity of the place. He then was
folemnly inaugurated; after which he proferibed, ac¬
cording to fome, fix men and four women, according
toothers, eleven men and one woman; but of thefe only
three men and one woman were put to death; the reft
being pardoned on their embracing Mahometanifm, and
one woman making her efcape. The remainder of this
year was fpent in various expeditions againft different
tribes of the Arabs; which were in general attended •
with fuccefs.'
Tfcy
Arabia.
60
Mahomet
dies.
6l
Great con-
fufion on
his death.
A R A
[ 160 ]
A R A
The ninth year of the Hegira, being that of Chrift
631, s called by the Mahometans the year of Embaf-
fies; for the Arabs, who had hitherto been expecting
the iffue of the war between Mahomet and the Koreilh,
no fooner faw that which was the moft confxderable of
the whole fubmit to him, than they began to come
in to him in great numbers, and to fend embaffies to
make their fubmiffions to him, both while at Mecca
and after his return to Medina, whither he had returned
foon after the taking of Mecca: and thus good fortune
continued without interruption to the year 632, when
this famous impoftor breathed his laft, having jull re¬
duced under his fubje&ion the whole peninfula of Ara¬
bia, and being ready to break into the neighbouring
kingdoms in order to fatisfy his ambition.
■ The death of Mahomet occafioned fuch a confterna*
tion in Mecca, that the governor hid himfelf, fearing
to be called to an account for his former conduft; and
the inhabitants, upon the firft arrival of this melancholy
news, confidered themfelves as deftitute of all manner
of protection. After the firft impreftions of their fear,
however, wrere over, they began to meditate a revolt;
but were prevented by one Sohail Ebn Amru, a prin¬
cipal man of the Koreifti. The tumults at Medina, how¬
ever, were not fo eafily appeafed. The news of this fad
event was no fooner publifhed there, than a number of
people aflembled before his door, crying out, “ How
can our apoftle be dead? Our interceffor, our medi¬
ator, has not entirely left us ! He is taken up into hea¬
ven, as was Ifa(Jefus); therefore he fhall not be buried.’,
This was confirmed by Omar; who drew his fword,and
fwore, that if any perfon affirmed Mahomet to be dead,
he would cut off his hands and his feet. “ The Apo¬
ftle of God (fays he) is not dead : he is only gone for
a feafon, as Mofes the fon of Amram was gone from
the people of Ifrael for forty days, and then returned
to them again.” The populace therefore kept the body
above ground, even after the belly began to fwell;
nor could the prophet’s uncle A1 Abbas, notwithftand-
ing this, convince them to the contrary. Upon hear¬
ing of thefe tranfaCtions, Abu Beer immediately polled
from A1 Sonah, another quarter of the city, and ex-
poftulated with them in the following manner : “ Do
you worfhip Mahomet, or the god of Mahomet ? If
the latter, he is immortal, and liveth for ever ; but if
the former, you are in a manifell error, for he is cer¬
tainly dead.” The truth of this affertion he imme¬
diately evinced from fevaral paffages of the Koran, in fo
clear and conclufive a manner, that he not only fatis-
fied Omar, but calmed the minds of all the people.
The prophet having left no directions concerning a
fucceffor, very warm difputes arofe between the Moha-
jerin and the Anfars about the right of electing a kha
lif. The former infilled on having that right, becaufe
they had attended Mahomet in his flight to Medina ;
and the others, becaufe they had fupported him when
expelled from his native city, See. In ftiort, the dif¬
putes became fo hot, that an open rupture mull have
commenced, had not they been terminated by a propo-
fal that each party ftiould choofe a khalif. This amuied
them a little for the prefent; but not proving perfectly
agreeable to the Mohajerin, Abu Beer propofed two
perfons, Omar and Abu Obeidah, offering to fwear al¬
legiance to him on whom the fuffrages of both parties
fhould fall. But this producing no decifion, Omar
N° 24.
fvvore fealty to Abu B.ecr, and his example was follow- Arabia;
ed by all the Moilems on the fpot; upon which he was —
acknowledged both by the Mohajerin and Anfars as 62
the rightful fucceffor of Mahomet. ^bu K^cr II
Thefe tranfaCtions, however, were not at all agree- eedS
able to All, who, as fon-in-law to the prophet, had gj
undoubtedly the beft title to the fucceffion. He expo-All diiTatlf* ’
ftulated with Abu Beer about the manner of his elec- fied.
tion, which had been effected without his knowledge;
and received for anfwer, that the exigence of affairs
would not admit of deliberation; and that, had not the
election been fo hidden, the oppofite party would have
wrefted the power entirely out of their hands. Ali was
in Fatima’s apartment when Abu Beer had the good
luck to be elected khalif; and, upon the arrival of the
news, expreffed great diffatisfaCtion. He found him¬
felf, however, foon obliged to change his note, when
the new khalif fent Omar with orders to bum the houfe
where he and his friends were affembled, in cafe he did
not concur in fupporting the election. But notwith-
ftanding his forced compliance on this occafion, it is
not to be doubted that he reckoned himfelf injured; and
his pretenfions were thought to be juft by a great num¬
ber of Moflems: which notion is entertained by a very
confiderable party of Mahometans even at this day >
and thefe are called Shiites or J'eCiaries.
Soon after Abu Beer’s acceffion, many of the Arabs
refufed to pay the tribute impofed upon them by Ma¬
homet, and even attempted to fhake off his yoke alto¬
gether. This fo alarmed the khalif and his fubjeCts at
Medina, that, fearing a general revolt, they fent all not
able to bear arms into the cavities of the rocks and
mountains, and put themfelves in as good a pofture of
defence as the ftiort time would permit. In the mean ^
time Khaledwas difpatched with an army of 4500 men Rebellions
to reduce the rebels; and he foon coming up with them,extinguifh-
gave them a total defeat, brought off a vail quantity ofed by
plunder, and made many of their children flaves. Nor,ed*
was he content with this ; for being fent by Abu Beer
to Make Ebn Noweirah, an eminent perfon among the
Arabs, and famous for his {kill in poetry as well as his
horfemanfliip and bravery, to bring him over by fair
means, he immediately ordered his head to be cut off.
By this means, indeed, he extinguiftied all the remains
of rebellion ; but rendered himlelf exceedingly obnoxi¬
ous to Abu Beer, who would have put him to death,
had not Omar llrongly interceded for him: for Khaled
had greatly exceeded his commiflion, as Malek had re¬
turned to Mahometanifm, and had offered to pay the
money. This was not, however, the only piece of fer-
vice Khaled performed at this time ; he alfo defeated
and killed Mofeilama, who had fet up for a prophet in
the time of Mahomet, and even wanted to take the
grand impoftor himfelf into company with him. The
fame general likewife defeated and difperfed the troops
of another prophet, called To/eiah Ebn Khonv iled, obli¬
ging himfelf to remain concealed till after the death of
Abu Beer. About the Yaiqe time another body of rebels .
committed great diforders in the province of Bahrein.
Againtl thefe Abu Beer difpatched A 101a at the head
of a conliderable army, who foon obliged them to re¬
turn to Mahometanifm; having put great numbers of
them to the fword, and plundered their country in a
dreadful manner. _ 65
Abu Beer having now no enemy to contend with in war with
Arabia, theGreek*.
ARA [161] ARA
AraWa.
66
;7 Kingdom
i of Hira de¬
li ftroyed<
67
Abu Beer’
direftionj
Arabia, and being free from all apprehenfions of a com¬
petitor, refolved next to turn his arms againft the Greek
emperor. Some Ikirmilhes had happened, in the time
of Mahomet, between the Moflems and Greeks; in one
of which Zeid, a Moflem commander, had been killed.
To revenge his death, his fon Ofama was on the point
of making an irruption into Syria at the time of Ma¬
homet’s deceafe. This enterprile the khalif ordered
him to go on with ; and it was executed by Ofamawith
great fuccefs. He entered Syria, and laid wade the
country, doing the Greeks a good deal of damage ;
after which he returned to Arabia without any confi-
derable lofs.
Soon after the khalif fent Khaled at the head of a
powerful army to invade Irak, and put an end to the
kingdom of Hira. In this undertaking he was attend¬
ed with his ufual fuccefs. The king A1 Mondar A1
Maghrur loft his life in defence of his dominions ; and
the kingdom was totally deftroyed, after it had conti¬
nued 622 years and eight months, as we have already
hinted. The inhabitants became tributaries ; and, ac¬
cording to Eutychius, the tribute colle&ed on this oc-
cafion amounted to 70,000 pieces of money. This,
according to A1 Makin, was the firft tribute-money
ever brought to Medina.
The exigence of the khaliPs affairs in Syria, how¬
ever, did not fuffer Khaled long to remain in Irak.
Before the departure of the army under his command,
Abu Beer had come to a refolution to invade Syria ;
and finding his defign approved by the principal offi¬
cers of his court, he fent circular letters to the petty
princes of Yaman, the chief men of Mecca, &c. in¬
forming them of his intention to take Syria out of the
hands of the infidels ; acquainting them, at the fame
time, that a war for the propagation of the true reli¬
gion was an aft of obedience to God. To thefe letters
they paid a proper regard ; and in a very fhort time
appeared at Medina at the head of their refpeftive
troops, and pitched their tents round the city. Here
they ftaid till the Moflem army deftined to aft againft
the emperor was completely formed, and in a capacity
to begin its march. The khalif having viewed the
troops from the top of an hill, and prayed to God for
fuccefs, attended the generals a little way on foot. As
the generals were on horfeback, they could not forbear
exprefling their uneaiinefs at the khaliff’s thus demean¬
ing himfelf; but he told them, that it fignified little
whether they walked on foot or rode, as they had all
sthe fame views, viz. the fervice of God, and the pro¬
pagation of religion. At parting, he addrefled Yezid
Ebn Abu Sofian, whom he had invefted with the fu-
preme "command, in the following manner: “ Take
care, Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian, to treat your men with
tendernefs and lenity. Confult with your officers on all
prefling occafions, and encourage them to face the e-
nemy with bravery and refolution. If you fhall hap¬
pen to be viftorious, deftroy neither old people, wo¬
men, nor children. Cut down no palm-trees, nor burn
any fields of corn. Spare all fruit-trees, and flay no
cattle but fuch as you ftiall take for your own ufe.
Adhere always inviolably to your engagements, and
put none of the religious peribns you fhall meet with
in monafleries to the fword. Oil’er no violence to the
places they ferve God in. As for thofe members of
the fynagogues of Satan wAo (have their crowns, cleave
Vol. II. Part I.
their Ikulls, and give them no quarter, except they em- < Arabia. ^
brace Iflamifm (Mahometanifm), or pay tribute.” ‘ f
The Greek emperor was greatly alarmed at the ap¬
proach of the Moflem army; however, he made allne-
ceffary preparations for his defence, and fent out a de¬
tachment to reconnoitre the enemy. Thefe having fal¬
len in with the Arabs, a battle enfued, in which the
Greeks were defeated with the lofs of taoo, while the
Arabs loft only 120 men. This was fucceeded by a
great many Ikirmilhes, in which the Moflems were ge¬
nerally vidtorious. The rich fpoil taken on thefe 'oc¬
cafions was fent as a prefent to the khalif; who having
acquainted the inhabitants of Mecca with his good fuc¬
cefs, they were thereby fo elated, that they furnilhed
him with a ftrong reinforcement, which was immedi¬
ately ordered into Syria. The Greek emperor, in the
mean time, having ordered another body of his troops
to advance towards the frontiers, they found an oppor¬
tunity of engaging the Moflem army under Abu Obei- The M(J-
dah, a perfon of great piety, but little experience in flems de.
war. Him they totally defeated; and Abu Beer was feated.
fo much provoked at his defeat, that he deprived him
of tire command, which was given to Khaled, who -was
for thispurpofe recalled from Irak. That general’s firlt
exploit was the reduction of Boftra, a very rich and po¬
pulous city of Syria Damafcena; which, however, he
accompliftred by treachery rather than by force of arms.
Having left a garrifon of 400 men in Boftra, and be¬
ing joined by Abu Obeidah’s forces, he laid fiege to 69
Damafcus with an army of 4J,oco men. This fo a- Bamafcus
larmed the emperor, that he difpatched an army of befieged,
100,000 men, commanded by one Werdan to the re¬
lief of that city. Khaled, on hearing of the approach
of this formidable army, was for marching immediately
with all his forces, and giving them battle ; but this
was oppofed by Obeidah, as it would enable the
inhabitants of Damafcus to procure frefti fupplies both
of arms and provifions, and confequently render the re¬
duction of the place more difficult. It was, therefore,
at laft agreed, that a body of troops ftiould be detached
under Derar Ebn A1 Wazar, an excellent officer, and
an implacable enemy to the Chriftians (as indeed were
all the Moflem generals except Abu Obeidah), to fight
the enemy, whilft the fiege was carried on by the two
generals.
Khaled,. fearing left Derar’s furious zeal and hatred The Greeks
to the Chriftians Ihould prove fatal to his troops, tolddefeated
him before his departure, that though they were com-with great
manded to fight for the propagation of their religion, flauSht€r*
yet they were not allowed to throw away the lives of
their men ; and therefore ordered him to retire to the
main body of the army, in cafe he found himfelf prefled
by a fuperior force. But Derar, deaf to this falutary
admonition, with his fmall body of troops rufhed upon
the whole Chriflian army, notwithftanding the vali dif-
proportion of numbers. He charged them, however,
with fuch bravery, that he penetrated to the fpot where
the general gave his orders, killed the ftandard-bearer,
and carried off the ftandard itfelf, in which vras a crofs
richly adorned with precious ftones. Nay, he would
in all probability have put Werdan’s army to flight,
had not that general’s fon, the commandant of Hems,
arrived in the heat of the engagement with a body of
10,000 men ; with which he attacked the Molkins fo
brilkly in the rear, that he forced them to retire, and
X took
A R A
[ 162 ] A R A
AraTiia- took Derar hlmfelf prifoner. This fo difcouraged
li—v 1 diem, that they would have taken to their heels, had
not Rafi Ebn Omeirah animated them with the follow¬
ing words. “ What! do not you know, that whoever
turns his back upon his enemies offends God and his
prophet ? and that the prophet declared the gates of
paradife fhould be open to none but fuch as fought for
religion ? Come on! I will go before you. If your
captain be dead, or taken prifoner, yet your God is a-
live, and fees what you do.” This exhortation had
fuch an effedt upon his troops, that, returning to the
charge, they maintained their ground with unparallel¬
ed bravery, till Khaled arrived with a confiderable bo¬
dy of infantry and 100 horfe. The arrival of this ge¬
neral foon turned the fortune of the day. A party of
the imperial army went over to the Modems, and the
reft took to their heels. Deraj alfo was retaken, and
carried off in triumph. However, Werdan, having col¬
lected the fhattered remains of his forces, and received
a reinforcement from the emperor, found his army ftill
to amount to 70,000 men, with which he refolved to
make another attempt for the relief of Damafcus. They
were attended with ftill worfe fuccefs in this fecond at¬
tempt than they had been before ; being utterly de-
71 feated, with the lofs of 50,000 men, fo that they were
Tke CIty no more 'n a condition to attempt any thing; and, in
a en' confequence of this, the city was foon taken, notwith-
ftanding the utmoft efforts of the befieged.
72 This difaftrdus event happened in the year 634 ; and
Abu Beer the very day that Damafcus was taken, Abu Beer died
dies, and is 0f a confumption in the 63d year of his age. He was
fucceeded fucceecJed by Omar, who was proclaimed khalif that
.y mar. . an(j ^ tjtje a{fignecl him was> 7^^
itj of the khalif of the apoftle of God. But the Arabs
confidering, that by tire additions to be continually
made at the acceflion of every new khalif, the title
would become too long, they with one voice faluted
him, Emperor of the helieven ; which illuftrious title
defeended afterwards to his fucceffors by a kind of in-
conteftable right.
The new khalif was no fooner fettled than he repla¬
ced Abu Obeidah in the command of the army in Sy¬
ria, being greatly difpleafed with the cruel and blood-
thirfty dilpofition of Khaled. He alfo commanded A-
bu Obeidah to have an eye upon Paleftine, and to in¬
vade it as foon as an opportunity offered. Khaled bore
his difgrace with great magnanimity; and fwore, that
thou'gh he had always had the greateft regard for Abu
Beer, and the utmoft averfion to Omar, he would fub-
mit to God’s will, and obey the new khalif as the law¬
ful fucceifor of Mahomet. The Moftem'forces in the
mean time having made all proper difpofitions for im¬
proving the advantages they had gained, Abu Obeidah
fent a detachment of 500 horfe to a place called Dair
A'oii Kodos, about 3 miles from Damafcus, to plun¬
der the Chriftians there. In this place there lived a
prieft fo eminent for his fandity, that the neighbour¬
ing people of all ranks reforted to him for his bleffmg
and inftru&ion. When any perfon of diftindion mar¬
ried, he took with him his new fpoufe, in order to re¬
ceive this holy man’s benedidion. The fame of this
prieft’s fandity drew fuch numbers of people to that
. place every Eafter, that a great fair was kept annually
at his houfe, to which were brought vaft quantities of
the richeft lihks, plate, jewels,. &e. When the Arabs
drew near to this place, to which they were concluded Arabia.
by a Chriftian, they were informed that the governor' v——’
of Tripoli had married his daughter to a perfon of di-
ftindion, who had carried his lady to the above-men¬
tioned prieft. She was attended by a guard ©f -5000
men ; befides which, the Jews, Greeks, Copts, and
Armenians, at that time affembled about the monafte-
ry, amounted to 10,000. Notwithftanding this, the 73
Moflem commander determined to carry oft the lady;Governor
and having told his men, that they fhould either enjoy ot r riP°h'*
the riches of the Chriftians, or the pleafures of para- 'tau!’.hJ.er^
dife, he commanded them to fall on the enemy. The carrlL 0
impetuofity of thefe enthufiafts at firft bore all down
before them ; but the Chriftians, perceiving they were
but an handful of men, furrounded them on all fides,
and refolved to make them pay dear for their temerity.
But Abu Obeidah, being informed of their dangerous
fituation, immediately difpatched Khaled with a ftrong
detachment to tfte relief of his diftreffed countrymen.
The confequence of this was, that the Chriftians were
entirely defeated, and the unhappy lady carried off,
with 40 maids that waited upon her, as well as all the
wealth brought to the above-mentioned fair; among
which were many rich garments curioufly wrought,
and in particular one adorned with the effigies of our
Saviour. All thefe were fold for ten times their weight
of gold to fome of the opulent Arabs of Yaman. The
young lady was given to Abdallah,' who kept her to
the reign of Yezid. Of this advantage Abu Obei¬
dah fent notice to the khalif by a letter, in which he
alfo acquainted him that fome of his men had drunk 74’
wine. Thefe delinquents, by the advice of Ali, hadPl,nifll-
each of them 80 ftripes beftowed upon tire foies of their ™ent
feet; after which, many others, who had never been ®
fufpefted of drinking this prohibited liquor, made had drunk
a voluntary confeffion, and received the fame chaftife-wine,
ment.
The Moftem general next fet about reducing the
principal fortreffes in Syria,, and foon became mailer of
Kinnifrin, Baalbec, Adeftan, Shaizar, and Hems ; on,
the news of which, the Greek emperor Heraclius, re-
folving if poffible to put a flop to the cruel and unpro¬
voked ravages of thefe barbarians, fent againft them an
army of 240,000 men, commanded by one Manuel, 7$
whom the Arabs call Mahan. But this vaft multitude TheGreeks
was utterly defeated by Khaled; upon whom Abu O-utterly de-
beidah conferred the fupreme command, on account of^fafeci
his fuperior Ikill in military affairs. This battle wasYermou*’1
fought near a village called Termcuk ; and, according
to the Arabian hiftorians, the Chriftians had 150,000
men killed and 40,000 taken prifoners, while the Mo¬
dems loft no more than 4030 men.
The defeat of Yermouk was immediately followed
by the lofs of the whole province of Paleftine. The 76
reduction of Jerufalem was one of its firft confequences j Grnarvtfit*.
and Omar, being apprifed of the fuccefs of his arms,^eru a
immediately fet out to vifit that holy place, at the re-
queft, it is faid, of the inhabitants. The khalif was
attended in his journey by a numerous retinue, moft of
whom afterwards returned home. He rode upon a red
camel, and carried with him two facks, one of which
contained a fort of provifion confifting of barley, rice,
or wheat, fodden and unhuiked, and the other fruits.
Before him he had a leather bottle, very necefl’ary in
thefe defart countries to put water in; and behind him
a.
A R A t 163 ] A R A
Anecdote
of him.
a wooden platter. Before he left the place where he
had refted the preceding night, he conftantly faid the
morning prayer ; after which he addreffed himfelf to
his attendants in a devout ftrain, always uttering be¬
fore them fome pious ejaculations. Then he commu¬
nicated his provifion to them; every one of his fellow-
travellers eating with him out of the fame platter, with¬
out the leaft diftin&ion. His clothes were made of
camels hair, and were in a very tattered condition ; nor
could any thing be more mean or fordid than the fi¬
gure he made. On the road he diftributed juftice a-
mong his fubjetfls : concerning which we have feveral
anecdotes ; but that moft to his honour is the follow¬
ing. Having obferved fome poor tributaries expofed
to the heat of the fun, a very cruel punilhment in thofe
hot countries, for not being able to pay the fum de¬
manded of them, he ordered them to be releafed; telling
his attendants, that he once heard the apoftle of God
fay, “ Do not afflidt men in this world; for thofe who
do fo, God lhall punifli in hell-fire at the day of judge¬
ment.” His orders were immediately executed, to the
great grief of the oppreflbrs; and the khalif continued
his route. On the confines of Syria he was met by
Abu Obeidah attended by an efcorte, who conduced
him to the Moflem camp, where he was received with
the utmoft demonftrations of joy ; and from thence to
Jerufalem. The morning after his arrival, he faid pray¬
ers and preached to the troops. In his fermon he re¬
peated the following paffage out of the koran, “ Whom-
foever God fhall diredt, he fhall be rightly directed;
and whomfoever he fhall caufe to err, thou {halt not
find any to defend or to direct.” Upon this a Chri-
ftian rofe up, and faid aloud twice, “ God caufes no
one to err.” Omar made no anfwer to him, but com¬
manded the Modems near him to ftrike off the infidel’s
head if he repeated thofe words again; but the prieft
took care to give him no further interruption. After
the conclufion of his fermon, he pitched his tent, made
of hair, within fight of the city : then he figned the
articles of capitulation ; by which the inhabitants were
in titled to the free exercife of their religion, the pof-
feffion of their properties, and his protection.
The articles of capitulation being figned, Omar, in
purfuance of his engagements, gave the inhabitants a
fchedule, by which they were fecured in the full pof-
feffion of all that had been agreed upon : after which
the gates were opened to him, and he entered the town.
He was waited upon by the patriarch Sophronius,
with whom he converfed familiarly, and afked him ma¬
ny queftions concerning the antiquities of the city.
One of the firft places they vifited was the temple of
the refurreCtion, in the midft of which Omar fat down;
and when the hour of prayer was come, told the pa¬
triarch he had a mind to pray, and defired him to fhow
him a place for that purpofe. feophronius told him he
might do fo where he was ; but this he abfolutely re¬
filled. Then the patriarch led him to St Conftantine’s
church ; but he like wife declined praying there. At
laft he faid his prayers upon one of the fteps of the eaft
gate of the church; telling the patriarch afterwards,
that had he prayed in any of the churches, the Mo¬
ll ems would infallibly have taken it from them, which
he faid they might attempt as it was, and there¬
fore gave him a paper, wherein the Mcflems were con-
mandied not to pray on the . fteps of St Conftantine’s
church in any numbers, but only one by one. After Arabia..-
this he defired the patriarch to fhow him a place where
he might ereft a mofque ; and was conduced to the
place where Jacob’s ftone lay, on which he flept when
he faw the vifion of the ladder. This ftone had been
hitherto flighted, and no building fuffered to be erod¬
ed upon it, in order to fulfil our Saviour’s prophecy,
that the habitation of the Jews fhould be left unto
them defolate, and that not one ftone fhould be left
upon another. In confequence of this negled it was
entirely covered with dirt, which the khalif immedi¬
ately began to carry away in his veft; and the Moflems
foon haftening to affift him, the ftone was cleared in a
very fhort time. We are told by Theophanes, that
when Omar entered the temple of the refurredion, he
was clad in fuch mean and dirty apparel, that the pa¬
triarch took great offence at his appearance, and with
much difficulty at laft prevailed upon him to put on
fome clean linen and clothes till his own could be wafti-
ed. The fame author relates, that when the patriarch
fifft faw Omar in that place, he could not forbear cry¬
ing out, “ This is of a truth the abomination of de-
ft/lation, fpoken of by Daniel the prophet, ftanding
in the holy place !” Thefe words, as Mr Ockley ima¬
gines, being overheard by the Moflems, they trumped
up a ftory of the patriarch’s having owned that the
conqueft of Jerufalem by Omar was foretold by the
prophet Daniel; and that an ancient prophecy was
kept in Jerufalem concerning Omar wherein his per-.
fon was defcribed, his name and religion fpecified, and
he declared to be the only man that could reduce that
city.
Before the khalif left Syria, he divided that coun¬
try into two parts; one of which, that lay between
Hauran or Auran and Aleppo, which was not perfedtly
conquered, he committed to die care of Abu Obei¬
dah, giving him the ftridteft orders to reduce it as foon
as pouible. Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian was commanded
to take upon him the care of the other, which compre¬
hended Paleftine, and the fea-coaft, and to make him¬
felf abfolute mafter of it, having a body of troops af-
figned him for that purpofe. He alfo diredted A mm
Ebri A1 As to invade Egypt, then in a very languifh-
ing condition, with a body of Moflem forces, .-.fter
having made thefe difpofitions for extending his con- „g
quefts, Omar fet out for Medina, where he arrived in He returns
perfedt health, to the great joy of the inhabitants, who to Medina,
apprehended, from his long flay at Jerufalem, that he
had intended to fix his refidence there.
Soon after Omar’s departure, Yezid advanced to C*.
farea ; but found the place fo ftrong, that he was obli¬
ged to continue fome time in a ftate of inadfion. Abu
Obeidah, in the mean time, advanced towards Aleppo,
the citadel of which was at that time the ftrongeft in
Syria. The citizens were ftruck with the utmoft con-
ftemation at his approach. They had at that time two
governors, who were brothers, and refided in thecaftle,
which was fituated at a little diftance from the city.
The names of thefe two governors, who were of very
different difpofitiohs, were Youkinna and John. Their
father, by the emperor Heraclius’s appointment, pre-
fided over all that trad! vi hich lay betwixt Aleppo and
the Euphrates; and, after his death, the chief manage¬
ment of affairs devolved upon Youkinna, his brother;
John fpehding his time moftly in devotion and adls of
X 2 charity.
A R A
[ 164 ]
A R A
charity. He would therefore gladly have prevailed on be immediately invefted ; and foon after he had fur- Arabia.
Youkinna to purchafe a peace from the Arabs with rounded it with all his forces, made a moft vigorous ai-~v—
money, rather than make his country a fcene of blood fault. The befieged defended themfelves with great
and ravages; but this not fuiting the martial genius of bravery, and after a very warm diipute, drove the enemy
Youkinna, he armed a confiderable number of the ci- into their camp ; and as they threw a great many Hones
out of their military engines, many of the Modems
were killed, and a much greater number wounded. This
encouraged Youkinna. to make a fally with a ftrong
party 01 the garrifon the following night. The fires
being then out in the Modem camp, and the befiegers
not expecting fuch an unfeafonable vifit, 60 of them
were killed on the fpot, and 50 taken prifoners. You--
kinna, however, being briddy attacked by Khaled, who
foon drew together a body of troops to oppofe him, lod;
about 100 men in his retreat. The next day, he caufed
the prifoners to be beheaded in fight of the Modem
camp ; and receiving advice that a ftrong party of A-
ti/.ens, among whom were feveral Chriftian Arabs, and
diftributed money among them. He then told his men
that he intended to aft offenfively againft the Arabs,
and even to engage them if poflible before they drew
too near. To infpire them with the greater refolution,
he obferved, that the Modem army was divided into fe¬
veral bodies ; one of which had orders to befiege Gae-
farea, another to march to Damafcus, and the third to
invade Egypt. Having thus animated his troops, he
put himfelf at the head of 12,000 of them and march-
, ed forwards to get intelligence of the enemy’s motions.
2^°^^ Abu Obeidah, in the mean time, had fent before him
mon*- - - — - IOOO
ilefeatecTbyEbn Damarah, with toco men ; giving him ex- rabbin cavalry was Tent out to forage, he ordered a
Youkinna. Pref> orders not to fight till he had received information body of his horfe to drive them to their camp ; which
of the enemy. Youkinna’s fpies difcovered Caab and they accordingly did, killed 130 of them, feized all
his men refting'themfelves and watering their horfes their camels, horfes, &c. and then retired to the mcun-
without the lead apprehenfion of danger; of which the tains. Here they propofed to remain concealed till the
general being apprifed, he ported one part of his troops following night, and then return to the caflle ; but
m ambufcade, and with the other attacked the Mo-
flems. The Arabs behaved with their ufual valour ;
and at firft repulfed the Chriftians, notwithftanding
their fuperiority in numbers: but being attacked by
the troops that lay in ambufh, they were at laft for¬
ced to retire ; having 170 killed, and almoft all the reft
g0 wounded.
Aleppofub- After Youkinna’s departure, the inhabitants of A-
mits toAbu leppo, confidering the calamities that awaited them if
Obeidah. their city Ihould be taken by ftorm, fubmittei without
delay to Abu Obeidah, and were taken under the pro-
teftion of the khalif. This difagreeable news being
communicated to Youkinna, he ported home with all
poflible expedition, left an attempt fhould be made on
the caftle in his abfence. On his arrival at Aleppo,
he was fo highly ihcenfed againft the inhabitants, that
Abu Obeidah, being informed of what had happened*
detached Khaled and Derar with a body of troops to
purfue the Greeks, and revenge the late affront. Kha¬
led, being informed of the route the Chriftians had ta¬
ken, pofleffed himfelf of the only pafs by w hich they
could return to the caftle; and having polled there a
body of his men whofe . courage he could depend upon,
took 300 of the Greeks priioners as they attempted
to return, and put all the reft to the fword. The next
morning, to retaliate Youkinna’s cruelty, the prifoners
were all brought out and beheaded in fight of tire
garrifon. ^
Notwithftanding this difafter, Ybukinna made fe-His vige-
veral fallies with good fuccefs, wherein he killed arous de¬
great number of the enemy, and haraffed them townee,
fuch a degree, that Abu Obeidah found himfelf cb-
81
he threatened them with death if they did not difannul liged, for his greater fecurity, to remove his camp to
the treaty with the Arabs, and deliver up the authors about a mile’s diftance from the caftle t by which ma-
©melty of of it into his hands. This demand not being immedi-
Youkinna. ately complied with, he fell upon the citizens with
great fury, and killed too of them ; among whom was
his brother John, whole head he caufed to be ftruck
off, charging him with being the author and abettor of
the late pernicious fcheme. He would have made a
much greater {laughter, had not the Moflem army at
that inftant arrived before the town ; upon which You¬
kinna retired into the caftle with a confiderable body
©f troops-: but before this could be effefted, he was
obliged to fuftain an attack from the Arabs, in which
be loft 2000 men. The aftion was no fooner ended than
the inliabitants of Aleppo brought out forty of You¬
kinna’s men, and as a proof of their fidelity delivered
them into Abu ObeidaiVs hands. Of thefe, feven em¬
braced Mahometanrfm, and the reft v/ere beheaded.
Immediately after Youkinna had fhut himfelf Tip in
’ the caftle, a council of war was held in the Moflem
camp, wherein it wras deliberated what mealures were
to be purfued on. the prefent occafion. Khaled gave it
as }iis opinion, that the caftle ought immediately to be
attacked with all the Arab forces, before the emperor
had time to fend them any afli.ftance. This advice was
followed by AbtxObeidahj who caufed the citadel to
noeuvre he likewife hoped that Ycukinna would be L
upon his guard. Herein, however, he found him¬
felf miftaken: for the Greek commander, by the pru¬
dent meafures he took, eluded all furprize ; and tho’
Abu Obeidah continued the fiege for four months al¬
ter the laft-mentioned blow given to the garrifon by
Khaled, yet he had fcarce any hopes of making himfelf
mafter of it at laft. Having nothing material to write
to the khalif, he remained a long time filent; at which
Omar being very much concerned, wrote to him, dell¬
ring an account of the affairs in Syria. Abu Obeidah
acquainted him that the city of Aleppo had fubmitted
to him ; and that the citadel was the only place which
held out in all that country, before which he had loft a
great number of men, which, he faid, had induced him
to think of railing the fiege, and moving with his ar¬
my m that track which lay between Antioch and A-
leppo. This news was by no means, agreeable to the
khalif, who commanded his general to continue the fiege
at all events, and fent him a reinforcement of Arab
troops, together with 70 camels, to aflift the infantry
in their march. g$
Among the troops fent by Omar on this occafion,Thecnade!
there was an Arab of a gigantic fize, called ZWicj. taken bx
whoftrata£em*
A R A [ 165 ] A R A
Arabia, who •was a man of great courage and refolution. He
«k»—y . 0bferving tbe little progrefs made by the Moilems, be¬
thought himfelf of a ftratagem by which that fortrefs
might be reduced, which leemed fo difficult to be ac-
complifhed by force. He therefore deiired that Abu
Obeidah would affign him the command of a party con-
fifling only of thirty men; which at Khaled’s requeft
was readily granted. Then he begged the general to
raife the fiege, and retire to about three miles difiance
from the cafile, which was like wife immediately com¬
plied with. The following night Dames, who had
ported himfelf with his party very near the citadel,
found means to feize a Greek, from whom he learned
Ithat Youkinna, after the fiege was raifed, had exadted
large fums of money from the citizens, on account of
the treaty they had concluded with the Arabs and
that he was one of thofe who had endeavoured to make
their efcape from the opprefiion of fuch a tyrant, by
leaping down from the wall. This man Dames took
under his protection; but beheaded five or fix others who
fell into his hands, and could give no good account of
' % , themfelves. He then covered his head and fhoulders
with a goat’s fiun, and took a dry cruft in his hand,
creeping on the ground till he got clofe to the foot of
the wall. If he heard any noife, or fufpedted any
perfon to be near, he made fuch a noife with his cruft
as a dog does when he is gnawing a bone ; his compa¬
nions fometimes walking, and fometimes creeping after
him in the fame manner. He had before difpatched
two of his men to Abu Obeidah, to defire that a de¬
tachment of horfe might be fent him by break of day
to fupport his fmall party, and facilitate the execution
of the plan he had formed. At laft Dames found
an opportunity of raifing fcven men upon his fhoul¬
ders, who flood one upon another’s fhoulders in fuch
a manner that the higheft reached the top of the
wall. Here he foon placed himfelf, feized a watch¬
man whom he found afleep, and threw him over the
wall. Two others, whom he found in the fame condi¬
tion, he ftabbed with his dagger, and threw them over
likewife. Then he laid down his turban, and drew
up the fecond of his brethren, as they two did the
third, and by their help Dames himfelf and all the
reft were enabled to mount the wall. He then private¬
ly ftabbed the centry at each of the gates, and put
his men in pofleffion of every one of them. The fol-
diers of the garrifon, however, were at laft alarmed,
and furrounded the Arabs, who were on the point of
perifhing, when Kbaled appeared at the head of a de¬
tachment of cavalry. On fight of that general, who.
was now grown terrible to the Chriftians, the befieged
g5 threw down their arms and furrendered at difcretion..
Youkinna’s Youkinna and fome of the principal officers turned
apoftacy. Mahometans, in order to fave their pofleffiens; and the.
caftle, being taken by ftorm, was pillaged by the Mo-
flems. Dames acquired great glory by this exploit ^
and, out of complaifance to him, the army did not de¬
camp from Aleppo till he and his men were perfectly
cured of their wounds.
After the reduction of the citadel of Aleppo, Abui
Obeidah intended to march to Antioch ; but was di¬
verted by Youkinna, who was now become a violent
enemy to the Chriftians. He told the Moftem gene¬
ral, that his conqueft of that part of the country would
not be complete without the reduftion of Azaz, a_
place of great importance, where Theodoras, Ycukin- Arabia,
na’s coufin-german, was commandant. This forlrefs Jie
propofed to become mafter of, by putting himfelf at
the head of too Arab horfe drelfed in the Greek habit,
who were to attend him to Azaz. Upon his arrival
there, he was to affure Theodorus that he was Hill in
reality a Chriftian, and had taken that opportunity to
. efcape from the Mortem camp. But, to make his fto-
ry more probable, Abu Obeidah was to fend after him
a detachment of 1000 horfe, who were to purfue him
as far as Morah, a village in the neighbourhood of
Azaz, with orders to poft themfelves there; from
whence, if fuch a meafure ftiould be found neceflary,
they might eafily advance to Azaz, to facilitate the
conqueft of that place. To this fcheme Abu Obeidah
agreed; but Youkinna with all his men were immedi¬
ately taken prifoners by Theodorus, who had been in¬
formed of the whole affair by a ipy in the Mcflem
camp, who had fent him a letter by a pigeon. The
fortrefs, however, wras foon reduced, and Youkinna re- .86
gained his liberty ; but was foon after taken prifoner a is rakes
fecond time, and brought before his old mafter Hera-^'1.?””
clius, who then refided at Antioch. He told the em- before Ho-
peror, that he had only pretended to embrace Maho radius,
metanifm, in order to be able to do his Imperial Ma-
jefty the more efl'ential fervice ; and fo far gained upon
him, that he was foon after appointed governor of that
city; the confequence of which was, that the Arabs
were put in poffeffion of it by his treachery. g7
The emperor being quite dilheartened at his conti-Attempt t©
nual bad fuccefs, it was fuggefted to him by the king afl'aflinate
of Ghaflan, who had fled to him for refuge, as we °m®r ‘UA
have already obferved, that, however defperate his af-carr*e3‘
fairs might be, they would be perfe&ly reftored by the
aflaflination of the khalif. This piece of fervice he
undertook to perform for the emperor ; and difpatch¬
ed one Wathek Ebn Mofafer, an Arab of his tribe,
and a refolute young man, to Medina for that purpofe.
Wathek, fome time after his arrival there, having ob¬
ferved the khalif to fall afleep under a tree, on which
he had placed himfelf fo as not to be obferved by any
one, drew his dagger, and was upon the point of ftab-
bing him ; but, as the Arab writers tell us, he was de¬
terred by a lion, who walked round the khalif, and lick¬
ed his feet till he awoke, after which he inftantly went
away. This ft-ruck Wathek with a profound reverence,
for Omar; he came down from his tree where he had
been confined by the lion, confefled his defign, and em¬
braced the Mahometan religion. gg
Soon after the reduction of Antioch, Abu Obeidah The
fent an account of his fuccefs to Omar; and receiving Greeks de--
an order to invade the mountainous parts of Syria, he^eatecl*
afleed his general Officers which of them would com¬
mand the body of troops deftined for -that purpofe.
One Meifarah Ebn Mefrouk having offered his fervice,
the general gave him a black ftandard,. with the fol¬
lowing infeription upon it in. white letters : “ There
is but one God; Mahomet is the Apoftle of God.”
The: body affigned him for this purpofe confifted o£
300 Arabs, and rooo black flaves commanded by
Dames. Meifarah, at the head of his troops, with
fome difficulty afeended the mountains,, and,, with
much more, advanced to that part where the emperor’s
forces were ported. The cold was fo intenfe on the
fummits of thofe mountains, that the Arabs, who had
bcea
A R A
[ 166 ]
A R A
Arabia, been accuftomed to a warm climate, could hardly bear he was, and from whence he came 5 to which he replied Arabia,
For fome time they could not meet with a flngle
perfon to give them intelligence of the enemy’s mo¬
tions ; but at laft they took a Greek priibner, who in¬
formed them, that the imperial army, which confided
of 30,000 men, lay encamped on a fpot not three
leagues diftant. The prifoner refufing to profefs Ma-
hometanifm, they cut off his head, and then marched
towards the imperial camp. The Greeks, hearing of the khalif.
in the following terms : “lam the unfortunate" To-u
leiha Ebn Khowaid, who fet up for a prophet, and,
lying againft God, pretended to infpiration.” In con-
fequence of having faved his life, Serjabil introduced
him to Amru ; and writing a letter to Omar, wherein
he acquainted him with the fignal proof Toleiha had
given of his repentance, he obtained his pardon from
their approach, advanced to meet them ; and the Mof-
lems being furrounded on all fides, were on the point
of being all cut off, when Khaled appeared at the head
of 300© horfe, and after him Ayab Ebn Ganem with
2000 more. At the approach of the horfe under the
command of the terrible Khaled, the Greeks retired,
leaving all their tents, together with their rich furni¬
ture and effedls, to the Arabs. In this engagement.
Though the two armies did not come to a general
engagement, yet they had frequent fkirmifhes, in which
the Arabs always got the better, and in fome theGreeks
fuffered very confiderably. This, together with the fe-
verity of the feafon, which was then uncommonly cold,
fo deje<5led the foldiery, that they began to defert in
greatnumbers. Conftantine, therefore, findinghistroops
to diminifh daily, and the Arabs to grow ftronger and
one of Omar’s chief favourites, named Abdalla Ebn ftronger, took the advantage of a tempeftuous night to
Hodafa, was taken prifoner, and fent direftly to Con-
ftantinople. The khaliff was fo much concerned at
this, that he fent a letter to Heraclius, defiring his re-
leafe ; which the emperor not only complied with, but
made him many valuable prefents, fending at the fame
time ajewel of immenfe value as a prefent to the kha-
Omar’sdif bf. This Omar offered to the jewellers of Medina,
interefted- were ignorant 0f jts value; the Moflems
therefore begged him to keep it for his own ufe ; but
?9
mek.
efcape to Caefarea, which Yezid had not been able to
take, leaving his camp to be plundered by the enemy. 91
This city was foon after invefted by Amru ; and at the Youkinn*
fame time, Youkinna having made himfelf mafter of ta^.es Tl**
Tripoli by treachery, feized yo fhips from Cyprus and po“*
Crete, which carried a fupply of arms and provifi«ns for
the emperor’s troops, and had entered the port W’ith-
out knowing that the Arabs were mafters of the town.
With thefe thips he undertook an expedition againft
this he faid he could not be anfwerable for to the pub- Tyre ; and telling the inhabitants that he brought a
1:^ r*.     c j  1  j j • r.    j :r. r* n  >_  
lie. It was therefore fold, and the money depofited in
the public treafury.
About this time alfo Khaled advanced with a bo¬
dy of troops as far as the Euphrates, and took Man-
bij, Beraa, Bales or Balis, exa&ing of the inhabitants
100,000 dinars for their prefent fecurity, and impofing
on them an annual tribute for the future. He alfo
made himfelf mafter of Raaban, Dulouc, Korus, the
Cyrus or tlyrrhus of the ancients, and feveral other
fortified towns, nothing being now able to ftand before
him. Amru Ebn A1 As now likewife prepared for
the reducing fome places in Paleftine that {till held out.
While he remained in this province, he had a conference
with Conftantine the emperor’s fon, who endeavoured
to perfuade him to make peace with the Chriflians ;
but this he not agreeing to, unlefs they would confent
to pay tribute, all hopes of an accommodation vanifti-
ed, and the generals on both fides prepared to enter
upon aftion. In the mean time an officer came from
the Chriftian camp, dreffed in very rich apparel, who
challenged the ftouteft man among the Moflems to fight
him in fingle combat. The challenge was accepted
by a young Arab officer of Yaman ; who being ani¬
mated by a notion, derived from the prophet himfelf,
fupply of arms and provifions for Conftantine’s army,
he was admitted into the town, and received with great
kindnefs. Here, however, he had not been long before
he was difeovered by one of his own foldiers, and put
under arreft, with 900 of his men. He was however
fet at liberty by thofe to whofe care he was committed; 9a
and then opened the gates of the town to Yezid, byTyre 3ni
whom it had been invefted. Conftantine having gotC afarea
intelligence at Caefarea of the lofs of Tripoli and Tyre,re uce
was fo difheartened, that he fet fail from that city with
all his family and the greateft part of his wealth; and
the citizens then thought proper to make the beft
terms they could with Amru. The furrender of this
city was followed by that of all the other cities and
fortreffes in the province ; and thus the Arabs drove
the Greeks out of the whole country of Syria extend¬
ing from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates. This
conqueft was completed in the 18th year of the Hegi¬
ra, fix years after it had been undertaken. 93
This year there happened fuch violent ftorms of hail Violent
in thepeninfula of the Arabs, that a confiderable extent ft,orms*
^ 1 Dlao-ue.Ki
of territory was laid wafte by them, and a great num¬
ber of animals of various kinds deftroyed. An epide¬
mical diftemper likewife raged at Medina, which fpread
plague,&e*
that “ the fpirits of the martyrs reft in the crops of itfelf all over the neighbouring territory, and fwept
green birds, th it eat of the fruits and drink of the ri¬
vers of paradife,” difeovered an uncommon eagernefs
to encounter his enemy. But the ' hriftian officer not
only killed this youth, but two or three more of the
Moflems who came to his affiftance. He was then at¬
tacked by Serjabil Ebn Hofanah, one of the generals,
Account but a man fo weakened by falling, that he could fcarce
of t oleiha ftand before him, and would therefore have been un-
the falfe doubtedly killed, had not a Greek horfeman very op-
prophet. portunely interpofed, and with one blow of his fey-
mitar cut off the Chriftian’s head. Seijabil, greatly
furprized at this deliverance, aiked the horfeman who
away great numbers of people. Sy ria alfo was vifited
by a dreadful plague ; fo that the Moflems loft there
29,000 men, among whom were Abu Obeidah him¬
felf, Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian, Serjabil, and many other
perfons ot diftindion. !n ftiort, fo great was the mor¬
tality occafioned by the plague, both in Arabia and'
Syria, that the Arabs ftyle the 18th year of the Hegi-,
ra the year of deftruflion. ^
Amru Ebn A1 As having now executed the khaliff’s Egypt re
orders in Syria, fet out on his expedition againft Egypt, duced.
His firft attempt was on Tarma, a town (ituated on the
ifthmus of Suez. This he reduced after a month’s
fiege ;
A R A
f *67 ]
A R A
■til Arabia, fiege; and having narrowly viewed its fituation, he
ayitjlH-i y——'formed a defign of cutting through the idhmus, and
thus joining the Mediterranean and Red Sea : but this
project was not well relifhed by the khalif, who appre¬
hended that it would facilitate the entrance of the
Chriftians into the peninfula of Arabia. From Tarma
he marched to Mefr, the Memphis of the ancient geo-
1 graphers 5 which, after a iiege of feven months, was
delivered up to him by the treachery of A1 Mokawkas
the governor. From Mefr he continued his march to¬
wards Alexandria, and, having defeated the emperor’s
I army, clofely invelted that city. While his army lay be¬
fore this capital, Amru himfelf had the misfortune to
be taken prifoner and carried into the town. Being
brought before the governor, he alked him why he
committed fuch ravages and depredations in the Chri-
ftian territories ? To this Amru refolutely anfwered, •
We are come hither to oblige you either to profefs
Mahometinifm, or pay an annual tribute to the kha¬
lif ; to one of which conditions you mull fubmit, or be
all of you put to the fword.” A Greek who flood by,
hearing this, told the governor that Amru was cer¬
tainly the Modem general, and therefore defired him
to cut off his head. Upon this Werdan, one of Am-
ru’s Haves, perceiving the extreme danger his mailer
was in, gave him a box on the ear, exclaiming againft
his impudence for talking in fuch a manner. The go¬
vernor being impofed upon by this lhallow artifice,
not only faved his life, but, to fliew his generodty, dif-
nriffed him without ranfom. This was foon followed by
the lofs of Alexandria, and that by the conqueft of the
whole kingdom : after which, Amru difpatched Okba
Ebn Nafe with a body of troops to penetrate farther
into Africa; and that general made himfelf mailer of
Together all the country lying between Barka andZoweilah* re-
vrith Baroaducing under his dominion alfo that part of the conti-
Jt andTripo-nent which now forms the piratical kingdom of Tri-
‘ poli in Barbary.
boon after the Modems had made themfelves mailers
of Alexandria, a grievous famine raged in Arabia, par¬
ticularly at Medina, then the refidence of the khalif.
This obliged Omar to write to Amru to fend him a
fupply of corn, with which Egypt at that time abound¬
ed. In compliance with this order, Amru fent a train
of camels laden with corn, in a continued line from E-
gypt to Medina ; the firit of which were entering Me¬
dina when the lad were leaving Alexandria. But this
method of conveying corn proving too tedious and ex-
penfive, he ordered him to cleai the Amnis Trajanus
of Ptolemy, now the Khalis, which runs from one end
of Cairo to the other, of the fand and gravel with which
it was choked. This he accordingly did, and by that
means rendered the communication between Egypt and
Arabia much more eafy than it had formerly been.
While the Arabs thus extended their conquefts in.*
the weft, they were no iefs fuccefsful in the eaft We
have already taken notice of Khaled’s having been fent
into Irak to reduce the kingdom of Hira, and of his
being recalled to affift in the conqueft of Syria. As
the kings of Hira were under the protedlion of the
Ferfian monarchs, the deftruction of that kingdom ne-
ceffarily brought on a war with the Perfians. After
the departure of Khaled, the command of the forces
was left with Abu Obeid Ebn Mafud, together with
A1 Mothanna Ebn Haretha; Amru Ebn Ha' % and
U.
*1 96
Th<
fians de¬
feated.
Per-
Salit Ebn Kis. Abu Obeid having paded a river con- Arabia.
trary to the ajdvice of the other generals, was killed,1 v i
and his troops in great danger; however, A1 Mothanna
made an' excellent retreat, and repaffed the river with¬
out any confiderable lofs. After this he fortified him¬
felf in his camp till he received a confiderable reinforce*
ment from the khalif; when the Modem army marched
to Dir Hind, and thence continued to make frequent
excurfions, ravaging that part of Irak that lay next to
the Euphrates. A body of 12,000 chofen horfe was now
difpatched againft thofe invaders, under the command
of one Mahran. At firft the Perfians had the advan¬
tage, and obliged the Arabs to retire; but they were
foon brought back by A1 Mothanna, and the battle
lafted from noon till funfet. At laft Al Mothanna, en¬
gaging Mahran in Angle combat, laid him dead at his
feet; upon which the Perfians fled to Al Madayen, a
town fituated on the Tigris, about a day’s journey from
Bagdad. After this a powerful army was diipatched by
the Perfians under the command of one Ruftam; but he
alfo was killed, and his troops were entirely difperfed.
At the fame time, Abu Mufa, another Modem general,
defeated a formidable body of troops under the com¬
mand of Al Harzaman, a noble Perfian, at Ahwaz.
Not content with thofe victories, foon after the re-
duftion of Damafcus, the khalif difpatched baad Ebn
Abu Wakkas, to didodge the- Perfians from fome di-
ftridls they poffeffed in the neighbourhood of the Eu¬
phrates. Saad having drawn together a body of 12,000
men, advanced to Kadefia, a city bordering upon
the deferts of Irak; where having utterly defeated an
army of 120,000 Perfians, he made himfelf mafter of 97
the opulent city of Al Madayen, and polfeffed himfelfIncrtdibIe
of Yezdejerd’s treafure ; which was fo rich, if we ma7 taken front,
believe the Arabian writers, that Saad took out of it rom’
three thoufand millions of dinars, amounting to two
thoufand and twenty-five millions of pounds fterling ;
an enormous and almoft incredible fum. From thence
Saad went to that part of the palace where the king’s
plate was depofited, which he carried off, as well as an
immenfe quantity of camphire with which another part
of the palace was entirely filled. This laft the Arabs
feem to have carried off merely for the fake of plun¬
dering, as they were fo much unacquainted with the
nature of it, that they mixed it with their bread, which
gave it a bitter and difagreeable tafte. Afterwards the
Arab general carried off the crown and royal garments,
adorned with gold and jewels of ineftimable value.
He alfo plundered his armoury, which was well ftored
with all forts of weapons ; after which he caufed the
roof of his porch to be opened, where he found ano¬
ther treafure equal in value to ten millions of crowns.
He alfo found among the furniture of the palace a
piece of filk tapeftry, 60 cubits fquare, which was a-
dorned with a great variety of beautiful flowers, herbs,
and plants, formed of gold, filver, and jewels, the moft
valuable that could be procured. This being brought
to Omar, he cut it in pieces, and diftributed it among
the Modems ; and that part which fell to Ali’s fliare,
and which was yet none of the beft,;he fold for 20,000
crowns. 9S?
In the twentieth or twenty-firft year of the Hegira, Meiopota<-
the Arabs, ftill unfated with conqueft, invaded Me mi“ redu>-
fopolamia under Aiyad Ebn Ganem, where the cityce *
of Edeffa fubmitted on the firft fummons. From E-
deila.
A R A [ 168 ] A R A
Arabia. dciTa he marched to Conftantia, or Conftant’ma, fup-
pofed to be the Nicephorium of the ancients.. This
he took by ftorm, as likewife Daras, where he maffa-
cred all the people he found in the place; and thefe
repeated fuccefles fo terrified the reft of the fortified
towns, that they all fubmitted without refiftance. At
the fame time A1 Mogheirah Ebn Shaabah, one of the
khalif’s commanders, made himfelf matter of Shiz, a
place famous for the birth of Zerdufht the Perfian
philofopher, and over-ran the whole province of Ader-
bijan. He alfo poflatted himfelf of all the country of
Armenia bordering on mount Taurus; nay, he in a
manner obliged the whole region to own the authority
of the khalif, and penetrated into Cappadocia. The
fame year alfo Saad made himfelf matter of Ahwas, the
capital of Khuzeftan (the ancient Sufiana); in confe-
quence of which he became matter of the greateft part,
if not the whole, of that province ; at the fame time
99 that A1 Nooman conquered the greateft part of Kho-
Omar mur-rafan> J5ut while Omar’s troops were thus irrefiftibly
dere<f over-running the fineft countries in the known world,
a period was put to his conquefts and his life, by a
Perfian named Abu Lulua, who ftabbed him thrice in
the belly while he was performing his devotions at
Medina. The reafon of this was becaufe the khalif
refufed to remit him fome part of the tribute which
according to the Mahometan cuftom he was obliged
to pay for the free exercife of his religion. The A-
rabs, perceiving that he had killed their fovereign, im¬
mediately ruflied upon him ; but the aflaffin defended
himfelf fo defperately, that he killed feven of them and
wounded i 3 : but at laft one of the khalif’s attendants
threw his veft over him, and feized him ; upon which
he ftabbed himfelf, and foon after expired.
Omar having languiftied three days after the wounds
100 , given him by the Perfian, expired in the 10th, nth, or
?u.c,ct?eded 12th year of his reign, and after his death Othman Ebn
y man. A^an was c}10fen . though Ali had a better title, and
feems indifputably to have been the moft virtuous, if
not the only virtuous perfon, as well as the braveft war¬
rior among them. He was inaugurated in the 24th
year of the Plegira, nearly coincident with the year of
our Lord 645.
Othman was no fooner fettled on the throne, than
he commanded A1 Mogheirah to complete the conqueft
of the territory of Hamadan ; which he eafily accom-
plifhed, and at the fame time reduced Bira, a ftrong
cattle in Mefopotamia, which either had never fubmitted,
or had revolted on the departure of the Mottem troops
out of that province. Another army, under Abdallah
'Ebn Amar, was alfo difpatched into Perfia, to deprive
Yezdejerd of the poor remains of his dominions ; and
this was done fo effectually, that the unhappy monarch
was obliged to fly to Sijeftan and abandon Perfia alto¬
gether.
In the 2 7th year of the Hegira, the ifland of Cy¬
prus was reduced by Moawiyah ; who foon after con¬
quered the ifland of Aradus, and took Ancyra; after
101 vvhich he reduced the iflahd of Rhodes, broke in pieces
Coloffus of the famous Coloflps, and fold the metal of it to a Jew
Rhodes de- of Edelfa. in the'ihean time another of the Arab com-
itroyed. manders entered Ifauria, where he committed dreadful
depredations, plundering many towns and villages, put¬
ting a great number of people to the fword, and car¬
rying off 5000 prifoners. In the 31ft year of the He-
N* 25.
gira, one Habib having made an irruption into that Arabia.'
part of Armenia which was ftill unconquered, defeat-v ’"'■A '
ed a body of the emperor’s troops, purfuing them as
far as mount Caucafus, and laying watte all the neigh- 1 1
bouring territory. About the fame time alfo, Abul
Abar, who had been conftituted admiral by Moawiyah,
gave the emperor Conftans a fignal defeat by fea, on
the coaft of Lycia, in which fuch a number of Chri-
ftians were killed, that the neighbouring fea was dyed
with their blood. r02 ]
But while Othman was thus carrying every thing ir-Infurrefti- ]
refiftibly before him abroad, he negleCted to fecureons agai,n® J
the affeClions of his fubjeCts at home, which foon pro-the khalit’ |
ved his ruin. Sedition was induftrioufly propagated
through all the provinces of the empire, and articles of
accufation brought againft the khalif. The chief of
thefe were, That he had recalled one who had beenba-
niflied by the prophet; that he had removed Saad, an
officer of diftinguifhed bravery, and fuppKed his place
by one who drank wine, and was otherwife of a fcan-
dalous life ; that he had fquandered away vaft fums a-
mong his favourites ; that he had removed Amru from
the government of Egypt, to which he had preferred
his own fofter-brother; and, laftly, that he had pre¬
fumed to fit on the top of Mahomet’s pulpit, whereas
Abu Beer had always fat on the higheft ftep and Omar
on the loweft. To this formidable. accufation the poor
khalif pleaded guilty, and promifed to make all the re¬
paration in his power; but his condefcenfion only fer-
ved to increafe the infolence of the rebels. They were
however appeafed by Ali; and public tranquillity had
undoubtedly been reftored, had it not been for Ayeiha,
one of Mahomet’s widows, who procured the deftruc-
tion of the khalif by a fcheme truly worthy of the wife
of fuch an hufband. That traitrefs, being defirous of
raifing one of her favourites named Telha to the digni¬
ty of khalif, prevailed on Merwan the fecretary of ftate
to write a letter to the prefect of Egypt, enjoining him
to put to death Mahomet Ebn Abu Beer, with whom
it was fent, and who was to be his fucceflbr. This
letter Merwan took care ffiould be difeovered : and Ma¬
homet taking it for a genuine order of the khalif, pu-
bliftied the fuppofed injury all over the neighbouring
countries. He then marched with a body of rebels to
Medina, where the innocent khalif was befieged in his
palace ; and, notwithftanding all his proteftations, no¬
thing lefs titan his death could fatisfy the enraged mul¬
titude. In this deplorable fituation Othman fent to
Ali for affiftance ; who commanded his two fons Hafan
and Hofein to defend the palace-gates. This they did
for fome time with fidelity enough, till finding the
khalif reduced to great ftraits for want of water, they
abandoned their polls; upon which the rebels eafily
made themfelves mailers of the palace, and cruelly 103
murdered the khalif, in the 8 2d year of his age, after He is mw-
he had reigned 12 years. His body remained threederei*
days unbuned; and was at laft thrown into a hole made
for it, without the ufual ablution, or the leaft funeral
folemnity.
The arms of the Modems had hitherto been fo fuc-
cefsful; and their conquefts fo rapid, that they may
feem not only to have vied with Alexander, but to have
bid fairer for univerfal monarchy than any nation ei¬
ther before or fince.—The ruin of mighty empires al¬
ways originates from the irhpoffibility of keeping them :
united
A R A
[ 169 ]
A R A
• united. Divifions arifej civil wars break out; and the
kingdom being weakened by thefe intefline feuds, the
common enemies take advantage of them to ruin the
whole fabric.—If we confider Mahomet, as in truth
he was, not as an enthufiaft, but as a politician, and
the founder of an empire ; we (hall find him in that
capacity fuperior perhaps to any that ever exifted.
The empire of Alexander the Great, which arofe with
(fill more rapidity than that of the Arabs, had no fup-
port but from his own ambition and perfonal qualifi¬
cations. While he lived, he was without a rival, be-
oaufe all were afraid of him; but when he died, the
bands of union, whereby his empire had been held to¬
gether, were immediately diifolved. His captains were
not infpired with the fame veneration for his fon, who
was unborn at the time of his death, that they had for
his father ; and therefore they fought not to conquer
for him, but for themfelves ; and the confequence was,
that the kingdom fell* to pieces the moment that he
died. The fame thing happened to the empires of
Jenghiz Khan, Tamerlane, and others, who made vaft
cpnquefts in a fhort time. They eredled mighty em¬
pires indeed; but their duration, we may fay, was but
momentary. The empire of the Romans was founded
on a kind of enthufiaftic defire of aggrandizing the city
of Rome : patriotifm became fafhionable ; and as the
city never ceafed to exife, thofe wh® conquered always
had the fame end in view,mamely to exalt the republic
more and more. This empire, therefore, was not only
very extenfive, but very durable; though, as it was im-
poffible that mankind could always continue to vene¬
rate a city, the fame divifions that ruined other em¬
pires at laft brought this to an end.—The foundation
hereditary in his family, was, in all probability, what Arabia,
difgufted the Moflems with Ah; againll whom they —v—^
could otherwife have no objeftion : for he was endowed Cha*°£ r
with every amiable quality; a firm believer in Mahomet; e
and of fuch unparalleled ftrength and courage, that he
never declined a combat to which he was challenged,
nor ever failed to come off vidtorious; for which reafon
he was (lyled by his countrymen, “ the Lion of God.”
On the death of Othman, however, notwithftanding
the prejudices againft Ali, as none could pretend fo
good a right to the khalifat as he, the Arabs imme-He js
diately took the oath of allegiance to him, though with fen khalif.
an intention to break it as (bon as poffible, as was fully
evinced by the event. The difturbances which hap¬
pened immediately on Ali’s acceffion were owing part¬
ly to the machinations of Ayeflia, who, having got
Othman murdered on purpofe to raife Telha to the dig¬
nity of khalif> and now finding Ali unanimoufly cho-
fen, refolved to deftrby him allb. She therefore pre¬
tended great concern for the death of the late khalif,
and accufed Ali of being his murderer : but being re¬
proved by one of the Moflems for endeavouring, to
blacken an innocent perfon, when fhe could not but
knoWherfelf guilty ; fhe replied, that Othman’s infide¬
lity had indeed made her his enemy, but that (he had
forgiven him upon his repentance. At the time of A-
li’s inauguration (he was at Mecca, where (he enjoyed
a very confiderable (hare cf influence and authority. icy
At her mitigation, Telha Ebn Obeidallah, and ZobeirDiftjir^a,tj
Ebn A1 Awam, began to reprefent to Ali, that the
murderers of Othman ought to be brought to condign ye ^
punifliment; offering themfelves at the fame time for
that purpofe. This they did purely to fow diffention.
of Mahomet's empire feemed to be (till more firm. He for they themfelves had been-deeply concerned in the
was not only the king, but, we may fay, the god of murder; and Ali, fufficiently aware of their intention,
his people. Whatever enthufiafm people may (how in
defending their country, nay* even their neared rela¬
tions, experience has taught us, that it is greatly* infe¬
rior to what is fhown by* thofe who fight in defence of
religion. This enthuliafm Mahamet had taken care
not only-to bring over to his fide, but to exalt to its
higheft pitch, by inculcating upon his followers, that
their rewards in the next world (hould be proportion-
able to the fury with which they fought in this. To
live at peace, except with thofe who fubmitted to his
told* them it was impofllble till the empire (hould be
more fettled. Finding themfelves difappointed in this
attempt, they next begged the government of Cufa and
Bafra, that they might with the greater facility extin-
guifh any rebellion that (hould happen. Here again
Ali was aware of their intention ; and refufed their re-
queff, under pretence that he flood in need of perfons
of their great capacity, as cdunfellors, about his per¬
fon. Then they defired leave to perform a pilgrimage
to Mecca, which the khalif could not refufe ; and they
will, did not at all enter into his plan ; and he who were no fooner got there, than they fet about railing
i _  n._  i a a *   —   • n. 1 • -.i  • 0
made no conquefts, or at lead did not-drive to make
them, was no true believer. By this means, let his
empire be ever fo much extended, the temptation to
making frefli conquefts was (fill equally ftrong : and not
only the commanders of armies, but every private per¬
fon, had the mo ft powerful motives to urge him towards
| Ic4 the conqueft of the .whole world, had that been pof-
1 ?v?UhCS rf Able.—The only thing Mahomet feems to have failed
« oftheMof-’’n was> t^ie appointment of the fuccefllon to the apoflle-
lem em- (hip; and why he was deficient in this is inconceivable,
pire. From this one fource proceeded the divifions which
ruined his empire when it was-fcarce eredfced) and of
which we are now to give the hiftory.
Tho’ the prophet had been fo deficient in providing
for the fafety of his kingdom as not to name a fuccef-
an army againft him without any provocation at all. irg
This, however, was not the only fource of difcordAnd Mea-
at prefent. Ali had been difpleafed with the governors'"’'y3*1'
of provinces appointed by Othman; * and therefore
difmiffed them immediately upon his acceflion. This
was very impolitic ; but he wras prompted to it by that
raftmefs and want of prudence which is infeparable
from, or rather is the very eflence of, great courage.
The confequence of this was, that Moaw'iyah, gover¬
nor of Syria, was, immediately upon his difmiflion by
Ali, proclaimed khalif by the troops under his com¬
mand. Thus the Moflems were divided into two fac¬
tions; the one under Moawiyah and Ayeflia, who ad¬
hered to the houfe of Ommiyah, to which Othman and
Moawiyah belonged; and the other to Ali. The ad-
for at his death ; yet his fon-in-law Ali was always of herents of the houfe of Ommiyah were called Mota-
opinion that the fucceflion belonged of right to him; zalites, or feparatijl.
and that it ought to
liereditary. This difpolition
V«i. il. Part 1. ■
kingdoms,
apofllefliip
Ali, finding how matters w^ere fitustted, and that a Ali raifes
very ftrong party was formed againft him, endeavoured an array,
Y •
|
A R A
[ ,7° 1
A R A
to ingratiate himfelf as much as poflible with tlie Ko-
J reifh; and to raife an army againil Ayefha, who had
now taken the field, and even reduced.the city of Bafra.
He made a formal fpeech to the people on hearing this
bad .news, and defired their affiftance. But though he
was very much beloved on account of his perfofcal merit,
and the belt orator of the age, he could not with all
his eloquence for fome time prevail on them to give a
decifive anfwer in his favour. At laft Ziyad Ebn
Hantelah ftept to Ali of his own accord, and faid,
“ Whofoever retreats, we will advance.” Upon this
two Anfars, doctors of the law, ftood up, and pro¬
nounced Ali innoccat of the death of Othman; which
decifion foon induced the Anfars and the body of the
people to efpoufe his quarrel. He then left Medina
with a body of 900 men, and advanced to Arrabah,
where he was joined by feveral other parties. From
this place he wrote to the people of Cufa and Medina,
prefling them to fend him farther afliftance, and to dif-
pofe the Motazalites to an accommodation. From
Medina he very foon obtained a large fupply of horfeSj
arms, and other neceflaries ; and from Cufa he obtain¬
ed with difficulty a reinforcement of 8000 men.
Being greatly animated by this feafonably fupply,
Ali advanced towards Bafra, where the troops of A-
fpent in fruitlefs negociations; but in the fecond month Arabia,
they began to fight in different parties, without ever' J
hazarding a general engagement. Thefe battles con¬
tinued, according to fome, for 40 days, and accord¬
ing to others, no. Moawiyah’s lofs amounted to
45,000 men, and Ali’s to 25,000, among whom were
26 who had been intimately acquainted with Mahomet
himfelf, and were dignified with the title of The Com¬
panions. The moft famous of thefe was Ammar Ebn
Yafer, Ali’s general of horfe, who was upwards of 90
years of age, and was highly efteemed by both parties.
The lofs of this general fo exafperated Ali, that he
charged the Syrians with a body of 12,000 men, tJI
broke them, and challenged Moawiyah to fight himMoawiyah
in Angle combat. This challenge Moawiyah declined,challenged
infifting that it was not a fair one, as -Ali could not to a Angle
but be fenfible of his fuperiority in ftrength. As the combat by
challenge was given in the hearing of both armies,All>
Amru infifted that Moawiyah could not in honour re-
fufe it; but the coward made no other reply than that
Amru afpired to the khalifat himfelf, and wanted to
enjoy it after his death. The battle being now renew¬
ed with great fury, Moawiyah’s forces were pufhed to
their camp; which had certainly been taken, had not
Amru bethought himfelf of the following ftratagem Amru’s |
yeflia were ready to receive him. Both parties feemed to retrieve Moawiyah’s affairs, when he feemed on the ftratagem. |
averfe to an engagement; and Ayefha began to be very very brink of deftrudfion. He ordered fome of his
men to fix copies of the Koran to the points of their
lances, and carry them to the front of the battle, cry¬
ing out at tire fame time, “ This is the book that
ought to decide all differences between us ; this is the
book of God between us and you, thateabfolutely pro¬
hibits the effufion of Moflem blood.”—This produced
the defired effeft. The khalif’s troops threw down
their arms, and even threatened him with death if he
did not found a retreat; which he therefore found him-
much intimidated at the fight of Ali’s army, which
tto however, was inferior to her own: but, by fome means
He defeats or other, a battle was at laft brought about, in which
“n^ake'._ Ayefha was defeated and taken prifoner. The only
apn~ remarkable effort that was made by the troops of Aye¬
fha in this engagement, was in defence of her perfon.
It is faid, that no fewer than 70 men who held her camel
by the bridle, had their hands cut off fucceflively ; and
that the pavilion in 'which fhe fat was fo full of darts
and arrows, that it refembled a porcupine. Ayeiha
was treated very kindly by Ali, who at firft fet her at
liberty, but afterwards confined her to her houfe at
Medina, and commanded her to interfere no more with
ftate-affairs, though he ftill allowed her to perform the
■^pilgrimage to Mecca.
After this victory, Ali had no enemies to contend
with either in Arabia, Irak, Egypt, Perfia, or Khora-
fan. A ftrong party, however, ftill remained in Sy-
felf obliged to do, and thus had a decifive viftory wreft-
ed out of his hands.
According to this new mode of decifion, the two par¬
ties were each to choofe their arbitrator; but even this
was not allowed to Ali, though Moawiyah had liberty
to choofe Amru Ebn A1 As. The troops of Irak, not
content with offering fo grofs an affront to the khalif,
infifted on naming for his arbitrator Abu Mufa A1
Afhavi; a very weak man, and one who had already
ria. headed by Moawiyali, who founded his claims to betrayed him. The confequence of this appointment nj
the khalifat on a pretended declaration of Othman that
he fhould be his fucceffor. In this defedtion he was
joined by Amru Ebn A1 As, who had obtained a pro-
mife of the government of Egypt, provided Moawiyah
.-could be advanced to -the dignity of khalif.
Ali, with his ufual good-nature, endeavoured to bring
the rebels to a fenfe of their duty, and often fent pro-
pofals of accommodation to Moawiyah ; but he ftill re¬
mained inflexible. Perceiving, therefore, that it would
was, that Ali was depofed by both the arbitrators ; and Alidepofed
he accordingly dropt his title to the khalifat, but with¬
out laying down his arms, or putting himfelf in? Moa¬
wiyah’s power.
After this decifion, Ali retired to Cufa; where he
was no fooner arrived, than 12,000 of thefe troops
who had themfelves forced him to accept of the arbi¬
tration, pretending to be offended with the ftep he had
taken, revolted from him. Thefe were called Khure-
be neceffary to invade Syria, he entered that country that is, rebels or revolters: and Mohakkemites,
-with an army of 70,000 men, while Moawiyah ad¬
vanced to meet him with 80,000; and by repeated rein¬
forcements Ali’s army at laft amounted to 90,000,
and Moawiyah’s to 120,000. The two armies came
in fight of each other towards the clofe of the 36th
year of the Hegira, when they feemed ready to en¬
ter upon adtion; but only fome fkirmifhes happened
between them, wherein neither party fuftained any con-
iiderable lofs. The .firft month of the 37 th year was
or judiciarians, becaufe they affirmed that Ali had re¬
ferred to the judgment of men what ought to have
been only referred to the judgment of God ; and,
therefore, that inftead of keeping the peace he had
made with Moawiyah, he ought to purfue his enemies,
who were likewife the enemies of God, without mercy.
To this Ali replied, That as he had given his word, he
ought to keep it; and, in fo doing, he only followed
what was prefcribed by the law of God. The Kha-
rejites
A R A
[ I7I 1
A R A
Arabia, rejltcs replied, That God was the only judge between
~ , W——y—an(j Moawiyah, and that confequently he had com¬
mitted an enormous fin,, of which he ought fincerely
to repent. This irritating Ali, he with fome warmth
replied, That if any fin had been committed on this
occafion, it was by themfelves, who had forced him
IT4 to take the fteps of which they now complained. This
> i He defeats anfwer not proving agreeable, they chole for their ge-
Ijthe Khare-neral Abdallah Ebn Waheb, who appointed for their
ajjatej. rendezvous Naharwan, a town feated between Wafet
and Bagdat, about four miles to the eaftward of the
Tygris ; here they afl’embled an army of 25,000.men;
and Ali, having tried gentle methods ineffectually, at
laft marched againft them in perfon. Before he attack -
ed them, how’ever, he planted a ftandard without the
camp, and made proclamation by found of trumpet,
that whoever would repair to it fliould have quarter,
and whoever would retire to Cufa fiiould find a far.Ctu-
afy there. This had fuch an effeCt, that Abdallah’s
army was foon reduced to 4000 men, with whom he
rufixed upon the khalif’s forces, but all of them were
cut in pieces, except nine who efcaped.
Had Ali marched againft Moawiyah immediately af-
the defeat of the Kharejites, and while his troops
were flufhed with victory, he had probably reduced him
entirely: but by allowing his troops to refrefti them¬
felves, they all deferted him, and Moawiyah’s party
had an opportunity of gathering ftill more ftrength;
and though Moawiyah’s troops often made incuriions
Iis into the territories of Ali, the latter feems afterwards
They at- to have aCted only on the dafenfive. At laft the Kha-
tempt to rejites, imagining that it would be for the good of the
murderAli, Moflem affairs that Moawiyah, Ali, and Amru, were
Amru, and dead, difpatched affaffins to murder all the three. Moa-,
oawiyah. was wounded, but recovered ; Amru’s fecretary
IT6 was killed by miftake ; but Ali was wounded with a
Ali affafll- poifoned fword,. which oceafioned his death. The af-
natfed. faffin was taken, and Ali would have pardoned him
had he recovered, but ordered him to be put to death
if he died, that he might, as he faid, “ have an imme¬
diate opportunity of accufing him before God.” Even
in this order he {bowed his ufual clemency, as he or¬
dered the affaflin to be difpatched at one blow, and
without torture of any kind.
Thus fell Ali, the moft virtuous of all the Mahometan
Khalifs, after he had reigned near five years, and lived
63. He was prefled by thofe about him to nominate
a fucceffor before he died; but this he declined, faying,
II7 he would follow the example of the Apoftle of God,
Succeeded who had not named any: and, as his fon Hafan
by Hafan. inherited his father’s piety, though not his courage, he
was declared khalif without any fcruple. Moawiyah,
however, behaved in fuch a manner towards him, as
{bowed his hoftile intentions ; and thofe about Hafan
prefled him to declare war immediately. This Hafan,
who was of an exceeding mild and peaceable difpofi-
^ion, could hardly be perfuaded to do; and though he
at laft took the field, yet he immediately perceived his
Whore incaPachy to difpute the empire with Moawiyah; and
fiens the tf161"6!*316 refigned it, in fpite of all the remonftrances
khalifat to°^ his friends, to a traitor, who caufed. him after fome-
Moawiyah. years to be poifoned by his wife.
Moawiyah being thus left foie mafter of the Moflem
empire, found himfelf under a neceffity of reducing
the Kharejites, who were his enemies as well as Alt’s,
and had now gathered together a confiderable army. Arabia.
Againft thefe rebels the khalif would have difpatched -v—^
Hafan, but that prince refufed; upon which he fent
the Syrian troops againft them, who were defeated:
however the Cafans, being at laft perfuaded to take up
arms, foon extinguifhed the rebelli m, and fettled Moa¬
wiyah more firmly than ever on the Moflem throne.
In the 48th year of the Hegira, the khalif fent his fon IT_.
Yezid with a powerful army to befiege Conftantinople. Conftantfi
In this expedition he was attended by three or four ofnople be-
the Companions, who, notwkhftanding their age, were fiegedwith-
prompted by zeal to undergo incredible fatigues. Xheout^ucce*fc'
Moflem forces too, tho’ they fuffered extremely, were
animated to furmount all difficulties by a tradition, ac¬
cording to which the prophet in his lifetime declared,
“ That the fins of the firlt army that took the city of
Caefarea fiiould be forgiven.” Concerning the particu¬
lars of this expedition we are in the dark: only, in ge¬
neral, that it proved unfuccefsful; and in it Abu Ayub,
who had been with Mahomet at the battles of Bedr
and Ohod, loft his life. His tomb is held in fuch ve¬
neration by the Moflems, that the Sultans of the Ot¬
toman family gird their fwords on at it on their accefi-
fion to the throne. In the 54th year of the Hegira,
the Arabs made an irruption into Bukharia, and de- 120
feated a Turkifti army that oppofed them. The Turks Turks de-
loft a great number of men ; and the queen, who com-feated.
manded in perfon, with great difficulty made her efcape.
She. had only time to put on one of her buffiins ; the
other fell into the hands of the Arabs, who valued it
at no lefs than 2000 dinars. About this time alfo,
according to the Greek hiftorians, a treaty was con¬
cluded between the emperor and the Moflems, where¬
by the latter were allowed to keep the territories they
had feized; in confideration of which they were to pay
3000 pounds weight of gold, 50 flaves, and as many
choice horfes. To thefe difttonourable conditions they
were obliged to fubmit, in confequence of their late
unfuccefsful expedition to Conrtantinople, and fome o-
ther defeats they had received. This peace was to con¬
tinue for 30 years. The next year, Moawiyah, ha¬
ving conferred the government of Khorafan upon Saad,
Othman’s grandfon, that general, foon after his pro¬
motion, pafled the Jihun, or Amu, the Oxus of the
ancients, and advanced with a body of troops to Sa¬
markand, which opened its gates to him on his ap¬
proach ; foon after which he defeated an army of Ui-
beck Tartars, and marched direftly to Tarmud, or Tar- •
mid, which alfo furrendered without oppofition. The
57th year of the Hegira was remarkable for nothing
but vaft fwarms of locufts, which did incredible da¬
mage irr-Syria and Mefopotamia; and great difeontents
on account of the khalif’s having nominated for his fuc-
ceflbr his fon Yezid, a perfon of fcandalous life, and
no way worthy of the throne. The 58th year of the
Hegira was rendered remarkable by the death of
Ayeffia, Mahomet’s widow; and the 60th by that of rar
Moawiyah, after having reigned from Hafan’s refig-Moawiyaff
nation, nineteen years, three months, and five days ; d*cs*
but concerning his age authors are not agreed. He
was interred at Damafcus, which was made the refi-
dence of the khaliffs as long as the houfe of Ommiyah
continued on the throne. J2a
Yezid was proclaimed, in confequence of his nonrii-Succeeded'
nation, the fame day his father died. His inaugura- by Yezid>
Y a tion
AHA ARA
Arabia, tlon was performed on the new moon of the month Ra-
' jeb, correfponding to April 7th, 680. Immediately af¬
ter his eleriion, he wrote to A1 Walid, governor of Me-
\43 dina, to feize Hofein, the remaining Ion of All, and
Abdallah Abcl‘dl‘d1 Ebn Zobeir, in cafe they refufed to acknow-
refule toac - ^e<^§e ^’s fight. He accordingly tendered the oath of
knowledge allegiance to 'Hofein, who .returned an evafxve anfwer,
"him. and found means to efcape to his own houfe. As for
Abdallah, he delayed waiting upon the governor, un¬
der various pretences, for 24 hours ; after which he
made his efcape to Mecca: hither Hofein followed
him; but received an invitation from the.people of Cu-
fa, who promifed to affift him in vindicating the rights
of his father Ali and himfelf. In the mean time,
Yezid, being informed of A1 Walid’s negligence in fuf-
fering Abdallah and Hofein to efcape, removed him
from his employment, appointing in his room Amru
Ebn Saad, at that time commandant of Mecca. The
.new governor immediately difpatched againft Abdal¬
lah Amer Ebn Zobeir, Abdallah’s own brother, who
mortally hated him : but Abdallah, having engaged
Amer in the field, defeated and took him prifoner:;
which greatly railed his reputation at Medina, although
Hofein’s fuperior interell among them ftill rendered
,him incapable of afpiring to the .khalifat .by himfelf.
While Abdallah was thus ftrengthening himfelf at
Mecca and Medina, Hofein was doing the fame at
jCufa. On the firft notice of their inclinations, he had
fent to them Moflem Ebn Okail, to whom, as repre-
fentative of the fon of Ali, they had taken an oath of
allegiance, and were now very prefiing - on .Hofein to
honour their city with his prefence. Befides this, Ho-
Jrin was fupported by the forces of Irak, who retained
a great veneration for the memory of his father, and
-had all along confidered the government of Moawiyah
as a downright ufurpation.
Notwithlbuiding all thefe fteps taken at Cufa in fa¬
vour of Hofein, the deliberations of the confpirators
-were carried on with fuch fecrecy, that A1 Nooman
the governor continued a ftranger .to them, even after
the Cufans had determined immediately to enter upon
fiction with an army of 18,000 men. At laft, . how¬
ever, he began to be roufed from his lethargy.; but
Yezid being difpleafed with his conduft, removed him
from his government, appointing fhr his fuccefibr ©-
beidallah Ebn Ziyad. This governor entered the city
in the evening, and was received with all poffible de-
.monftrati.ons of joy by the Cufans, who miftook him
for Hofein, owing to a black turbant whjch he had on
his head, refembling that which Hofein ulually wore.
His firft care was to extinguifti the ledition that had
.been excited by Moftem. In order to this, he com¬
manded a trufty fervantto difgmfe himfclf, and perlon-
ate a ftranger come out of Syria to fee the inaugura¬
tion of Hofein ; that he might get admifficm into Mof-
1 lends houfe, and penetrate all his councils. This com-
miffion was faithfully executed ; and Obeidallah under-
ftanding that Moflem.lodged in the hoqfe of one Sha
rik, who was then iick, fent a meffenger to Sharik,
.letting him know that he intended to vifit him on
a certain day. Sharik immediately, came to a refolu-
tion to receive him, and,appointed Mofiem a place.in
the corner of the room whence he might.rulh out up-
>©n Obeidallah and kill him. The vifit was according¬
ly made; but Moflem’s heart failing him, the gover¬
nor efcaped: Hani, however, in whofe houfe Moflem Arabia,
had firft lodged, was imprifoned by Obeidallah. Up-
on the news of this, Moflem afl'embled about 4000
men, and befleged Obeidallah in the caftle. The go¬
vernor, however, not in the leaft difpirited, made a
fpeech to Modem’s followers; which had fuch an ef-
fie<ft upon them, that they all deferted him except a-
bout go. By the favour of the night, Moflem efcaped
to a poor woman’s cottage in the neighbourhood; but
being betrayed by her fon, Obeidallah fent a detach¬
ment of 80 horfe to feize him. Moflem made a gal¬
lant .refiftance, and thrice cleared the houfe of them ;
but .being at laft overpowered with numbers, and grie-
voufly wounded, he was taken and brought to Cufa.
While on the road, he endeavoured to fend an account
of his bad fuccefs to Hofein, then, as he fuppofed, on
the road to Cufa ; but without fuccefs. When arrived
at the caftle he begged a draught of water: but thofe
who ftood by told him he ftiould have none till he drank
the hamim, or boiling liquor, which the Mahometans
pretend Is drunk by the damned in hell; and foon af¬
ter this, being brought before the governor, he vkis
beheaded along with Hani, and both their heads fent
as a prefent to Yezid. TJ4
Hofein in the mean time, was preparing to fet outHofein’s
for Cufa, having received the moft favourable advices obftinacy.
from Moflem, ol whofe fate he was ignorant, and who
had fent him a lift of 140,000 men that were ready to
obey his orders. This the wifeft of his friends repre-
fented as a defperate enterprize, and entreated him to
drop it, or at leaft to defer Jiis journey till he fhould be
better affured of fuccefs : but Hofein was deaf to all
falutary counfel; nay, he could not, by the moft ear-
neft intreaties, be prevailed upon to forbear taking his
wives and children along with him. The confequences
of this obftinacy may eafily be imagined : Obeidallah
difpatched firft 1000, and then yooomen againft him;
with orders,.however, not to offer any violence to him,
provided he fubmitted himfelf. To thefe terms the
infatuated Hofein would.not agree; lie offered indeed T25
to return home, if Obeidallah would permit; but that He is de-
not being granted, he defperately engaged the troopsfeated an<J
of Obeidallah, and was after long reliftance cut in lifted*
pieces with all his men. His head was brought to O-
beidallah, who ftruck .it over the .mouth with a flick,
and treated it with great contempt. He was alfo in¬
clined to have put his family to death ; but probably
feared an infurredlion, as the.people of Cufa expreffed
great refentment on account of Hofein’s death; nor
was it at.all agreeable to the khalif Yezid, who treated
the family, of the unfortunate Hofein with the greateft
kindnefs.
This year, the 61ft of the Hegira, Yezid appointed
Salem Ebn Ziyad governor of Ivhorafan ; who, foon
after entering upon the government, made.an irruption
into the Turkilh territories. He took his wife along
with him in this expedition, who was delivered of a
child in the neighbourhood of .Samarcaud ; on which
©ccafion ftie is faid to have borrowed fome jewels from
the prince of Sogd’s lady, which Hie afterwards carried
off with her. In the mean time Salem detached Mo-
jialleb with a confiderable body of troops to Khowa-
razm, the principal city of the Turks or Tartars in
thofe parts, from which he extorted the immenfe fum of
50,000,000 pieces of money; from whence advancing
to
A R A
t i?3 1
A R A
Aratti. to Samarcand, he forced the inhabitants of that city
y-~< alfo to pay him an immenfe fum ; and then retired,
with little lofs, into the province he governed.
In the mean time Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, finding
himfelf, by the death of Hofein, -at the head of the
partizahs of the houfe of Hafhem, who were greatly
opprefl'ed by Yezid, began in earneft to afpire to the
khalifat. As he had therefore never owned the autho¬
rity of Yezid, he now openly declared againft him,
Ia6 and was proclaimed khalif at Medina foon after the
Abdallah arrival of Hofein’s family in that place. Soon after his
^proclaimed inauguration, to render himfelf the more popular, he
■Jchalif. expatiated on the circumftances of Hofein’s -death,
which indeed were very tragical, and reprefented the
Cufans as the moll abandoned and perfidious villains
upon earth. This went fo well down with the citizens
of Mecca and Medina, that they flocked to him in great
numbers, fo that he foon found himfelf at the head of
a confiderable force. The khalif Yezid being inform¬
ed of his progrefs, fwore he would have him in chains;
and accordingly fent a filver collar for him to Mer-
wan, then governor of Medina: 'but the intereft of
Abdallah was now fo ftrong, that he laughed at the
menaces both of the khalif and Merwan. Nay, the
governor of Mecca, though be fecretfy hated him,
thought it good policy, as matters then flood, to keep
up a good underftanding with Abdallah : but this co¬
ming to the ears of Yezid, he depofed die governor ;
appointing in his place Walid Ebn Otbali, a man of
"known fidelity, and a bitter enemy of Abdallah. The
new governor, therefore, immediately on his acceflion,
ufed all his art and fkill to circumvent Abdallah; but
to no purpofq, as the latter was always on his guard.
This conduct, however, giving him great difguft, as
well as terrible apprehenfions, he wrote to the khalif,
informing him that all the diftufbances were owing to
the untra(Sable difpofition of Walid; and that, if he
would fend a perfon of a different character, peace
would foon be reflored. This letter the khalif very in-
judicioufly gave ear to, and difmiffed his faithful go¬
vernor, appointing in his room one who was totally un-
qualified for that poft. The people of Medina, now
Tezid for-having frefli intelligence of Yezid’s diJfolute manner of
nially de- life, renounced their allegiance to him, and formally
poled. depofed him in a very fingular manner. After they
had affembled in the mofque, about the pulpit there,
one of them fald, “ I lay afide Yezid as I do this tur-
bant,” and immediately threw his turbant on the
ground. Another faid, “ I put away Yezid as I do
this flioe,” calling away his fhoe at the fame time.
Thefe examples being followed by others, there was a
large heap of flioes and turbants almoft inftantly form¬
ed upon the fpot. They then difmiffed Yezid’s gover¬
nor, and banilhed from the city all the friends and de¬
pendents of the houfe of Ommiyah. Thefe, to the num¬
ber of about tooo, took refuge in the houfe of Merwan
Ebn A1 Hakem, where they were fo clofely befieged
by Abdallah’s party, that they found themfelves ob¬
liged to fend to Yezid for immediate afliftance ; ac¬
quainting him, that if they were not fuccoured, they
mull all inevitably pefilh. The khalif, though he
wondered that fuch a number of men fhould fuffer
themfelves to be fo cooped up without making the
ieaft refiftance, difpatched Moflem Ebn Okba to Me¬
dina, with a confiderable body of troops, to quell the A ram*,
dillurbances. He ordered him to fpare Ali the fon of —“w-—J
Hofein and his family, as they had no hand at all in
the difturbances : then he was to fummon the town
of Medina to furrender for three days fucceflively;
which if they refufed, he was to take it by llorm, and
give it up to be plundered by the foldiers for three
whole days.
The inhabitants of Medina being now lenfible of
their danger, fuffered the friends of the houfe of Om¬
miyah to withdraw quietly out of the city; though, be¬
fore they departed, a promife was extorted from them
not to appear in arms againft the reigning fa&ion.
Moflem, in the mean time, advanced towards the city
at the head of jooo foot and 12,000 horfe; and having
fummoned it according to his inftruftions, upon its re-
fufal made the necellary preparations for an attack.
The garrifon, however, for a confiderable time, made
a vigorous defence; but at lall, moll of the Anfars
and principal officers being killed, the Arabs propofed I2g
a capitulation. Modem, however, would hearken to Medina ta-
no terms, and infilled on their furrendering at difcre-ken and
tion ; which being refufed, he entered the city after aPlund<V?d
faint refinance. Ali was treated with great refpeft
but all the men that had carried arms were ,put to the 1
fword, and Modem fuffered his troops to ravilh, loco
women, and to pillage the city for three -days fuccef-
fively. Thofe that efcaped the flaughter he forced to
acknowledge themfelves the Haves and vaflals of Yezid.
For this extreme feverity he was furnamed by the A-
rabs Al Mufrif or The Extravagant, and ever after
confidered as an impious perfon, efpecially as the pro¬
phet had declared that the wrath of God Ihould moll
certainly remain upon thofe who facked or plundered
the city of Medina.
After the reduction of Medina, Mollem directed
his courfe to Mecca, where Abdallah then reiided ;
but he died by the way, and the command of the
troops devolved upon Hofein Ebn Tha-mir Al Selwi.
This general advanced to Mecca, which he befieged for
40 days, battering the town with fuch fury, that he
beat down a great part of the famous temple there,
and burnt the reft; nor would the city itfelf have e-
fcaped the fame fate, had not an end been put to the
war by the arrival of certain accounts of the death of
Yezid, who departed this life in the 64th year of the Yezid dies.
Hegira, anfwering to the year 684 of the Chriftian
sera, having lived 39, and reigned three years and fix
or eight months. On the news of his death, Hofein
offered to take the oath of allegiance to Abdallah ; but
the latter at that time durll not trull him, of which he
had afterwards fufficient reafon to repent. 130
Yezid was fiiccceded by his fon Moawiyah II. who Moawiyah
was proclaimed khalif at Damafcus the fame day that11-Pro'
his father died ; but being of a weakly conllitution, and
unable to bear the fatigues of government, religned therej- 1 an
crown fix weeks after his inauguration, and died foon
after without naming a fucceffor.
This abdication having left the Moflem empire ab-
folutely without a mailer, great commotions enfued.
On the death of Yezid, Obeidallah Ebn Ziyad, go*
vemor of Bafra, reprefented to the citizens that they
ought to choofe a protestor till a new khalif Ihould bq
chofen; and if the perfon fo chofen Ihould be difagree-
abl*
A R A [174] A R A
Arabia, able to them, they might then remain in a ftate of in-
dependency under the protedlor whom they had chofen.
The inhabitants, perceiving the drift of this fpeech,
complimented him with that honour ; which he accep¬
ted with feeming difficulty : but fending a deputy to
Cufa, the inhabitants of that city not only refufed to
acknowledge his authority, but threw dull and gravel
nr at his meflenger. This coming to the ears of the peo-
Obe'uiallah pie of Bafra, they not only deprived Obeidallah of
forcedtofly the dignity they had newly conferred upon him, but
into Syria. even eXpepecj the city. Nor could he prevail up¬
on Najari, a tribe of Ani’ars, to efpoufe his quarrel,,
nor even upon his own relations, though he diftributed
among them great part of the fixteen millions of pieces
©f money which he had found in the treafury of Bafra,
and kept the remainder to himfelf. Nay, fo odious
had he rendered himfelf to all ranks, on account of his
cruelties, particularly the death of Hofein the fon of
All, that his brother Abdallah was unable to protect
him from the fury of the populace, though he kept
him concealed in womens cloaths, and diftributed a-
mong the mob 200,000 pieces of money. He was
therefore at laft conftrained to leave the city, attended
by a guard of 100 men. Immediately after his de¬
parture, the mob plundered his houfe, and purfued him,
fo that he was obliged to exchange his camel for an
afs, and thus with the utmoft difficulty efcaped into
Syria.
In the mean time, Hofein Ebn Thamir, being re¬
turned into Syria with tire forces' under his command,
gave a faithful account of the fituation of affairs in A-
rabia to Merwan Ebn Al Hakem. He alfo acquainted
him of the offer he had made to Abdallah of the oath
of allegiance, which the latter had refufed, or at leaft
would not come to Damafcus in order to be inverted
with the fupreme authority there. On this account he
advifed Merwan to take care of himfelf and the reft
of the houfe of Ommiyah, who had fled to Damafcus
after their expulfion from Medina. On this difcourfe
Merwan was inclined to fubmit to Abdallah ; but was
diverted from it by Obeidallah, who infilled that no
fuperior ought to be acknowledged by Merwan, who
was at the head of the Koreilh. The people of Da¬
mafcus had conftituted Dahak Ebn Kais their protec¬
tor, who inclined to Abdallah. The Bafrans were at
this juncture entirely in tumult and confufion, not be¬
ing able to agree about a protestor after the expulfion
of Obeidallah ; fo that at laft they wrote to Abdallah,
offering him the government of their territory. This he
accepted, but could not be prevailed upon to ftir from
Mecca : nor could Merwan be perfuaded to fuffer any
of the Syrians to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca, left
they ftiould join Abdallah, and thereby contribute to
132 his exclufion from the throne.
Merwan In the midft of this confufion Abdallah might have
proclaimed eafily fecured the khalifat to himfelf, had he not with
khahf at t]lc ut;moft imprudence as well as inhumanity given
am cus. or(jers for the extermination of the houfe of Ommiyah.
This ruined his affairs ; for they being now obliged to
provide for their own fafety, Merw-an was proclaimed
khalif at Damafcus; and thus the whole Mbflem empire
was rent into two potent factions, the one under Mer¬
wan and the other under Abdallah.
We have, already obferved, that Dahak Ebn Kais
inclined to favour Abdallah. This he continued to do Arabia.
after Merwan was proclaimed khalif, infemuch that a' v—
battle foon enfued between his followers and thofe of
Merwan, in which Dahak was defeated and killed; and
thus Merv/an became mafter of all the province of Sy¬
ria. Soon after this vidtory, Merwan advanced with a
confiderable body of troops towards Egypt; but fent
before him Amru Ebn Said with a detachment, in or¬
der to facilitate his paflage. That general having de¬
feated Abdalrahman, Abdallah’s lieutenant, in feveral
briflc adtions, he at laft furrendered the whole country
to Merwan for a fum of money, and retired with the
Arabs under his command to Hejaz. The Syrian
troops, therefore, immediately took poffeflion of that
country, and obliged the inhabitants to take an oath
of allegiance to Merwan; who having appointed his
fon Abdalazziz to prefide over Egypt, returned with
the greateft part of his forces to Damafcus. Here he
was informed that Abdallah had difpatched againft him 133
his brother Mufab with a confiderable army.. Againft
him Merwan difpatched Amru Ebn Said ; who having felted by
foon come up with him, gave, him a total defeat, and Merwan’s..
difperfed his troops in fuch a manner that Mufab found
it impoffible to rally them again. %
In the 6-5th year of the Hegira, the. inhabitants ofTheCufans
Cufa, pretending to be feized with remorfe of con- revolt,
fcience for their treachery to Hofein the fon of Ali,
raifed an infurredtion againft both the khalifs, and
therefore affembled a body of 16,000 men, under the x35
command of one Soliman,who was to revenge the death Joined by-
of Hofein upon Obeidallah Ebn Ziyad and his adhe- A1 Mokh-
rents. But while Soliman and his troops remained yet tar‘
inadtive> Al Mokhtar, who had ferved under Abdallah,
and was difgufted at not having been promoted as he
expedled, arrived at Cufa, and reprefenting the inca¬
pacity of Soliman, who indeed appears to have been
totally unfit for fuch an enterprize,. offered to take the
command upon himfelf. This, however, was refufed ;
and as Al Mokhtar had no opinion of Soliman’s mili¬
tary capacity, he found means to draw off 2000 of
his troops ; while 10,000 more chofe rather to vio¬
late the oaths they had taken, than run the riik of
being cut to pieces by a fuperior enemy. Soliman, 156
however, put a good face upon the matter; and, telling Soliman’i
his troops that they were to fight for another world folI-v and
and not this, fet forward to invade Syria with the 4oooeiuhufiafia‘
who remained with him: but being advanced as far as
Ekfas upon the Euphrates, he found that he had loft
IOOO men by defertion ; nor was he joined by the Se-
paratifts of Bafra and Al Madayen, though they had;
promifed him a reinforcement. Firmly perfuaded, how¬
ever, that his caufe was the caufe of heaven, Soliman
continued his march all night, and next day arrived at
the tomb of Hofein, where his men performed their
devotions with fuch enthufiafm of penitence, that one
prefent fwore he never faw fuch crowding about the
black ftone in the temple of Mecca itfelf.— Continuing
ftill to advance, he received a friendly letter from Ab¬
dallah Ebn Yezid, the governor of Cufa, advifing him
to return, and reprefenting to him the folly of enga-
ing fo powerful an army as would be fent againft
im, with an handful of men: but Soliman, imagining
that he was only recalled in order to fupport Abdallah-
Eba Zobeir in his preteafions to the khalifat, perfifted
in
A R A
[ >75 1
j.:'J ArsAia- In his refolution of penetrating into Syria. He told
his troops, that they would never be nearer the two
Hofeins (Hofein, and his brother Hafan, to whom alfo
the Shiites give that name) than they were at prefent;
and that mould they at this time meet with death,
they would be in a date of repentance, and confequent-
ly could never die in a more proper time ; and after
this fpeech, continuing dill to advance, he was at laft
iBHe is cat inmet H Obeidallah at the head of 20,000 horfe, who,
a^pieces with after an obftinate engagement, cut to pieces Soliman
lallhismen. and all his troops.
I38 Soon after this decifive ariion died the khalif Mer-
>3 4ieSrWan wan> after he had reigned eleven months. He is faid
by fome authors to have been poifoned by his wife
Zeinab, Moawiyah’s widow. Her he had married, with
a promifqjjthat her fon Khaled fhould fucceed him; but
afterwards altering the fucceffion in favour of his own
fon Abdalmalec, young Khaled reproached him with
his breach of promife: upon this Merwan calling him
baflard, the child complained to his mother; who, to
be revenged for this affront, is faid to have poifoned
him, or fmothered him with a pillow.
In the beginning of the khalifat of Abdalmalec, A1
Mokhtar, who had been imprifoned by the governor
of Cufa, was releafed at the interceffion of Abdallah
Ebn Omar, who had married his fitter. The year fol¬
lowing, having put himfelf at the head of the Shiite
fedtaries, he fent propofals of alliance to Abdallah Ebn
Zobeir; but he, juftly fufpedting his fmcerity, by a
ftratagem cut off near 300® of his men. Upon this di-
fafter, 41 Mokhtar, fearing the houfe of Ali might be
intimidated, fent a letter to Mahomet Ebn Hanifyah,
one of that family, in which he offered his afliftance
jj Harrow e- with a powerful army. This offer Mahomet declined,
»s fcapeof the declaring himfelf only for pacific meafures; but though
m family of he and all the reft of All’s family behaved in the moft
^ peaceable manner, Abdallah did not think himfelf fafe
till they owned his authority. He therefore imprifoned
them, together with 17 of the principal citizens of
Cufa, whom he threatened to put to death, and after¬
wards burn their bodies, if they did not within a limit¬
ed time take an oath of allegiance to him. A1 Mokhtar
being informed of the diftreffed fituation they were in,
fent a body of 750 horfe to Mecca, under Abu Ab-
dalla, to releafe them. That general not only execu¬
ted his orders with great bravery, but took Abdallah
himfelf prifoner, whom he would have cut to pieces on
the fpot, had he not been releafed at the interceflion of
Mahomet, who for the prefent adjufted the differences
to the mutual fatisfaftion of all parties. After this re¬
conciliation, Abu Abdallah, or rather Mahomet him¬
felf, diftributed among 4000 of All’s friends a fum of
I money brought for that purpofe, in order to indemnify
them for the Ioffes they had fuftained. Thus the friends
of Ali were happily delivered, when only two days of
the time granted them by Abdallah remained, and a
fufficient quantity of wood and other combuftibles was
collected, in order to confume their bodies. Notwith-
ftanding the reconciliation, however, that had lately
taken place, Mahomet Ebn Hanifyah thought proper
to poll himfelf on a mountain near Mecca with a body
of 4000 men.
The Cufans having received advice before Merwan’s
’death, that he had fent Obeidallah with a powerful
army towards their city, -and even given him permif-
A R A
fion to plunder it in cafe it fhould be taken, appointed Arabia.
Yezid Ebn Ares,, a man of undaunted courage, to op-
pofe him ; but Merwan dying before Obeidailah could
execute his commiflion, an end was put for the prefent
to this expedition. The memory of it, however, Itili
remained ; and A1 Mokhtar, to whom Obeidallah was
perfonally obnoxious, affembled a body of troops to
adt offenfively againft him, and even againft the Syrian 54-)
khalif himfelf in cafe he fhould fupport Obeidallah. A- Impiety of
mong other preparations for this enterprize, A1 Mokli- A! Alokh-
tar caufed a kind of portable throne to be made, tell-taf'
ing his troops, that, “ it would be of the fame ufe to
them that the ark was to the children of Ifrael,” It
was therefore carried on a mule before the troops that
Were to march againft Obeidallah, and the following
prayer faid before it: “ O God ! grant that vre may
live long in thy obedience ; help us ; and do not for¬
get us, but protedl us.” This, expedient was fo well
adapted to the hot-headed enthufiatts w’ho compofed 141
A1 Mokhtar’s army,- that they attacked Obeidallah’sObeidallaii
camp, defeated him, and gained a complete vidtory. de^ea!:et3
Obeidallah himfelf was killed in the adtion, his headan 1 'e
fent to A1 Mokhtar, and his body reduced to afhes.-—
By this vidtory the fedtaries were rendered fo formi¬
dable, that Nifibin or Nifibis, and feveral other cities,
furrendered to them without oppofition. They now
began to entertain thoughts of depofmg both the kha-
lifs, and placing on the Moflem throne one of the fa¬
mily of Ali; but all their towering hopes were foon
fruftrated by the defeat and death of A1 Mokhtar by T4t
Mufab brother to Abdallah Ebn Zobeir. A1 Mokhtar, A1 Mokli-
after being defeated in a general engagement by Mu- tar defeat-
fab, fled to the caftle of Cufa, where he defended him-ed and kl1*
felf with great bravery for fome time ; but being at laft^by Mu'
killed, his men, to the number of 7000, furrendered at
difcretion, and were all of them put to the fword on
account of the outrages they had committed.
The next year, the 68th of the Hegira, the Azara-
kites, fo denominated from Nafe Ebn A1 Azarak, the
author of their fe<ft, having affembled a confiderable
force, made an irruption into Irak. They advanced r43
almoft tothe gates of Cufa, and penetrated to A1 Ma-Horrid
dayen. Being fworn enemies of the houfe of Ommi-crueltdes
yah, and acknowledging no government, fpiritual or £01 the'A-
temporal, they committed terrible ravages in every part
of the Moflem territories through which they patted.
They carried their excettes to fuch a height as to mur¬
der all the people they met with, to rip open women
with child, and commit every fpecies of cruelty that
could be invented upon the inhabitants without diftinc-
tion. The governor of Mawfel and Mefopotamia, be¬
ing informed of thefe unparalleled outrages, marched
againft them with a body of troops, and carried on a
brilk war with them for eight months. During this
period their leader Nafe Ebn A1 Azarak died; and was
fucceeded by Katri Ebn A1 Fojat, under whofe con-
duff they continued their depredations. Mufab not
being pleafed with his lieutenant’s management of the
war, recalled him, and fent in his place one Omar Ebn
Abdallah Temimi, who gave the Azarakites a great
overthrow at Naifabur in Khorafan, put many of them
to the fword, and purfued the reft as far as Ifpahan Jj(4
and the province of Kerman. Here having received-phey are
a reinforcement, they returned into the province of defeated
Ahwaz, and did incredible damage to the country ar-d difper-
throughfed-
A R A
E r76 ]
A R A
Arabia, through which they faffed, But ®mar advancing a-
^—v ' gainft them a fecond time, they retired at his approach
to Al Madayen* ravaging the diitriift belonging to
the city ki a dreadful manner. However, Omar pur-
and from the pulpit made a fpeech fuitable to the oc- Arabia.'
cafion. He alfo did his-utmoft : to put Mecca in a1 •*I,
proper pofture of defence,.expecting a 1’peedy vifit from
his formidable-competitor, who now gave law to Irak,
hung them thither alfo, they fled into the province of Syria, and Egypt, without controul.
Kerman, and thence nraduallv difnerfed themfelves. Snnn after AKrtalmaW’e rpi-nm i-n
Kerman, and thence gradually difperfed themfelves.
This year there was a grievous famine in Syria, which
fufpended all military operations.
The next year, being the 69th of the Hegira* Ab-
dalmalec left Damafcus to march againft Mufab. In
Lis abfence he left Amru Ebn; Said governor of the
city ; but he immediately feized upon it for himfelf,
which obliged the khalifto-return. After feveral fkir-
mifires had happened between fome detachments of the
kbalif’s troops with thofe of Amru, a pacification was
T45 concluded at tile interceflion of the women: but Ab>:
nr dalmalec- barbaroufly put Amru to death with his own
hand* notwithflanding his- promife; and was imme-
of Abdal-
ssialec.
146
Difgrace-
Soon after Abdalmalec’s return to Damafcus, he ap¬
pointed his brother Bafhar governor of Cufa; and Kha-
led Ebn Abdallah governor of Bafra. The latter had
no fooner entered upon his office, than he indifcreetly
removed from the command of the army Al Mohalleb,,
one of the greateft generals of the age ; appointing in
his room Abdalaziz, who was greatly his inferior in.
military fkilh Of this difmiffion the Azarakites being
informed,, they immediately attacked Abdalaziz, en¬
tirely defeated him, and took his wife prifoner. A dif-
pute arifmg among the victors about the price of that
lady, one of them, fo end it, immediately cut off her
head. Upon this difafter, Khaled was commanded to.
diately feized with fueh a tremor, that he loft-the ufe of replace Al Mohalleb, whichhedidj andhaving in con- I4g
almoft all his faculties, and was obliged to belaid in junftion with him attacked the Azarakites, forced their Azarakites-
—1—   —1 camp, and entirely defeated them. defeated.
In the yzd year.of the Hegira, Abdalmalec having
no enemy to contend with but Abdallah Ebn Zobeir,
made great preparations for an invafion of Hejaz, gi¬
ving the command of the army to. be employed on this
occafion to Al Hejaj, one of his moft warlike and elo¬
quent captains. Before -that general had. put his army
in march for Mecca, he offered bis protedHon to all the
Arabs there that would accept of it. Abdallah being
informed of ;the.enemy’s approach, fent out feveral par¬
ties of horfe to. reconnoitre, and give him intelligence
of their motions.. Between thefe and fome of Al He-
bed. In the mean time the palace was attacked by
Yahyah, A-mru’s brother, at the head of 1000 flaves.
After a warm difpute, they forced open the gates,
killed feveral of the guards, and. were upon the point
of entering the palace, when the people within threw
Amru’s head among them. This To cooled their ar¬
dour, that they defifted ffrom the attempt; and fome
money having been afterwards diftributed among them,
they retired. So great, however, was Abdalmalec’s
avarice, that after the tumult was appeafed, he recal¬
led all the money which bad been diftributed, and com¬
manded it to be depofited in the public treafury.
In the 70th year of the Hegira, the Greeks made jaj’s advanced guards feveral fkirmifties happened, in
ful treaty an irruption into Syria; and • Abdalmalec- having occa-
with the (]on f0I. a].l his forces to aft againft Abdallah Ebn Zo-
ree*s' beir, was obliged to-pay a tribute of 1000 dinars per
day, according to Tbeophanes, and fend every year
365 flaves and as many horfes to Conftaminople. In
which Abdallah’s men had generally the worft. This
encouraged Al Hejaj. to. fend to. the khalif for a rein¬
forcement, his troops amounting to-no more than aooo
men, who were infufficient for reducing Mecca. He
affured him at the fame time, that Abdallah’s fierce-
this treaty, it was alfo ftipulated, that the revenues of nefs was very much abated, and that his men deferted
Cyprus, Armenia, and Heria, Ihould be equally divi-
r47 ded between the khalif and-the Greek.emperor.
Mftfab de- Abdalmalec being now at leifure to purfue his in-
feated and tended expedition againft Mufab,.marched againft him
Abdaln/ *n P€rf°n 5 and having arrived at Malken, a fmall town
lee,
on the frontiers of Mefopotamia, where he was waited
for by Mufab, the latter was defeated through-the
treachery of his troops, and himfelf killed. After the
battle, Abdalmalec repaired to Cufa,.where he was re¬
ceived with the utmoft fubmiffion ; and people of ail
ranks came in crowds to take the oath of allegiance to
him. He then ordered vaft fums of. money.to be dif-
tributed among them, and gave a fplendid entertain-
to him daily. The .khalif, upon this, ordered a reinforce¬
ment of ,5000, men under .the . command of Tharik Ebn 149.
Amer; but notwithftanding this additional ftrength, Mecca be--
he made but little progrefs in the fiege for Tome timeTieSed .b?
While he battered the.temple of Mecca, with his ma-A1 HeJa>
chines, it thundered and . lightened fo dreadfully, that
the Syrians were ftruck with terror, and refufed to play
them any longer upon that edifice. . Upon this Al He¬
jaj ftuck the corner .of his veft into his girdle, and put¬
ting into it one of thfe ftones that was to be difeharged
out of the catapults, flang it into the town, and this- ’
occaftoned the recommencement of the operations. The
next morning the Syrians were annoyed by frefh ftorms.
ment to his newTubjefts, to which-even the meaneft of which killed 12 men, and quite diipirited them. A1
them were not -refufed admittance. During this enter¬
tainment, the unfortunate Mufab’s head was prefented
Hejaj, however, animated them, by obferving that he
was a fon-of Tehama; that this was the .ftorm of Te-
to the khalif ; upon which one of the company took hama, and that their adverfaries fuffered as much as
occafion to fay to him, “ I faw Hofein’s head in this
fame caftle prefented-to Obeidallah; Obeidallah’s to Al
Mokhtar Al Mokhtar’s to Mufab; and now at laft
Mufab’s to yburfelf.” This obfervation fo affefted the
khalif, that, either to avert the ill omen, or from fome
other motive, he ordered the caftle to be immediately
demoliftied. Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, in the mean time,
having received the melancholy news of the defeat and
death of his brother, affembled the people, of Mecca,
N° 2;.
they- The day following fome of Abdallah’s men.
were killed by a very violent ftorm, which gave Al He¬
jaj,a farther opportunity of animating his troops. At
laft, Abdallah having been deferted by moft of his
friends,. 10,000.of the inhabitants of Mecca, and even
by his own fons Hamza and Khobeib, defired to know
his mother’s fentiments as to what courfe he was to.take.
He reprefented to her, that he was almoft entirely a-
bandoned by his fubjefts and relations ; .that the few.
who
A R A
[ 177 ]
A R A
Arabia -who perfifted in their fidelity to him could fcarce en-
able him to defend the city any longer ; and that the
Syrian khalif -would grant Him any terms he fliould
think , fit to demand; His mother, however, being of an
inflexible refolution, and not able to bear the thoughts
of feeing her fon reduced to the rank of a private per-
fon, being herfelf the daughter of Abu Beer the firft
khalif, advifed him by no means, to furvive the fove-
reignty, of which he was on the point of being .depri¬
ved. This advice being agreeable to his own fentiments,
he refolved to die in defence of the place. In purfu-
ance of this refolution, he defended the city, to the a-
mazement of the beiiegers, for ten days, though defti-
tute of arms, troops, and fortifications. At laft, ha¬
ving taken a final leave of his mother, and being ani¬
mated by defpair, he made a Tally upon the enemy, de-
' ftroyed a great number of them with his own hand,
Abdallah and was at length killed fighting valiantly upon the
Uiikilled. fp0t. At the laft interview he had with his mother, fhe
is faid to have defired him to put off a coat of mail he
had on for his defence; and, in order to infpire him with
the greater fortitude, file gave him a draught in which
a whole pound of mulk had been infufed. A1 Hejaj
ordered his head to be cut off, and his body* to be af¬
fixed to a crofs; and by reafon of the mufk he had drank,
the body emitted a grateful odour for feveral days.
By the redudticn of Mecca, and the death of Ab-
dalla Ebn Zobeir, Abdalmalec remained foie mafter
of the Moflem empire; but he fuftained a great lofs
next year, in having an army of 100,000 men to¬
tally cut off by the Khazarians in Armenia. The go¬
vernor, however, having marched in perfon againft
tsI. them at the head of’ only 40,000 men, but 'all chofen
«ddcedan5trooPs, penetrated into the heart of Armenia, defeat¬
ed and difperfed a large body of the Khazarians, drove
them into their temples, and reduced them to allies.
One of ' his' generals alfo defeated an army of 80,000
Khazarians at the Iron or Cafpian g?rtes, and deftroyed
a great number of them, obliging the reft to embrace
the Mahometan religion.
Cruelty of* A1 Hejaj, in confequence of his fervices, was made
Al Hejaj. governor, firft of Medina, and then of Irak, Khorafan,
and Sijiftan ; in all which places he behaved with the
greateft cruelty. Having entered the city of Cufa
muffled up in his turbant j he was furrounded by crowds
of people who preffed forward to fee him. He told
them their, curiofity would foon be gratified ;' which he
effectually did, by afeending the pulpit, and treating
them in a very coarfe manner ; fwearing that he would
make the wicked bear his own burden, and fit him with
his own fhoe ; and telling them, among other things,
that “ he imagined he faw the 6eac/s of men ripe and
ready to be gathered, and turbants and beards be-
fprinkled with blood.” At Bafra he made a fpeech
much to the fame purpofe ; and, to give the inhabi¬
tants a tufte of his difeipline, caufed one of them who
had been informed againft as a rebel to be beheaded
on the fpot without any trial. So great indeed was
the abhorrence in which he was held by thofe over
whom he prefided, that having once recommended
himfelf to the prayers of a religious Moflem, the latter
inftantly prayed that' it would pleafe God to kill Al
Hejaj quickly ; “ for nothing, faid he, could be more
advantageous for himfelf or the people.” In confe¬
quence of thefe cruelties,, rebellions were foon raifed a-
Vot. II. Part I.
gainft him ; but they were eafily fuppreffed, and Al He- Arabia,
jaj continued in the full enjoyment of all his employ-
ments till he died. j S3
In the 76th year of the Hegira, one Saleh Ebn Marj, Saleh and
a hot-headed enthufiaft, and Shebib Ebn Zeid, a Kha- She bib re-
rejite, took up arms againft the khalif. They had con-'3el*
fpired againft him the year before when on a pilgrimage
to Mecca; and Al Hejaj had been ordered to feize them:
but at that time they found means to make their efcape;
and having now afftmblcd about 120 men, Saleh was
proclaimed emperor of the faithful at Daras in Mefopo-
tamia. The governor foon received intelligence of
their motions; and ordered a body of 500 men, under
the command of one Adi, to march againft them: but
that general, being afraid to attack them notwithftand-
ing his fuperiority in numbers, demanded a reinforce¬
ment. He therefore was fupplied with joo more
troops, with which he advanced to Daras : but being
Hill afraid of the rebels, he entered into negociations
with them ; during which they attacked him, entirely
defeated his army, and made themfelves mafters of his *54
camp. Upon this the governor lent a detachment ofTheir bra'
Ijoo horfe againft them; but the rebels, notwith-very‘
ftanding the Tmallnefs of their number, defended them¬
felves in fuch a manner, that the khalif’s troops were
forced to difmount and fight on.foot. The engage¬
ment continued till night; when the rebels, finding
themfelves unable to contend with fuch numbers, reti¬
red to Mawfel.- After this, Al Hejaj being informed
that they had taken poll at Dafcara, fent againft them
an army of 5000 men- The rebels, hearing of this for¬
midable army, abandoned their camp ; but were fo ’
clofely purfued, that they found themfelves obliged to 1
ftand an engagement at Modbaj, a fmall village on the *
Tigris. Saleh’s forces, confifting only of three compa¬
nies of 30 men each, were foon thrown into diforder, *55
and himfelf killed : but Shebib made an excellent re-Saleli lci11'
treat to a neighbouring caftle ; from whence he faliied ed‘
out at midnight on the khalif’s forces, penetrated to the
very heart of the camp, where he wounded the general
himfelf, and difperfed the greateft part of his army. J5£
After this viffory, the rebels became terrible even Al Hejaj
to Al Hejaj himfelf, whom they afterwards defeated indefeatedby'/
feveral engagements; and taking advantage of his be-shebib-
ing at Bafra, made themfelves mafters of Cufa with
little oppofition. Al Hejaj was now conftrained to
write to the khalif for a ftrong detachment of the Sy¬
rian troops, with which he advanced againft Shebib;
whofe army bearing no proportion to that of Al He¬
jaj, the former was totally defeated, had his wife’s
brother killed in the aftion, and was obliged to fly in¬
to Kerman. Having refrefhed his men in this province,
he again advanced to Ahwaz, where he was met by one -
of Al Hejaj’s generals at the head of the Syrian army. j
Shebib defended himfelf with incredible valour, andShebib’s
feveral times repulfed the khalif’s forces ; but being o-val°ur and,:
verpowered by numbers, as his army confifted of notieath•
more than 600 men, he was at laft put to flight, and,
in pafling a bridge, was thrown off by his horfe and
drowned. His body was drawn up by a net, and the
head fent to Al Hejaj, who was not a little pleafed
at the fight. After his death, the rebels quarrelled a-
mong themfelves, fo that the khalif’s troops cut off the
greateft part of them. The remainder, under Katri ;
Ebn Fojat, fled to Tabreftan. Here they were kind-
Iff
A R A [ 178 ] A R A
Arabia. ]y received by Afhid the king, who affigned them a
* part of his territories for their habitation. But they
158 had not been long fettled before they infilled upon
Ingfati- Afhid’s either embracing Mahometanifm, or paying
rebels the them an annual tribute 5 which h? refufing, they drove
him into Irak, where he implored the khalif’s protection.
Alhid afterwards conduced a body of Moflem troops
■ into Tabreftan ; where they fell upon the rebels with
159 fuch fury, that they killed Katri himfelf, cut a great
They are number of his men to pieces, and took all the reft pri-
■alldeftroy- foners.
***■ This year alfo (the 76th of the Hegira) money
was firft coined in Arabia. Before this time, the di¬
nars, or gold coins, had Greek inferiptions ; and the
dirhems, or filver ones, Perfic inferiptions. The firft e-
reftion of a mint in Arabia was occafioned by the fol¬
lowing accident. Abdalmalec added to the letters he
wrote to the Qreek emperor this ftiort palfage of the
Koran, “ Say, God is oneor “ Say, there is one
God and then inferted the year of the Hegira, with
the name of the prophet, in fuch a manner as gave the
emperor great offence. Upon this he wrote to Abdal¬
malec, defiring him to alter that manner of writing,
or he would fend him fome coins in which the name
i6» of Mahomet fhould be mentioned in fuch a manner as
Money firft Would not prove very agreeable. Abdalmalec now re¬
coined in fohred to coin money of his own ; and accordingly fome
ra ■a‘ dirhems were this year ftamped by A1 Hejaj, with
the infeription s///a Samad, “ God is eternal;” which
gave great offence to the fiiperftitious Moflems, as they
imagined that the name of God would be thereby pro¬
faned by the touch of unclean perfons.
In the 77th year of the Hegira, the Arabs made an
incurfion into the imperial territories, and had Lazica
and Bernucium betrayed to them ; and the next year
jgj they made themfelves mafters of Africa Propria, de-
Carthage melifhing the city of Carthage fo effectually, that fcarce
demolilhed a veftige of it was left They were foon driven out,
however, by John the Patrician, a man of great valour
and experience in war ; but returning with a fuperior
.force, they obliged John in his turn to fly to Conftan-
tinople.
The 79th year of the Hegira is remarkable for no¬
thing but the rebellion of Abdalrahman in Perfia; who
drove the Khakan, or emperor of the Turks, Tartars,
or Moguls, out -of that country: but the following
year, one of the Greek generals named Heraclius pe¬
netrated into Syria as far as Samofata, and deftreyed
200,000 Arabs, ravaging the country in a terrible
aoc,ooo A- manner; and Abdalrahman was defeated and killed
■rabs de- by A1 Hejaj, after a great number of engagements,
ftroyed by fome fay 81, and others TOO. In the 83d year of the
HeraeHrts. jjegjraj ^ nobility of Armenia revolting, drove the
Arabs out of that province ; but Mahomet, one of the
khalif’s generals, entering the co'untry with a power¬
ful army, got the authors of the revolt into his hands,
and caufed them all to be burnt alive. Encouraged
by this fuccefs, the Moflems invaded Cilicia under
one Azar; but were, to the number of 10,000, cut
in pieces by Heraclius ; and the next year, having a-
gain entered that country, -T 2,000 of thhn were de-
ftroyed by the fame general, and the reft forced to fly
163 into their cwn coufitry.
Afcdalma- In the 86th year of the Hegira died the khalif
iec dies. Abdalipalec, ^fter a reign of 2t years. He is faid to
have had fuch a ftinking breath, that the flies which Arabia.
accidentally fettled on his lips were aimoft inftantly1    
ftrucb dead by it. He was lucceeded by A1 Walid,
who greatly extended the Moflem dominions. The firft
year of his reign, one of his generals having paffed the
Oxus (now. the Jihum), defeated a numerous army
of Turks .and Tartars. He then over-ran and entirely
reduced the countries of Sogd or Sogdiana, Bagrafs,
Shafti, Targana, and the whole immenfe traCt going
under the -name of Mawaralnahr, or Great Buckharia. r^4
He alfo conquered the khan of Khowarazm, obliging Prodigious®
him to pay an annual tribute of two millions of dinars, conquefts |
About the fame time another general called Mahometthe Mo%|
made an irruption into India, and fubdued a confider-flems*
able part of that country. He alfo entirely fubdued the
kingdom of A1 Sind, lying between Pcrfia and India.
In this expedition, Derar king of A1 Sind was defeated
and killed, and had his head cut off by Mahomet.
In the 90th year of the Hegira, the Moflems made an
irruption into Cappadocia, defeated the emperor’s army
who oppofed them, and took the city of Tyana. The
next year they made another incurfion into the impe¬
rial territories, whence they carried off vaft numbers of
flaves ; and the year following one Othman penetra¬
ted into the heart'of Cilicia, where he made himfelf ma¬
iler of feveral cities, but does not appear to have long
kept his conquefts. 165 |
In the 9?d year of the Hegira, anfwering to thatTfeeymak J
of Chrift 712, Tarek Ebn Zarka made a defeent ina <,elcent i
Spain, defeated Roderic the laft king of the Goths, re-011 sPa)n» 1
duced the city of Toledo, and over-ran a ccnfiderable
part of the kingdom. Being afterwards joined by
Mufa, commander of the African Moflems, the two ge¬
nerals made themfelves mafters of moft of the fortrefles, 166 1
fubjugating in a manner the whole country, and obli-And over* ■
ging it to pay tribute to the khalif. In thefe expedi-run the "l
tions the Moflems acquired fpoils of immenfe value ; 'whole I
and, amongft other things, an exceeding rich table,COuntry' 1
called by the Arab writers “ the table of Solomon the
fon of David.” According to thefe writers, this table
confifted entirely of gold and filver, and was adorned
with three borders of pearls ; but Rod eric of Toledo,
a Spanifti hiftorian, fays it confifted of one entire ftone,
of a green colour, and ofan immenfe fize, having no
lefs than 365 feet. He adds, that it was found in a
certain village or town, near th«i mountain called in
his days JiSal Soliman, or “ the mountain of Solo¬
mon.”
Afte-r Mufa and Tarik had committed dreadful de¬
predations in Spain, they were both recalled by the
khalif; but the next year, Tarik having undertaken a-
nother expedition into the fame country, landed a body
of 12,000 men at Gibraltar, with which he plunder¬
ed the whole province of Bastica, and over-ran the
greateft part of Lufitania. Roderic hearing of thefe
depredations, fent againft him an army of raw undifei-
plined troops, who were eafily defeated, and moft of
them left dead on the fpot; which fo animated the A-
rab commander, that he refolved not to lay down his
arms till he had made an abfolute conqueft of Spain.
About the fame time that Tarif made fuch progrefs in
: Spain, another Moflem general entered Pifidia w ith a
powerful army, took the city of Antioch, and, after ha¬
ving ravaged the country, retired into the khalif’s ter¬
ritories with very little lofs.
In
A R A
A R A [ S79 ]
Arabia. In the 95th year of the Hegira died A1 Hejaj g6-
1 ' v vernor of Irak, &c. after he had prefided over that
i67 country 20 years. He exercifed fuch cruelties upon
AJKejaj 'th0fe who were in fubjedion to him, that he is faid to
leS" hare killed 120,000 men, and to have fuffered 50,000
men and 3:0,000 women to perifh in prifon. To ex-
eufe this cruelty, he ufed frequently to fay. That a
fevere, or even violent government, is better than one
too weak and indulgent ; as the firft only hurts parti¬
cular perfons, but the latter the whole community.
This year alfo the Arabs gained a complete vi&ory in
Spain over Roderic king of the Goths, who perifhed
in the aftion. In this campaign, Tarif poflefTed him-
felf of immenfe treafures; by which means he was ena¬
bled to reward not only his officers, but common fol-
diers alfo. In the eaitern parts of the world allb, the'
Arabs were this year very formidable; Moflema, an A-
rab general, having entered the imperial territories, ra¬
vaged the whole province of Galatia, carrying off with
him many rich fpoib, and a vaft number of prifoners.
The Greek emperor, hearing that A1 Walid defigned to
attack him both by fea and land, fent fome of his no¬
bles to treat of a peace ; and, among other things, de-
fixed them to bring him a particular account of the
force with which the khalif defigned to invade the
Greek empire. This they reprefented as fo terrible,
that it would be next to impoffible to oppofe it. The
emperor therefore caufed a great number of light fhips
to be built> the walls to be repaired, and ordered fuch
of the citizens as had not laid up provifions for three
years to depart the city. A1 Walid, in the meantime,
continued his warlike preparations with the utmoft vi¬
gour, being determined to make himfelf mailer of Con-
j68 ftantinople in a fmgle campaign.
Al Walid In the 96th year of the Hegira died the khalif A1
dies,and is Walid, and was fucceeded by his brother Soliman.
fucceeded This year the Mbflem conquehs on the eaft fide were
y o iman jncreafecj by t]ie reduction of Tabreftan and Jurgan or
Georgiana. In Spain, alfo, the city of Toledo which
had revolted was reduced, and Caefar-Augufta, now
169 Saragoffa, as well as feveral others. The next year
Conftanti- Moflema let out for Conftantinople, which he befleged
fnccefsful-w'th°ut fuccefs till the 99th year of the Hegira; at'
ly befieged. which time he was obliged to return, after having loft
before it 1 20,o©o men. The foldiers were reduced to
the greateft extremities of hunger, being forced to live
upon hides, the roots and bark of trees, the moil noi-
fome animals, and even the dead bodies of their com-
T7'’ panions. This year alfo (the 99th of the Hegira) is
Death of remarkable for the death of the khalif Soliman. Ac-
o unan. corcjjng to fome, he was poifoned by Yezid his brother,
governor of Perfia, w ho was difpleafed with his having
appointed his coufin-german, Omar Ebn Abdalaziz
as his fucceffor, to the exclufion of himfelf. Accord¬
ing to others, he died of an indigeftion; which is not.
greatly to be wondered at, if, as thofe authors fay, he :
ufed to devour 100 pounds weight of meat every day,
and dine very heartily after eating three lambs roafted
for breakfaft. In the latter part of his reign, the Mo-
flems were by no means fuccefsful in Spain; the king¬
dom of Navarre being founded at this time by Pela-
gius, or Pelayo -whom the Arabs were never able to
reduce.
The new khalif Omar Ebn Abdalaziz was by no
means of a martial character; but is faid to have been
very pious, and poffefled of very amiable qualities. He Arabia,
fuppreffed the ufual malediction, which was folemnlyv—^
pronounced by the khalifs of the houfe of Ommiyah
againlt the houfe of Ali; and always Ihe-wed greatkind- 171
n^fs to the latter. He was poifoned by Yezid, after aNewkhalif
fhort reign of two years and five months. It is rela- poifoned.
ted, as an inftance of this khalif’s humility, that when
Moflema vifited him in his laft licknefs occafioned by
the poifon, he lay upon a bed of palm-tree leaves, lup-
ported by a pillow formed of beafts Ikins, and covered
with an ordinary garment. He had alfo on a dirty
fliirt; for which Moflema blamed his filter Fatima, O-
mar’s wife; but fhe excufed herfelf by telling him, that
the emperor of the faithful had not another iiiirt to put
on.
Concerning Yezid the fucceffor of Omar we find
very little worth mentioning. He did not long enjoy
the dignity he had lb iniquitoufly purchafed, dying af¬
ter a reign of little more than four years. He died of
grief for a favourite concubine named Mababah, who
was accidentally choked by a large grape which ftuck
in her throat.
Yezid was fucceeded by his brother Hdham, who
afeended the throne in the 105th year of the Hegira.
In the fecond and third year of his reign, feveral in-
curflons were made into the imperial territories, but
generally without fuccefs. ^In the iC9th year of the T72 :
Hegira, Moflema drove the Turks out of Armenia and TheTurks
Aderbijan, and again confined them within theCafpiandefeated*
gates. The next year he obliged them to take an oath
that they would keep their own country; but this they
foon violated, and were again driven back by Moflema. , 73
About this time alfo the Arabs, having paffed the Py- France in*
renees, invaded France to the number of 400,000, in- vaded by
eluding women and flaves, under the command of onethe Arabs*
Abdalrahman. Having advanced to Arles upon the
Rhone, they defeated a large body of French that op-
pofed them ; and having; alfo defeated Count Eudo,
they purfued him through feveral provinces, wafted the
whole country with fire and fword, making themfelves
mailers of the city of Tours, moft of which they redu¬
ced to allies. - Here, however, a Hop was put to their 174
devaftations by Charles Martel; who, coming up w ith They are
them near the above-mentioned city, engaged them forlltterly qe-"
feven days together, and at laft gave them a totalfeated ^
overthrow. The French general made himfelf mailer
of all their baggage and fiches ; and Abdalrahman,
with the fliattered remains of his army, reached the
frontiers of Spain with the utmoft difficulty. The fol¬
lowing year alfo, according to fome hiftorians, the
Arabs were overthrown at Illiberis, fcarce any of them
making their efcape. To make amends for this bad
fortune, however, the khalif’s arms -were fuccefsful
agarnft the Turks, who had again invaded fome of the
feaftern provinces.
In the 125th year of the Hegira died the khalif He-
fliam, after a reign of 19 years, feven months, and ele¬
ven days. He was fucceeded by Al Walid IT. who is
reprefented as a man of a moft diffolute life, and w'as
affaffinated the following year on account of his profef-
fing Zendictfm, a fpecies of infidelity nearly refembling
Sadducifm. He was fucceeded by Yezid the fon of
Al Walid I. who died of the plague after a reign of
fix months; and was fucceeded by Ibrahim Ebn Al •
Walid? an imprudent and ftupid prince. He was depo- *
Z2 faii
A R A
[ 1B0 ]
A R A
, Me r wan
Arabia, fed in the 127th year of the Hegira by Merwan Ebn
—-v—Mahomet, the governor of Mefopotamia; who gave out
as an excufe for his revolt, that he intended to revenge
the murder of the khalif A1 Walid II. He was no
fooner feated on the throne, than the people of Hems
rebelled againft him. Againit them the khalif march¬
ed with a powerful army; and alking them what could
excite them to this rebellion, fummoned them to fur-
render. They allured him that they were difpofed to
admit him into their city; and, accordingly, one of
the gates being opened, Merwan entered with about
300 of his troops. The men that entered with him
were immediately put to the fword ; and the khalif
himfelf efcaped with great difficulty. However, he af¬
terwards defeated them in a pitched battle, put a great
number of them to the fword, difmantled the city, and
crucified 600 of the principal authors of the revolt.
This, however, was far from quieting the commotions
In different parts of the empire. The inhabitants of
Damafcus foon followed the example of thofe of Hems,
and depofited the khalif’s governor;, but Merwan, im¬
mediately after the: extinction of the former rebellioi),
marched to Damafcus- with great celerity, entered the
city byfforce, and brought to condign punifliment the
authors of the revolt. Peace, however, vvas no fooner
eftablifhed .at Damafcus, than Soliman Ebn Hefham
fet, up, fpr himfelf at Bafra, where he was proclaimed
khalif; by the inhabitants. Here he affembled an army
, of 10,000 men, with whom, he marched to Kinniffin,
where he was joined by vafl numbers of Syrians who
flocked, to hipa from all parts. Merwan, receiving ad¬
vice of SolimanJs rapid progrefs, marched againft him
with all the forces he could affemble, and entirely de¬
feated him. In this engagement Soliman loft 30,000
men, fo that he was obliged to fly to Hems, where
900 men took an oath to Hand by him to the laft. Ha¬
ving ventured, however, to attack the khaljf’s.forces a
fecond time, he was defeated, and again forced to fly to
Hems. But being, clofely purfuedby Merwan, he con-
ftituted his brother Said governor of the city, leaving
. with him the ftiattered remains of his troops, and him¬
felf fled to Tadmor. Soon after his departure Merwan
appeared before the town, which he befieged for feven
.months; during which time he battered it inceffantly
with 80 catapults. The citizens, being reduced to the
Jaft extremity, furrendered, and delivered Said into the
khalif’s hands, fn coniideration of this fubmiffion,
Merwan pardoned the rebels, and took them all under
his proteftion. About the fame time, another pre¬
tender to the,khalifat appeared atCufa ; but .Merwan
took his meafures fo well, that he extinguiftied this re¬
bellion before.it could, come to any height.
Notwithftanding the fiiccefs, however, that had hi-
176
A party inulwiiiuuuiuuij; 111c maL
rfbrmed a- therto attended .Merwan, a ftrong party was formed
£,ainft him againft him in Khorafan by the houfe of A1 Abbas,
in Khora- The firft of that houfe that made any confiderable fi-
<5in. gUre was named Mahomet, who-flourifhed in tire reign
of Omar Ebn Abdajaziz. pie was appointed chief of
the houfe of A1 Abbas, about the hundredth year of the
Hegira; and is laid to have prophelied, that after his
death, one of his fons .named Ibrahim Ihould prefide
.over them till he was killed, and that his other fon Ab-
.dallah, furnamed Abut Abbas Al Saffah, Ihould be kha¬
lif, and exterminate the houfe of Ommiyah. Upon
this Al Saffah was introduced as the future fovereign, Arabia,
and thofe prefent kiffed his hands and feet. ' v~—^
After the deceafe of Mahomet, his fon Ibrahim no¬
minated as his reprefentative in Khorafan one Abu
Moflem, a youth of 1,9 years of age; who beginning
to raife forces in,that province, Merwan difpatched a-
gainft him a body of horfe under the command of Nafr 177
Ebn Sayer; but that general was entirely defeated by Menvan's
Abu Moflem, and the greateft part of his men killed. de~ |
The next year (the 128th of the Hegira) Merwan
made vaft preparations to oppofe Abu Mollem, who
after the late victory began to grow formidable to fe-
veral parts of the empire. According to fome authors,
Merwan gained two vi£lories over fome of Ibrahim’s
generals; but the year following, Abu Moflem brought
fuch a formidable army into the field, that the khalif’s
troops could not make head againft them ; his officers
in Khorafan therefore were obliged either to take an
oath of allegiance to Ibrahim, or.to quit the province
within a limited time.
In the 130th year of the Hegira, the khalif’s gene¬
ral Nafr having drawn together another army, was
again defeated by Kahtaba another of Ibrahim’s gene¬
rals, and forced to fly to Raya, a town of Dylam, ac¬
cording to feme, or of Khorafan, according to others. R
The next year Ibrahim having fooliflily taken it intOjbrabim
his head to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, attended by put to
a numerous retinue fplendidly accoutred, was feized death,
and put to death by .Merwan; and the year following
Abul Abbas was proclaimed khalif at Cufa. As foon
as the ceremony was ended, he fenthis uncle Abdallah
with a powerful army to attack Merwan’s .forces that
were encamped near Tubar at a fmall diftance from
Moful, where that khalif was then waiting for an ac¬
count of the fuccefs of his troops under Yezid gover¬
nor of Irak againft Khatahba one of Al Saffah’s ge¬
nerals. Khatahba receiving advice of Yezid’s approach,
immediately advanced againft him, and entirely defeat¬
ed him; but in crofling the Euphrates, the waters of
which were greatly fwelled, he was carried away by
.the current and drowned. The purfuit, however, was
continued by his fon Hamid, who difperfed the fugi¬
tives in fuch a manner that they could never afterwards , ^
be rallied. At the news of this difafter, Merwan was Menvan
at firft greatly difpirited ; but foon recovering himfelf, himfelf de-
he advanced to meet Abdallah. In the beginning offend*
the battle, the khalif happened to difmount; and his
troops perceiving their fovereign’s horfe without his
rider, concluded that he was killed, and therefore im¬
mediately fled ; nor was it in the power of the khalif
himfelf to rally them again, fo that he was forced to
fly to Damafcus: but the inhabitants of that city, fee¬
ing his condition defperate, fliut their gates againft him.
Upon this he fled to Egypt, where he maintained him¬
felf for fome time ; but was at laft attacked and killed
by Saleh, Abdallah’s brother, in a town of Thebair, Andkilled.
called Bufir Kurides. The citizens of Damafcus, tho’
they had ftiamefully deferted Merwan, refufed to open
their gates to the victors; upon which Saleh entered
the city by'force, and gave it up. to be plundered for
three days by,his foldiers.
By the total defeat and death of Merwan, Al Saffah
remained foie mafter of the Moflem throne; but we
hear of uo very remarkable events that happened during
. his
A R A [ 181 ] A R A
ibia, his reign: only that he maffacred great numbers of the
' partifans of the houfe of Ommiyali; and that Conftan-
tine Copronymus, taking advantage of the inteftine
divifions among the Moderns, ravaged Syria. The
khalif died of the fmall-pox in the 136th year of the
*1 Hegira, in the 33d year of his age; and was fucceeded
leignofAlby his brother Al Manfur. In the beginning of A1
al slanfur. Manfur’s reign, hoftilities continued againft the houfe
of Ommiyah, who ftill made refiftance, but were al¬
ways defeated. Abdallah, however, the khalif’s uncle,
caufed himfelf to be proclaimed khalif at Damafcus;
and having affembled a powerful army in Arabia, Sy¬
ria, and Mefopotamia, advanced with great expedition
to the banks of the Mafius near Nifibus, where he en¬
camped. Al Manfur, being informed of this rebellion,
difpatched Abu Modem againft Abdallah. This gene¬
ral, having harafled him for five months together, at
laft brought him to a general adtion ; and having en¬
tirely defeated him, forced him to fly to Bafra. Not-
r I 182 with {landing all his fervices, however, Abu Modem was
1 lie mur- foon after ungratefully and barbaroudy murdered by
r ulers Abu Al Manfur, on fome ridiculous pretences of being de-
klMoflem. ficient in refpedt towards him.
After the death of Abu Modem, one Sinan a Ma-
gian, or adorer of fire, having made himfelf mailer of
that general’s treafures, revolted againft the khalif; but
he was foon defeated by Jamhur Ebn Morad, who had
been fent againft him with a powerful army. In this
expedition Jamhur having acquired immenfe riches,
the covetous difpofition of the khalif prompted him to
fend a perfon exprefs to the army to feize upon all the
wealth. This fo provoked Jamhur, that he immediate¬
ly turned his arms againft his mafter; but was foon de¬
feated, and entirely reduced. The following year (the
I' 183 139th of the Hegira), one Abdalrahman, of the houfe
xfAbdalrah- Gf Ommiyah, after the entire ruin of that family in A-
iflman pro- aiT;veci in'Spain, where he was acknowledged kha-
thaHfin » nor he or his defcendants ever afterwards own
ilspain. fubjeflion to the Arabian khalifs.
T 184 The 140th year of the Hegira is remarkable for an
liAttemptto attempt to affadinate the khalif. This attempt was
Aflaffinate macie by the Rawandians ; an impious fe<ft, who held
hs kha if- the doftrine of metempfychofis or tranfmigration.—
They firft offered Al Manfur divine honours, by going
in proceffion round his palace, as the Moflems were
wont to do round the Caab ; but the khalif, highly in-
cenfed at this impiety, ordered 100 of the principal of
them to be imprifoned. Thefe however were foon re¬
leafed by their companions; who then went in a body
to the palace with ah intention to murder their fove-
reign: but he being a perfon of uncommon bravery,
though he was fiirprifed with very few attendants,
mounted a mule, and advanced towards the mutineers
with an intention to fell his life as dear as poffible. In
the mean time, Maan Ebn Zaidat, one of the chiefs of
the Ommiyah faction, who had concealed himfelf in
order to avoid the khalif’s refentment, fallied out of
his retreat, and putting himfelf at the head of Al Man-
fur’s attendants, charged the rebels with fuch fury,
that he entirely defeated them. This generofity of
Maan was fo remarkable, that it afterwards palled in¬
to a proverb. On this occafion 6000 of the Rawan¬
dians were killed on the fpot, and the khalif delivered
from inftant death : he was, however, fo much dif-
gufted with the Arabs on account of this attempt, that
he refolved to remove the capital of his empire out of Arab!*.
their peninfula; and accordingly founded a new city on1 —J
the banks of the Tigris, which from that time to this '^5
has been known by the name of Bagdad. The foun-He re*
dations of it were laid in the 143th year of the Hegira,
and finifhed four years after. pire t0
On the removal of the feat of government to Bag-Bagdad.
dad, the peninfula of the Arabs feems all at once to
have loft its confequence, and in a fhort time the in¬
habitants feem even to have detached themfelves from
the jurifdidtion of the khalif’s; for in the 15.6th year
of the Hegira, while Al Manfur w&s yet living, they
made irruptions into Syria and Mefopotamia, as if they
had defigned to conquer thefe countries over again for
themfelves ; and though the Arabs, properly fo called,
continued nominally fubjed to the khalifs of Bagdad
till the abolition of the khalifat by Hulaku the Tar¬
tar, yet they did not become fubjed to him when he
became mafter of that city. There is even the ftrong-
eft reafon to believe that the Arabs (i. e. the inhabi¬
tants of the peninfula properly called Arabia) have re¬
mained independent, not only of Hulaku, but of every
other conqueror that the world hath yet produced.
The perpetual independence of the Arabs, indeed,
“ has been the theme of praile among ftrangers and nz-Gibbon’s
lives. The kingdom of Yemen it is true, has been H'/?-vol. v.
fucceflively fubdued by the Abyffinians, the Perfians,?- 1 ^•
the fultans of Egypt, and the Turks; the holy cities
Mecca and Medina have repeatedly bowed under a.^epend-
Scythian tyrant; and the Roman province of Arabiaence ofthe
embraced the peculiar wildernefs in which Ifmael and Arabs,
his fons muft have pitched their tents in the face of
their brethren. Yet thefe exceptions are temporary or
local; the body of the nation has efcaped the yoke of
the moft powerful monarchies: the arms of Sefoftris
and Cyrus, of Pompey and Trajan, could never at-
chieve the conqueft of Arabia; the prefent fovereign
of the Turks may exercife a fhadow of jurifdi&ion,
but his pride is reduced to folicit the friendlhip of a
people whom it is dangerous to provoke and fruitlefs
to attack. The obvious caufes of their freedom are
infcribed on the character and country of the Arabs.
Many ages before Mahomet, their intrepid valour had
been feverely felt by their neighbours m offenfive and
defenfive war. The patient and aftive virtues of a fol-
dier are infenfibly nurfed in the habits and difcipline
of a paftoral life. The care of the flieep and camels
is abandoned to the women of the tribe; but the mar¬
tial youth under the banner of the emir, is ever on
horfeback, and in the field, to 'praftife the exercife of
the bow, the javelin, and the fcymetar. The long
memory of their independence is the firmeft pledge cf
its perpetuity; and fucceeding generations are animated
to prove their defcent and to maintain their inherit¬
ance. Their domeftic feuds are fufpended on the ap¬
proach of a common enemy ; and in their laft hoftili¬
ties againft the Turks, the caravan of Mecca was at¬
tacked and pillaged by fourfcore thoufand of the con¬
federates. When they advance to battle, the hope of
vidiory is in the front; and in the rear, the aflurance of
a retreat. Their horfes and camels, who in eight or
ten days can perform a march of four or five hundred
miles, difappear before the conqueror ; the fecret wa¬
ters of the defart elude his fearch; and his victorious
troops are confumed with thirft, hunger, and fatigue,
A II A [ 182 ] A R A
Arabia, in the pnrfuit of an invifible foe, who fcoms hi", efforts,
w and fafely repofes in the heart of the burning folitude.
The arms and defarts of the Bedoweens are not only
the fafeeuards of their own freedom, but the barriers
alfo of the Happy Arabia, whofe inhabitants, remote
from war, are enervated by the luxury of the foil and
climate. The legions of Auguftus melted' away in dif-
eafe and latitude ; and it is only by a naval power that
the reduction of Yemen has been fuccefsfully attempt,
ed. When Mahomet erefted his holy ftandard, that
kingdom was a province of the Perfian empire ; yet
feven princes of the Homerites ftill reigned in the
mountains ; and the vicegerent of Chofroes was tempt¬
ed to forget his diflant country and his unfortunate
mafter. The hiftorians of the age of Juftiniamrepre-
fent the ftate of the independent Arabs, who were di-
mled by intereft or affection in the long quarrel of the
Eaft : the tribe of Gaffan was allowed to encamp on
the Syrian territory : the princes' of Hira were per¬
mitted to form a city about forty miles to the fouth-
ward of the ruins of Babylon. Their fervice in the
field was fpeedy and vigorous; but their friendlhip was
venal, their faith inconflant, their enmity capricious :
it was an eafier talk to excite them to difarm thefe
roving barbarians ; and, in the familiar intercourfe of
war, they learned to fee, and to defpife, the fplendid
weaknefs both of Rome and. of Perfiai From Mecca
to the Euphrates, the. Arabian tribes were confound¬
ed by the Greeks and Latins, under the general ap¬
pellation of Saracens ; a name which every Chriftian
mouth has been taught to pronounce with terror and
1S7 abhorrence.
Their do- “ The Haves of domeftic tyranny may vainly exult in
rnsfticfree- their national independence ; but the Arab is perfon-
cbar fte* ^ree ’ an(^ ^ enj°ys> in feme degree, the benefits
c vara er. 0p focjety} -without forfeiting the prerogatives of na¬
ture. In every tribe, fuperftitibn, or gratitude, or
fortune, has exalted a particular family above the heads
of their equals. The dignities of fheich and emir in¬
variably defeend in this chofen race ; but the order of
fucceffion is loofe and precarious ; and the moft worthy
or aged of the noble kinfmen are preferred to the
frmple, though important, office of compofing difputes’-
by their advice, and guiding valour by their example.
The momentary junftion of feveral tribes produces an
army: their more lading union conditutes a nation ;
and the fupreme chief, the emir of emirs, whofe ban¬
ner is difplayed at their head, may deferve, in the eyes
of drangers, the honours of the kingly name. If the
Arabian princes abufe their power, they are quickly
punilhed by the defertion of their fubjefts, who had
been accudomed to a mild and-parental jurifdi&ion.
Their fpirit is free, their deps are unconfined, the defart •
is open, and the tribes and families are held together
by a mutual and voluntary compafh The fofter na¬
tives of Yemen fupported the pomp and majedy of a
monarch ; but if he could not leave his palace without
endangering his life, the adtive powers of government
mud have been devolved on his nobles and magidrates..
The cities of Mecca and Medina prefent, in the heart of
Alia, the form or rather the fubdance of a common¬
wealth. The grandfather of Mahomet, and his lineal an-
cedors, appear in foreign and domedic tranfadlions as the
princes of their country; but they-reigned like Pericles at
Athens, or the Medici at Florence, by the opinion of
their wifdom and integrity; their influence was divided Arabia, i
with their patrimony : and the feeptre was transferred 1 r—J
from the uncles of the prophet to a younger branch of the ■ * j
tribe of Koreifh. On folemn occafions they convened the
affembly of the people ; and, fince mankind mud be ei¬
ther compelled or perfuaded to obey, the ufe and repu¬
tation of oratory amon^ the ancient Arabs is the clear¬
ed evidence of public freedom. But their Ample free¬
dom was of a very different cad from the nice and ar¬
tificial machinery of the Greek and Roman republics,
in which each member poffeffed an undivided fliare of the
civil and political rights of the community. In the more
Ample date of the Arabs, the nation is free, becaufe
each of her Tons difdains a bafe fubmiffion to the will
ofamader.. His bread is fortified-with the audere
virtues of courage, patience, and fobriety : the love of
independence prompts him to exercife the habits of
felf-comniand; and the fear of difhonour guards him
from the meaner apprehenfion of pain, of danger, and
of death. The gravity and firmnefs of the mind is
confpicuous in its outward demeanor: his fpeech is
flow, weighty, and concife ; he is feldom provoked to
laughter; his only geflute is that of droaking his beard, ■
the venerable fymbol of manhood ; and the fenfe of his
own importance teaches him to accod his equals with¬
out levity, and his fuperiors without awe. The liberty
of the Saracens furvived their conqueds : the fird kha-
lifs indulged the bold and familiar language of their
fubjecds: they afeended the pulpit' to perfuade and edi¬
fy the congregation; nor was it before the feat of em¬
pire was removed to the Tigris, that the Abbaffides
adopted the proud and pompous ceremonial of the Per¬
fian and Byzantine courts. I
“ In the fludy of nations and men, we may obferve Civ-] v/arri
the caufes that render them hodile or friendly to each andprivate,
other, that tend to narrow or enlarge, to mollify or revenge, .
exafperate, the focial character. The feparation of
the Arabs from the red of mankind has accudomed
them to confound the ideas of granger and enemy ;
and the poverty of the land has introduced a maxim
of jurifprudence, which they believe and praclife to
the prefent hour. They pretend, that in the divifion
of the earth the rich and fertile climates were affigned
to the other branches of the human family ; and that
the pofterity of the outlaw Ifmael might recover, by
fraud or force, the portion of inheritance of which he
had been unjudly deprived. According, to the remark
of Pliny, the Arabian tribes are equally addi&ed to
theft and merchandile : the caravans that traverfe the
defart are ranfomed or pillaged ; and their neighbours, .
fince the remote times of Job and Sefodris, have been
the vidlims of their rapacious fpirit. If a Bedoween
difeovers from afar a folitary traveller, he rides furi-
oufly againft him, crying, with a loud voice, “ Undrefs
thyfelf, thy aunt {my wife) is without a garment.” A
ready fubmiffion intitles him to mercy ; refiftance will;
provoke the aggreffor, and his own blood mull expiate
the blood which he prefumes to filed in legitimate de¬
fence. A Angle robber, or a few aflbeiates, are brand¬
ed with their genuine name; but the exploits of a
numerous band affume the ,character of lawful and ho¬
nourable war. The temper of a people, thus armed
againft; mankind, was doubly inflamed by the domeftic
licence of rapine, murder, and revenge. In the con-
ftitution of Europe, the right of peace and war is
now
1-
iTTheir fo-
cial quali¬
fications
and vir¬
tues.
191
Xove of
poetry.
A R A [ 183 ] A R A
now confined to a fmall, and the a (final exercife to a that a champion had now appeared to vindicate their Arabia.
J much fmaller, lift of refpe&able potentates ; but each rights ; that a herald had raifed his voice to immorta-' r—1
Arab, with impunity and renown, might point his life their renown. The diftant or hoftile tribes refort-
javelin againft the life of his countryman. The union of ed to an annual fair which was abcliihed by the la¬
the nation confifted only in a vague refemblance of lan- naticifm of the firft Moflems ; a national afTcmbly
guage and manners; and in each community the jurif- that muft have contributed to refine and harmonife
didion of the magiftrate was mute and impotent. Of the barbarians. Thirty days were employed in the
tire time of ignorance which preceded Mahomet, 1700 exchange, not only of com and wine, but of elo-
battles are recorded by tradition: hoftility was embit- euence and poetry. The prize was difputed by the
tered with the rancour of civil faftion ; and the re- generous emulation of the bards.; the viaorious per-
cital, in profe or verfe, of an obfclete feud was fuffi- formance was depofited in the archives of princes and
cient to rekindle the fame paffions among the defeend- emirs ; and we may read in our own language the fe-
ants of the hoftilb tribes. In private life, every man, ven original poems which were inferibed in letters of
at leaft every family', was the judge and avenger of its gold and fufpended in the temple of Mecca. The
own caufe. The nice fenfibility of honour, which Arabian poets were the hiilorians and moralifts of the
weighs the infult rather than the injury, iheds its dead- age ; and if they fympathifed with the prejudices, they
ly venom on the quarrels of tire Arabs : the honour infpired and crowned the virtues, of their countrymen,
of their women, and of their beards, is moft eafily The indifloluble union of generofity and valour was
wounded ; an indecent action, a contemptuous word, the darling theme’ of their fong ; and when they point-
can be expiated only by the blood of the offender; ed their keeneft fatire againft a defpicable race, they
and fuch is their patient inveteracy, that they expe<fi affirmed, in the bitternds of reproach, that the men
whole months and years the opportunity of revenge, knew not how to give, nor the women to deny'. The
A fine or compenfation for murder is familiar to the fame hofpitality which was pradifed by Abraham
barbarians of every age : but in Arabia the kinfmen and celebrated by Homer, is ftill renewed in the camps
of the dead are at liberty to accept the atonement, or of the Arabs. The ferocious Bedoweens, the terror
to exercife with their own hands the law of retaliation, of the defart, embrace, without inquiry or hefitation,
'The refined malice of the Arabs refufes even the head the ftranger who dares to confide in their honour and
of the murderer, fubftitutes an innocent to the guilty to enter their tent. His treatment is kind and re-
perfon, and transfers the penalty to the beft and moft fpe&ful: he fhares the wealth or the poverty of his
confiderable of the race by whom they have been in- hoft; and, after a needful repofe, he is difmiiled on
jured. If he falls by their hands, they are expofed in his way, with thanks, with bleffings, and perhaps with
their turn to tire danger of reprifals; the intereft and gifts. _ T93
principal of the bloody' debt are accumulated ; the in- “ The religion of the Arabs, as well as of the Indians, Ancient
dividuals of either family lead a life of malice and fu- confifted in the worfiup of the fun, the moon, and the idolatry-
fpicion, and 50 years may fometimes elapfe before the fixed ftars ; a primitive and fpacious mode of fuperfti-
account of vengeance be finally fettled. This fangui- tion. The bright luminaries of the Iky difplay the
nary fpirit, ignorant of pity or forgivenefs, has been vifible image of a Deity : their number and diftance
moderated, however, by the maxims of honour, which convey to a philofophic, or even a vulgar eye, the idea
require in every private encounter fome decent equa- of boundlefs fpace : the charaifier of eternity is mark-
lity of age and ftrength, of numbers and v/eapons. ed on thefe folid globes, that feem incapable of cor-
An annual feftival of two,, perhaps of four months, ruption or decay: the regularity of their motions may
wasobfervedby the Arabs before the time of Mahomet; be aferibed to a principle of rcafon or inftimft; and
during which their fwords were religioufly ffieathed both their real or imaginary influence encourages the vain
in foreign and domeftic hoftility : and this partial truce belief that the earth and its inhabitants are the objeefi
is more ftrongly expreffive of the habits of anarchy of their peculiar care. The fcience of altronomy was
and warfare. cultivated at Babylon ; but the fchool of the Arabs
“ But the fpirit of rapine and revenge was attempered was a clear firmament and a naked plain. In their
by the milder influence of trade and literature. The nocturnal marches, they fleered by the guidance of the
folitary peiiinfula is encompaffed by the moft civilized ftars : their names, and order, and daily ftation, were
nations of the ancient world : the merchant is the familar to the curiofity and devotion of the Bedo-
friend of mankind; and the annual caravans imported the W'een ; and he was taught by experience to divide in
firft feeds of knowledge and politenels into the cities, and 28 parts the zodiac of the moon, and to blefs the con-
even the camps of the defart. The arts of grammar, of ftellations who refrefhed, with falutary rains, the thir ft
metre, and of rhetoric, were unknown to the free-born .of the defartr. The reign of the heavenly orbs could
eloquence of the Arabians; but their penetration was not be extended beyond the vifible fphere ; and fome
iharp, their fancy luxuriant, their wit ftrong and fen- metaphyfical powers were neceflary to fuftain the tranf-
tentious, and their more elaborate compoiitions were migration of fouls and the refurre<fiion of bodies ; a
addreffed with energy and effe<fi to tire minds of their camel was left to perifli on the grave, that he might
hearers. The genius and merit of a rifing poet was ferve his mafter in another life ; and the invocation of
celebrated by the applaufe of his own and the kindred departed fpirits implies that they were ftill endowed
tribes. A folemn banquet was prepared, and a chorus with confcioufnefs and power. Each tribe, each fami-
of women, fti iking their tymbals, and difplaying the ly, each independent warrior, created and changed the
pomp of their nuptials, fung in the prefence of their rites and the objeft of his fantaftic worfhip ; but the
ions and hufbands tlie felicity of their native tribe ; nation, in every age, has bowed to the religion, as
well
A R A
[
}
A R A
Arabia, well as to the language of Mecca. The genuine aa-
L“""v—tiquity of the Caaba extends beyond theChriftian aera:
19’> in defcribing the coaft of the Red Sea, the Greek hi-
or temple ^or‘an EJiodoms has remarked, between the Thamau-
Mecca- dites and the Sabaeans, a famous temple, whofe fupe-
fior fandity was revered by all the Arabians : the li¬
nen or filken veil, which is annually renewed by the
Turkifh emperor, was firft offered by a pious king of
the Homerites, who reigned 700 years before the time
of Mahomet. A tent or a cavern might fuffice for
the worfhip of the favages, but an edifice of done and
clay has been erefted in its place ; and the art and
power of the monarchs of the eaft have been confined
to the fimplicity of the original model, h fpacious por¬
tico inclofes the quadrangle of the Caaba; a fquare cha¬
pel, 24 cubits long, 23 broad, and 27 high ; a door and
a window admit the light; the double roof is fupported
by three pillars of wood; a fpout (now of gold) dif-
charges therain-water,and the wellZemzem is protected
by a dome from accidental pollution. The tribe of Ko-
reilh, by fraud or force, had acquired the cuftodyof the
Caaba: the facerdotal office devolved through four
lineal defcents to the grandfather of Mahomet; and
the family of, the Hafhemites, from whence he fprung,
was the moft refpeitable and facred in the eyes of their
country. The precin&s of Mecca enjoyed the rights
of famfhiary ; and, in the laft month of each year,
the city and the temple were crowded with a long
train of pilgrims, who prefented their vows and offer¬
ings in the houfe of God. The fame rites which are
now accompliffied by the faithful .Muffulman were in¬
vented and pradtiied by the fuperftition of the idolar
ters. At an awful diftance they caft away their gar¬
ments; feven times, with haily fteps, they encircled
the Caaba, and kifl'ed the black- hone-: feven times
they vifited and adored the adjacent mountains; feven
times they threw Hones into the valley of Mina ; and
the pilgrimage was atchieved, as at the prefent hour,
by a facrifice off fheep and camels, and the burial of
their hair and nails in the confecrated ground. Each
tribe either found or introduced in the Caaba their do-
meftic worfhip-: the temple was adorned, or defiled, .
with 360 idols of men, eagles, lions, and antelopes ;
and moft confptcuous was the ftatue of Hebal, of red
agate, holding in his hand feven-arrows, without heads
or feathers, the inftruments and fymbols of profane dh
vination. But this ftatue was a monument of Syrian
arts : the devotion of the ruder ages was content with
a pillar or a tablet ; and the rocks of the defert were
hewn into gods or-altars, in imitation of the black
ftone of-Mecca, which is deeply tainted with the re-
proach of an idolatrous origin. From Japan to Peru,
Sacrifices ^ upe 0f ,facrifice has univerfally prevailed; and the
and rites. vot:ary has exprefled his gratitude or fear by deftroymg
or confuming, in. honour of the gods, the dearefl and
moft preciqus of their-gifts. The life of a man is the
moft precious-oblation to deprecate a public calamity:
the altars of Phoenicia and Egypt, of Rome and Car¬
thage, have been polluted with human gore : the cruel
practice was long preferved among the Arabs ; in the
third century, a boy was annually facrificed by the
tribe of the Dumatians; and a -royal captive was pi-
oufty flaughtered by the prince of the Saracens, the
ally and ioldier of the emperor Juftinian. The father
N° 25.
of Mahomet himfelf was devoted by a rafh vow, and Arabia'.
hardly ranfomed for the equivalent of-t 00 camels. The' -/—^
Arabs, like the Jews and Egyptians, abftained from the
tafte of fwine’s flefh; and they eircumcifed their chil¬
dren at the age of. puberty : the fame cuftoms, with¬
out the cenfure or- the precept of the Koran, have been
ftlently tranfmitted to their pofterity and proielytes ;
and it has been fagacioufly conjeftured, that the artful
legiflator indulged tire ftubbom prejudices of his coun¬
trymen. .
“ Arabia was free : From the adjacent kingdoms, Introduc-. j
which were fhaken by the ftorms of conqueft and ty- tion of tho?]
ranny, the perfecuted fedts fled to the happy land where Sa^ans° ]
they might, profeis what they thought, and pradife
what they profeffed ; and the, religions of the Sabians
and Magians, of the Jews- and Chriftians, were diffe-
minated from the Periian Gulf to the Red Sea. In
a remote period of antiquity, Sabianifm was diffufed
over Afia by the feience of the Chaldeans and the
arms of the Affyrians. From the obfervations of 2000
years, the priefts and aftronomers of Babylon deduced
the eternal laws of nature and providence. They ado¬
red the feven. gods or angels who direded the courfe
-£'-1 ^ ’ ’ ihec’ ’ ’ ‘   • "
196
of the feven. planets, and ihed their irrefiftible influence
on the earth.. The attributes of the feven planets;
witli the twelve figns of .the zodiac, and the twenty-
four. conftellations of. the-northern and fouthem hemi-
fphere,. were reprefented by images and talifmans ;
the feven days of the week were dedicated to their re-
fpedive deities; the Sabians prayed thrice each day ;
and the temple of the moon at Haran was the term of
their pilgrimage. But the flexible genius of their faith
was always ready either to teach or to learn. The al¬
tars of Babylon were overturned by the Magians; but The Magi*
the injuries of the Sabians were revenged by the fword *”’'
of Alexander; Perfia, groaned above 500 years under
a.foreign yoke; and the pureft difciples of Zoroafter
efcaped from the contagion of idolatry, and breathed
with their adverfaries the freedom of the defart. Se¬
ven hundred years before the death of Mahomet the The Jews,*
Jews were fettled in Arabia : and a far. greater multi¬
tude was expelled from the holy land in . the wars of
Titus and Hadrian. The induftrious exiles afpired to
liberty and power; they eredted fynagogues in the
cities, and cables in the wildernefs; and their Gentile
converts were confounded with the children of Ifrael,
whom they refembled in the outward mark of circum- 198
cifion.. The Chriftian miffionaries were ftill more ac- The Chri«
tive and fuccefsful: the Catholics afferted their univer- ftisms.
fal.reign; the fedls whom they oppreffed fucceffively
retired beyond the limits of the Roman empire; the
Marcionites and Manichaeans difperfed their phautaflic
opinions and apocryphal gofpels; the churches of Ye¬
men, and the princes of Hira and Gaffan, were in-
ftrudted in a purer creed by the Jacobite and Neftorian
bifhops.” Such was the ftate of religion in Arabia
previous. to the appearance of Mahomet. See n° 22.
fupra.
As the Arabs-are one of the moft ancient nations in
the world, having inhabited the. country they at prefent :
poffefs almoft from the deluge,, without intermixing
with other nations, or being fubjugated by any foreign
power, their language muft have been formed foon af¬
ter, if not at, the confufion of BabeL The two princi¬
pal
A R A [ 185 ] A R A
tti Arabia, pal dialers c " :t were, that fpoken by the Hamyarites
.—1 an(l other genu, ne Arabs, and that of the Koreifh, in
which Mahomet wrote the Koran. The firft is ftyled by
the Oriental writers the Arabic of Haviyar, and the o-
ther the pure or defecated. As Yarab, grandfather of
Hamyar, is fuppofed by the Oriental writers to have
been the firft whofe tongue deviated from the Syriac to
tiie Arabic, the Hamyaritic dialed, according to them,
muft have approached nearer to the purity of the Sy¬
riac ; and confequently have been more remote from the
true genius of the Arabic than that of any other tribe.
The dialed of the Koreifh, termed by the Koran the
perfpicuous and clear Arabic, is referred to Ifhmael as
its author; who, fay the above mentioned writers, firft
fpoke it; and, as Dr Pocock believes, after he had con-
traded an alliance with the family of Jorham by mar¬
riage, formed it of their language and the original He¬
brew. As, therefore, the Hamyaritic dialed partook
principally of the Syriac, fo that of the Koreifh was
fuppofed to confift chiefly of the Hebrew. But, ac¬
cording to Jallalod’din, the politenefs and elegance
of the dialed of the Koreifh ought rather to be attri¬
buted to their having, from the remoteft antiquity,
the cuftody of the Caaba, and dwelling in Mecca the
centre of Arabia. The Arabs are full of the commen¬
dations of their language, which is very harmonious,
expreilive ; and, as they fay, fo immenfely copious, that
no man uninfpired can be a perfed mafter of it in its
utmoft extent. How much, in this laft article, it is
fuperior to the Greek and Latin tongues, in feme
meafure appears from hence, that fometimes a bare
enumeration of the Arabic names of one particular
thing, and an explication of them, will make a confi-
derable volume. Notw(ithftanding this, the Arabs
believe the greateft part of their language to be loft ;
which will not feem improbable, when we confider how
late the art of writing became generally pradifed a-
mong them. For though it was known to Job their
countryman, to the Edomites, as well as the other Ara¬
bian nations bordering upon Egypt and Phoenicia, and
to the Hamyarites many centuries before Mahomet, as
appears from fome ancient monuments faid to be re¬
maining in their charader; yet the other Arabs, and
thofe of Mecca in particular, unlefs fuch of them as
were either Jews or Chriftians, were to the time of Mo-
ramer perfedly ignorant of it. It was the ancient A-
rabic language preceding the reign of Juftinian, which
fo nearly refembled the Ethiopic ; for fince that time,
and efpecially fince the age of Mahomet, all the Arabic
dialeds have been not a little corrupted. This is now
the learned language of the Mahometans, who ftudy it
as the European Chriftians do the Hebrew, Greek, and
Latin.
letters The charader ufed by them, the moft ancient of any
erS* peculiar to the Arabs, wherein the letters were not di-
ftindly feparate, went by the appellation of Al Mof-
nad, from the mutual dependency of its letters or parts
upon one another. This was neither publicly taught,
nor fuffered to be ufed, without permiflion firft obtain¬
ed. Could we depend upon what Al Firauzabadius re-
S dates from Ebn Haihem, this charader muft have been
of a very high antiquity ; fmee an infeription in it, ac¬
cording to the laft author, was found in Yaman, as old
as the time of Jofeph. Be that as it will, Moramer
Ebn Morra of Anbar, a city of Irak, who lived not
Vol. II. Part I.
many years before Mahomet, was the inventor of the Arabia,
prefent Arabic charader, which Balhar the Kendian,
who married the After of Abu Sofian, is faid to have
learned from the houfe of Anbar, and to have introduced
at Mecca but a little time before the inftitution of Ma-
hometifm. Moramer’s alphabet the Oriental authors
agree to have been very different from the ancient one
of the Hamyarites, fince they diftinguilh the Hamya¬
ritic and Arabic pens. In Mahomet’s time, the Mo¬
rameric alphabet had made fo fmall a progrefs, that no
one in Yaman could either write or read it; nay, Ma¬
homet himfelf was incapable of doing either; for which
reafon he was called the illiterate pt ophet. The letters
of this alphabet were very rude; being either the fame
with, or very much like, the Cufic ; which charader is
ftill found in inferiptions and the titles of ancient books;
nay, for many years it was the only one ufed by the
Arabs, the Koran itfelf being at firft written therein.
In order to perpetuate the memory of Moramer’s in¬
vention, fome authors call the Arabic letters al Mora¬
mer, i. e. the progeny of Moramer. The moft; remark¬
able fpecimens of the Cufic charader (fo denominated
from Cufa, a city of Irak, where fome of the firft co¬
pies of the Koran were written) are the following : Part
of that book in it on vellum, brought from Egypt by
Mr Greaves ; fome other fragments of the fame book
in it publifhed by Sir John Chardin ; certain paffages
of a MS. in the Bodleian library ; the legends on feve-
ral Saracenic coins dug up not many years ago on the
coaft of the Baltic, not far from Dantzick; and, ac¬
cording to Mr Profeffor Hunt, thofe noble remains of
it that are, or were lately, to be feen in Mr Jofeph
Ames’s valuable colledion of antique curiofities. As to
the true origin of the ancient and modern Arabic al¬
phabets, we muft own ourfelves pretty much in the dark.
See Alphabet.
The Arabian learning may be divided into two pe-Xearnin®.
riods, viz. Ante-Mahonietan and Mahometan. s<c. **
The Arab learning, in this firft; period, confifted, ac¬
cording to Abulpharagius, in the knowledge of their
language, the propriety of difeourfe, the compofition
of verfe, and the fcience of the ftai s : but,their chief
attention feems to have been direded to oratory and
poetry.
The fecond period is more diftinguifhed, at leaft
from the time of Al-Mamon, the feventh caliph of
the family of the Abaffides, wrho flourilhed about the
year 8 20, and has the honour of being the founder of the
modern Arabian learning. He fent for all the beft
books out of Chaldea, Greece, Egypt, and Perfia, re¬
lating to phyfic, aftronomy, cofmography, mufic, chro¬
nology, &c. and penfioned a number of learned men,
flsilled in the feveral languages and fciences, to tranf-
late them into Arabic. By this means, -divers of the
Greek authors, loft in their own country and language,
have been preferved in Arabic. From that time Ara¬
bia became the chief feat of learning ; and we find
mention by Abulpharagius, Pococke, D’Herbelot, and
Hdttinger, of learned men, and books without num¬
ber.
The revival of learning in the 10th century, by Ger-
bert, known after his elevation to the pontificate by
the title of Silvefter II. and afterwards among the Eu¬
ropeans in general, may be aferibed to the inftruftions
and writings of the Arabian doctors and philofophers,
A a and
A R A
[ 186 ]
A R A
Arabia, and to the fchools which they founded in feveral parts ledge in feveral mechanical arts, appears from Strabo,
‘'“’"Y—of Spain and Italy. And in the 12th century, the who informs us, that tlw people of Tamna and the ad-'
inquifitive of different countries frequented the fchools jacent provinces had magnificent temples, and elegant
of the Saracens in Spain, and diffeminated the know- houfes, built in the Egyptian tafte. The fame author
ledge which they obtained there after their return. At likewife relates, that in Arabia Felix, befides the huf-
this time, many of the learned productions of the A- bandmen, there were many artificers; and, amongit o-
rabians were tranflated into Latin, which facilitated thers, thofe which made palm-wine, which, he inti¬
the general progrefs of fcience. mates, were much ufed by the Arabs. As for the ex-
The philofophy of the Arabians, before Mahomet, ercife of arms and horfemanfhip, they looked upon this
was Sabian, and included the fyftem and ceremonies as one of their principal accomplifhments, being oblL
of that feCt of idolaters. This it was that Mahomet ged to praCtife and encourage it by reafon of the inde-
fet himfelf to decry ; and he is even faid by fome to pendency cf their tribes, whofe frequent jarring made
have carried his oppofition fo far, as to prohibit, if not wars almoft continual amongft them, which for the mod
punifh, all ftudy of philofophy. But his followers, by part ended in field-battles. Hence it became an ufual
degrees, got over this reftraint; the love of learning
ove of learning faying amongft them, that God had beftowed four pe-
increafed ; till, under the memorable caliphate of A1 culiar things on the Arabs, viz. turbans injlead e,f dia-
Mamon, Ariftotle’s philofophy was introduced and dems> tents injlead of walls and houfes, fwltrds injtead of
eftablifhed among them ; and from them propagated, intrenchments, and poems injlead of written laws. The
with their conquefts, through Egypt, Africa, Spain, principal arms ufed by the ancient Arabs were bows
and other parts. As they chofe Ariftotle for their and arrows, darts or javelins, and broad fvvords or fey-
.mailer, they chiefly applied themfelves to that part'of mitars. The bows and arrows were the moft ancient
philofoph^called logic, and thus became proficients in of thefe ; being ufed by Iftimael himfelf, according to
the knowledge of words rather than things. Whence Scripture. It is probable alfo, that fome of them were
they have been fbmetimes denominated Maflers of the acquainted with every branch of the military art culti-
•wifdom of words; fometimes the Talking fed. Their vated by their neighbours the Egyptians, Syrians, and
philofophy was involved in quaint arbitrary terms and Phoenicians.
notions, and their demonftrations drawn from thence
as from certain principles, &c. IValch Hifi. Log,
lib. ii. fee. 2. § I.
Their phyfxc fucceeded the Grecian; and their phy-
ficians handed down the art to us, having made confi-
Before the Portuguefe interrupted the navigation of Commerces' !
the Red fea, the Arabs were the factors of all the'trade
that paired thro’ that channel. Aden, which is fituated
at the moft fouthern extremity of'Arabia upon the In¬
dian ocean, was the mart in thefe parts. The fituation
derable improvements, chiefly in the pharmaceutical of its harbour, which opened an eafy communication
and chemical parts. with Egypt, Ethiopia, India, and Pei fia, had render-
It is certain we owe to them moft of our fpices and ed it, for many ages, one of the moft flourilhing fadto-
' 1 Afia. Fifteen years after it had repulfed the
aromatics, as nutmegs, cloves, mace, and other matters ries in l
of the produce of India. We may add, that moft of great Albuquerque, who attempted to demolilh it in
the gentler purgatives were unknown to the Greeks, ijrj, it fubmitted to the Turks, who did not long re-
and firft introduced , by the Arabs, as manna, fenna, main mailers of it. The king of Yemen, who polfefs-
rhubarb* tamarinds, caflia, &c. They likewife brought ed the only diftridl in Arabia that merits the title of
fugar into ufe in phyfic, where, before, only honey Happy, drove them from thence, and removed the trade
was ufed. They alfo found the art of preparing wa- to Mocha, a place in his dominions which till then was
ters and oils, of divers fimples, by diftillation and fub- only a village.
lirpation. The firft notice of the fmall-pox and the This trade was at firft inconfiderable ; confifting
mealies is likewife owing to them. Laftly, the refto- principally in myrrh, incenfe, aloes, balm of Mecca,
ration of phylic in Europe took its rife from their fome aromatics and medicinal drugs. Thefe articles,
writings. M. le Clerc has given a Iketch, and Dr the exportation of which is continually retarded by
Freind, an ample hiftory, of the Arabian phyfic. We exorbitant impofts, and does not exceed at prefent
have alfo a mtitha of all the Arabian phyficians by Fa* 30,625!. were at that time more in repute than they
hricius. have been fince : but mult have been always of little
Their poetry may be divided into two ages. The confequence. Soon after a great change enfued from
ancient, according to Voffius, was no other than rhi- the introduftion of coffee.
ming ; was a ftranger to all meafure and rule ; the ver- Though this article is generally ufed in the Arabian
fes loofe and irregular, confined to no feet, number of entertainments, none but the rich citizens have the
fyllables, or any thing elfe, fo that they rhimed at the pleafure of tailing the berry itfelf. The generality are
end; oftentimes all the verfes in the poem ended with obliged to content themfelves with the Ihell and the
the fame rhime. It is in fuch verfe-that the Alcoran is hulk of this valuable production. Thefe remains, fo
laid to be written. - much defpifed, make a liquor .of a pretty clear colour, .
The modern Arabian poetry takes its date from the which has a .tafte of coffee without its bitternefs and
caliphate of A1 Rafchid, who lived toward the clofe llrength. Thefe articles may be had at a low price at
ef the eighth century. Under him poetry became an Betelfagui, which is the general market for them,
art, and laws of profody were laid down. Their com- Here likewife is fold all the “Coffee which comes out of
parifons, in which they abound, are taken, with little the country by land. . The reft is carried to Mocha,
choice, from tents, camels,, hunting, and the ancient which is 35 leagues diftant, or to the nearer ports of
.manners of the Arabs. Lohia or Hodeida, from whence it is tranfported in
a That fome of the Arabs had a good degree of know- fmall velfels to Jodda. The Egyptians fetch it from
the
A R A [ 187 ] A R A
s
Arabia, the laft mentioned place, and all other nations from the
 v'——' former.
The quantity of coffee exported may be eftimated at
twelve millions five hundred and fifty thoufand weight.
The European companies take off a million and a half;
the Perfians three millions and a half; the fleet from
Suez fix millions and a half; Indoflan, the Maldives,
and the Arabian colonies on the coaft of Africa, fifty
thoufand ; and the caravans a million.
As the coffee which is bought up by the caravans
and the Europeans is the beft that can be procured,
it cofts about 8|d. a pound. The Perfians, who con¬
tent themfelves with that of an Inferior quality, pay no
more than about 6 id. a pound. The Egyptians pur-
chafe it at the rate of about 8d ; their cargoes being
compofed partly of good and partly of bad coffee. If
we eftimate coffee at about 7Id. a pound, which is the
mean price, the profits accruing to Arabia from its
annual exportation will amount to 384,343!. 15 s.
This money does not go into their coffers; but it en¬
ables them to purchafe the commodities brought from
the foreign markets to their ports of Jodda and Mocha.
Mocha receives from Abyffinia, fheep, elephants
teeth, mufk, and flaves. It is fupplied from the ea-
ftern coaft of Africa with gold, flaves, amber, and ivo¬
ry ; from the Perfian gulf, with dates, tobacco, and
corn; from Surat, with a vaft quantity of coarfe, and a
few fine, linens ; from Bombay and Pondicherry, with
iron, lead, and copper, which are carried thither from
Europe ; from Malabar, with rice, ginger, pepper, In¬
dian faffron, with coire, cardamom, and alfo with
planks ; from the Maldives, with gum, benzoin, aloes-
wood, and pepper* which thefe iflands take in ex¬
change ; from Coromandel, with 400 or 500 bales of
cottons, chiefly blue. The greateft part of thefe com¬
modities, which may fetch 262,500!. are confumed in
the interior part of the country. The reft, particular¬
ly the cottons, are difpofed of in Abyffmia, Socotora,
and the eaftern coaft of Africa.
None of the branches of bufmefs which are managed
at Mocha, as well as throughout all the country of Ya-
man, or even at Sanaa the capital, are in the hands of
the natives. The extortions with which they are per¬
petually threatened by the government deter them from
interfering in them. All the warehoufes are occupied
by the Banians of Surat or Guzaret, who make a point
of returning to their own country as foon as they have
made their fortunes. They then refign their fettlements
to merchants of their own nation, who retire in their
turn, and are fucceeded by others.
The European companies, who enjoy the exclufive
privilege of trading beyond the Cape of Good Hope,
formerly maintained agents at Mocha. Motwithftand-
ing it was ftipulated by a folemn capitulation, that the
impofts demanded ftiould be rated at two and a quar¬
ter per cent, they were fubjedt to frequent extortions:
the governor of the place infilling on their making him
prefents which enabled him to purchafe the favour of
the courtiers, or even of the prince himfelf. However,
the profits they obtained by the fale of European goods,
particularly clothes, made them fubmit to thefe repeat¬
ed humiliations. When thefe feveral articles were fur-
nifhed by Grand Cairo, it was then impoffible to with-
ftand the competition, and the fixed fettlements were
therefore given up.
The trade was carried on by Ihips that failed from Arabia
Europe with iron, lead, copper, and filver, fufficient to I ,.
pay for the coffee they intended to buy. The fuper- , ra 1CI'
cargoes, who had the care of thefe tranfadlions, fettled v
the accounts every time they 'returned. Thefe voyages,
which at firft were pretty numerous and advantageous,
have been fucceffively laid afide. The plantations of
coffee, made by the European nations in their colonies, •
have equally leffened the confumption and the price of v
that which comes from Arabia. In procefs of time,
thefe voyages did not yield a fufficient profit to anfwer
the high charges of undertaking them on purpofe.
The companies of England and France then refolved,
one of them to fend mips from Bombay, and the o-
ther from Pondicherry, to Mocha, with the merchandife
of Europe and India. They even frequently had recourfe
to a method that was lefs expenfive. The Englilh and
French vifit the Red fea every year. Tho’ they difpofe
of their merchandife there to good advantage, they can.
never take in cargoes from thence for their return. They
carry, for a moderate freight, the coffee belonging to
the companies who lade the veffels with it, which they
difpatch from Malabar and Coromandel to Europe.
The Dutch company, who prohibit their fervants from
fitting out Ihips, and who fend no veffels themfelves,
to the gulph of Arabia, are deprived of the lhare they
might take in this branch of commerce. They have
alfo given up a much more lucrative branch, that of
Jodda.
Jodda is a port fituated near the middle of the
gulph of Arabia, 20 leagues from Mecca. The go¬
vernment there is of a mixed kind: the grind Signior
and the Xeriff of Mecca ffiare the authority and the
revenue of the cuftoms between them. Thefe impofts
are levied upon the Europeans at the rate of 8 per
cent, and upon other nations at 13. They are always
paid in merchandife, which the managers oblige the
merchants of the country to buy at a very dear rate.
The Turks, who have been driven from Aden, Mocha,
and every part of the Yaman, would long ago have
been expelled from Jodda, if there had not been room
to apprehend that they might revenge themfelves in
fuch a manner as to put an end to their pilgrimages
and commerce.
The coins, which are current at Mocha, the prin- 203
cipal port of the Red fea, are dollars of all kinds; but Coir.s.
they abate five per cent, on the pillar dollars, becaufe
they are reckoned not to be the pureft filver, and the
dollar weight with them is 17 drams 14 grains. All
their coins are taken by weight, and valued according
to their purenefs. The gold coins current here are
ducats of Venice, Germany, Turky, Egypt, &c. The
comaffes are a fmall coin, which are taken at fuch a
price as the government fets on them ; and they keep
their accounts in an imaginary coin, called cabeers, of
which 80 go to a dollar. For an account of the ancient
coins called dinars and dirhemsy fee thefe two articles.
Cum ARABIC. See Gum.
ARABICI, a fecft who fprung up in Arabia, about
the year 207, whofe diftinguiftiing tenet was, that the
foul died with the body, and alfo rofe again with it.
Eufebius, lib. vi. c. 38. relates, that a council was
called to ftop the progrefs of this riling fedt; and that
Origen affifted at it; and convinced them fo thorough¬
ly of their error that they abjured it.
A a 2 ARABIS,
A R A [ m ] A R A
Arabis ARABIS, bastard tower-mustard: A genus
8 of the filiquofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia
racan' . clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking un-
* der the 39th order, Siliquofte. The generic mark confifts
in 4 nedtiferous glands which lie on the infide of each
leaf of the calyx. There are 8 fpecies ; but none of
them remarkable for their beauty or. other properties.
Only one of thefe, the thaliana or moufe-ear,. is a na¬
tive of Britain. It is a low plant, feldom rifmg more
than four or five inches high, branching on every fide,
having fmall white flowers growing alternately, which
have each four petals in form of a crofs, that are fuc-
ceeded by long flender pods filled with fmall round feeds.
It grows naturally on fandy ground or old walls.
Sheep are not fond of it, and fwine refufe it.
ARABISM, Arabismus, an idiom or manner of
fpeaking peculiar to the Arabs or the Arabic lan-
SlARABIST, a perfon curious of, and {killed in, the
learning and languages of the Arabians : fuch were
Erpenius and Golius. The furgeons of the 13th cen¬
tury are called Arabifls by Severinus.
ARABLE lands, thofe which are fit for tillage, or
which have been formerly tilled.
ARACANj the capital of a fmall kingdom to the
north-eaft of the bay of Bengal, fituated in E. Long.
93. o. N. Lat. 20. 30. It has the conveniency of a fpa*
eious river, and a harbour large enough to hold all the
fliips in Europe. It is faid by Schouten to be as large
as Amlterdam; but the houfes are flight, being made
with palm-trees and bamboo-canes, and covered with
leaves of trees. They are feldom above fix feet high,
but have many windows or air-holes. But the people
of the higheft rank are much better accommodated.
They have no kitchens, chimneys, or cellars, which
oblige the women to drefs die victuals out of doors.
Some of the ftreets are on the ridges of rocks, wherer
in are a great many fhops. Their orchards and gar¬
dens contain all the fruit common to the Indies, and
their trees are green all the year. Their common drink
is toddy; which is the fap of the cocoa-tree, and when
new, will intoxicate like wine, but foon. grows four.
Elephants and buffaloes are very numerous here, and
are made ufe of inftead of horfes. They have plenty
of provifions, and but little trade : for when Mr Chan-
noch was here in 1686, with fix large Ihips, there was
nothing to be had in the way of. commerce ; and yet
the country produces lead, tin, ftick-lac, and elephants
teeth. The Mogul’s fubjcfts come here to purchafe
thefe commodities; and fometimes meet with diamonds,
rubies, and other precious ftones. They were former¬
ly governed by a king of their own, called the king of.
the White Elephant; but this country has been con¬
quered by the king of Pegu. They pay little. or no
regard to the chaftity of their women, and the common
failors take great liberties among them. Their reli¬
gion is Paganifm; and the idols, temples, and priefts
afe very numerous. The drefs of the better fort is
very flight, for it confifts chiefly of a piece of white
cotton over their arms, breaft, and belly, with an apron
before. The complexion of the women is tolerable ;
they wear thin flowered gauze over their breaft and
ihoulders, and a piece of cotton, which they roll three
or four times round their waift, and let it hang as low
as their feet. They curl their hair, and put glafs rings
in their ears, and ftretch them of a monftrous length. Arachk
On their arms and legs they have hoops of copper,
ivory, filver, &c. The country produces great quanti-, Arack* t
ties of rice, and the water is good. Their flocks of "" *
flieep and herds of cattle are alfo numerous near Ara-
can ; but what they lay of the towns and villages, with
which the country is pretended to be overfpread, may
be doubted. Captain Hamilton affirms, that there are
but few places inhabited, on account of the great num¬
ber of wild elephants and buffaloes,, which would de~
ftroy the fruits of the ground ;, and that the tigers
would deftroy the tame animals. There are fome
iflands near the fea, inhabited by a few miferable fifher*
men, who can juft keep themfelves from ftarving, tho’
they are out of the reach of oppreflion. The rich
burn the dead bodies ; but the poor, who are not able
to buy wood, throw them into the river.
ARACHIS, in botany : A genus of the diadel-
phia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants }v.
and, in the natural method, ranking under the 3 2d or¬
der, PapilhonaCit. There is only one fpecies, the hy-
pogaea, an annual plant, and a native of Brafil and Pe¬
ru. The ftalks are long, trail upon the ground, and
are furnifhed with winged: leaves,, compofed of four
hairy lobes each. The flowers are produced fingly on
long pedunculs ; they are yellow, of the pea kind, and
each, contains ten awl-ftiaped ftamina, nine of which are
tied together, and the upper one Hands off. In the
centre is an awl-lhaped ftylus, crowned with a Ample
ftigma. The germen is oblong, and becomes an oval
oblong pod, containing two or tires oblong blunt feeds.
—This plant is cultivated in all the American fettle-
ments for the feeds, which make a confiderable part of
the food of the Haves. The manner of perfedting them
is very Angular: for, as the flowers fall off, the young
pods are forced into the ground by a natural motion
of the ftalks, and there they are entirely buried, and
not to be difeovered without digging for them; whence
they have taken the name,of ground-nuts.
ARACHNE, in fabulous hiftory, a young maid of
Lydia, faid to have been the inventrefs of fpinning. -
She is fabled to have been fo flcilful in. this art, as to
challenge Minerva at it; who tore her work, and (truck
her ; which difgrace driving her to defpair, fhe hanged ..
herfelf. Minerva, from compaffion, brought her to life,
and transformed her into a fpider, which ftill employs
itfelf in fpinning.
ARACHNOIDES, in anatomy, an appellation gi¬
ven, to feveral membranes ; as the tunic of the cryftal-
line humour of the eye, the external lamina of the pia
mater, and one of the coverings of the fpinal mar- -
row.
ARACK, arrack, or rack, a, fpirituous liquor
imported from the Eaft Indies, ufed by way of dram
and in punch- ^
The word arack, according to Mr Lockyer, .is an .
Indian name for ftrong waters of all kinds : for they
call our fpirits and brandy Englijh arack. But what
we underftand by the name arack, he affirms is really ;
no other than a fpirit procured by diftillation from a
vegetable juice called toddy, which flows by inciAon out
of the cocoa-nut tree, like the birch-juice procured a-
mong us. The toddy is a pleafant drink by itfelf,
when new, and purges thofe who ■ are not ufed to it;
and, when ftale, it is heady, and makes good vinegar.
The i
A R A [ 189 ] A R A
L Arack. The Englifh at Madrafs ufe it as leaven to raife their
•^T-—^ bread with.
Others are of opinion, that the arack or arrack, is a
vinous fpirit obtained by diftillation, in the Eaft Indies,
from rice or fugar, fermented with the juice of cocoa-
nuts.
The Goa arack is faid to be made from the toddy,
the Batavia arack from rice and fugar; and there is
likewife a kind of ihrub from which arack is made.
Goa and Batavia are the chief places for arack.—At
Goa there are divers kinds ; fingle, double, and treble
diililled. The double diftilled, which is that common¬
ly fent abroad, is but a weak fpirit incomparifon with
Batavia arack ; yet, on account of its peculiar and a-
greeable flavour, is preferred to all the other aracks of
India. This flavour is attributed to the earthen vef-
fels which they ufe at Goa to draw the fpirit; where¬
as at Batavia they ufe copper ftills.
The Parier arack made at Madrafs, and the Columbo
and Quilone arack at other places, being fiery hot fpi-
rits, are little valued by the Europeans, and therefore
rarely imported ; though highly prized among the na¬
tives. In the beft Goa arack, the fpirits of the cocoa
juice do hot make above a fixth or eighth part.
The manner of making the Goa arack is this: The
juice of the trees is not procured in the way of tapping,
as we do ; but the operator provides himfelf with a
parcel of earthen pots, with bellies and necks like our
ordinary bird-bottles : he makes fail a number of thefe
to his girdle, and any way elfe that he commodioufly
can about him. Thus equipped, he climb's up th'e
trunk of a cocoa tree 5 and when he comes to the
boughs, he takes-out his knife, and cutting off one of
the fmall knots or buttons, he applies the mouth of
the bottle to the wound, faftening it to the bough with
a bandage ; in the fame manner he cuts off other but¬
tons, and fallens on his pots, till the whole number is
ufed : this is done in the evening, and delcending from
the tree, he leaves them till the next morning ; when
he takes off the bottles, which are moflly filled, and
empties the juice into the proper receptacle. This is
repeated every night, till a fufficient quantity is produ¬
ced ; and the whole being .then put together, is left to
ferment, which it foon does. When the fermentation
is over, and the liquor or wafh is become a little tart,
it is put into the ftill, and a fire being made, the Hill is
fuffered to work as long as that which comes over has
any confiderable tafte of fpirit.
The liquor thus procured is the low wine of arack>;
and this is fo poor a- liquor, that it wall foon. corrupt
and fpoil, if not diftilled again, to feparate feme of its
phlegm ; they therefore immediately after pour back
this low wine into the ftill, and rectify it to that very
weak kind of proof-fpint, in which ftate we find it.
The arack we meet with, notwithftanding its being of
a proof-teftj according to the way of judging by the
crown of bubbles, holds but a fixth, and fometimes but
an eighth part of alcohol, or pure fpirit; whereas our
other fpirits, when they ihow that proof, are generally
efteemed to hold one half pure fpirit. Shavt’s E(]'ay
D ijiilling.
There is a paper of obfervations on arack, in the Me¬
lange id'Hi flair e Natur. tome v. p. 362. By ferment¬
ing, diftilling, and rectifying the juice of the American
maple, which has much the fame tafte as that of the
cocoa, the author fays, he made arack not in the leaft Arackj
inferior to any that comes from the Eaft Indies : andi Arad-
he thinks the juice of the fycamore an^ of the birch
trees would equally anfwer the end.
Befides the common forts of Goa and Batavia arack,
there are two others lefs generally known; thefe are
the bitter arack and the black arack.
By flat, nth Geo. I. c. 30. arack on board a ftiifr
within the limits of any port of Great Britain, may be
fearched for and feized, together with the package ; or
if found unihipping or unihipped, before entry, may be
feized by the officers of excife, in like manner as by
the officers of the cuftoms.—Upon an excife officer’s
fufpicion of the concealment of arack, and path made of
the grounds of fuch fufpicion before the commiffioners
or a juftice of peace, they may empower him to enter
fuch fufpeded places, and feize the liquors, with the
calks, &c. If the officers are obftrucied, the penalty
is tool.
Arack is not to be fold but in warehoufes, entered as
diredted in the 6th of Geo. I. c. 21. upon forfeiture,
and the calks, &c. If permits are not returned which
are granted for the removal of arack, or if the goods are
not fent away within the time limited, the penalty is
treble the valuer If the permits are not returned, and
the decreafe is not found to be ftifficient, the like quan¬
tity is forfeited. Permits are not to be taken out but
by diredlion in writing of the proprietor of the ftock,
or his known fervant, upon forfeiture of 501. or three •
months imprifonment.
By ftat. 9th Geo. II. c. 35; if arack is offered to fale -
without a permit, or by any hawker, pedlar, &c. with
a permit, the perfon to whom it is offered may feize
and carry it to the next warehoufe belonging to the
cuftoms or excife, and bring the perfon offering the
fame before any juftice of the peace, to be committed
to prifon, and profecuted for the penalties incurred by
fuch offence. The perfon feizing fuch goods may pro-
fecute in his own name; and on recovery is intitled to
one-third part of the grofs produce of the fale : and
the commiffioners are, if defired, upon a certificate from
the juftice of the offender’s being committed to prifon,
to advance to the feizer 15s. per gallon for the arack fo
feized.
Arack (except' for the ufe of Teamen, two gallons
each) found in any Ihip or veffel arrived from foreign
parts, at anchor, or hovering within the limits ©f any
port, or within two leagues of the fhore; and not pro¬
ceeding on her voyage (unlefs in cafe of unavoidable
neceffity and diftrefs of weather, notice whereof mull
be given to the colleiflor or chief officer of the port
upon the fhip’s arrival), is forfeited, with the boxes,
calks, or other package, or the value thereof.
Arack is alfo the name of a fpirituous liquor made
by the Tartars of Tungufia, of mare’s milk, left to four,
and afterwards diftilled twice or thrice between two
earthen pots clofely Hopped, whence the liquor runs
through a fmall wooden pipe. It is more intoxicating
than brandy.
ARAD (anc: geog.), a city lying to the fouth of
Judah and the land of Canaan, in Arabia Petraea.
The Ifraelites having advanced towards the land of Ca¬
naan (Numb. xxi. x.), the king of Arad oppofed their
paffage, defeated them, and took a great booty from
them ; but they deftroyed his country as foon as they
became-
A R A [ 190 ] A R A
Ara'dus became maftcrs of the land of Canaan (Numb, xxxiii.)
8 Arad was rebuilt, and Eufebius places it in the neigh-
™e" bourhood of I^iades, at the diftance of 20 miles from
1. (. . Hebron. The Ifraelites, in their paffage through the
wildemefs,having departed fromSepher, caine to Arad,
and from thence to Makkelath.
ARADUS (anc. geog.), an ifland between the
borders of Phoenicia and Seleucis, at the diftance of
20 ftadia from a dangerous coaft : all of it a rock fur-
rounded by the fea, in compafs feven ftadia ; and form¬
ing a very powerful city and republic. It is now call¬
ed Ronad; but not a fmgle wall is remaining of all
that multitude of houfes which, according to Strabb,
were built with more ftories than even thofe of Rome.
The liberty enjoyed by the inhabitants had rendered it
very populous; and it fublifted by naval commerce,
manufactures, and arts. At prefent the ifland is de-
ferted ; nor has tradition even retained the memory of
a fpringof frefti water units environs, which the people
of Aradus difcovered at the bottom of the fea, and from
which they drew water in time of war by means of a
leaden bell and a leathern pipe fitted to its bottom.
ARiE Philjenon, or Philjenorum (Strabo);
to the fouth of the Syrtis Major; but in Peutinger;
more wefterly, to the fouth almoft of the Syrtis Mi¬
nor. In Strabo’s time, the altars were not extant, but
a village of the fame name flood on the fpot. On a
difpute about limits, between the Cyreneans and Car¬
thaginians, it was agreed that two of each people
fhould let out . on the fame day, and that where they
fhould happen to meet, there the limits of both ftiould
be fixed. The Phiheni, two brothers, Carthaginians,
undertook it for Carthage : thefe, after having advan¬
ced a great many miles into the territory of the Cy¬
reneans, were met by their antagonifts; who, enraged
at their being beforehand with them fo far, gave them
the option ok either returning back, or of being buried
alive on the fpot. Like zealous patriots, they chofe the
latter; and there the Carthaginians railed two altars
in honour of the Philseni. (fcalluft, Valerius Maxi-
jnus.)
ARJEOMETER, an inftrument wherewith to mea-
fure the denfity or gravity of fluids.
The areometer, or water-poife, is ufually made of
glafs ; confifting of a round hollow ball, which termi¬
nates in a long flender neck hermetically fealed at top;
there being firft as much running mercury put into it
.as will ferve to.balance or keep it fwimming in an erecft
-pofition.
The Item is divided into degrees (as reprefented
Plate XXXII. fig. 23.); and by the depth of its de¬
scent into any liquor, the lightnefs of that liquor is
concluded : for that fluid in which it finks leaft muft
be heavieft : and that in which it finks loweft, lighteft.
M. Homberg has invented a new araeometer, defcri-
bed in Phil. Tran fa (ft. N° 262. thus : A is a glafs bot¬
tle or matrafs, with fo flender a neck that a drop .of
water takes up in it about five or fix lines, or half of
an inch. Near that neck is a fmall capillary tube D,
.about fix inches long, and parallel to the neck.—To
fill the veflel, the liquor is poured in at the mouth B,
(which is widened to receive a tunnel), till it run out
,at D, that is, till it rife in the neck to the mark C,
jby which means you have always the fame bulk or
quantity of liquor; and confequently, by means of the
balance, can eafily tell, when different liquors fill it, Araome-
which weighs moft, or is meft intenfely heavy. ter
Some regard, however, is to be had in thefe trials J
to the feafon of the year and degree of heat and cold , A^aK f
in the weather ; becaufe fome liquors rarefy with heat ’
and condenfe with cold more than others, and accord¬
ingly take up more or lefs room.
By means of this inftrument, the ingenious author
has made a table to ftiow the different weights of the
fame bulk of the moft confiderable chemical liquors
both in fummer and winter, as follows :
The areometer full of
Quickfilver,
Oil of tartar.
Spirit of urine.
Oil of vitriol,
Spirit, of nitre,
Spirit of fait.
Aquafortis,
Vinegar,
Spirit of wine,
River water,
Diftilled water.
Weighed in fummer.
oz. dr. gr.
II 00 06 -
01 03 08 -
OI 00 32 -
or 03 58 -
- 01 01 40 -
01 00 39 -
or or 38 -
00 07 55 -
00 06 47 -
00 07 53 -
00 07 50 -
In winter.
oz.dr.gr.
II OO 32
OI 03 31
01 00 43
or 04 03
01 01 70
01 00 47
01 01 5 5
00 07 60
00 06 61
00 07 J7
co 07 54
The inftrument itfelf weighed, when empty, one dram
twenty-eight grains. See Hydrometer.
ARLEOPAGUS. See Areopagus.
ARiEObTYLE, in architeifture, a term ufed by
Vitruvius, to fignify the greateft interval which can be
made between columns.
ARjEOTICS, in medicine', remedies which rarefy
the humours, and render them eafy tobe carried off by
the pores of the fldn.
ARAF, among the Mahometans. See Aearaf.
ARAFAH, the ninth day of the laft month of the
Arabic year, named Dhtuihegiat; on which the pil¬
grims of Mecca perform their devotions on a neigh¬
bouring mountain called Arafat. The Mahometans
have a very great veneration for this mountain, becaufe
they believe that Adam and Eve, after they were ba-
nifhed out of Paradife, having been feparated from
each other during 120 years, met afterwards on this
mountain.
ARAFAT, or gibel el orphat, the mountain
of knowledge, a mountain in Arabia, near Mecca.
The Mahometans fay this was the place where Adam
firft met with and knew his wife Eve after their expul-
fion from Paradife. This mountain not being large
enough to contain all the devotees that come annually
in pilgrimage to Mecca, ftones are fet up all round it
to ftiow how far it reaches. The pilgrims are clad in
robes of humility and mortification, with their heads
uncovered. They feem to be very much affedted ; for
the tears flow down their cheeks, and they fob and figh
moft bitterly, begging earneftly for remiflion of fins,
and promifing to lead a new life. They continue here
about four or five hours, and at half an hour after fun-
fet they all decamp to perform a religious duty called
Afham nomas. After this, they all receive the ho¬
nourable title of hadgees, which is conferred upon them
by the imam or prieft. This being pronounced, the
■trumpet founds, and they all return to Mecca.
ARAGON. See Arragon.
ARAL, a great lake in the kingdom of Khcwa-
razm.
ARA [ 191 X ARA
Lralmm, razm, lying a little to the eaftward of the Cafpian fea.
Aralia. Its length trom north to fouth is faid to be near 150
,"”v miles, and its breadth from eaft to weft about 70. The
ftiore on the weft fide is high and rocky, and defti-
tute of good water : yet there are abundance of wild
horfes, afles, antelopes, and wolves; as alfo a fierce
creature called a joliart, which the tartars fay is of
fuch a prodigious ftrength as to carry off a horfe. It
is furprifing that this lake fhould be quite unknown to
geographers till within thefe few years. Several great
rivers, which were fuppofed to run into the Cafpian
fea, are now known to fall into this lake, particularly
the Sihun or Sirr, and the Gihun or Amo, fb often
mentioned by the Oriental hiftorians. This lake, like
the Cafpian fea, has novifible outlet. Its water is alfo
very fait; and for that reafon is conveyed by the neigh¬
bouring inhabitants by fmall narrow canals into fandy
pits, where the heat of the fun, by exhaling the water,
leaves them a fufficient quantity of fait. The fame
kinds of filh are found in Aral that are found in the
Cafpian fea. The former is alfo called the Lake of
Eagles.
ARAHUM, orHARAHUM, in ancient writers, de¬
notes a place confecrated or fet apart for holy purpofes.
Hence the phrafe in arabo jurare, or conjurare, “ to
make oath in the church becaufe, by the Ripuarian
laws, all oaths were to be taken in the church on the
relics of the faints.
ARALIA, the Angelica tree : A genus of the
pentagynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
46th order, Hederacea. The eflential characters are :
The involucrum is an umbella; the calyx is quinque-
dentated, and above the fruit; the corolla conlxlts of
five petals ; and the berry has five feeds^
Species. There are five fpecies of Aralia, all natives
of the Indies. The principal are, 1. The nudicaulis,
having a naked ftalk. This grows three or four feet
high ; the leaves have two large trifoliate lobes, which
are fawed on their edges. The flower-ftalks arife be¬
tween thefe, immediately from the root, and are ter¬
minated by round umbels of fmall four-leaved flowers
of a whitilh colour. The roots of this fpecies were
brought over from North America, and fold here for
farfaparilla, and it is ftill ufed as fuch by the inhabi¬
tants of Canada though it is very different from the
true fort. 2. The fpinofa, with a prickly ftem, is a
very ornamental ftirub, and a native of Virginia. The
height to which this tree will grow, if the foil and
fituation wholly agree with it, is about twelve feet; and
the ftem, which is of a dark brown colour, is defend¬
ed by fharp fpines, which fall off-; even the leaves,.
which are branching, and compofed of many wings, ■
and are of a pleafant green colour, have thefe defen¬
ders, which are both crooked and ftrong, and Hand as
gurds to them till the leaves fall off in the autumn.
The flowers are produced in large umbels from the
ends of the branches : They are of a greenifh yellow
colour; and their general charadlers indicate their
ftru&ure. They make their appearance the end of
July or beginning of Auguft 4 but are not fucceeded by
ripe feeds in our gardens.
_ Propagation and culture of the fpinofa. This tree
will what gardeners call /pawn; i. e. after digging a-
mong the roots, young plants will arife, the broken
roots- fending forth frefti Items; nay; if the roots are
planted in a warm border, and ftiaded in hot wea- Aralia.
ther, they will grow ; but if they are planted in pots,' r~-
and affifted by a moderate warmth, of dung, or
tanner’s bark, they will be pretty fure of fuccefs;
fo that the propagation of this tree is very eafy.
But the general method of propagating it, and by
which the beft plants may be had, is from feeds, which
muft be procured from America, for they do not ripen
in Britain ; and, after having obtained them, they muft;
be managed in the following manner : The time that
we generally receive them is in the fpring ; fo that a-
gainlt their coming we muft be furnilhed with a fuffi¬
cient number of large pots. Thefe, when the feeds
are come, muft be filltd with fine mould, which, if ta¬
ken from a rich border, will do very well. The feeds
muft be fown in thefe pots as foon as-poffible after their
arrival, hardly half an inch deep, and then the pots •
fhould be plunged in a warm place their whole depth
in tire foil. Care muft be taken to break the mould
in the pots, and water them as often as it has a ten¬
dency to cruft over; and if they are ftiaded in hot wea¬
ther, the plants will frequently come up the firft fum-
mer. But as this does not often happen, if the young
plants do not appear by midfummer, the pots ftiould
be taken and plunged in a fhady place ; nay, if they
ftrould, there will be ftill more occafion for this be ¬
ing done; for they will flcuriftr after that better in the '
lhade ; and the defign of plunging them in a warm
place at firft was only with a view of fetting the powers '
of vegetation at work, that, having natural heat, arti- -
ficial lhade alfo may be given them, and water likewife, •
the three grand neceffaries for the purpofe. The pots,
wdiether the plants are come up in them or not, ftiould
be removed into fhelter in O&ober, either into a green-
houfe, fome room, or under an hotbed-frame ; and in
the fpring, when all danger of froft is over, they ftiould
be plunged into the natural ground their own depth in
a ftiady place. Thofe that were already come up will
have fhot ftrong by the autumn following ; and if none
of them have appeared, they will come up this fpring ;
and whether they are young feedlings, or fmall plants
of a former fummer’s growth, they muft be conftantly
kept clean of weeds, and duly watered in the time of
drought; and this care muft be obferved until the au¬
tumn. In Oftober they muft be again removed into ftiel-
ter, either into a greenhoufe, &c. as before, or fixed in a
warm place, and hooped, that they may be covered with
mats in frofty weather. In the latter end of March follow¬
ing, they ftiould be planted in the nurfery way, to gain
ftrength before they are finally planted out. The
ground for this purpofe, befides the natural ftielter,..^
mould have a reed-hedge, or fomething of the like na¬
ture, the more effectually to prevent the piercing winds
from deftroying the young plants. In this fnug place
the plants may be fet in rows : in each of which rows
furze-bullies ftiould be ftuck the whole length; and all
thefe together will enfure their fafety. But here one
caution is to be obferved; not to ftick the furze fo
thick, but that the plants may enjoy the free air in
mild weather, and not to take them away too early in
the fpring, left, being kept Warm the Whole winter,
and being depri ved off their protection, a cutting froft
ftiould happen, as it fometimes does even in April, and
deftroy them. Weeding and watering in dry Weather
muft be their fummer’s care. They may be ftuck again ’i
with furze-bulhes in the winter; though it will not be ■
necefl’aryy
A R A [ 192 ] A R A
Aram neceffary to do it in fo clofe a manner; and with this
H care, (till diminifliing in proportion the number of
ranea‘ . furze-bufhes, they may continue for three or four years,
v when they may be planted out into the warmed parts
of the plantation. With this management thefe plants
will be inured to bear our winters in well-lheltered
places.
The fpines which grow on the branches and the
leaves admonifli us, for our own fafety, not to plant
this tree too near the fides of frequented walks ; and
the confideration of the nature of the tree, which is
rather tender at the bed, diredls us (if we have.a mind
to retain the fort) to plant it in a warm and well-lhel¬
tered fituation ; where the piercing frods, come from
what point they will, will lofe their edge : for with¬
out this, they will be too tender to dand the ted of
a fevere winter; though it has often happened, that
.after the main dem of the plant has been dedroyed, it
has (hot out again from the root, and the plant by that
means been both increafed and preferved.
ARAM, or Ara?>uea Rt 110 (anc. geog.), the He¬
brew name:of Syria, fo called from Aram thefon of
Shem,((Moles, jofephus).
Aram Betb-Rekob, ,(anc. geog.) was that part of
Syria'lying to the north of Paledine; becaufe Rehob
■was its boundary towards that quarter, (Mofes); allot¬
ted to the tribe of Aflier, (Judges); where it joins Si-
.don, (Jolhua).
Aram-Dammsfek, or Syria Damafcena, (anc. geog.)
a principal part of Syria, and more powerful than the
.red, (2 Sam.) taking its name from Damafcus, the
^principal city.
ARAM-Maacha, (anc. geog.) a didri<d of Syria, at
•the foot of mount Hermon, (2 Samuel, r Chronicles);
on the borders of the half tribe of Manaffeh, on the
other fide the Jordan, called the coaft of Maachathi,
(Mofes, Jofhua).
Aram-Naharaim, (anc. geog.) i. e. Aram, or Syria
of the Rivers, or Mefopotamia, fituated between the
Euphrates and Tygris ; which is the reafon of the
name.
Aram Sob a, or Zoba, (anc. geog.) which David
conquered, was a country near the Euphrates, where
afterwards Palmyra Hood : the Euphrates bounded it
on the ead, as the land of Canaan and Syria Damaf-
.cena did on the wed, (.2 Samuel).
A R AMO NT, a town of Languedoc in France,
feated on the river Rhone. jE. Long. .4. 52. N. Lat.
■43* 54-
ARANEA/the Spider ; a genus of infeeds belong-
N° 25.
ing to the order of aptera, or infedts without wings. Aranea.
All the fpecies of fpiders have eight legs, with three' J
joints in each, and terminating in three crooked claws ;
eigqi eyes, two before, two behind, and the red on the
fides of the head. In the fore-part of the head, at the
mouth, there is a pair of Iharp crooked claws or for¬
ceps : thefe dand horizontally ; and, when not exerted
for ufe, are concealed in two cafes contrived for their
reception, in which they fold like a clafp-knife, and
there lie between two rows of teeth. A little below
the point of each claw, there is a (mail hole, through
whichLeewenhoekfuppofesthe fpideremits akindofpoi-
fon (a). Thefe claws are the weapons with which they
kill flies, &c. for their food. The belly or hinder jpart is
feparated from thehead and bread by a fmall thread-like
tube. The Ikin or outer furface is a hard poliflied crud.
Spiders have five tubercles, or nipples at the ex¬
tremity of the belly, whofe apertures they can en¬
large or contrail at pleafure. It is through thefe
apertures that they fpin a gluey fubdance with which
their bellies are full. They fix the end of their
threads by applying thefe nipples to any fubdance, and
the thread lengthens in proportion as the animal re¬
cedes from it. They can dop the iffuing of the
threads by contradling the nipples, and re-afeend by
means of the claws on their feet, much in the fame
manner as fome men warp up a rope. When the com¬
mon houfe-fpider begins her web, (he generally choofes
a place where there is a cavity, fuch as the comer of a
room, that (he may have a free palfage on each fide, to
make her efcape in cafe of danger. Then fire fixes one
end of her thread to the wall, and palfes on to the other
fide, dragging the thread along with her (or rather the
thread follows her as (he proceeds), till fire arrives at
the other fide, and there fixes the other end of it. Thus
die pafles and repaffes, till (he has made as many paral-
,lel threads as die thinks necefl'ary for her purpofe. Af¬
ter this, die begins again and erodes thefe by other pa¬
rallel threads, which may be named the woof Thefe
are the toils or fnares which die prepares for entangling
flies, and other fmall infects, which happen to light up¬
on it. But, befides this large web, (he generally weaves
a fmall cell for herfelf, where die lies concealed watch¬
ing for her prey. Betwixt this cell and the large web
die has a bridge of threads, which, by communicating
•with the threads of the large one, both give her early
intelligence when any thing touches the web, and
enables her to pafs quickly in order to lay hold of it.
There are many other methods of weaving peculiar to
.different fpecies of fpiders ; but as they are all intend¬
ed
(a) Dr Mead, in his Effay on Poifons, diffents wholly from this opinion, having never been able, on repeat¬
ed examinations, to difeover any fuch opening, not even in the claws of the larged foreign fpider ; which be-
q,Vr above fifty times bigger than any of the European fpiders, would more eafily have afforded a view of this
opening, if nature had allotted any to this part of the animal. Befides, repeated obfervations alfo convinced
him that nothing dropped out of the claws, which went always dry while the fpider bit any thing, but that a
fliort white probofeis was at the fame indant thrud out of the mouth, which indilled a liquor into the wound.
And the fame author obferves, that the quantity of liquor emitted by our common fpiders when they kill their
prey is vifibly fo great, and the wounding weapons fo minute, that they could contain but a very mconfider-
able’portion thereof if it were to be difeharged that way. Baker’s Mifcrofcope, p. 196. Spiders frequently
icad their (kins, which may be found in the webs perfedtly dry and tranfparent; and from fuch (kins the for¬
ceps, or claws, for they are always (hed with the (kins, may eafier.be (eparated, and examined with much great¬
er exadtnefs, than in the common fpider while living.
A R A [ 193 1 A R A
ed for the fame purpofe, it is needlefs to give particu-
' lar defcriptions of them.
That darting-out of long threads, however, which
has been obferved by naturalifts, and by means of which
fbme fpecies can convey themfelves to great diftances,
deferves particular notice.
Dr Lifter tells ns, that attending clofely to a fpider
weaving a net> he obferved it fuddenly to defift in the
mid-work; and turning its tail to the wind, it darted
out a thread with the violence and ftream we fee wa¬
ter fpout out of a jet; this thread, taken up by the
wind, was immediately carried to feme fathoms long;
ftill ilTuing out of the belly of the animal. By-and-by
the fpider leaped into the air, and the thread mounted
her up fwiftly. After this difeovery, he made the like
obfervation in near thirty different forts of fpiders; and
found the air filled with young and old, failing on their
threads, and doubtlefs feizing gnats and other infers
in their paffage, there being often manifeft figns of
flaughter, legs and wings of flies, &c. on thefe threads,
as well as in their webs below. Dr Hulfe difeovered
the fame thing about the fame time.
Dr Lifter thinks there is a fair hint of the darting
of fpiders in Ariftotle, Hift. An. lib. ix. cap. 39. and
in Pliny, lib. x. cap. 74. But with regard to their
failing, the ancients are filent, and he thinks it was
firft feen by him. He alfo obferves of thofe failing
fpiders, that, they will often dart, not a Angle thread
only, but “ a whole fheaf at once, confifting of many
filaments; yet all of one length, all divided each from
the other, and diftin<5t until fome chance either fnap
them off or entangle them. But for the moft part you
may obferve, that the longer they grow, the more they
fpread, and appear to a diligent obferver like the nu¬
merous rays in the tail of a blazing ftar. As for that
which carries them away in the air, fo fwift off-hand,
it is (as I have already hinted) partly their fudden
leap; partly the length and number of the threads-
projected, the ftream of the air and wind beating more
forcibly upon them ; and partly the pofture and ma¬
nagement of their feet, which, at leaft by fo*ne fort of
them, I have obferved to have been ufed very like wings
or oars, the feveral legs (like our fingers)• being fome-
times clofe joined, at other times opened, again bent,
extended, &c. according to the feveral neceflities and
will of the failor. To fly they cannot be ftrictly faid,
they being carried into the air by external force ; but
they can, in cafe the wind fuffer them, fleer their
courfe, and perhaps mount and defeend at pleafure :
and to the purpofe of rowing themfelves along the air,
it is obfervable that they ever take their flight back¬
wards ; that is, their head looking a contrary way, like
a fculler upon the Thames. It is fcarce credible to
what height they will mount; which yet is precifely
true, and a thing eafily to be- obferved by one that
{hall fix his eye fome time on any part of the heavens,
the white webs, at a vaft diftance, very diftindtly ap¬
pearing from the azure Iky; but this is in autumn
only, and that in very fair and calm weather.” In a
letter to Mr Ray, dated January 1670, fpeaking of
the height fpiders are able to fly to, he fays, , “ Laft
October, &c. I took notice, that the air was very full
of webs; 1 forthwith mounted to the top of the high-
eft fteeple on the Minfter (in York), and could there
difeern them yet exceeding high above me.”
Vol. II. Parti.-
He further obferves, that they not only thus fhoot| Aranea*
their threads upward, and mount with it in a line al-',~^~'jl.
moft perpendicular ; they alfo projedt them in a line
parallel to the horizon, as may be feen by their threads
running from one wall to another in a houfe, or from
one tree to another in the field, and even from wall to
wall acrofs gardens of confiderable extent.
The matter of which the fpider’s threads are formed,
we have obferved, is a vilcid juice, elaborated in .the
body of the animal, and emitted from papillx fituated
at the extremity of the belly ; which papillx are fur-
niflied with numerous apertures that do the bufinefs
of wire-drawers, as it were, in forming the threads.
Of thefe apertures Mr Reaumur obferves, there are-
enough in the compafs of the fmalleft pin’s head to yield
a prodigious quantity of diftinfl threads. The holes*
are perceived by their effe&s : take a large garden-
fpider ready to lay its eggs, and applying the finger on
a part of its papillx, as you withdraw that finger it
will take with it an amazing number of different
threads. Mr Reaumur has often counted 70 or 80
with a microfcope, but has perceived that there .were
infinitely more than he could tell. In effeft, if he
fliould fay that each tip of a papillx furnifhed a thou-
fand, he is perfuaded he would fay much too little.
The part is divided into an infinity of little prominen¬
ces, like the eyes of a butterfly, &c. Each prominence
no doubt makes its feveral threads ; or rather between
the feveral protuberances there are holes that give vent
to threads; the ufe of the protuberances, in all proba¬
bility, being.to keep the threads at their firft exit, be«
fore they are yet hardened by the air, afunder. In
fome fpiders thofe protuberances are not-fo fenfible ;
but in lieu thereof there are tufts of hair which may
ferve the fame office, viz. to keep the threads a-part.
Be this as it will, there may threads come out at above
a thoufand different places in every papillx ; confe-
quently the fpider, having five papillx, has holes for
above five thoufand threads.
Such is the tenuity of the threads in the-largef fort -
of fpiders. But if we examine the young produced by
thofe, we fhall find that they no fooner quit their egg :
than they begin to fpin. Indeed their threads can 1
fcarce be perceived, but the webs may: they are fre¬
quently as thick and clofe as thofe of houfe-fpiders;
and no wonder, there being often fouuor five hundred
little fpiders concurring to the fame work. How mi¬
nute muft their holes be ? the imagination can fcarce '
conceive that of their papillx ! The whole fpider is
perhaps lefs than a papilla of the parent which produ¬
ced it. But there are even fome kinds of fpiders fo
fmall at their birth, that they are not vifible without
a microfcope. There are uilially found an infinity of
thefe in a clufter, and they only appear like a number
of red points ; And yet there are webs found under
them, though well nigh imperceptible. What mull
be the tenuity of one of thefe threads ? Mr Leewenhoek
has computed that .100 of the fingle threads of a full
grown fpider are not equal to the diameter of the hair
of his beard ; and confequently, if the threads and hair
be both round, ten thoufand fuch threads are not big¬
ger than fuch a hair. He calculates further, that
when young fpiders firft: begin to fpin, four hundred
of them are not larger than one which is of a full :
growth } allowing which, four millions of a young fpi* -
B b <jei V>
A R A [ 194 ] A R A
der’s threads are not fo big as the fingle hair of a man’s
’ beard.
Garden-fpiders, particularly the fhort-legged fpecies,
yield a 'kind of filk, which has by fome been judged
fcarce inferior to that of the filk-worm. Mr Bon of
Languedoc, about 70 years ago, contrived to manu¬
facture from it a pair of fiHt ftockings and mittens, of a
beautiful natural grey colour, which were almoft as
handfome and ftrong as thofe made with-common filk :
and he publilhed a differtation concerning the difco-
very. But M. Reaumur, being appointed by the
Royal Academy to make a farther inquiry into this
new filk work, raifed feveral objections and difficulties
againft it, which are found in the memoirs of the
Academy for the year 1710. The fum of what he
has urged amounts to this. The natural fiercenefs of
the fpiders renders them-unfit to be bred and be kept
together. Four or five thoufand being diftributed into
cells, fifty in fome, one or two hundred in others, the
big ones foon .killed and eat the lefs, fo that in a fhort
time, there were fcarce left one or two in each cell; and
to this inclination of mutually eating one another M.
Reaumur afcribes the fcarcity of fpiders, confidering
the vafi number of eggs they lay.
iBuc this is not all: he even affirms, that the fpider’s
bag is inferior to that of the filk-worm both in luftre
and flrength, and that it produces lefs matter to be ma¬
nufactured. The thread of the fpider’s web, he fays,
.only bears a weight of two grains without breaking;
and that of the bag bears thirty-fix. The latter,
therefore, in nil probability, is eighteen times thicker
than the former ; yet it is weaker than that of the
filk-worm, which bears a weight of two drams and a
half. So that five threads of the fpider’s bag muftbe
put together to equal one thread of the filk-worm’s bag.
Now it is impoffible thefe fhould be applied fo juftly
. over one another as not to leave little vacant fpaces be¬
tween them, whence the light will not be reflected ;
:and, of confequence, a thread thus compounded muft
fall fliort of the luflre of a folid thread. Add to this,
- that the fpider’s thread cannot be wound off as that of
the filk-worm may, but muft of neceffity be carded ;
by which means, being torn in pieces, its evennefs,
which contributes much to its luftre, is deftroyed. In
effedt, this want of luftre was taken notice of by M. de
la Hire, when the ftockings were prefented to the Aca¬
demy. Again, fpiders furnifh much lefs filk than the
worms : the largeft bags of thefe latter weigh four
grains, the fmaller three grains ; fo that 2304 worms
produce a pound of filk. The fpider-bags do not weigh
above one grain; yet when cleared of their duft and
filth, they lofe two-thirds of their-weight. The work
of twelve fpiders, therefore, only equals that of one
filk-worm; and a pound of filk will require at leaft
27,648 fpiders. But as the bags are wholly the work
'.of the females, who fpin them, to depofit their eggs
in, there muft be kept 55,296 fpiders to yield a pound
of filk. Yet will this only hold of the belt fpiders ;
thofe large ones ordinarily feen in gardens, &c. fcarce
yielding a twelfth part of the filk of the others. Two
hundred and eighty of thefe, he (hows, would not yield
more than one filk-worm ; 663,552 of them would
.fcarce yield a pound.
The aCi of generation among fpiders varies in diffe¬
rent fpecies. As thefe infeCls prey upon each other
except during the time of their amours, they dare not Aranesf
come within reach of one another but with the utmoft
caution. They may fometimes be feen ftretching out j
their legs, fhaking the web, and tampering with each
other by a flight touch withr the extremity of their I
feet; then, in a fright, dropping haftily down their
thread, and returning in a few moments to make frefli |
trial by feeling. When once both parties are well afi- '
fured of the fex they have to deal with, the approaches !
of their feet, in order to feel, become more frequent,
confidence takes place, and the inftant of amorous dal¬
liance enfues. “ We cannot,” fays Lyonnet, “ but !
admire how careful they are not to give themfelves up “ j
blindly to a paflion, or venture on an imprudent ftep, |
which might become fatal to them.” A caveat this |
to the human kind. Lifter and Lyonnet, two accu¬
rate obfervers, fay, that the extremity of thofe arms, |
or claws, which the fpider ufes to grafp his prey with,
fuddenly opens, as it were by a fpring, and lets out a 1
white body, which the male applies beneath the abdo¬
men of the female to fulfil the wifh of nature. In the
water-fpider, the fexual organs are fituated at the hinder
parts of the male, are curve, and adl as it were by a -
fpring; thofe of the females are diftindh Nature by
a thoufand varied methods accomplifhes her purpofe.
Spiders frequently change their colour, which varies
much, in refpecl to feafon, fex, age, &c. but they are
in general more beautifully variegated: in autumn; a fea¬
fon not only the moft opportune and plentiful refpeft-
ing their prey, but the time when they arrive at their 1
greateft magnitude, and are in theiriieight of vigour.
The fpecies of aranea enumerated by naturalifts a-
mount to upwards of 50 ; of which it may here fuf-
fice to mention a few of the moft remarkable.
x. The calycina, with a round pale yellow belly, and
two hollow points. It lives in the cups of flowers, af¬
ter the flower-leaves have fallen off ; and catches bees,
and other flies, when they are in fearch of honey.
2. The avicularia, has a convex round breaft, hoi- .!
lowed tranfverfely in the middle. It is a native of A-
merica, aird feeds upon fmall birds, infeds, &c. The
bite of this fpider is as venomous.as that of the fer-
pent.
3. The ocellata, has three pair of eyes on its thighs. j
It is about the fame fize with the tarantula, of a pale
colour, with a black ring round the belly, and two J
large black fpots on the fides of the breaft. It is a na¬
tive of China.
4. The faccata, has an oval belly, of a duflty iron 1
colour. It lives in the ground, and carries a fack with "
its eggs where-ever it goes. This fack it glues to its
belly, and will rather die tham leave it behind.
5. Diadema is -the largeft fpider which this country
produces. The abdomen is of an oval form, downy,
and of a ruddy yellow colour, which is very variable in
different feafops; being fometimes paler, at others very
dark coloured. The upper part is beautifully adorned
with black and white circles and dots, having a longi¬
tudinal band in the middle, compofed of oblong and
oval-fliaped pearl-coloured fpots, fo arranged as to re-
femble a'fillet, fimilar to thofe worn by the eaftem
kings. The ground upon which this fillet and the
-white dots are laid, when viewed with a glafs, and the
fun Ihining thereon, is beautiful and rich beyond all
defcriptiou. There are varieties in colour of this fpi-
A R A [ 195 ] A R A
ranea. der when young: fome have their abdomen purple,
    ornamented with white dots, the legs yellow and an¬
notated with a deeper colour ; others have their abdo¬
men of a fine red like wife ornamented with white, but
the legs of a fine pale green colour; annulated with
dark purple or black. It inhabits die birch-tree.
6. The cucurbitina, has a globular yellow belly, with
a few black fpots^ It lives in the leaves of trees, and
inclofes its eggs in a foft net.
7. The labyrintlnca, with a dufky oval belly, a whi-
tifh indented line, and a forked anus. The web of
this fpecies is horizontal, with a cylindrical well or
tube in the middle.
8. The fimbriata, has a black oblong belly, with a
white line on each fide, and dufky-coloured legs. It
lives in w'ater, upon the furface of which it runs with
great fwiftnefs.
9. The holofericea, has an ovalifh belly covered with
a down-like velvet; at the bafe, or under part, it has
two yellow fpots. It is found in the folded leaves of
plants.
10. The viatica, or wanderer, is generally of a yel¬
low colour more or lefs deep. Sometimes it is whirifh
and even rather green. The abdomen is targe, broad,
almoft fquare, with.two bands .of dark orange, which
arifing from the thorax defcend obliquely on the fides
towards the middle. Between the bands are a few
fmall black dots forming a kind of triangle upon the
middle of the abdomen. On the thorax are feen two
longitudinal bands fomewhat green, one on each fide.
The two foremoft pair of legs are very long, and the
hinder fhort; which makes k walk like a crab. It is
found upon plants ; and is a lively, a&ive, indefatigable
hunter. Without any motion of the head, which is
furnifhed with immoveable eyes, it perceives all the
flies that hover round about, does not fcare them, but
ftretches over them its arms fumifhed with feathers,
which prove nets in which their wings intangle. It is
faid to fit on its eggs ; which however it often carries
about with it, wrapt up in a ball of wiiite filk.
11. The aquatica, is of a livid colour,. with an oval
belly, and a tranfverfe ifne, and twm hollowed points.
It frequents the frefh waters of Europe. But it is in
fome fort amphibious : for it can live on land as well
as in the water, and comes often on Ihore for its
food; yet it fwims well in water, both on its belly and
back: it is diftinguiihable by its brightnefs.- In the
water its belly appears covered with a filver vamiih,
which is only a bubble of air attached to the abdomen
by means of the oily humours which tranfpire from its
body, and prevent the immediate contact of the waiter,
This bubble of air is made the fubftance of its dwelling,
which it conftrufls under water: for it fixes feveral
threads of filk, or fuch fine matter, to the ftalks of:
/plants in the w'ater; and then afcending to the furface,
thrufl» the hinder part of its body above waiter, draw--
ing it back again with fuch rapidity, that it attaches-
underneath a bubble of air, which it has the art of de¬
taining under water, by placing it underneath the
threads abovementioned, and w hich it binds like a co¬
vering almoft all around the air-bubblh. Then it afcends
again for another air-bubble ; and thus proceeds until
it has conftrufted a targe aerial apartment under wa¬
ter, which it enters into or quits at pleafure. The male
conftru&s for himfelf one near to the female ; and when
love invites, he breaks through the thread w'alls of the Ararea.
female’s dwelling, and the two bubbles attached to the1 ^ J
bellies of both unite into one, forming one targe nup¬
tial chamber. The female is fpmetimes laid for a whole
day together ftretched on her back, waiting for the ar¬
rival of the male, without motion, and feemingly as if
dead. As foon as he enters and glides over her, fhe
feems to be brought to life again, gets on her legs and
runs after the male, who makes his efcape with all pof-
fible fpeed. The female takes care of the young, and
conftrufts fimilar apartments on purpofe for them. The
figure of this fpider has nothing remarkable; and W'ould
be overlooked among a crowd of curiofities, if the fpec-
tator be unacquainted with its Angular art of ccnilruct-
ing an aerial habitation under water, afcd thus uniting
together the properties of both elements. It lodges,-
during the w inter in empty ftiells, which it dexterouily
fhuts up with a wTcb.
12. The fafciata, with yellow bands round the bel¬
ly, and duiky rings on the legs, is a native of Barbary,
and is as large as the thumb. It inhabits hedges and
thickets : its wrebs have large mefhes, and it relides in
the centre. The fnares are fpread for large flies, wafps,
drones, and even locufts: the lei hr inlefts can efcape
through the-mcffies. The animal which it entangles
is foon bound with ftrong threads; killed by the fpider’s
jaws ; and partly eat, if the fpider is hungry: the reft is
concealed under fome neighbouring dry leaves, cowered
with a kind of web and a btackiih glue in great abun¬
dance. Its larder is faid to be often plentifully ftored :
—Its neft is of the fize of a pigeon's egg, divided ho¬
rizontally, and fufpended- by the threads of tha infeft,
which are of'a filvery white, and ftronger than *lilk.
The young ones live in amity ; but when grown up, are
mortal enemies. They never meet but they fight
with violence, a'nd their battle only ends with the death
of - the weakeft. The dead body is carefully ftored in
the larder. Twelve of thele-fpiders, by way of experi¬
ment, wrere fhut up together; and, after a battle-of-
eight days; the ftrpngeft only remained alive.
13. The tarantula, has the breaft and belly of an afh-
colour; the legs are likewhe afh-coloured, with black- r,?fe
ilh rings on the under part; the fangs or nippers are ^1U vol I)
red on the inner fide, the reft being blackifti: Two of'
its eyes are larger than the other, red, and placed in
the front; four other eyes are placed in a tranfverfe
direftion towards the mouth ; the other two are nearer
the back : It has two antennae or feelers. It is a na¬
tive of Italy, Cyprus, Barbary, and the Eaft Indies.
It lives in bare fields, where the lands are fallow,
but not very hard ; and from its antipathy to damp
and ftiade, choofes for its refidence the riling part
of the ground facing the eaft. Its dwelling is
about four inches deep, and half an inch wide ; at
the bottom it is curved, and there the infeft fits in
wet weather, and cuts its w-ay out if water gains
upon it. It weaves a net at the mouth of the hole.
Thefe fpiders-Jo not live quite a'year, in July they
flied their Ikin, and proceed to propagation ; w hich,
from a mutual diftruft, as they frequently devour one
another, is a work undertaken with great circumfpec-
tion. They lay about feven hundred and thirty eggs, •
v/hich hatched in the fpring ; but the parent does not live
to fee her progeny, having expired early in the winter. -
The Ichneumon fly is their moft formidable enemy.
B b 3 ' The-
A R A [ 196 ] A R A
Avanea. The bite of the tarantula is faid to occafion an produced, with the anatomy and figure of the infeft Aranea.
u—Y—inflammation in the part, which in a few hours brings and its eggs, illuftrated by an engraving ; he mentionsv—
on ficknefs, difficulty of breathing, and univerfal faint- particularly the fymptoms that follow from the bite,
nefs. The perfon afterwards is affedted with a de- and the cure of the difeafe by mufic, with a variety of
lirium, and fometimes is feized with a deep melan- hiitories of cures thus wrought, many of them com-
choly. The fame fymptoms return annually, in feme municated by perfons who were eye-witneffes of the
cafes, for feveral years ; and at laft terminate in death, procefs.
Mufic, it has been pretended, is the only cure. A. mu- Ludovicus Valetta, a Celeftine monk of Apulia, pu-
fician is brought, who tries a variety of airs, till at lafl blifhed at Naples, in the year 1706, a treatife upon
he hits upon one that urges him to dance ; the vio- this fpider, in which he not only anfwers the objedfions
lence of which exercife produces a proportionable agi- of thofe who deny the whole thing, but gives, from
tation of the vital fpirits, attended with a confequent his own knowledge, feveral inftances of perfons who
degree of perfpiration, the certain confequence of which had fuffered this way, fom& of whom were of great fa-
is a cure. Sucli are the circumftances that have been milies, and fo far from being diflemblers that they
generally related, and long credited, concerning the would at any rate, to avoid fhame, have concealed the
Lite of this animal. Kircherus, in his Mufurgia, gives a misfortune which had befallen them,
very particular account of the fymptoms and cure, il- The honourable Mr Robert Boyle, in his treatife of
luftrated by hiftories of cafes. Among thefe, he men- Languid and Unheeded Motions, fpeaking of the bite
lions a girl, who being bitten'by this infedl, could be of the tarantula, and the cure of the difeafe w'hich fol-
cured only by the mufic of a drum. Lie then proceeds lows it by means of mufic, fays, That, having himfelf
to relate, that a certain Spaniard, trufting to the effi- had fome doubts about the matter, he was, after ftrict
cacy of: mufic in the. cure of the frenzy occafioned by inquiry, convinced that the relations in the main were
the bite of the tarantula, fubmitted to be bitten on the true.
Land by two of thefe, creatures, of different colours, and La My, Dr Mead, in his Mechanical Account of
poffeffedof different qualities. The venom was nofooner Poifons, has given an effay on the tarantula, containing
diffufed about his body, than the fymptoms of the the fubflance of the above relations, winch he endea-
diforder began to appear; upon which harpers, pipers, vours to confirm by his own reafoning thereon,
and other mufieians, u'ere fent for, who by various Notwithftanding the number and weight of thefe au-
hinds of muffic endeavoured toroufehim from that flu- thorities, and the general acquiefcence of learned and
por into which he,was fallen : but here it v'as obfer- ingenious men in the opinion that the bite of the ta-
■ved that the bites of the two infedts had produced con- rantula isT>oifonous, and that the cure of the diforder
irary effects ; for by one he was incited to dance, and occafioned by it is effected by mufic, we have reafon
;by the other he was re drained therefrom; and in this to apprehend that the whole is a midake.
conflict of nature the patient expired. The fame ac- In the Philofophical Tranfadions for the year 1672,
count is given in his P honurgia N-Jva,\\Ath.th.z addition p. 406. is an ex trad of a letter from Dr Thomas
of a cut reprefenting the infed in two pofitions, the pa- Cornelio, a Neapolitan phyfician, to John Doddington,
tient in the adion of dancing, together with the mud- Efq; his majedy’s refident at Venice, communicated by
cal notes of the tune or air by which in one indance the latter, in which, fpeaking of his intention to fend
the cure was effeded. to Mr Doddington fome tarantulas, he fays, “ Mean
In his Mufurgia, this author, attempting. mechani- while I fhall not omit to impart to you what was re-
cally to account for the cure of the bite of die taran- lated to me a few days fince by a judicious and unpre-
tula by mufic, fays of the poifon, That it is {harp, judicate perfon ; wliich is, that being in the country
gnawing, and bilious ; and that it is received and incor- of Otranto, where thofe mfeds are in great numbers,
porated into the medullary fubdance of the fibres, there was a man who, thinking himfelf dung by a taran-
With refped to the mufic, he fays, That the founds of tula, Ihowed in his neck a fmall fpeck, about which in
chords have a power to rarefy the air to a certain har- a very fhort time there arofe fome pimples full of a
monical pitch; and that the air thus rarefied, pene- ferous humour ; and that, 'in a few hours after, the
trating the pores of the patient’s body, affeds the muf- poor man was forely afflided with very violent fymp-
cles, arteries, and minute fibres, and incites him to dance; toms, as fyncopes, very great agitations, giddinefs of
which exercife begets a perfpiration, in which the poi- the head, and vomiting; but that, without any inclina-
fon evaporates. tion at all to dailce, and without a defire of haring
Unfatisfadory as this theory appears, the belief of any mufical indruments, Le miferably died within two
this drange phenomenon has prevailed among the abled days. The fame perfon affirmed to me, that all thofe
of modern phyficians. Hr Thomas Brown, fo far from that think themfelves bitten by tarantulas, except fuch
difputing it, fays, That fince many atted the fad from as for evil, ends feign themfelves to be fo, are for the
experience, and that the learned (Kircherus hath pofx- mod part young wanton girls, whom the Italian wri-
lively averred it, and fet‘down the fongs and tunes fo- ters call Do lei di Sale; who, by fome particular indifi-
lemnly ufed for the cure of the difeafe, and fmee fome pofition falling into this melancholy madnefs, perfuade
alfo affirm that*the tarantula itfelf w ill dance at the themfelves, according to the vulgar prejudice, to have
*lnquiricsGf mufic, he fhall not at all quedion it*. ffieen dung by a tarantula.”
into Vulgar Farther, that eminent Italian phyfician of the lad Dr Serao, an Italian phyfician, has written an in-
28 century, Baglivi, a native of Apulia, the country wire re genious book, in which he has effedually explo-
tarantula is produced, has written a differtation ded_this opinion as a popular error; and in the Phi-
De analoinia, morfu, ct effeflibus tarantula. *In this he lofophical Tranfadions, N° LX. for the year 1770, •
adeferibes the region of Apulia where the tarantula is p. 236. is a letter from Dominico Cirillo, M. D. pro-
feffor
ARA [197] ARA
Aranea. feflbr of natural hiftory in the univerfity cf Naples,
wherein,. taking notice of Serao’s book, he fays. That
having had an opportunity of examining the effefts of
this animal in die province of Taranto, where it is
found in great abundance, he finds that the furprifing
cure of the bite of the tarantula by mufic has not the
lead truth in it; and that it is only an invention of the
people, who \vant to get a little money by dancing
when they fay the tarantifm begins. He adds, “ I
make no doubt but fometimes the heat of the climate
contributes very much to warm their imaginations, and
throw them into a delirium, which may be in feme mea-
fure cured by mufic; but feveral experiments have been
tried with the tarantula, and neither men nor animals
after the bite have had any other complaint than a very
trifling inflammation upon the part, like that produ¬
ced by the bite of a fcorpion, which goes off by it-
felf without any danger at all. In Sicily, where the
fummer is ftill warmer than in any part of the king¬
dom of Naples,' the tarantula is never dangerous; and
mufic is never employed for the cure of the pretended
tarantifm.”
Mr Swinburn, when in the country of the tarantula,
was defirous of inveftigating minutely every particu¬
lar relative to that infedt; but the feafon was not far
-enough advanced, and no tarantati (perfons bitten, or
pretending to be bitten, by the tarantula) had begun to
ftir. He prevailed, however, upon a woman who had for¬
merly been bitten, to adt the part, and dance the taran-
tata before him. A great many muficians were fum-
moned, and file performed the dance, as all prefent
aflured him, to perfection. At firft fhe lolled ftupidly
on a chair, while the inftruments were playing fbme
dull mufic. They touched, at length, the chord fup-
pofed to vibrate to her heart; and up fhe fprang with
a moft hideous yell, ftaggered about the room like a
drunken perfon, holding a handkerchief in both hands,
raifing them alternately, and moving in very true time.
As the mufic grew brifleer, her motions quickened, and
fhe ikipped about with great vigour and variety of
fteps, every now and then fhrieking very loud. The
feene was far from pleafant; and, at his defire, an end
was put to it before the woman was tired. Wherever
the tarantati are to dance, he informs us, a place is
prepared for them, hung round with bunches of grapes
and ribbons. The patients are drefled in white, with
red, green, or yellow ribbons, for thofe are their fa¬
vourite colours.; on their fhoulders they cafl a white
fcarf, let their hair fall lobfe about their ears, and throw
their heads as far back as they can bear it. They are
exaft copies of the ancient priefteffes of Bacchus. The
orgies of that god, whofe worfhip, under various fym-
bols, was more widely fpread over the globe than that
of any other divinity, were no doubt performed with
energy and enthufiafm by the lively inhabitants of this
warm climate. The introduction of Chriftianity abo-
lifhed all public exhibitions of thefe heathenifh rites,
and the women durft no longer aft a frantic part in
the character of Bacchantes. Unwilling to give up fo
darling an amufement, they devifed other pretences ;
and pofleflicn by evil fpirits may have furnifhed them
-with one. Accident may alfo have led them to a dif-
covery of the tarantula ; and, upon the ftrength of its
poifon, the Puglian dames flill enjoy their old dance,
though time has effaced the memory of its ancient
name and inflitution : and this Mr Swinburn takes to Ararea,
be the origin of fo ftrange a practice. If at any time Aranjue-/-.
thefe dancers are really and involuntary affeCted, he fup- " v
pofes it can be nothing more than an attapk upon their
nerves, a fpecies of St Vitus’s dance ; and he inclines
the more to the idea, as there are numberlefs churches
and places throughout thefe provinces dedicated to that
faint.
Many fenfible people of the country, however, differ
in opinion from Dr Serao and other authors, who have
ridiculed the pretended diforder, and affirmed that the
venom of this fpecies of fpider can produce no effects
but fuch as are common to all others. The Brindifians
fay, that the tarantulas fent to Naples for the experi¬
ment were not of the true fort, but a much larger and
more innocent one ; and that the length of the jour¬
ney, and want of food, had weakened their power fo
much, as to fuffer the DoCtor or others to put their
arm into the bag where they were kept with impunity.
They quote many examples of perfons bitten as they
flept out in the fields during the hot months, who grew
languid, ftupid, deprived of all courage and elafticity,
till the found of fome favourite tune roufed them to
dance, and throw off the poifon. Thefe arguments of
theirs, however, Mr Swinburn thinks of little weight:
for they acknowledged that elderly perfons were more
frequently infeCted than young ones; and that mofl: of
them were women, and thofe unmarried. No perfon
above the lowelt rank in life was ever feized with this
malady, nor is there an inftance of its caufing death.
The length of the dance, and the patient’s powers of
bearing fuch exceffive fatigue in the canicular feafon,
prove nothing ; becaufe every day, at that time of the
year, peafants may be feen dancing with equal fpirit
and perfeverance, though they do not pretend to be
feized with the tarantifm. The illnefs may therefore
be attributed to hyilerics, exceffive heat, ftoppage of
perfpiration, and other effedts of fleeping out of doors
in a hot fummer air, which is always extremely dan¬
gerous, if not mortal, in mofl; parts of Italy. Violent
exercife may have been found to be a certain cure for
this diforder, and continued by tradition, though the
date and circumftances of this difeovery have been long
buried in oblivion ; a natural paffion for dancing, imi¬
tation, cuftom of the country, and a.defire of raifing
contributions upon the fpectators, are probably the
real motives that infpire the tarantati. Before Serao’s
experiments, the tarantula had been proved to beharm-
lefs, from trials made in 1693 by Clarizio, and in 1 740
at Lucera by other naturalifts.
ARANJUEZ, a town in the province of Netv Ca-
ftile, where the king of Spain has a palace and gar¬
dens which are reckoned the moft delightful inC the
world.
This place is 20 miles from Madrid, by a noble
road, planted on each fide with trees, lately made at
the expence of 120,0001. Sterling. It is delight¬
fully fituated at the conflux of the rivers Tagus and
Jarama; which rim through the gardens, and add new
beauty to this charming fpot, where art and nature
feem to go hand in hand with the moft pleafing and
rural fimplicity. On one fide, fine avenues of ftately
oaks and lofty elms convey the trueft ideas of Magni¬
ficence, while they afford the moft reviving ftiade; on
the other, the fudden tranfitions to lawns and wilder-
nefs,
A R A [ 198 ] A R A
Aratijnez nefs, the cafcades of water breaking through the thick-
v—^ ets, the tuneful fongs of numberlefs birds flickered in
thefe cool recefles, the occafional appearance and paf-
fage of the monarch attended by the grandees of his
kingdom ; all thefe obje&s united, and concentered in
one point, fill the imagination with pleafing ideas, and
imprefs the mind of a traveller with a thoufand agree¬
able fenfations.
The general fituation is in a very large plain fur-
rounded with large hills, of a moft difagreeable afpeift
indeed, but feldom appearing, being well hidden by
the noble rows of trees that extend acrofs the flat in
every direction. The main body of the palace is an old
building, to which have been lately added two new
wings. The firft part of the building was eredted by
Philip II. who purchafed the eftate, planted many of
the avenues, and, in order to extend his chace, or to
indulge his fplenetic difpofition, had all the vines that
grew on the hills rooted up. By that means he drove
away the inhabitants, and rendered the invirons of his
villa a perfect defart.—The apartments are good ; but
contain nothing very particular to take off from tire
enjoyment of fo many fine objects abroad. In one of
the new wings is a play-houfe, and hi the other a cha¬
pel. Part of the deling of the former was painted by
Mengs, who was alio lent to Rome to paint a holy fa¬
mily for the principal altar in the chapel. There are
feven fine pictures of Luca Jordano in the apartment
called El Cabinete Antiguo, and fix others in that
De los Mayordomos. The portraits of the grand duke
and duchefs ofTufcany, by'Mengs, are in a new apart¬
ment called the king’s dr effing-room. In the chapel,
over the great altar, there is a fine pidure of the An¬
nunciation, by Titian, prefented to him by Charles V.
and brought from the convent of Jufte, after the death
of that emperor. The porcelain cabinet; where there
are feveral large pieces of the king’s own manufactory,
is alfo an objeft of curiofity to a traveller..
As to the gardens, the whole of them may be
thrown into three grand divifions, diftinguilhed by the
names of La Huerta Valenciana, Los Deleites, and El
Cortijo. In the Huerta Valenciana, agriculture and
gardening are carried on in the fame manner as in that
fruitful province, and they plough witlrhorfes. In the
Cortijo they ufe oxen, as in Andalufia; and in other
places they fcratch up the ground with mules, as is
kill pradlifed in fome parts of Spain. Which ever way
one looks round, a conftant variety pleafes the eye,
and enraptures the mind. At one moment the fturdy.
buffalo moves before you, drawing his heavy burden ;
foon after, the flow camel, with his ponderous load;
vrhile the fwift zebra with his ftriped garment fri/ks
over the plains. If you approach the farm, every ob-
jcdt of convenience is confulted, and in the dairy every
degree »f neatnefs. The Dutch - cow enjoys a luxuri¬
ant pafture, the brood mares greatly enliven the land-
fcape, and the ftables are filled with the moft excellent
horfes And an immenfe nurfery fumiflies all manner
of trees and plants. The fine avenue, which ferves alfo
for a public walk, called Calle de Reyna, has nothing
equal to it at Verfailles. It is three miles long, quite
ftraight from the palace gate, eroding the Tagus twice
before, it 'lofes itfelf in the thickets, where fome noble
fpreading elms and weeping poplars hang beautifully
ever the deepAtill pooh Near this road is a flower-
garden for the fpring, laid out with great tafle by Mr-'rarjaez.
Wall during his miniftry. The gay variety of flowers Arar-
at this time of year is particularly pleafing to the eye ;v-—^'
but its beauty foon fades on the approach of furamer.
As the weather grows hot, the company that choofes
to walk retires to a garden in an ifland of the Tagus,
on the , north fide of the palace. This is an heavenly
place,, cut into various walks and circular lawns, which
in their primitive flate may have been very ftiff and
formal: but in the courfe of a century, Nature has
obliterated the regular forms of art; the trees have
fwelled out beyond the line traced for them, and de-
ftroyed the enfilade by advancing into the walks or
retiring from them. The fweet flowering-flirubs, in-
ftead of being clipped and .kept down, have been allowed
to flioot up into trees, and hang over the flatties and
fountains they were originally meant to ferve as hum¬
ble fences to. The jets-d’eau dafli up among the
trees, and add frefli verdure to the leaves. The ter¬
races and baluftrades built along the river, are now o-
vergrown with rofes, and other luxuriant bullies, hang¬
ing down into the ftream, which is darkened by the
large trees growing on the oppofite banks. Many of
the ftatues, groupes, and fountains, are handfome, fome
mafterly, the works of Algardi: all are placed in
charming points of view, either in open circular fpots,
at a diftance from the trees, or elfe in gloomy arbours,
and retired angles of the wood. The banks of this
wood, called the 11a, are alfo enlivened by elegant/'
yachts for the amufement of the royal family.
The town or village formerly confided of the palace,..
its offices, and a few miferable huts, v'here the am-
bafladors, and the attendants of the court, endeavoured
to lodge themfelyes as well as they could, but always
very uncomfortably ; many of the habitations were
vaults half under ground.. What determined the king
to build a new town, and to embellifli the environs,
was an accident that happened at the nuncio’s; a coach
broke-through the cieling of his dining-room, and fell
in upon the table. The court then began to apply
very confiderable fums to the purpofe of ercifHng pro¬
per dwellings for the great number of perfons that
flock to the place where the fovereign refides; near
10,000 are fuppofed to live here two or three months
in fpring ; the king keeps 115 fets of mules, which
require a legion of men to take care of them. Above
a million Sterling has been laid out at Aranjuez fince
the year 1763; and it muft be acknowledged, that
wonders have keen performed:‘feveral fineftreets drawn
in ftraight lines with broad pavements, a double row of
trees before the houfes, and a very noble road in the
middle ; commodious' hotels for the mihifters and am-
bafladors ; great fquares, markets, churches, a theatre, ,
and an amphitheatre for bullrfeafts, have been railed
from the. ground ; befides the acceffion of two new
wings to the palace. Neatnefs and convenience have
been more ftudied and fought for than fhow in the ar-
chitefture, but altogether the place has fomethirig truly
magnificent in the coup d’oeil.
ARAR, (Casfar, Strabo); Araris, (Dio Caffius); •
Sastcona, (Ammian) : A river of Celtic Gaul, now the
Saone; which rifes out of mount Vogefus on the con¬
fines of Lorrain, runs through the Tranche Comte and
Burgundy, and below Lyons falls into the Rhone. It
is fo incredibly flow, that the eye cannot diftinguifh ■
which
A R A [ 199 ] A R A
Ararat, which way it moves, (Csefar) ; and therefore Pliny
~v 1 calls it the Sluggijh river. Its courfe is from north to
fouth. It is famous for a bridge of Csefar, which was
built by the foldiers in one day. It is navigable equal¬
ly with the Rhone.
ARARAT, the name of the mountain on which
Noah’s ark refted, after the abatement of the waters
of the univerfal deluge. Concerning this mountain
there are various conjectures ; though it is almoft uni-
verfally allowed to be in Armenia Major. Some are
of opinion that it is one of the mountains which divide
Armenia on the fouth from Mefopotamia and that part
of Affyria inhabited by the Curds ; from whom thefe
mountains took the name of Curdu or Cardu, by the
Greeks turned into Girdyai, &c. Others, that it lies
towards the middle of Armenia, near the river Araxes,
above 280 miles diftant from the abovementioned moun¬
tains, making it belong to mount Taurus ; but the
Armenians are pofitive that Noah’s Ararat is no other
than a mountain to which they now give the name of
Majis, which lies about 12 leagues to the eaft of Eri-
van, and four leagues from the Aras. It is encompaf-
fed by feveral petty hills : on the tops of them are found
many ruins, thought to have been the buildings of the
firft men, who were, for fome time, afraid to defcend
into the plains. It Hands by itfelf, in form of a fugar-
loaf, in the midft of a very large plain, detached, as it
were, from the other mountains of Armenia, which
make a long chain. It confifts, properly fpeaking, of
two hills; the leffer of which is the more fharp and
pointed : the higher, on which it is faid the ark refted,
lies to the north-weft of it, and rifes far above the
neighbouring mountains. It feems fo high and big,
that, when the air is clear, it may be feen four or five
days journey off; yet travellers think the height is not
extraordinary. Chardin is of opinion that he paffed a
part of mount Caucafus which is higher; and Poullet
thinks the height of mount Mafis, or Ararat, not above
twice as great as that of mount Valerian near Paris.
They therefore think that its being vifible at fuch a
great diftance is owing to its lonely fituation in a vaft
plain, and upon the moft elevated part of the country,
without any mountains before it to obftrudt the view.
Nor is the fnow with which it is always covered from
the middle upwards any argument of its height; for,
in this country, ice hath often been obferved in the
mornings of the middle of July. (See Armenia).
Certain it is, however, that this mountain hath never
yet been afeended ; which’ the Armenians pretend Vas
owing to the interpofition of angels, in order to difap-
point the curiofity of thofe who wanted to advance to
fuch a facred place as that whereon the ark refted: but
the excefs of cold may very reafonably be fuppofed
able to fruftrate all fuch attempts, without any fuper-
natural interpofition. The moft dittinct account we
have of this mountain is that given by Mr Tournefort;
which, however, being much fwelled with immaterial
circumftances, it is needlefs to trouble our readers wath
at length. He tells us, that this mountain is one
of the moft difagreeable fights upon earth, without
either houfes, convents, trees, or ftirubs ; and feems as
if continually wafting and mouldering away. He di¬
vides it into three regions : The lowermoft, he fays, is
' the only one which contains any human creatures, and
is occupied by a few miferable ihepherds that tend fcab-
by flocks ; and here are alfo four. •' fome partridges : Ararat,
the fecond is inhabited by crows and tigers; and all Aratm.
the reft is covered with finosv, which half the year is
involved in thick clouds. On the fide of the moun¬
tain that looks towards Erivan is a prodigious preci¬
pice, from w-hence rocks of an immenfe fize are con¬
tinually tumbling down ufith a hideous tioife. This
precipice feems quite perpendicular; and the extremi¬
ties are rough and blackiih, as if fmutted with fmoke.
The foil of the mountain is loofe, and on the fandy
parts it is impoflible to take a firm ftep; fo that our
traveller encountered great difficulties in his afeent and
defeent of this mountain ; being often obliged, in or¬
der to avoid the fand, to betake himfelf to places
W'here great rocks were heaped on one another, under
which he paffed as through caverns, or to places full
of ftones, where he was forced to leap from one ftone
to another. If wre may believe Struys, a Dutch wri¬
ter, however, all thefe difficulties may be furmounted.
He affures us, he went five days journey up mount A-
rarat, to fee a Romifh hermit: that he puffed through
three regions of clouds; the firft dark and thick, the
next cold and full of fnow, and the third colder ftill:
that he adyanced five miles every day ; and when he
came to the place where the hermit had his cell, he
breathed a very ferene and temperate air: that the
hermit told him, he had perceived neither w-ind nor
rain all the 25 years he had dwelt there ; and that on
the top of the mountain there ftill reigned a greater
tranquillity, W'hereby the ark was preferved uncorrupt¬
ed. He farther pretends, that the hermit gave him a
crofs made out of the wrood of the ark, together with
a certificate ; a formal copy of which the author has
given in his fham relation.
ARASSI, a maritime, populous, and trading town
of Italy, in the territory of Genoa. E. Long. 7. 20.
N. Lat. 44. 3.
A RATE I A, in antiquity, a yearly feftival celebrated
at Sicyon, on the birth-day of Aratus, wdierain divers
honours wrere paid by a prieft confecrated to this fer-
vice, who for diftiniftion’s fake W’ore a ribband be-
fpangled with white and purple, fpots. The arateia
were folemnized with much pomp of mufic, the choiri-
fters of Bacchus attending.
ARATUS, general of the Achasans, conquered
Niocles tyrant of Sicyon. Two years after, he fur-
prifed the caftle called Acrocorinthm, and drove out
the king of Macedonia : he delivered Argos from its
tyrants, and w-as poifoned by Philip U. king of Ma¬
cedonia, whom he had newly reftored : he was about
62 when he died, the fecond year of the • 41ft Olysn-
piad. He was interred at Sicyon, and received the
greateft honours from his countrymen. His fon, w'ho
hat alfo been praetor, was poifoned by king Philip.
Polybius gives us fo great a character of Aratus tlie
father’s Commentaries or Hiftory, that the lofs of fo
valuable a work is highly to be regretted.
Aratus, a Greek poet, born at Soli, or Eolae,
a town in Cilicia, which afterwards changed its name,
and was called Powpeiopolis, in honour of Pompey the
Great. He flourilhed about the 124th, or, according
to fome, the 126th Olympiad, in the reign of Ptole¬
my Philadelphus king of Egypt. He difeovered. in
his youth a remarkable poignancy of wot, and capacity
for improvement; and having received his education
under
A R A [ 200 j ARB
Aratus under Dionyfius Heracleotes, a Stele phrlofopher, he
It efpoufed the principles of that feft. Aratus was phy-
Araxes‘. fician to Antigonus Gonatus, the fon of Demetrius
_u’ v Poliorcetes, king of Macedon: this prince, being a
great encourager of learned men, fent for him to court,
admitted him to his intimacy, and encouraged him in
his ftudies. The Phenomena of Aratus, which is ftill
extant, gives him a title to the character of an aftro-
nomer as well as a poet; in this piece he deferibes the
nature and motion of the ftars, and Ihows the particular
influences of the heavenly bodies, with their various dif-
pofitions. and relations. He wrote this poem in Greek
verfe: it was tranflated into Latin by Cicero; who tells
us, in his lirfl; book Ds or at or th: t the verfes of A-
ratus arc very noble. This piece was tranflated by o-
thers as well as Cicero ; there being a tranflation by
Germanicus Csefar, and another into elegant verfe by
Feftus Avienus. An edition of the Phenomena was
publifhed by Grotius, at Leyden, in quarto, 1600, in
Greek and Latin, with the fragments of Cicero’s ver-
fion, and the tranflations of Germanicus. and Avienus,
all which the. editor has illuftrated with curious notes.
He was certainly much eiteemed by the ancients, fmee
we find fo great a number of fcholiafts and commenta¬
tors upon him. There are feveral other works alfo
aferibed to Aratus. Suidas mentions the following,:
Hymns to Pan ; Aftrology and Aftrothefy; a compo-
fition of Antidotes ; an EnMiMf on.- Theopropus ; an
Hfioroia on Antigonus; an Epigram onPhila, the daugh¬
ter of Antipater, and wife of Antigonus ; , an Epice-
dium of Cleombrotus ; a Corredtion of the Odyfley.;
and fome Epiftles, in profe. Virgil, in his Georgies,
has imitated or tranflated many paflages from this au¬
thor ; and St Paul has quoted a pafl'age of Aratus.
It is in his fpeech to the Athenians (Ads xvii. 28.)
wherein he tells them,, that fome of their own poets
have faid, t« xai ysv©- ; « For we are alfo his
offspring.” Thefe words are the beginning of the,
fifth line of the Phenomena of Aratus.
ARAVA, a fortrefs. of Upper Hungary, in a coun¬
ty and on a river of the fame name. E. Long, 20. o.
N. Lat. 49. .20.
ARAUCO, a fortrefs and a town of Chili, in South
America; fituated in a fine valley, on a river of the
fame name. The natives are fo brave, that they drove
the Spaniards out of their country, though they had
no fire arms. W. Long. jx. 20. S. Lat. 42. 30.
ARAUSIO, or Civitas -draufienfis, or Araufict-
rum (Notkite); Calotiia Secundanorum. (Mela, Pliny,
Coins); fo called, becaufe the veterans of the fecond
legion were there fettled: The capital of the Cavares,
in Gallia Narbonenfis. Now Orange, in the weft of
Provence, on an arm, of the rivulet Egue, which foon
after falls into the Rhone, from Which it is diftr.nt a
league to the eaft, at the foot of a mountain. Here is
an ancient amphitheatre to. be ftill feen. E. Long. 4.,
46. Lat. 44. 10.
ARAW, a. town ’ of Swifferland, in Argow, feated
on the river Aar. It is handfome, large, and remark¬
able for its church, its fountain, and the fertility of
the foil. E. Long. 18. 0. N. Lat. 47. ay.
ARAXES, now the Aras, a river. of Armenia
Major, which takes its rife in a mountain called Albas,
where the Euphrates alfo hath its origin. From this
N° 25.
mountain it runs eaftward with a ferpentine courfe, dif- Arba.
charging itfelf into the Cafpian fea, after a run of up-1 v—1
wards of 500 miles, during which it receives fome con-
fiderable rivers. Some have.imagined that it hath its
rife in mount Ararat; but Tournefort aflures us that
it comes no nearer that mountain than 12 miles. The
Araxes is a very rapid river, and is fuppofed to be the
Gihon mentioned by Mofes. Befides this extreme ra¬
pidity, it is very apt to overflow after rains; fo that they
have in vain endeavoured to build bridges over it; tho’
fome of them appear, from the few arches remaining, to
have been built of the beft materials, and in the ftrong-
eft manner. Such is the vehemence of its current af*
ter the thawing of the adjacent fnows, or fome fierce
rains, that neither banks nor dykes can refill it; fo
that nothing can be more terrible than the noife and
violence of its waves at fuch times: but in winter, when
its waters arelowr, it is fordable infome places on camels.
ARBA (anc. geog.), an ifland and city of Illyria,
now Arbe, in the gulpli of Quarnaro. Of this ifland,
winch has been but flightly noticed by geographers, we
have the following defeription by the Abbe Forth.
In the Roman times,it is probable that there were no
other cities in Arbe but that w'hjch bears the name
of the ifland, in the neighbourhood of which ancient
monuments are frequently dug up.
This city of Arbe, though the capital of a fmall
ifland, not above thirty miles round, wholly unculti¬
vated, and uninhabitable in the higheil part that
faces the channel of Morlacca, has always maintained
itfelf with decorum. That it was inhabited by civilized
people in the Roman times, is evident, by the in-
feriptions that have been frequently difeovered there,
and others ftill remain at Arbe. In the lower times it
fuffered all the calamities to which the neighbouring
countries were fubje&ed, but it always recovered itfelf
with honour even after diffolution. .
The archives of the. community of Arbe contain
fome ancient papers that are truly valuable, and they
are kept with great jealoufy; by them it appears, that, .
in the eleventh century, gold and filk were not rare a.
mong the inhabitants. Arbe was fubjeft to the kings ,
of Hungary ; afterwards it became dependent on Ve¬
netian feudatories; and at laft was taken under the im ¬
mediate dominion of the . molt ferene republic, by
w’hich a governor is appointed who has the title of
count and captain. The number of people, on the ifland
does not much exceed three thoufand fouls, diftributed
in a few pariihes, which might be officiated by a fmall
number of priefts : .Yet, through a monftrous incon-
fiftency that falls very heavy on the poor inhabitants,
they have to.maintain no lefs than three convents of
friars, and as many of nuns, befides the confiderable
charge of near fixty prieils, who-have a very fcanty
provifion.
The climate of Arbe is none of the happieft ; the
winter feafon is horrid, efpecially when agitated by the .;
violent northerly winds, which fometimes transform
the intermediate feafons into winter, and caufe the fum-
mer itfelf to difappear. Thefe furious winds do great
damage to the ifland, particularly in the winter and ■
fpring. Two years ago, about twelve thoufand fheep
periflied in one night, of cold, in the common paf- -
tures of the mountain ; where, according to the cuf-
tom
ARB
ARB [ 201 ]
Arba. tom over all Dalmatia, they are left in the open air the
' whole year round. The fait fog raifed by the dread¬
ful commotion of the waves, which often roars, be¬
tween the mountains of Arbe and the oppofite Alps,
in the narrow channel of Morlacca, confumes all the
buds of the plants and corn, if it happens to be driven
upon the ifland by the wind ; and it is followed by a
cruel fcarcity of every kind of product. This ca¬
lamity communicates its baneful influence even to the
flefh of the animals left on the paftures, that be¬
comes ill-tafted, in confequence of the bittemefs and
bad nourifliment of the food. Abftradting from thefe
irregularities, the air of Arbe is healthful; nor ought
the conftant fummer fevers among the inhabitants to
be attributed to its influence, as they are, more proba¬
bly, derived from unwholefome food, and a way of life
differing little from that of the Hottentots.
The appearance of the ifland is exceedingly pleafant.
On the eaft it has a very high mountain, of the fame
fubftance as the Morlacca, of which it was once a part.
At the foot of this mountain, the reft of the ifland is
extended to the weftward, and divided into beautiful
and fruitful plains interfperfed with little hills fit to
bear the richeft products. At the extremity that
looks to the north, a delightful promontory, called
Loparo, ftretches into the fea; it is crowned with lit¬
tle hills, which almoft quite inclofe a fine cultivated
plain. Near this promontory are the two fmall iflands
of S. Gregorio and Goli, very ufeful to Ihepherds and
fifliers. The coaft of Arbe, that faces the Morlacca
mountains, is quite fteep and inacceflible; and the
channel between them is extremely dangerous, being
expofed to furious winds, and without a Angle port on
either fide. The long and narrow ifland of Dolin,
lying parallel to the ifland of Arbe, along the coaft of
Barbado, forms a channel lefs dangerous, though by no
means fo fecure as it is beautiful to look at. There
are feveral harbours in the neighbourhood of the city
of Arbe, by which the trade of the beft part of the
ifland is facilitated.
The city ftands on a rifing ground between two har¬
bours, which form a peninfula ; it contains about a
thoufand inhabitants, among whom are many noble fa¬
milies, but few of them are rich. Among the moft
remarkable curiofities of the ifland, the Arbegiani are
proud of many egregious reliques, and particularly of
the head of S. Criftolano their prote&or; but the lovers
of facred antiquity will find fomething much more An¬
gular in the three heads of Shadrach, Meftiech, and
Abednego, which are venerated there with great de¬
votion. Four of the principal gentlemen are keepers
of the fan&uary, and to their care the precious records
of the city are alfo committed. Among thefe records
there is a tranfadfion of MXVIII, by which the city
of Arbe promifes to the Doge of Venice, Ottone Or-
feolo, a tribute of feme pounds de feta /erica, “ of
wrought filk,” and in cafe of contravention, pounds de
auro obr 'tZQ, “ of pure gold.”
In the laft age there was a learned bifliop of Arbe,
named Ottavio Spaderi, w ho would not permit the re¬
liques of S. Criftofano to be expofed to the public ve¬
neration, on the folemnity of the faint’s day, becaufe
he doubted of their authenticity. The mob rofe, and
was going to throw him down from the top of the hill
on wliich the cathedral Hands; nor did the tumult
Vox,. II. Fart 1.
ceafe after the day was paft. The government fent Aria,
an armed veffel to deliver the prelate from the danger-v-—
he was in; and the Pope thought proper to give him a
more tractable fpoufe in Italy.
The nature of the foil of Arbe is not the fame in e-
very fituation; nay it would be difficult to find a coun¬
try where there is fo great a variety in fo little fpace.
There is a very great difference between the ground of
the extremity of the mountain above the cliannel of
Barbado, and the fides of it on the one part towards the
ifland, and on the other facing the ridge of Morlacca.
Nor is the top of the mountain itfelf always of the fame
ftru&ure: for in fome parts it is extended in a fine le¬
vel plain, partly woody and partly cultivable ; in other
places it is quite rocky, and compofed of bare marble.
The ground at the foot of the mountain, where it
ftretches towards the Ihore, oppofite -to Jablanaz, is
nothing Jmt marble; and, in the diftrift of Barbado
it is gravelly, and a good foil for vines. The wine of
Barbado is of excellent quality, and in great eftima-
tion ; hardly any other product is cultivated along that
coaft, as the vines fucceed fo well, notwithftanding
the negligent culture. Below the pretended ruins of
Colento the land bears vines, olives, mulberry, and o-
ther fruit trees, and alfo corn in the loweft parts. All
the lower part of the ifland is compofed alternatively of
little hills and valleys, and of a fubftance for the moft
part very different from that of the mountain and its
adjacencies. As the organization of the mountain is
wholly of marble, fo that of the hills is generally are¬
naceous. The whetftone forms a large part, and fre¬
quently contains ojlracites and ler.ticulares ; the ex¬
terior ftratum is commonly friable. The valleys/which
according to appearances fhould be full of land, are
provided with an excellent foil, with fuch a mixture
of very minute fand as is requifite to keep it light.
Springs of frefli water are by nature well diftributed over
the ifland, and- maintain a proper humidity wdien the
fummer is. not exceflively dry ; fo that the 'dark verdure
of the hills covered wflth wood, the luxuriance of the
vines, and frefhnefs of the corn-ground, form a fpec-
tacle extremely cheerful and agreeable.
The ifland of Arbe would have every thing requi¬
fite for the fubfiftence of its fmall population, if the
land was cultivated by a people lefs flupid and lazy.
It produces, however, firewood, of which many car¬
goes are annually fent to Venice; corn, oil, excellent
wine, brandy, and filk, fine'e very ancient times; it alfo
exports hides, wool, flieep, hogs, and horfes of a good
breed. There is alfo abundance of good fait made on
the ifland; and the fiftiing of tunny and mackrel, not¬
withftanding it is managed in a flovenly and aukward
manner, makes no inconfiderable article of trade to the
Arbegiani, who, like all their neighbours, find their ac¬
count in felling this commodity to ftrangers rather than
to the Venetians. Yet, with all thefe natural products,
the ifland is very far from being rich, or even in a tole¬
rable flouriftiing ftate; becaufe there is much land left
uncultivated, and the peafants are lazy.
ARB ACES governed Media under Sardanapalus,
Seeing him fpinning among a company of his women,
he ftirred up his people to revolt, and dethroned Sar¬
danapalus who thereupon burnt himfelf in his palace.
Arbaces being crowned, began the monarchy of the
Medes, which lafted 317 years under nine kings, till
C c Aft) ages
ARB. [ 202 ] ARB
Avbalefl:, Aftyages was expelled by Cyrus. Arbaces reigned 22 Medes, Panhians, Hyrcanians and Sacse ; the .left was Arbela.
, Arbe!a- ,years, and died A. M. 3206. See Media. chiefly occilpied by the Baftrians, Perfians, and Car-' y—
ARBALEST, or Cross Bow. See Cross-B.w. dufians. The various nations compofing this immenfe
ARBELA, now Irbil, a city of Aflyria, lying hoft were diiferently armed, with fwords, fpears, clubs,
in E. Long. 44. 5. N. Lat. 35'. 15. It is famous for and hatchets ; while the horfe and foot of each divi-
the laft and decifive battle fought in its neighbourhood fion wrere promifcuoufly blended, rather from the re-
between Alexander the Great and Darius Codoman- fult of accident than by the direction of defign. The
nus. This battle was fought 331 years before Chrift, armed chariots fronted the firft line, whofe centre was
and the event of it determined the fate of the. Perfian farther defended by the elephants. Chofen fquadrons
empire. Arrian relates, that Darius’s army coniifted of Scythian, Bachian, and Cappadocian cavalry advan-
of a million of foot and 40,000 horfe ; according to ced before either wing, prepared to bring on the ac-
Diodorus, there were 200,0co. horfe and 8co,000loot; tion, or after it began to attack the enemy in flank
Plutarch relates, that the horfe and foot together made and rear. The unexpected approach of Alexander
up a million; and Juftin'gives us exadtly half Diodo- within fight of his tents prevented Darius from forti-
rus’s number. The Macedonian army, according to fying the wide extent of his camp ; and, as he dreaded
Arrian, confilted of 40,000 foot and 7000 horfe. a nodturnabaflault from enemies who often veiled their
Upon receiving notice of the vaft ftrength. of the e- deligns in darknefs, he commanded his men to remain
nemy, Alexander exprelfed neither furprife nor appre- all night under arms. This unufual meafure, the
Gillies’s henfion; but having “commanded.a.halt, he encamped gloomy filence,. the long and anxious expectation, to-
four days, to give his men reft and refreihmeht. His gether with the fatigue of a reftlefs night, diicouraged
re‘ce' camp being fortified by a good intrenchment,. he left the whole army, but infpired double terror into thofe
in it the fick and infirm, together with all the baggage; who had witnefied die miferable difafters on the banks
and, on the evening of the fourth day, prepared to of the Granicus and the lilus.
inarch againft the enemy with, the effective part of his “ At day-break Alexander difpofed his troops in
army, which was faid to confift of 40,000 infantry and a manner fuggefted by the fuperior numbers and deep
7000 horfe, unincumbered with any thing but dieir order of the enemy. His main body confifted in two
provifions and-armour. The march was undertaken at heavy-armed phalanxes, each amounting to above
the fecond watch of'the night,, that the Macedonians, 16,coo men. Of thefe the greater part formed into
by joining battle in the morning, might enjoy the im- one line; behind which he placed the heavy-armed
portant advantage of having an entire day before them,, men, reinforced by his targeteers, with orders, that
to reap the full fruits of their expeCted victory.. About when the out-fpreading wings of die enemy prepared
half way between , the boftile camps, fome eminences to attack the flanks and rear of his firft line, the fecond
intercepted the view'of either army. Having afeend- fliould immediately wheel to receive them. The caval-
ed the rifing ground, Alexander firft beheld the Bar- ry and light infantry were fo difpefed on die wings,
barians, drawn up in battle array, and perhaps more that while one part refilled the ftiock of the Perfians
fkilfully manllulled than he had reafon to apprehend, in front, another, by only facing to the right or left.
Their appearance, at leaft, immediately determined him might take them in flank. Skilful archers and darters
to change his firft refolutipn. He. again commanded « were polled at proper intervals, as affording the beft
a halt, fummoned a council of-war; and different mea- defence againft the armed chariots, which (as Alexan-
fures being propofed, acceded to the Angle opinion of der well knew) mull immediately become ufelefs when-
Parmenio, who advifed that the foot fhould remain fta- ever their conductors or horfes were wounded,
tionary until a detachment of-horfe, had explored, the “ Having thus arranged the feveral parts, Alexan--
field of battle,- and carefully examined the dilpofition of* der with equal judgment led the whole in an oblique
tire enemy. Alexander; whofe conduCt was equalled direction towards the enemy’s left; a manoeuvre which
by his courage, and both furpaffed by his activity, per- enabled the Macedonians to avoid contending at once
formed thofe important duties in perfon at the head of with fuperior numbers. When his advanced battalions,
his light horfe and royal cohort. Having returned : notwithllanding their ncarnefs to the enemy, Hill ftretch-
with unexampled celerity, he again afTembkd his cap- ed towards the right, Darius alfo extended his left,
tains, and -encouraged them by a fhort fpeech.. Their till, fearing that by continuing this movement his men
ardour correfponded with his own,; and the foldlers,, fhould be drawn gradually off the plain, he command-
confident of-viffory, were commanded to take reft and ed the Scythian fquadrons to advance, and prevent the
refrefhment. farther extenfion of the hoftile line. Alexander imme--
“ Meanwhile - Dariiis, pereeivirig the enemy’s ap- diately detached a body of horfe to oppofe them. An
proaeh, kept his men prepared for aCtion. Notwith-- equeftrian combat enfued, in which both parties were
flanding the great length,of the plain, he was obliged reinforced, and the barbarians finally repelled. The I
to contraCl his front, and form in two lines, each of armed chariots then iifued forthwith impetuous vio-
which was extremely deep. According to the Perfian , lence; but their appearance only was formidable ; for
cuftom, the king occupied the centre of the firft line, the precautions taken by Alexander rendered their af-
furrounded by the princes of the blood and the great fault harmlefs. Darius next moved his main body, , 1
q.ficers of his court, and defended by his horfe and i but with fo little order, that the horfe, mixed with
foot guards, amounting to 15,000 chofen men. Thefe.- the infantry, advanced, and left a vacuity in the line,
fplendid troops,who feemed fitter forparade than battle, which his generals wanted time or vigilance to fupply.
were flanked on either fide by the Greek' mercenaries Alexander feized the decifive moment, and penetrated
and other warlike battalions, carefully felefted from into the void with a wedge of fquadrons. He was
the whole army. The. right wing confifted of the folkwed by the neareft feflions cf the phalanx, who
ruflied
ARB
[ 203 ]
ARB
Arbela rufned forward with loud fhouts, as if they had already that the judge cannot inflift death. Hence all punifli- Aibirr*.*
.1 purfued the enemy. In this part of the field, the vie- ments that are not capital have acquired the name of t:‘on
Arbitrary. tory was not jong doubtful; after a feeble refiftance, arbitrary punijhments, even although they be exprefsly ®
the barbarians gave way; and die puflllanimous Darius pointed out by ftatute. , Ar 'Lirg~ .
was foremoft in the flight. ARBITRATION is where the parties, injuring and '
“ The battle, however, was not yet decided. The injured, fubmit all matters in difputc, concerning any
more remote divifions of the phalanx, upon receiving perfonalchattels or perlbnal wrong, to the judgment of
intelligence that the left wing, commanded by Parme- two or more arbiters or arbitrators; who are to decide
nio, was in danger, had not immediately followed the controverfy : and if they do not agree, it is ufual
Alexander. A vacant fpace was thus left in the Ma- to add, that another perfon be called in as umpire,
cedonian line, through which fome fquadrons of Per- (iviperator or ntipar), to whofe foie judgment it is then
flan and Indian horfe penetrated with celerity, and referred; or frequently there is only one arbitrator ori-
advanced to the hoftile camp. It was then that Alex- ginally appointed. This decifion, in any of thefe ca-
Ander derived fignal andvwell-earned advantages from fes, is called an award. And thereby the queftion is
his judicious order of battle. The heavy-armed troops as fully determined, and the right transferred or fet-
entangled among the baggage. The enemy, thus fur- ARBITRATOR, a private extraordinary judge,
prifed, were deftroyed or put to flight. Meanwhile, chofen by the mutual confent of parties, to determine
the danger of his left wing recalled Alexander from controverfies between them. See Arbiter and Asbi-
the purfuit of Darius. In advancing againft the ene- tration.
my’s right, he was met by the Parthian, Indian, and ARBOIS, a fmall populous town of France, in the
Perfian horfe, who maintained a fharp conflidh Sixty Franche Compte, famous for its wines. E. Long. 5. 40.
of the Companions fell; Hephaeftion, Coenus, and Me- N. Lat. 46. 3 3.
nidas, were wounded. Having at length diflipated this ARBON, an ancient town in Swilferland, on the
cloud of cavalry, Alexander prepared to attack the fouth banks of the lake Conftance, in Thurgaw. It
foot in that wing. But the bufmefs was already effedt- has a caftle built by the Romans, and is under the ju-
ed, chiefly by the Theflalian horfe ; and nothing re- rifdidtion of the bilhop of Conftance. In the time of
mained to be done, but to purfue the fugitives, and to war, the Swifs have a right to put in a garrifon. The
render the vidtory as decifive as poflible. Popifti and Proteftant religions are equally tolerated in
“ According to the leaft extravagant accounts, with this town. E. Long. 9. 30. N. Lat. 4. 38.
the lofs of 300 men he deftroyed 40,000 of the bar- ARBOR, in botany, a tree. Trees are by Linnaeus
barians, who never thenceforth aflembled in fufficient claffed in the feventh family of the vegetable kingdom,
numbers to difpute his dominion in the Eaft. The in- and are diftinguifhed from flirubs in that their ftems
valuable provinces of Babylonia, Sufiana, and Perfis, come up with buds on them; but this diftindiion holds
with their refpedtive capitals of Babylon, Sufa, and not univerfally, there being rarely any buds on the
Perfepolis, formed the prize of his fldll and valour, large trees in India.
The gold and fdver found in thofe cities amounted to Arbor, in mechanics, the principal part of a ma-
thirty millions Sterling ; the jewels and other precious chine, which ferves to fuftain the reft; alfo the axis or
fpoil, belonging to Darius, fufficed, according to Plu- fpindle on which a machine turns, as the arbor of a
tarch, to load 20,000 mules and 3000 camels.’' The crane, windmill, &c.
confequences of this vidtory the reader will find nar- Jrbor D'uwa. fee Chemistry-Index.
rated under the article Persia. /Irbor Vita. See Thuya.
ARBERG, a town of Swifferland, in the canton ARBORESCENT, an epithet applied to fuch ch¬
ef Bern, with a handfome caftle, where the bailiff re- jedbs as referable trees.
Tides. It is feated on the river Aar, in a kind of ifland. Arboresckkt Starfijh, In zoology, a fpecies t>f afte-
E. Long. 17. 13. N. Lat. 47. o. rias. See Asterias.
ARBITER, in the civil law, implies a judge no- ARBORIBONZES, in modern hiftory, priefts of
minated by the magiftrate, or chofen voluntarily by Japan, who live an erratic life, and fubfift on alms,
the two contending parties, in order to decide their They dwell in caverns, and cover their heads with bon-
differences. nets made of the bark of tr es.
The civilians make a difference between arbiter and ARBORIST, a„perfon flailed in that part of botany
arbitrator, though both found their powder on the com- which treats of trees.
promife of the parties; the former being obliged to ARBOUR, in gardening,'a kind of fhady bowser,
judge according to the cuftoms of the law, whereas the formerly in great efteem ; but of late rejected on ac~
latter is at liberty to ufe his own diferetion, and ac- count of its being damp and unwholefome.
commodate the difference in the manner that appears Arbours are generally made of lattice-work, either
to him moft juft and equitable.
ARBITRARY, that which is left to the choice or
arbitration of men, or not fixed by any pofitive law or
injunction.
_ Arbitrary Punijhment, in law', denotes fuch pu-
niftiments as are by ftatute left to the diferetion of the
judge. It is a general Yule in arbitrary punilhments;
of wood or iron ; and covered with elms, limes, horn¬
beams ; or with creepers, as honeyfuckles, jafmines,
or paffion-flowers; either of which will anfwer the pur-
pofe very well, if rightly managed.
ARBROATH. See Aberbrothic.
ARBURG, a town of Swifferland, in the canton
of Bern, on the river Aar. It is fmall, but very ftrong,
C c 2 v being
ARB [ 204 ] ARB
Atbvrfcula being feated on a rock, and defended by a good fortrefs
S cut out of the rock. E. Long. 17. 5 J. N. Lat. 47. 10.
frbuthnot; ARBUSCULA is ufed by Bradley to denote a
" * r little or dwarf tree, above the rank of fhrubs but below
that of trees ; fuch, e. gr. as the elder;
ARBUSTLJM implies a number or multitu.de of
trees planted for the fruit fake.
The word was more peculiarly applied to a place
planted with trees for fattening vines to, which are
hence called by Columella arbuji 'iva.
Arbusium is fometimes al(b ufed to denote an
orchard, or field wherein trees are planted at fuch di-
ttance that there is room for ploughing and growing
c orn between.
ARBUTHNOT' (Alexander), principal of the uni-
verfxty of Aberdeen in the reign of James VI. of Scot¬
land, was-born in the year 1538. He ttudied firlt at
Aberdeen; and was-afterwards fent over to France,
where, under the famous Cujacius, he applied himfelf
to the ftudy of the civil law. In the year 156-3, he
returned to Scotland, and took orders. Whether he
was ordained by a bifhop or by prelbyters, is a matter
of uncertainty. In 1568, he was appointed miniflerof
Arbuthnot and Logy-Buchan; and in the following
year, Mr Alexander Anderfon being deprived, our au¬
thor was made principal- of the king’s college at Aber¬
deen in his room. In the general affembly which met
at Edinburgh in the years 1573 and 1577, he was
chofen moderator ; and to the end of his life was an
aittive fupporter of the reformed religion. He died in
1 583, in the 45th year of his age ; and was buried in
the college church of Aberdeen; We are told in the
Biographia, that he was eminent as a poet, a philofo-
pher, a mathematician, a lawyer, a divine, and a phys-
fician. He wrote Qrationes de origins ir dignitats ju¬
ris, printed at Edinburgh, 1572, 4to. His cotemporary
Thomas Maitland. wrote a copy of Latin verfes on
the publication of this book ; they are piinted in the
Dd'tc. Poetar. Scot. He publifhed Buchanan’s Hiftory
of Scotland in the year 158'2.-
Arbuthnot (Dr John), was born in Kincardin-
Ihire, near Montrofe, and was educated at Aberdeen,
•where he received his degree in phyfie. The difficul¬
ties in which his family was involved on account of:
their political principles making it neceffary that he
fhould court preferment in another country than - his
own, he went to London. The firft charabler in which
be a<tted there was a teacher of the mathematics; and
while he was employed in this manner, he hadoccafion
to publifh his Examhiation of Dr IVoodward’j Account
of the deluge. This traft, which abounded with learn¬
ing and good fenfe, ferved to make him known. He
publilhed foon after his Effay on the ufefulnefs of mathe¬
matics. In the profeffion of phyfic he advanced by
flow but fure degrees; and his reputation in it was at
length fully ettabliffied, by a fuccefsful cure which - he
performed on Prince George of Denmark. Queen Anne,
in confequence of it, appointed him one of her phyfi-
cians in ordinary in 1709; and, feme years-before this,
his extenfive knowledge had procured his admiffion
into the Royal Society. His talents and worth were
the ftrongeft recommendations of him to the men of
w it and learning of his day ; and he entered into par¬
ticular connexion with Pope and Swift, with whom
he joined in publifhing fevcral volumes of mifcellanies;
among which are the well-known Memoirs of Mdrlinus Arbutns.
Scriblerus, a fatire of infinite humour on the abufes'1 v " ■l>;
of human learning. In 1715, he affitted Pope and
Gay in the Three hours after marriage a dramatic
performance, which was brought upon the ftage with¬
out fuccefs. In 1727, he publiffied Tables of ancient
coins, weights, and meafurcs; a work of great ufe,
and real erudition. In 1732, his valuable trad con¬
cerning The nature and choice of aliments, appeared;
which, the year after, was followed by. his remarks on
The effefls of air on human bodies. A conttitutional
afthma had diftreffed him at different periods of his life,
and proved fatal to him in 1734.—Dr Arbuthnot ap¬
pears to have been in all refpedls a moft accomplifhed
and amiable perfon. He has fliowed himfelf equal to
any of his cotemporaries in wit and learning, and he
was fuperior to moft men in the moral duties of life, .
in a<fts of humanity and benevolence. His letter to
Mr Pope, written as it were upon hjs death-bed, and
which no one can read without the tendereft emotion,
difeovers fuch a noble fortitude of mind at the approach
of his diflblution, as could be infpired only by a clear
confcience, and the calm retrofped of an uninterrupted
courfe of virtue. In 1751, came out, in two vol. 8vo.
printed at Glafgow, The mifcellaneous works of the late
Dr Arbuthnot; which are faid to comprehend, with
what is inferted in Swift’s Mifcellanies, all the pieces
of wit and humour of this admirable author. .
ARBUTUS, the strawberry-tree : .A genus of.
the monogynia order; belonging to. the decandria clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 18th order, Bicomes. The calyx is divided into
five parts; the corolla is ovated; aud.the fruit is a
berry with five cells..
Species. I. The unedo, or common ftrawberry-tree, .
is a native of Italy, Spain, and alfo of Ireland ; and
is now very common in the Britifh gardens. Of this
fpecies there are four varieties, viz. The oblong-fruit¬
ed, the round-fruited, the red-flowered, and the double-
blolfomed. One defeription is nearly common to them
all; and their inconfiderable variation is almoft fuffi- -
ciently fhown in their refpe&ive appellations.
The oblong-fruited fort will grow to be a middling-
fized tree in feme countries ; for we read of the large
ufes its wood has been applied to; fuch as /Irbutc#
crates, &c. Arbutean harrows, See. With us it may
be kept down to any fize. The main Items are cover¬
ed with a light-brown bark, rough^and falling. The
younger branches are of a kind of purple colour, whilll
the laft year’s fhoots are of a fine red, and a little
hairy. The leaves grow alternately on the branches,
and are of an oblong oval figure. They (land onfhort
foot-(talks, and the oldeit leaves make a contrail with
the younger by having their foot-ftalk and mid-rib of
a fine fcarlet colour. They are fmooth, and beauti¬
fully ferated- Their upper furface (as in moft trees)
is of a ftronger green than their under; and the young
twigs are garnimed with them in plenty. Thefe are
beauties in common to moft trees, in fome degree or *
other; but every thing elfe almoft of this tree that
prefents itfelf to confideration is lingular: The time
of its flowering will be m November and December ;
when it is rather lingular to fee a tree in the open
ground in full blow; and the fruit ripens by that time
twelvemonth after. The-manner and nature of the
fruit*.
ARB
ARB
[ 2'o5 ]
Arbutus, fruit, which look like very large red ftrawherries, give
v- 1 it alio a fmgular and delightful look ; and this is height¬
ened as they appear all over the tree among the flow¬
ers ; for that is the time of its being ripe, when the
flowers for the fucceeding crop are fully out. -The
flowers themfelves make no great figure ; they are of
a kind of whitiih-yellow colour; and are fucceeded by
the abovementioned ftrawberry-fruit, which will require
a revolution of twelve months before they perfectly ar¬
rive at their maturity and colour. The flowers of the
firft fort are larger than thofe of the fecond ; and the
fruit is oval, and much larger than our common fear let
ftrawberry.
The round-fruited fort has its pitcher-fhaped flowers,
which are fucceeded by round fcarlet fruit, as wide as
they are long ; and this is all the difference between
thefe forts.
The red-flowered fort differs in no refpeft from the
common fort, only the flowers are red, and thefe con-
ftitute a variety from the other forts of flowers ; but
the contraft is not fo great between their fruit and
them as ®f the other forts, their colour approaching^
too near to a famenefs. •
The double-blofibmed fort differs in no refpefl, on¬
ly that the flowers are double; but this difference is
fo inconfiderable, that it will not be feen without look¬
ing into the flower ; ■ and even then the doublenefs will
appear fo trifling .as fcarcely to merit notice^ fo that
a plant or two, to have it laid that the collection is
not without it, will be fuffleient. Neither ought any
more to be admitted f for they will not produce the
fame plenty of fruit, which conftitutes the greateft
beauty of thefe trees, as the Angle forts.
The above forts thrive beft in a wet foil, and is fel-
dom hurt by hard winters, though the young and ten¬
der branches are often deftroyed by froft ; but, how¬
ever dead the trees may appear, they ought always to
be fuffered to remain till- the following fummer fhows
what are living and what are dead. -
The method of propagating the varieties of the
unedo is by layers and cuttings : the fpecies itfelf may
be raifed from feed.-—i. Tropagation by layers. The
operation muft be performed on the youngeft twigs;
and in feme foils they will ftrike root pretty freely,
whilft in others they can hardly be made to grow at
all: but before they have lain two fumfners, you may
fcarcely venture to look for any. When the roots are
itruck, the layers fliould be carefully taken off in the
fpring, and planted in feparate ppts : -and after well
watering them, they fhould be plunged up to the rims
in an hotbed, and this will fet them forward; for with¬
out this afliftance many of the layers will be loft ;
fmee they are difficult plants to make grow. After
the hotbed has forced the feeds into a ftate of vegeta¬
tion, tire pots may be taken out, and plunged up to
the rims in fome natural mould, to keep them cool
and moift; and here they may ftand for two or three
years, or longer, if the pots are large enough, with¬
out ever removing or flickering in winter; for they
are hardy enough to refill; our fevereft cold.; When
they are to be finally fet out, all the mould may be
turned out of the pots hanging to the roots ; and ha¬
ving proper holes made ready, they may be planted in
them, and the plant will be ignorant of its new fitua-
tion..
C. By cuttings. Thefe muft be planted in pots, and Arbntvw.
have the benefit of a good bark-bed ; in which being
conftantly ftraded and duly watered, many of them will
grow. As the plants raifed this way will be rather
tender by being forced in the bark-bed, it will be ne-
ceflary to remove them into the greenhoufe, or to place
them under a hotbed-frame during the firft winter:
and after that, the pots may be fet up to the rims in
the ground, and, like the layers, the plants may be
turned out at a convenient time into the places where
they are to remain.
i. Raijing from feeds. Let thefe be taken from the
oblong or round-fruited fort. The feeds, which will
be ripe fome time in November or the beginning of
December, for they will not be ripe at the fame time
in all places, muft be then gathered; and as they fhould
not be fowed until the fpring, it wall be proper to put
them into a pot or jar, mixing with them a quantity
of drift-fand; and this will preferve them found and
good. The beginning of March is the beft time for
fowing the feeds ; and the beft foil for them is maiden
earth, taken from a rich pafture at lead a year before,
with the fwar-d; and this, by conftant turning,being well
rotted and mixed, will be ready to receive them. Ha¬
ving filled a different quantity of pots wdth this fine
mould, let the feeds be fown, and but juft covered,
fcarcely a quarter of an inch deep. A dry day fliould
be chofen for the bufinefs ; and no watering by the
hand fhould be given them, as it will endanger thefet-
ting the mould hard in the pots. Leave them abroad
until fome rain falls, which*at that time may be hour¬
ly expected ; and after that, having an hotbed ready,
plunge the pots- therein. In lefs than fix weeks you
may expeft your plants to appear; when much air
fliould be afforded them, and frequent waterings, in
fmall quantities, gently fprinkled over them. After
this, they may be hardened to the air by degrees, and
the pots fet up to the rims in the natural mould, in a
flia-dy place. In October they .fliould be removed into >
the greenhoufe, or fome flicker, in frofty. weather; ;
though they fliould always be fet abroad in mild open
weather. In the fpring they may be fhook out, and
planted in feparate pots; and they fliould have the ad¬
vantage alfo of a hotbed to fet them a-growing : their
future management may be the fame as was directed
for the layers. When thefe trees are to be planted
out, very little regard need be paid to the foil or fitu-
ation ; for they will grow almoft any where, and refill
our fevereft northern blafts. One thing, however, the
fardener muft conftantly obferve, in order to continue
is trees in their beauty, viz. As often as a heavy fnow
falls, fo conftantly fhould he go and fhake the boughs;
for it will lodge amongft the leaves and branches in fuch
great quantity as to weigh down and fpjit the largeft
branches; the. deformity of xyhich afterwards maybe
eafily conceived. Befides, many years muft expire be¬
fore the tree will, if ever it fliould,1 grow to its for¬
mer beauty ; to preferve this, therefore, . makes the
narrowly watching thefe trees in fnowy weather highly
neceffary.
2.- The andrachhe will grow to a larger fize than the
arbutus. -The leaves are fmooth, and nearly of the
fame figure as the preceding fort; though they are
larger, and have their edges undivided. The flowers
growr like the ether forts; are of the fame colour; and
they/
ARC [ 206 ] ARC
A-cade they are fucceeded by large, oval, fcarlet fruit. It is
Arc^n m ca^e^ ^le Oriental Strawberry-lne, becaufe this fort
. rcanum; grows plentifully in many parts of the Eaft, and is ufe-
ful to the inhabitants for many purpofes in life.
The andrachne may be propagated in the fame man¬
ner as the arbutus : But the plants muft be preferved
in pots for three or four years till they have obtained
flrength ; and may be then planted in a warm fituation
and on a dry foil, for this fpecies will inot thrive on
wet ground.
Befides the above, there are three other fpecies of
arbutus, viz. The acaciienfis, a native of Acadia; the
alpina, or mountain ftrawberry-tree, a native of Bri¬
tain; and the uva urfi, a plant lately difcovered in the
Highlands of Scotland, and which formerly was thought
not to be a native of Britain.
ARCADE, in architedlure, is ufed to denote any
opening in. the wall of a building formed by an arch.
AR.CADI, or Arcadians, the name of.a learned
fociety at Rome. See the article Academy.
ARCADIA, an inland diftr'nft in the heart of Pe-
loponnefus.(Strabo). It is mountainous, and fitter for
pafture than.corn; and therefore chiefly celebrated by
bucolic or paftoral poets, who feign Pan, the god of
fhepherds, to be the guardian of it .(Virgil). It has
to the north Achaia, to the e.aft Argos and Laconia,
Meflenia to the fouth, and Idis to the weft. According
to Pliny, the wine of this country cured barrennefs in
women, and infpired the-men with rage; and the berries
of the yew gathered there were fo itrong a poifon, that
whoever flept or took refrdhment under that tree were
fure to die. In Strabo's time there were few cities
remaining in it, moft of them being deftroyed in the
Grecian wars. Euftathius fays, that the country was
anciently called Pelafgia, from Pelafgos, who brought
the people, from roots, herbs, and leaves of trees, to
feed on acorns, efpecially beech-maft ; as Artemidorus
obferves, that the Arcadians ufually lived on acorns.
It was alfo called Ljrcaonia, Gigantis, and Parrbafia
(Stephahus). The Arcadians are greatly commended
for their love of, and fkill in, mufic (Virgil, Polybius).
To imitate the Arcadians, is to labour and toil for the
benefit of others, never conquering their own, but the
enemies of others (Hefychius). This probably took
its rife from the ancient Arcadians being accuffomed
to hire themfelvesout as mercenaries to foreign nations.
Homer commends their martial prowefs, their paftures.,
their fheep, and their country well-watered. The
gentilitious name is Arcades; who boafted of their
great antiquity, and that they were older than the fun
and moon (Apollonius, Rhodius, Nonnius, Plutarch,
Ovid, Statius). They where the fir ft who had a year
of three months, and therefore called Proce/eni, be-
caufe their year was prior to that acljufted dn Greece
to the courfe of the moon (Cenforinus).
ARCANGIS, in the Turkifh armies, an inferior
kind of infantry, which ferve as esijans pere'us, and to
harrafs and pillage the enemy’s frontiers. The Arcan-
gis are an order inferior to the Janifaries ; and when
.any of, them diflinguifh themfelves, are ufually prefer¬
red into the Janifaries order. They have no pay, but
are to fubfift on their plunder.
ARCANUM, among phyficians, any remedy, the
preparation of which is induftrioufly concealed, in or-
’$ex to enhance its value.
Arcanum (ane. geog.), a villa of Q. Cicero, Tul-Arcboutant
ly’s brother, in Latium, (Cicero). Now Arce, in the H
Terra di Lavoro, in the kingdom of Naples*, on the , Ar^1- ,
borders of the Campagnia di Roma, on the river Mel- ]
pis, between Arpinum and Aquinum.
ARCBOUTANT, in building, an arched buttrefs.
See Buttress.
ARCESILAUS, a celebrated Greek philofopher,
about 300 years before the Chriftian sera, was born at
Pitane, in Eolis. He founded the fecond academy,
which is called the fecondfcktol. He was a man of great
erudition, and well verfed in the writings of the ancients.
He was remarkable for the feverity of his criticifms ;
but neverthelefs he knew how to accommodate him-
felf to the age, and purfue the allurements of pleafure.
He had a great number of difciples. His dodlrines
were different in feveral refpe&s from thofe of the an¬
cient fchool: and perhaps he was led into this diverfity
of opinions by many capital errors in the ancient fchool,
fuch as the incredible arrogance of the dogmatifts, who
pretended to aflign caufes for all things: the myfte-
rious air they had thrown upon the do<ftrine of ideas;
the entirely difcardmg the teftimony of the fenfes; the
obje&ions of the Pyrrhonelts, who now began to broach
their opinions ; the powerful oppofition of the Stoics
and Peripatetics, who difcovered the feeble parts of
the academic philofophy. Thefe might have given
caufe to reform the ancient fchool, apd to found a new
one. The middle fchool, therefore, laid it down as a
principle, that we could know nothing, nor even affure
ourfelves of the certainty of this pofition; from whence
they inferred, that we fhould affirm nothing, but al¬
ways fufpend our judgment. They advanced, that a
philofopher was able to difpute upon every fubjett, and
bring convidtion with him, even upon contrary fides
of the fame queftion ; for there are always reafons of
equal force both in the affirmative and negative of every
argument. According to this dodtrine, neither our
fenfes, nor even our reafon, are to have any credit: and
therefore, in common affairs, we are to conform our¬
felves to received opinions. Arcefilaus was fucceeded
by his difciple Lacydes.
ARCH, in geometry, any part of the circumference
<of a .circle or curved line, lying from one point to ano¬
ther, by which the quantity of the whole circle or
line, or fome other thing fought after, may be ga¬
thered.
Arc h, a concave or hollowed piece of building, con-
ftrudted in fuch a manner that the feveral ft ones of
which it is compofed keep one another in their places.
The terms arch and vault properly differ only in this,
that the arch expreffes a narrower, and the vault a
broader, piece of the fame kind. The principal diffe¬
rence in the forna of arches is, that fome are circular,
.and others elliptical; the former having a larger or
fmaller part of a circle, the other of an ellipfis. What
are called fir ait arches, are thofe frequently .ufed over
doors and windows, the upper and under edges of which
are ftrait and parallel, ^nd the ends and joints all point¬
ing toward a centre. The Ipace between two piers
.of a bridge is called an arch, becaufe ufually arched
;Over.
Triumphal Arches are magnificent entries into ci¬
ties, erefted to adorn a triumph, and perpetuate the
memory of the action. The arches of Titus and Con-
ftantine
ARC [ *07 ] ARC
>.« Arch ft mtlne make at this time a great figure among the
! ruins of old Rome.
BHrehangel Arch, in compofition, fignifies or of the/r/?
v_ ‘ clafs j as archangel, archbifriop, &c.
ARCH/EUS, orARCHEUS. See Archeus.
ARCHANGEL, an angel occupying the eighth
rank in the celeflial hierarchy. See Angel and Hie¬
rarchy.
Archangel, a city of Ruffia, in the province of
Dwirsa, fituated on the eaft fide of the river Dwina,
about fix miles from the White Sea, in E. Long. 40.
21. N. Lat. 64. 50. The city extends about three
miles in length and one in breadth. It is rich, pppu:
lous, built in the modern tafte, and is a metropolitan
fee. It rofe from a caftle built on the fpot by Bafilo-
I . witz II. to protect the increafmg trade brought there
by thf difcovery of the White Sea by the Englifti,
and took its name from a monaftery built in honour of
the archangel Michael. Before this period the com¬
mercial intercourfe between Ruffia and the northern
parts of Europe had been long carried on by the Han-
featic towns ; which ufually failed to Revel or Narva,
and from thence paffied through Dorpt to Plefcof and
Novogorod, where their factories were eftabliffied. The
accidental difeovery of Archangel, in 15,53, deprived
the Hanfeatic towns of a great part of this lucrative
commerce, and transferred it to the Englilh. On the
nth of May, in the abovementioned year, three fhips
failed from Depthford, in order to explore the northern
feas, under the command of Sir Hugh Willoughby.
Two of thefe veffels penetrated as high as the 72d de¬
gree of latitude, to the coaft of Spitzbergen ; and be¬
ing afterwards forced by llrefs of weather into the bay
of the river Arzina in Ruffian Lapland, both their
crews were frozen to death. Richard Chancellor, who
commanded the other (hip, called the Bonaventure,
difcovering the country bordering upon the White Sea,
landed near the mouth of the Dwina, in a bay, which
he denominated the Bay of St Nicholas, from a con¬
vent of that name near the prefent port of Archangel.
The czar Iwan Bafilowitz, being informed of his ar¬
rival, invited him to his court, where he was hofpitably
entertained, and the czar indulged the Englilh with
a free trade in his dominions : in confequence of this
permiffion, a company pf merchants was incorporated
in London ; and being encouraged by particular privi--
leges from the czar, fet on foot a confiderable com¬
merce, to the mutual advantage of both nations. This
traffic the Englilh for fome time enjoyed without com¬
petition. The Dutch, however, and other nations,
gradually inlinuated themfelves into this commerce;
which they carried on to a very great diladvantage, as
not being favpured withthofe privileges which the czar
had granted to the Englilh company. Thefe were at
lalt fuddenly annihilated by Alexis Michaelovitch; who
in 1648 banilhed the Englilh merchants from all his
dominions. The caufe of this expulfton is generally
imputed to the refentment which the czar conceived
againll the Englilh for the execution of Charles I. with
w hom he was clofely conceded by leagues of amity and
alliance : but in effed he abolifhed the company’s pri¬
vileges in the year before that event; and his indigna¬
tion again ft the Englilh Tor their rebellion, Mr Coxe
affirms, was only a political pretext; the real fnotive
being derived from the ■ offers made by. the Dutch to
pay duties of export and import, to the amount of f 5 Archangel,
f>cr cent, if they were indulged with the liberty of car- Archbifliop
rying on as free a trade as the Englilh throughout his —\r"“-
dominions. For not long afterwards, the czar fuffered
William Prideaux, Cromwell’s agent, to reftde at
Archangel; and permitted the Englilh to renew their
commerce in that port upon the lame footing with
other foreigners. And upon this footing alone our
merchants ever after continued to trade.
The commodities chiefly imported into Archangel,
were gold and filver fluffs and laces, gold wire, cochi¬
neal, indigo, and other drugs for dyeing; wine, brandy,
and other diftilled fpirits. The cuftoms arifing to the
czar were computed at 200,000 rubles a-year, and the
number of foreign fhips at 400 annually. But upon
the building of Peterlburg, Peter the Great abolilhed
the immunities of Archangel, and removed the com¬
merce of the White Sea to the havens of the Baltic.
Still, however, its exports of tar were coniiderable ; in
1730, to the amount of 40,000 lafts, of II barrels
each. It fends, during winter, great quantities cf tire
rawaga, a fmall fpecies of three-tinned"cod, to'Peterf-
burg frozen.
In 175 2 Elizabeth again rellored the ancient immu¬
nities of Archangel; and its prefent trade is not in-
confiderable. It fupplies the government of Archan¬
gel, part of thofe of Nifhnei-Novogorod and tfalan,
with European commodities ; and draws in exchange
from thofe parts corn, flax, hemp, coarfe linen, cordage,
fails, mails, and tallow, which are moftly conveyed by
the Dwina: it forms alfo a principal communication
with the northern and weftern parts of Siberia, from
whence the merchants procure furs, (kins, and iron.
The houfes of Archangel are generally of wood, but
well contrived ; and every chamber is provided with a
ftove, as a fence againft the cold, which is here excef-
five in the winter. The ftreets are paved with broken
pieces of timber and rubbifti, difpofed fo unfkilfully, ,
that one cannot walk over it without running the-rifle -
of falling, except when the ftreets are rendered fnlooth 1
and equal by the fnow that falls and freezes in the win¬
ter. Notwithftanding the feverity of the ' cold in this
plaice, then? is always plenty of good provifions; butch--
er’s meat, poultry, wild fowl, and blit, iij great variety, •
are fold furprilingly cheap.
The moll remarkable edifice in Archangel is a large
town-houfe, built offquare ftpnes in the Kalian man¬
ner, and divided into three parts. One of thefe ccnfifts
of large commodious apartments, for the accommoda¬
tion. of merchants, ftrangers as well as natives : here
..they are permitted to rehde with their merchandife till
the menth of October, when all the foreign fliips fet
fail for the refpeftive countries to which they belong.
Then the traders are obliged to remove their quarters
from the town-houfe or palace, which hath a fpacious
court, that reaches down to the riven.
ARCHBISHOP, the name of a church dignitary
of the firft clafs. Archbiffiops were not known in the
eaft till about the year 3 20 ; and though there were
fome foon after this who had the title, yet that was
only a perfonal honour, by which the bifliops of confi¬
derable cities were diftinguiflied. It was not till of
late that archbifliops became metropolitans, and had
fuffragans under them. Athanafms appears to be the
firft who ufed the title Archbijhofa which he gave oc¬
casionally*
ARC [208] A R C
i rchbifliopcaflonally to his predeceffor; Gregory Nazianzen, in
u~v~— like manner, gave it to Athanafius ; not that either of
them were entitled to any jurifdi&ion, or even any pre¬
cedence in virtue of it. Among the Latins, Ilidore
Hifpalenfis is the firil that fpeaks of archbifhops. He
diltinguifhes four orders or degrees in the ecclefiaftical
hierarchy, viz. patriarchs, archbifhops, metropolitans,
and bifhops.
The archbifhop, befide the infpetftion of the bifhops
and inferior clergy in the province over which he pre-
fides, exercifes epifcopal jurifdiolion in his own dio-
cefe. He is guardian of the fpirituaiities of any va¬
cant fee in his province, as the king is of the tempo¬
ralities ; and exercifes ecclefiaitical jurii'didtion in it.
He is intitled to prefent by lapfe to all the ecclefialti-
cal livings in the difpofal of his diocefan bilhop, if not
filled within fix months. He has likewife a cullomary
prerogative, upon confecrating a bifhop, to name a
clerk or chaplain to be provided for by fuch bifhop;
in lieu of which it is now ufual to accept an option.
He is {aid to be enthroned when veiled in the arch-
biihopric ; whereas bhhops are faid to be inltalled.
The ecclefiaftical government of England is divided
into two provinces, viz. .Canterbury and York. Can¬
terbury hath the following fuffragan bilhoprics apper¬
taining to it, St Afaph, Bangor, Bath and Wells, Bri-
ftol, Chichefter, Litchfield and Coventry, St David’s,
Ely, Exeter, Gloucefter, Hereford, Landaff, Lincoln,
London, Norwich, Oxford, Peterborough, Rechefler,
Salifbury, Winchefter, and Worcefler. To York ap¬
pertained! the bifhoprics of Carlifle, Chefter, and Dur¬
ham ; to which may be added the bifhopric of Sodor
and Man, whofe biihop is not a Lord of Parliament.
See Canterbury and York.
The atchbifhop of Canterbury had anciently, viz.
till the year iiya, jurifduHion over Ireland as well as
England, and was flyled a patriarch, and fometimes
alteriui orb’s papa, and orbis Britannici potitifex. Mat¬
ters were done and recordeddn his name thus. Anno
fontificatus nojiri primo, &c. The firft archbifhop of
Canterbury was Auflin, appointed by king Ethelbert,
on his converfion to Chriflianity, about the year 598.
He was alfo legatus natus. He even enjoyed fome
fpecial marks of royalty; as, to be patron of a bi¬
fhopric, which he was of Rochefter ; and to make
knights, coin moneys, &c. He is ftill the firft peer
of England, and the next to the royal family ; having
precedence of all dukes and all great officers of the
crown. It is his privilege, by cuftom, to crown the
kings and queens of this kingdom. He may retain
and qualify eight chaplains; whereas a duke is by Ita-
tute allowed only fix. Pie has, by common law, the
power of probate of wills and teftaments, and grant¬
ing letters of adminillration. He bps alfo a power to
grant licences and difpenfations in all cafes formerly
i'ued for in the court of Rome, and not repugnant to the
law of God. He accordingly ilfues fpecial licences to
marry, to hold two livings, &c. and he exercifes the
right of conferring degrees. He alio holds feveral
courts of judicature ; as, coprt of arches, court of au¬
dience, prerogative court, and court of peculiars.
The archbifhop of York has the like rights in his
province as the archbiihop of Canterbury. He has
precedence of all dukes not of the royal blood ; and of
^Stll officers of ilate, except the lord high chancellor,
AS*
He has alfo the rights of a count palatine over Hex- Archbi- £
amfhire. The firit archbiihop of York was Paulinus, Aiopric, d
appointed by Pope Gregory about tire year 622. He 3
had formerly jurifdidtion over all the bilhops of Scot-Archelau^
land ; but in the year 1470, pope Sextus IV. created^
the bifhop of St Andrew’s archbiihop and metropolitan
of all Scotland.
Scotland, whilft epifcopacy prevailed in that coun¬
try, had two archbijhops, of St Andrew’s and Glafgow;
of which the former was accounted the metropolitan ;
and, even before it arrived at the dignity of an arch-
bifhopric, refilled with great Cpirit all the attempts of
the archbilhops of York in England to become the
metropolitans of Scotland. The fees of Argyle, Gal¬
loway, and the illes, were fuffragans to Glafgow; all
the others in the kingdom, to St Andrew’s.
Ireland has four archbilhops ; of Armagh, Dublin,
Caffil, and Tuam; of whom the former is primate of
all Ireland.
ARCHBISHOPRIC, in ecclefiallical geography,
a province fubjedt to the jurifdiction of an archbiihop.
ARCHBUTLER, one of the great officers of the
German empire, who prefents the cup to the emperor
on folemn occafions. This office belongs to the king
of Bohemia.
ARCHCHAMBERLAIN, an officer of the empire,
much the fame with the great chamberlain in England.
The eledtor of Brandenburg was appointed by the gol¬
den bull archchamberlain of the empire.
ARCHCHANCELLOR, an high officer who, in
ancient times, prefided over the fecretaries of the court.
Under the two firft races of die kings of France, when
their territories were divided into Germany, Italy, and
Arles, there were three archchancellors: and hence the
three archchancellors ftill fubfifting in Germany ; the
archbilhop ofMentz being archchancellor of Germany,
the archbiihop of Cologn, and the archbiihop of Treves.
ARCHCHANTOR, the prefident of the chantors
of a church.
ARCHCOUNT, a title formerly given to the earl
of Flanders, on account of his great power and riches.
ARCHDEACON, an ecclefiaftical dignitary or
officer next to a bilhop, whofe jurifdidtion extends ei¬
ther over the whole diocefe or only a part of it. He
is ufually appointed by the bilhop himfelf; and hath
a kind of epifcopal authority, originally derived from
the bilhop, but now independent and diftind from hi*.
He therefore vifits the clergy ; and has his feparate
court for punilhment of offenders by fpiritual cenfures,
and for hearing all other caufes of ecclefiaftical cogni¬
zance. There are 60 archdeacons in England.
Archdeacon’s Court, is the moft inferior court in
the whole ecclefiaftical polity. It is held, in the arch¬
deacon’s abfence, before a judge appointed by himfelf,
and called his official-, and its jurildidion is fometimes
in concurrence with, fometimes in exclufien of, the bi-
fhop’s court of the diccefe. From hence., however, by
ftatute 24 Hen. VIII. c. 12. there lies an appeal to
.that of the bilhop.
ARCHDRUID, the chief or pontiff of the ancient
druids of a nation. See Druid.
ARCHDUKE, a title peculiar to the Houfe of
Auftria ; all the fons of which are archdukes, and
daughters archducfieffes. See Duke.
ARCHELAUS, a celebrated Greek philofopher,
the
ARC
[ 209 ]
ARC
chelaus [}ie d-fciple of Anaxagoras, flourlfhed about 4^0 years
a. * before Chrift. He read lectures at Athens, and did
In mod nations, the bow was anciently the principal Archeryj
implement of war, and by the expertnefs of the archers v—~v—
2, not depart much from the opinions of his mailer. He alone was often decided the fate of battles and of em-
taught that there was a double principle of all things,
namely, the expanfion and condinfation of the air, which
pires.—In this ifland archery was greatly encouraged
former times, and many ftatutes were made for the
he regarded as infinite. Heat, according to him, was regulation thereof; whence it was that the Englifh ar-
in continual motion. Cold was ever at reft. The earth, chers in particular became the bell in Europe, and prO-
which was placed in the midft of the univerfe, had no cured them many fignal vi&ories.
motion. It originally refembled a wet marlh, but was The Artillery Company of London, though they
afterwards dried up ; and its figure, he faid, refembled have long difufed the weapon, are the remains of the
that of an egg. Animals were produced from the heat ancient fraternity of bowmen or archers. Artillery 4rch*tfo~
’ ’ r ^  {artillerie) is a French term fignifying archery} as th'e-fff’v<>1’
king's howyer is in that language flyled artlilier du r»y: vu‘
And from that nation the Englifh feem to have learnt
atleaft theerofs-bow archery. We therefore find that
William the Conqueror had a confiderable number of
bowmen in his army at the battle of Haftings, when
no mention is made of fuch troops on the fide of Ha-
of the earth, and even men wrere formed in the fame
manner. All animals have a foul, which was born with
them: but the capacities of which vary according to
the ftrudture of the organs of the body in which it re-
fides.—Socrates, the moft illuftrious of his difciples, was
his fuccelfor.
Archelaus, the fon of Herod* the Great, was de¬
clared king of Judea the fecond year after the birth of rold : And it is fuppofed that thefe Norman archers
Chrift. He put to death 3000 perfons before he went Ihot with the arbaleft (or crofs-bow), in which former-
to Rome to be confirmed by Auguftus. However, that ly the arrow was placed in a groove, being termed in
emperor gave him half of what had been pofleffed by French a quadrel, and in Englilh a bolt.
his father ; but at length, on frelh complaints exhibit-- Of the time when (hooting with the long-bow firft:
ed againft him by the Jews, he banilhed him to Vienne' began among the Englifh, at which exercife they after¬
in Gaul,. A. D. 6, where he died.
A r c a e l a u s, the fon of Apollonius,
greateft fculptors of antiquity, was a native of Ionia,
and is thought to have lived in the time of the empe¬
ror Claudius. He executed, in marble, the apotheofis
of Homer. This mafterpiece in fculpture was found-
wards became fo expert, there appear no certain ac-
of the5 counts. Their chroniclers do not mention the ufe of ar¬
chery as exprefsly applied to the crofs-bow, or the long¬
bow, till the death of Richard I. who was killed by an
arrow at the fiege of Limoges in Guienne, which Hem-
mingford mentions to have iffued from a crofs-bow.—
in 1568, in a place named Fratocchia, belonging to* After this, which happened in 1199, there appear not
the princes of Colonna, where, it is faid, the emperor- upon record any notices of archery for nearly 1 jo
Claudius had a-pleafure-houfe. Father Kircher, Cu-
pert, Spanheim, and feveral other learned antiquaries,-
have given a-defeription and explication of this work.
years, when an order Was ilfued by Edward III. in the
iyth year of his reign, to the fherives of moft of the Eng- -
lift counties for providing 500 white bows and 500 bun- *
ARCHERS, a kind of militia or foldiery armed- dies of arrows, for the then intended war againft France,
with bows and arrows. The word is formed of arcus,
'a bowwhence and’even arquis, and
Similar orders are repeated in the following years; ;
with this difference only, that the fteriifof Gloucefter-
arquites, as they are alfo denominated in the corrupt ftire is directed to furnifli yoo painted bows as well as
date of the Latin tongue.
the fame number of white. The famous battle of Cref- •
Archers were much employed in former times : bur fy was fought four years afterwards, in which ourchro-
they are now laid afide, excepting in Turkey and feme niclers Hate that we had 2000 archers, who v/ere op-
of the eaftern countries; where there are companies of pofed to about the fame number of the French, toge-
archers (till fubfifting in their armies, and with which ■’  :*1  1-*-'-  
they did terrible execution at the battle of Lepanto.—-
As an exercife, the practice of archery is ftill kept up-
in many places. See the article Archery.
In France, tb
police and provofts to make captures, feizures, ar-
refts, &c. are called archers; though their arms be on¬
ly halberds or carabines.—In this fenfe they fay, the
archers of the grand prevot de l’hotel ; of the prevot des
marehands ; the city archers; the archers du guet, or
of the watch, &c Small parties or archers, called al¬
fo gens de marechauQ'ee, are continually patrolling on the
great roads, to fecure them againft robbers.;—The
ther with a circumflance which Teems to prove, that by
this time we ufed the long-bow, wftilll the French ar¬
chers Ihot with the arbalell. The circumftance alluded ;
to is as follows: Previoufly to the engagement there fell a
In France, the officers who attend the lieutenants de very heavy rain, which isfaid to have much damaged the
1:"“ —J a-" —*—* r-:—— bowsofthe French,or perhaps rather theftrings of them.-
Now the long-bow (when unftrung) may be moft con¬
veniently covered, fo as to prevent the rain’s injuring it j ,
nor is there fcarcely any addition to the weight from
fuch a cafe; whereas the arbaleft is of a moft inconve¬
nient form to be fheltered from the weather. Asthere-
fore, in the year 1342 j orders iffued to the fherives of
each county to provide yoo bows, with a proper pro-
riages of Lyons, &e. are always efcorted by a party of portion of arrows, it Teems probable that thefe were
arch ers. To the diligence of thefe archers, or
ftal’s-men, it is partly owing, that perfons now travel
in all parts* of France in the utmoft fecurity ; there be¬
ing fewer robbers on the highway in that whole king¬
dom in a year than about London in a week.
ARCHERY, the art or exercifeA>f (hooting with
a bow and arrow. .
Vot. II. Parti.
long-bows, and not the arbaleft.
At the above-mentioned battle, the Englift aferibed
their vidtory chiefly to the archers.—The battle of'
Poidters was fought A. D. I3y6,' and gained by the
fame means.
Sometimes the archers gained great vidlories with- ■
out-even the kail affiftance from the men-at-arms ; as* -
D-d- parti*-
ARC
[ 210 ]
ARC
Archery, particularly, the deciilve vidtory over the Sco-ts at Ho-
 1 mildon, A. D. r 402. In that bloody battle,' the men-
at-arms did not ftrike a ftroke, but were mere fpedta-
tors of the valour and vidtory of the archers. The
Earl of Douglas, who commanded the Scotch army in
,v'that adlion, enraged to fee his men falling thick around
' him by Ihowers of arrows, and truiling to the goodnefs
of his armour (which had been three years in making),
accompanied by about eighty lords, knights, and gen¬
tlemen, in complete armour, rufhed forward, and at¬
tacked the Englilh archers fword in hand. But he
foon had reafon to repent his ralhnefs. The Engliih
arrows were fo fliarp and ftrong, and difcharged witli
fo much force, that no armour could repcil them.
The Earl of Douglas, after receiving five wounds, was
made prifoner; and all his brave companions were ei¬
ther killed or taken. Philip de Comines acknowledges,
what our own writers affert, that the Englifli archers
excelled thofe of every other nation ; and Sir John
Fortefcue fays again and again,—“ that the might of
.the realme of England ftandyth upon archers.” The
fuperior dexterity of their archers gave the Englifh a
great advantage over their capital enemies the French
and Scots. The French depended chiefly on their
men-at-arms, and the Scots on their pikemen; but
the ranks of both were often thinned and thrown into
diforder by flights of arrows before they could reach
their enemies.
James I. of Scotland, who had feen and admired the
dexterity of the Englifh archers, and who was himfelf
an excellent archer, endeavoured to revive the exercife
of archery among his own fubjedts, by whom it had
been too much negledted. With this view, he ridicu¬
led their aukward manner of handling their bows, in
his humorous poem of Chriit’s Kirk on the Green;
and procured the following law to be made in his firft
parliament, A. D. 1424, immediately after his return
to Scotland : “ That all men might bulk thame to be
archares fra the be 12 years of age ; and that at ilk ten
punds worth of land thair be made bow markes, and
fpeciallie near paroche kirks, quhairn upon halie dayis
men may cum, and at the leift fchute thryfe about,
and have ufage of archarie : and whafa ufis not archa-
rie, the laird of the land fall rais of him a wedder ; and
gifF the laird raiiis not the faid pane, the king’s Ihiref
or his miniilers fall rais it to the king.” But the un¬
timely death of that excellent prince prevented the ef¬
fectual execution of this law.
There is not found any aCt of Parliament of Henry V.
in relation to archery,'and all the orders in Rymer till
the battle of Agincourt relate to great guns, from
which he feeras at firft to have expected more confi-
derable advantage than from the training of bowmen.
It fhould feem, however, that this fort of artillery,
•from its unwieldinefs, bad and narrow roads, together
with other defeCts, was as yet but of little ufe in mili¬
tary operations. In tire yea? 1417 this king therefore
afcribes his victory at Agincourt to the archers, and
direfts the ftierives of many counties to pluck from
every goofe fix wing-feathers for the purpofe of
improving arrows, which are to be paid for by the
king.
Jrchxolo- In 1421, though the French had been defeated both
S™' at Crelfy, PoiCters, and Agincourt, by the Englilh
archers, yet they ftill continued the ufe of the crofs- Arnhet
bow; for which reafon, Henry V. as duke of Nor- 1 
mandy, confirms the charters and privileges of the ba-
liftarii, which had been long eftablilhed as a fraternity
in his city of Rouen.
In the fifth year of Edward IV. an ad: palled, that
every Englilhman, and Irilhman dwelling with Enc.
lilhmen, lhall have an Englilh bow of his own height,
which is directed to be made of yew, wych, "hazel, alh,
or awburne, or any other reafonable tree according to
their power. The next chapter alfo direCts that butts
lhall be made in every townlhip, which the inhabitants
are obliged to Ihoot up and down every feaft-day, un¬
der the penalty of a halfpenny when they lhall omit
this exercife.
In the 14th year, however, of this fame king, it ap¬
pears by Rymer’s Fcedera, that 1000 archers were to
be fent to the duke of burgundy, whofe pay is fettled
at fixpence a-day, which is more than a common fol-
dier receives clear in the prefent times, when proviiions
are fo much dearer, and the value of money fo much
decreafed. This circumftance feems to prove, very
ftrongly, the g: jat eftimation in which archers were
ftill held. In the fame year, Edward, preparing fpr a
Avar with France, direCts the Iherives to procure bows
and arrows, “ as moft fpecially requifite and necef-
fary.”
On the war taking place with Scotland, eight years
after this, Edward provides both ordnance and archers;
fo that though the ufe of artillery (as we now term it)
was then gaining ground, yet that of the bow and ar¬
row was not negieCted.
Richard III. by his attention to archery, was able
to fend 1000 bowmen to the duke of Bretagne, and
he availed himfelf of the fame troops at the battle of
Bofworth.
During the reign of Henry VII. however, there ap¬
pears no order relative to gunpowder or artillery;
whilft, on the other band, in 1488, he direCts a large
levy of archers to be fent to Brittany, and that they
lhall be reviewed before they embark. In the lyth
year of his reign, this fame king forbids the ufe of the
crofs-bow, becaufe “ the long-bow had been much
ufed in this realm, whereby honour and victory had
been gotten againft outward enemies, the realm great¬
ly defended, and much more the dread of all Chi iltian
princes by reafon of the fame.”
During the reign of Henry VIII. feveral ftatutes
were made for the promotion of archery. The 8th Eliz.
c. 10. regulates the price of bows, and the 13th Eliz.
c. 14. enaCts, that bow-ftaves lhall be brought into the
realm from the Hanfe-towns and the Eaftward; fo that
archery ftill continued to be an objeCt of attention in
the legiflature.
In Rymer’s Fcedera there is neither ftatute nor pro¬
clamation of James I, on this head;- but it appears by
Dr Birch’s Life of his fon (prince Henry), that at
eight years of age he learned to Ihoot both with the
bow and gun, whilft at the fame time this prince had
in his eftablilhment an officer who was ftyled bow-
bearer. The king granted a fecond charter to the ar¬
tillery company, by which the powers they had received
from Henry VIII. were confiderably extended.
Charles I. appears,.from the dedication of a trea-
ufe
ARC [a
Tchery. ti{e mtltled The Bowman's Glory, tb have been him-
v felf an archer; and in the eighth year of his reign he
ilfued a commiffion to the chancellor, lord-mayor, and
feveral of the privy-council, to prevent the .fields near
London being fo inclofed as “ to interrupt the necef-
fary and profitable exercife of Ihooting,” as alfo to
lower the mounds where they prevented the view from
one mark to another.
Catharine of Portugal (queen to Charles II.) feems
to have been much pleafed with the fight at leaft of
this exercife ; for in 16 76, by^the contributions of Sir
Edward Hungerford and others, a filven badge for the
marfhal of the fraternity was made, weighing 25 oun¬
ces, and reprefenting an archer drawing the long-bow
(in the proper manner) to his ear, with the following
infcription: Regina Catherhue Sagittarii. The fup-
porters are two bowmen, with the arms of England and
Portugal. In 1682 there was a moil magnificent ca¬
valcade and entertainment given by the Finfbury ar¬
chers, when they .bellowed the titles of “ duke of Shore¬
ditch,” “ marquis of Iflington,” &c. upon the moft
deferving. Charles II. was prefent upon this occafion;
but the day being rainy, he was obliged foon to leave
\ So lately as the year 175 Jtargets were erefted in the
Finfbury fields, during the Eafter and Whitfunjioli-
days ; when the befl fhooter was flyled Captain for the
enfuing year, and the fecond Lieutenant.
Why this military weapon was fo decifive in the
battles of former days, the following reafons may be
fuggefled.
Before the introduction of fire-arms, the enemy could'
only be ftruck at a diftance by flings, the bow ufed by
the ancients, or the crofs-bow; to all which the Eng-
lifh long-bow was infinitely fuperior. As for flings,
they never have been ufed in the more northern parts
of Europe by armies in the field; nor does their ufe
indeed feem to have been at all convenient or extendvely
practicable, for two principal reafons : • In .the firft place,
{lingers cannot advance in a compact body, on account
of the fpace to be occupied by this weapon in its rota¬
tory motion ; in the next place, the weight of the
ftones to be carried muft neceffarily impede the {lingers
greatly in their movements. The bow of the ancients,
again, as reprefented in all their reliefs, was a mere
toy compared with that of our anceflors ; it was there¬
fore chiefly ufed by the Parthians, whofe attacks (like
thofe of the prefent Arabs) were defultory. As for
the crofs-bow, it is of a mofi inconvenient form for car¬
riage, even with the modern improvements ; and, in
cafe of rain, could not be eafily fecured from the wea¬
ther. After the firfl: fliot, moreover, it could not be
recharged under a confiderable time, whilft the bolts
were alfo heavy and cumberfome. The Englifh long¬
bow, on the other hand, together with the quiver of
arrows, was eafily carried by the archer, as eafily fecu¬
red from rain, and recharged almoft inftantaneoufly.
It is not therefore extraordinary, that troops, who fole-
ly ufed this moft effectual weapon, fliould generally ob¬
tain the victory, even when oppofed to much more nu¬
merous armies.
It may be urged, that thefe Ioffes having been ex¬
perienced by our enemies, muft have' induced them
to praCtife the fame mode of warfare. — But it is
ii ] ARC
thought that the long-bow was not commonly ufed Archery.
even in England till the time of Edward III. when^
the victory at Creffy fuffkiently proclaimed the fu-
periority of that weapon. It required,' however, fo
much training before the archer could be expert,
that we muft not be furprifed if foon afterwards
this military exercife was much negleCted, as ap¬
pears by the preambles of feveral ancient ftatutes.
Whilft the military tenures fubfifted, the fovereign
could only call upon his tenants during war, who
therefore attended with the weapon^ they had been
ufed to, and which required no previous practice. On
the other hand, the Englifti archers were obliged by
ads of parliament, even in time of peace, to ereCt
butts in every parilh, and to flioot on every Sunday and
holiday, after repairing perhaps to theft, butts from a
confiderable diftance, whilft the expence of at leaft a
yew-bow is reprefented as being a charge which they
were fcarcely equal to. The king and parliaments of
this country having thus compelled the inhabitants to
fuch training, the Engliili armies had (it Ihould feem)
the fame advantage over their enemies as the exclufivs
ufe of fire-arms would give us at prefent.
It appears alfo by what hath been already ftated,
that the long-bow continued to be in eftimation for'
more than two centuries after gunpowder was intro¬
duced, which probably arofe from mufkets being very
cumberfome and unwieldy. It is well known that ra¬
pid movements are generally decifive of the campaign;
and for fuch the archersyvere particularly adapted, be-
caufe, as they could not be annoyed at the fame di¬
ftance by tire weapons of the enemy, they had fcarcely
any occafion for armour. The flower of ancient ar¬
mies likewife was the cavalry, againft which the long¬
bow never failed to prevail, as man and horfe were too
large obje&S to be miffed: and hence the great num¬
ber of French nobility who were prifoners at Crefiy,
Poicters, and dgincourt; for being difmounted (if
not wounded) whilft they were alfo clad in heavy ar--
mour, they could not make their efcape. The fame
reafon accounts for the Englifh obtaining thefe fignal'
victories with fo inferior numbers 5 for the nobility and
gentry thus becoming prifoners,, the other parts of the
French army made little or no refift'ance. No wonder, .
therefore,. that in England the greateft anxiety was
{flown to promote the exercife of this moft important
weapon, and that fo many ftatutes were made for that
purpofe.
In Scotland, alfo, little lefs attention, though ap¬
parently not with equal fuccefs, was ftiown to the en¬
couragement of the art. In both kingdoms, it was
provided, that the importers of merchandife fliould -
be obliged, along with their articles of commerce, to ■
import a certain proportion of bows, bow-flaves, and
ftiafts for arrows. In both, every perfoh was enjoin-
ed to hold himfelf provided in bows and arrows, and-1
was preferibed the frequent ufe of archery. In both,»
a reftraint Was impofed upon the exercife' of other '
games and fpiorts, left they ftiould interfere with the
ufe of the bow; for it Was intended, that people iflould
be made expert in the ufe of it as a military weapon, •
by habituating them to the familiar exercife of it as an
inftrument of amufement. As there was no material
difference between the activity and bodily llrength off
L> d 2 ths
ARC [21
/treasury, the two people, it might be fuppofecl that the Englifli
and Scots wielded the bow with no unequal vigour
and dexterity : but from undoubted hiilorical monu¬
ments it appears that the former had the fuperiority; of
■which one inftance has been already narrated. By
the regulations preferibed in their ftatute-book for the
pra&ice of archery, we find that the Englifii fliot a
very long bow, thofe who were arrived at their full
growth and maturity being prohibited from (hooting
at any mark that was not diilant upwards of 220
yards.
In the ufe of the bow, great dexterity as well as
ftrength feems to have been requifite. Though we
hear of arrows at Cheviot Chace which were a yard
long, yet it is by no means to be fuppofed that
the whole b.md made ufe of fuch, or could draw
them to the head. The regulation of the Irilh ftatute
of Edward IV. viz. that the bow (hall not exceed the
height of the man, is allowed by archers to have been
well confidered ; and as the arrow fiiould be half the
length of the bow, this would give an arrow of a yard
in length to thofe only who were fix feet high. A
llrong man of this fize in the prefent times cannot ea-
fily draw, above 27 inches, if the bow is of a proper
ftrength to do execution at a confiderable diftance. At
the fame time it mult be admitted, that as our an-
ceftors were obliged by fome of the old ftatutes to be¬
gin (hootingjwith the long-bow at the age of feven,
they might have acquired a greater flight in this exer-
. cife than their defeendants, though the latter fliould be
allowed to be of equal ftrength.
As the (hooting with the long bow was firfl: intro¬
duced ia England, and pra£tifed almoft: excluflvely for
nearly two centuries, fo it hath occafioned a peculiar
method of drawing the arrow to the ear and not to
the bread. That this is,contrary to the ufage of the
ancients is very clear from their reliefs, and Irom the
tradition of the Amazons cutting off one of their, paps
as itoccafloned an impediment to their (hooting. The
imlbury archer.is therefore reprefented in this attitude
of drawing to the ear, both in the Bowman's Glory,
and in the filver badge given by Catharine to the Ar¬
tillery Company. Not many years ago there was a
man , named Topham, who exhibited furprifing feats
of llrength, and who happened to be at a public-houfe
pear .Iflington, to which the Finlbury archers reforted
after their exercife. Topham confidered the long-bow
as a play-thing, only fit for a child ; upon which one
of the archers laid him a bowl of punch, that he could
not draw the arrow two-thirds of its length. Topham
.accepted this bet with the greateft confidence of win¬
ning ; but bringing the arrow to his bread indead of
his ear, he was greatly mortified by paying the wager,
after many fruitlefs efforts.
As to the diflance to which an arrow can be (hot
from a long-bow with the bed elevation of forty-five
degrees, that mud necelfarily depend much both upon
■the drength and night of the archer; butin general the
difiance was reckonedfromeleven to twelve (core yards.
The butts for exercife, as above-noticed, were di-
;re<fled to be diilant upwards of 22D^yards. There is in¬
deed a tradition, that an attorney of Wigan in Lan-
xafhire (named Leigh) (hot a mile in three flights ;
Jtuit the/ame tradition dates, that he,placed himfelf ia
2 ] ARC
a very particular attitude, which cannot be ufed com- Ardierr.i
monly in this exercife. According to Neade, an archerv**"i*,i
might (hoot fix arrows in the time of charging and
difeharging one mulket.
The archers confider an arrow of from 20 to 24
drop weight to be the bed for flight or hitting a
mark at a confiderable didance, and that yew is the
bed material of which they can be made. As to
the feathers, that of a goofe is preferred ; it is alfo
wiflied, that the bird ftiould be two or three years
old, and that the feather may drop of itlelf. T wo
out of three feathers in an arrow are commonly
white, being plucked from the gander; but the third
is generally brown or grey, being taken from the
goofe ; and, from this difference in point of colour, in¬
forms the archer when the arrow is properly placed.
From this mod didinguifhed part therefore the whole
arrow fometimes receives its name : And this, by-the-
by, affords an explanation of the grey goofe wing in
the ballad of Cheviot Chace. Arrows were armed
anciently with flint or metal heads, latterly with heads
of iron ; of thefe there were various forms and deno¬
minations. By an aid of parliament made the 7th of
Henry IV. it was enaded, that for the future all the
heads for arrows and quarrels fliould be well boiled or
brafed, and hardened at the points with fteel ; and
that every arrow-head or quarrel fliould have the
mark of the maker : workmen difobeying this order,
were to be fined and imprifoned at the king’s will,
and the arrow-heads or quarrels to be forfeited to the
.crown.
Arrows were reckoned by (heaves, a flieaf confiding Grofe on '1
of 24 arrows. They were carried in a quiver, called i
alfo an arrow cafe, which ferved for the magazine ; Arm/sur‘
arrows for immediate ufe were worn in the girdle,
in ancient times phials of quicklime, or other com-
buflible matter, for burning houfes or (hips, was fixed
on the heads of arrows, and (hot from long bows. ;
This has been alfo pracitifed fince the ufe of gun- • M
powder. Neade fays, he has known by experience,
that an archer may (hoot an ounce of fire-work upon
an arrow 12 fcore yards. Arrows with wild-fire,
and arrows for fire-works, are mentioned among the
ftores at Newhaven and Berwick, in the I ft of Ed¬
ward VI.
The force with which an arrow ftrikes an objeff at a
moderate diftance, may be conceived from the account
given by king Edward VI. in his journal; wherein he
fays, that 100 archers of his guard (hot before him two
arrows each, and afterwards all together; and that they |
(hot at an inch board, which fome pierced quite thro’
and ftmek into the other board; divers pierced it quite
thro’ with .the heads of their arrows, the boards being
well feafoned timber: their diftance from tlie mark is
not mentioned.
To protect our archers from the attacks of the ene¬
my’s horfe, they carried long (takes, pointed at both ends:
thefe they planted in the earth, Hoping before them.
In the lit of Edward VI. 3.50 of thefe were in the ftores
of the town of Berwick, under the article of archer’s
(takes ; there were alfo at the fame time eight bundles
of archer’s (takes in PontefraiS caftle.
To prevent the bow-ftring from ftriking the left
arm. the arm is covered with a piece of ilnooth leather,
faltenei
ARC
[ 213 ]
ARC
Archery, fattened on the outfide of the arm ; this is called a bra-
'■ » J cer ; and to guard the fingers from being cut by the
bow-ftring, archers wore (hooting gloves. Chaucer in
his prologue to the Canterbury tales, thus defcribes an
archer of his day :
And he was clade in cote and hode of grene,
A (hefe of peacock arwes bright and keen,
Under his belt he bare full thriftily:
Wei coude he drefle his takel yewmanly,
His arwes drouped not with fetheres lowe,
And in his hand he bare a mighty bowe,
A not-hed hadde he, with broune vilage,
Of wood crafte coude he wel all the ufage;
Upon his arms he had a gai bracer,
And by his fide a fwerd and a bokeler,
And on the other fide a gaie daggere
Hameifed wel, and (harp as pointe of fpere :
A criftofre on his bread of filver (hene.
An horn he bare, the baudrik was of grene,
A forefter was he fothely as I ge(fe.
Though archery continued to be encouraged by
the king and legiflature for more than two centu¬
ries after the firft knowledge of the effects of gun¬
powder, yet by the latter end of the reign of Hen¬
ry VIII. it feems to have been partly confidered as
a paftime. Arthur, the elder brother of Henry,
is faid to have been fond of this exercife, in fo much
that a good (hooter was ftyled Prince Arthur. We
are alfo informed, that he pitched his tent at Mile
End in order to be prefent at this-recreation, and that
Henry his brother alfo attended. When the latter af¬
terwards became king, he gave a prize at Windfor to
thofe who (hould excel in this exercife ; and a capital
(hot having been made, Henry faid to Barlow (one of
his guards), “ If you (lill van, you (hall be duke over
all archers.” Barlow therefore having fucceeded, and
living in Shoreditch, was created duke thereof. Upon
another occafion, Henry and the queen were met by
200 archers on Shooter’s hill, which probably took its
name from their afiembling near it to (hoot at marks.
This king likewife gave the firft charter to the Artil¬
lery Company in the 29th year of his reign, by which
they are permitted to wear dreffes of any colour ex¬
cept purple and fcarlet, to (hoot not only at marks
but birds, if not pheafants or herons, and within two
miles of the royal palaces. They are alfo enjoined by
the fame charter not to wear furs of a greater price
than thofe of tire martin. The mod material privilege,
however, is, that of indemnification from murder, if
any perfon palling between the (hooter and the mark
is killed, provided the archers have firft called out
/¥•
The following defcription of an archer, his bow and
accoutrements, is given in a MS. written in the time
of Queen Elizabeth. “ Captains and officers (hould be
failful of that mod noble weapon, and to fee that their
foldiers according to their draught and ftrength have
good bowes, well nocked, well ftrynged, everie
ftrynge whippe in their nocke, and in the myddes rub¬
bed with wax, brafer and (huting glove, feme fpare
ftrynges trymed as aforefaid, every man one (hefe of ar¬
rows, with a cafe of leather defensible againft the rayne,
and in the fame fower and twentie arrowes, whereof
eight of them (hould be lighter than the refidue, to Archery,
gall or aftoyne the enemye with the haiKhot of lightu—-v—
arrows, before they (hall come within the danger of
their harquebufs (hot. Let every man have a brigan-
dine, or a little cote of plate, a (hull or hufkyn, a
mawle of leade of five foot in lengthe, and a pike, and
the fame hanging by his girdle, with a hook and a
dagger; being thus furnilhed, teach them by mufters
to march, (hoote, and retire, keepinge their faces up¬
on the enemy’s. Sumtyme put them into great nowm-
bers, as to battell apparteyneth, and thus ufe them
often times praftifed, till they be perfecte; (For thofe
men in battell ne (kirmiffi can not be fpared. None
other weapon maye compare with the fame noble wea¬
pon.”
The long-bow, as already pbferved, maintained its
place in our armies long after the invention of fire¬
arms. Nor have there been wanting experienced foldiers
who were advocates for its continuance, and who in many
cafes even preferred it to the harquebufs or mulket.
King Charles I. twice granted fpecial commiffions un¬
der the great feal for enforcing the ufe of the long-bow.
The firft was in the 4th year of his reign: but this
was revoked by proclamation four years afterwards, on
account of divers extortions and abufes committed un¬
der fandion thereof. The fecond, anno 1633, in the
9th year of his reign, to William Neade and his fon,
alfo named William, wherein the former is ftyled an
ancient archer, who had prefented to the king a war¬
like invention for uniting the ufe of the pike and bow,
feen and approved by him and his council of war:
wherefore his Majefty had granted them a commiffion
to teach and exercife his loving fubjefts in the faid in¬
vention, which he particularly recommended the chief
officers of his trained bands to learn and praftife ; and
the juftices and other chief magiftrates throughout
England, are therein enjoined to ufe every means in
their power to affift Neade, his fon, and all perfons
authorifed by them in the furtherance, propagation,
and pradtice of this ufeful invention. Both the com¬
miffions and proclamation are printed at large in Ry-
mer. At the breaking out of the civil war, the Earl
of E(Tex iffued a precept, dated in November 1643,
for ftirring up all well-affedled people by benevolence,
towards the raifing a company of archers for the fer-
vice of the king and parliament.
Archery with the long-bow continues to be ufed as
a manly exercife by the inhabitants of Geneva, and in
many parts .of Flanders ; nor is it totally negle&ed in
Great Britain. There are feveral focieties of archers
in England ; the chief of which are, the Woodmen of
Arden, and the Toxophiliu. But the mod noted fociety
of this kind, now exifting, is
The Royal Company of Archers in Scotland.—The
ancient records of this Company having been deftroyed
by fire about the beginning of the prefent century, no
authentic traces of their inftitution now remain. It is
faid that they owe their origin to the commiffioners
appointed in the reign of James I. of Scotland for
enforcing and overfeeing the exercife of archery in dif¬
ferent counties. Thofe commiffioners, who were in gene¬
ral men of rank and power, picking out amongft the bet¬
ter fort of people under their cognifance the mod expert
archers, farmed them into a company, and upon pe¬
rilous
A R G
[ 214 ]
ARC
t Archery, rilous occafions made a prefent of their fervices to the
king as his chief body-guards ; in which fxtuation
they often diftinguiihed themfelves for their loyalty,
their courage, and (kill in archery. This rank of the
king’s principal body-guards the Royal Company ftill
claim within feven miles of the metropolis of Scot¬
land.
Certain it is, that by an a£t of the privy-council of
Scotland in the 1677, this Company was recognifed
under the name and title of “ His Majelly’s Company
of Archers and by the fame a<5t a piece of plate
of the value of L. 20 Sterling was ordered to be given
to be fhot for by them at their annual parades called
WEAPON-ffiaiuings, and to be called The King's Prize.
At this period the Royal Company confifted, as it
does at prefent, of the principal nobility and gentry
of Scotland. But their unfortunate attachment to
anti-revolution principles, upon that event’s taking
place, put almoft a period to their exiftence: Their
public parades or marches were difcontinued, and the
royal prize was with-held.
Upon the acceffion of Queen Anne, their former
fplendor was revived ; and in the year 1 703 they ob¬
tained a -u-oyal charter, confirming in general terms
all their former rights and privileges, and conferring
others upon them. But their partiality to the family
of Stuart was at various after periods the caufe of a
temporary profperity and decline.
Thefe unhappy differences of opinion having totally
fubfided, the Royal Company are now more numerous
and flourilhing than ever, and perhaps even more dex¬
terous archers. His prefent Majefiy, as a mark of his
royal patronage and approbation, has been pleafed to
revive the royal prize, which for the firfi time was
fhot for upon the 28th of July 1788 by a numerous
and refpe£table meeting.
The Woodmen of Arden and the Toxophilite have
lately been pleafed to admit the members of the Royal
Company to the freedom of their focieties: thefe grants
have been followed by reciprocal diplomas from the *
Royal Company; fo that the three chief focieties of
archers in Britain may be faid; to be now incorporated
into one.'
The prizes belonging to this Company, and which
are annually fliot for, are, I. A filver arrow, given by
the town of Muflelburgh, which appears to have been
Ihot for as early as the year 1603- The viclor in this,
as in the other prizes except the king’s prize, has the
cuftody of it for a year, then returns it with a medal
appended, on which are engraved any motto and de¬
vice which the gainer’s fancy .di&ates. 2. A filver
arrow given by the town of Peebles, A. D. 1626. 3. A
filver arrow given by the city of Edinburgh, A. D.
I709. 4. A filver punch-bowl of about the value of
L. 50, made of Scottifh filver at'the expence of the
Company, A. D. 1720. And, The king’s prize
above mentioned, which becomes the abfolute property
of the winner. All thefe prizes are fhot for at what
is termed rovers, the marks being placed at the diftance
of 185 yards.
Befides thefe, there is another prize annually corn-
tended for at butt or point-blank diftance, called the
Coo/e. The ancient manner of (hooting for this prize
was, a living goofe was built in a turf-butt; having
the head only expofed to view; and the archer who Archery,
firft hit the goofe’s head was intitled to the gobfe as 1~—
his reward. But this cuftom, on account of its bar¬
barity, has been long ago laid afide; and in place of
the goofe-head, a mark of about an inch diameter is
affixed upon each butt, and the archer who firft hits
this mark is captain of the butt-fhooters for a year.
The affairs of the Company are managed by a prefes
and fix counfellors who are chofen annually by the
whole members. The council are veiled with the
power of receiving or rejedling candidates for admiffion,
and of appointing the Company’s officers civil and mi¬
litary.
The Royal Company now confifts of above 1000
members, among whom are moft of the Scottifh no¬
bility of the firft difthuftion. A number of the Com¬
pany #meet weekly during the fummer feafon in Edin¬
burgh, in the Meadows, where they exercife themfelves
in (hooting at butts or rovers : And in the adjoining
ground they have a handfome building, erecled within
thefe 12 years, with fuitable offices, whither they ad¬
journ after their exercife, and where they hold their
eleftions and other meetings relative to the bufinefs of
the fociety.
The uniform of the Royal Company of Archers is tar¬
tan, lined with white, and trimmed with green and white
fringes; a white fafh, with green taffels; and a blue bon¬
net, with a.St Andrew’s crofs and feathers. The Com¬
pany have two ftandards. The firft of thefe bears on one
fide Mars and Cupid encircled in a wreath of thiftles; .
with this motto, “ In peace and war.’’ On the other,
a yew tree, with two men dreffed and equipped as
archers, encircled as the former ; motto, Dat gloria
vires. The other ftandard difplays, on one fide, a lion
rampant gules, on a field or, encircled with a wreath j
on the top, a thiftle and crown ; motto, Nemo me im-
pune lacejfet. On the other, St Andrew on the crofs
on a field argent; at the top, a crown ;. motto, Dulce
pro patria pericuiiwr.
~ ARCHES-court, in Englifh ecclefiaftical polity, .
is a court of appeal, belonging to the archbifliop of
each province ; whereof the judge is called the dean ofi
the arches, becaufe he anciently held his court in the:
church of St Mary le bom (Sauffa Maria de arcubus),,
though all the principal fpiritual courts are now holden
at Doctors Commons. His proper jurifdidtion is only
over the 13 peculiar parifhes belonging to the archbi-
fhop in London, but the office of dean of the arches-
having been for a long time united with that of the
archbifhop’s principal office, he now, in right of the
laft-mentioned office, receives and determines appeals
from the fentences of all inferior ecclefiaftical courts
within the province. And from him there lies an ap»~
peal to the king in chancery (that is, to a court of de¬
legates appointed under tljs king’s great feal), by fta-
tute 23th Hen. VIII. c. 19. as fupreme head of the
Englifh church, in the place of the bifhop of Rome,
who formerly exercifed this jurifdidion; which circum-
ftance alone will furnifh the reafon why the Popifh cler¬
gy were fo anxious to feparate the fpiritual court from •
the temporal.
ARCHETYPE, the firft model of a work, which
is copied after to make another like it—Among mint-
ers, it is ufed for the ftandard weight by which the o-
thers
ARC [ 215 ] ARC
Archeui thers are adjufted.—The archetypal world, among Pla-
I, tonifts, means the world as it exuted in the idea of God
Archi1' , before the vifible creation.
ARCHEUS, (from “PX”, the principal, chief, or
find mover) ; a fort of primum mobile fet up by Hel-
mont, to fuperintend the animal ceconomy, and pre-
ferve it. It is akin to Plato’s anima mundi.—Hippo¬
crates ufes the words apx*1” to fignify the former
healthy ftate before the attack of the dife&fe.
ARCHIACOLYTHUS (from w, chief, and
«y.o\vioif minijler), an ancient dignity in cathedral
-churches : the minifters whereof were divided into four
orders or degrees, viz. priefts, deacons, fubdeacons, and
a*colythi ; each of which had their chiefs. The chief
of the acolythi was called archiaco!ythus.
ARCHIATER, Archiatrus, properly denotes
chief phyfician of a prince who retains feveral. The
word is formed of *f>;r, priricipium, “ chiefand
medicus, a “ phyfician.”
ARCHIDAP1FKR, (from and dapifer,
te fewer,”) or chief fewer, is a great officer of the em¬
pire. The elector of Bavaria is archidapifer. The
palatine of the Rhine at one time pretended this office
was annexed to his palatinate ; but he has fmce de-
filled.
ARCHIEROSYNES, in the Grecian antiquity, a
high prieft veiled with authority over the reft of the
priefts, and appointed to execute the more facred and
myllerious rites of religion.
ARCHIGALLUS, in antiquity, the high-prieft of
Cybele, or the chief of the eunuch-priefts of that god-
defs, called Gaili.
ARCHIGERONTES (from «-txos, and oidd),
in antiquity, the chiefs or matters of the feveral com¬
panies of artificers at Alexandria. Some have mifta-
ken the archigerontes for the arch-priefts appointed to
take the conreffions of thofe who were condemned to
the mines.
ARCH1GUBERNUS, Archiguberneta, or Ar-
chigubernites, in antiquity, the commander of the
imperial ftiip, or that which the emperor was aboard
of. Some have confounded the office of archiguber-
nus with that of praf jtlus claffis, or admiral, but the
former was under the command of the latter. Potter
takes the proper office of the archigubemeta to have
been, to manage the marine affairs, to provide commo¬
dious harbours, and order all things relating to the
failing of the fleet, except what related to war.
ARCHIL, Archilla, Rocella, Orsielle, is
a whitifh mofs which grows upon rocks, in the Canary
and Cape Verd iflands, and yields a rich purple tinc¬
ture, fugitive indeed, but extremely beautiful. This
weed is imported to us as it is gathered. Thofe who
prepare it for the ufe of the dyer, grind it betwixt
ftones, fo as to thoroughly bruife, but not to reduce it
into powder ; and then moiften it occafionally with a
ftrong fpirit of urine, or urine itfelf mixed with quick¬
lime : in a few days it acquires a purplifli red, and at
length a blue colour. In the firft ftate it is called Ar¬
chil; in the latter, Lcicmns or Litmafe.
1 he dyers rarely employ^ this drug by itfelf, on ac¬
count of its dearnefs and the perifhablenefs of its beau¬
ty. The chief ufe they make of it is, for giving a
bloom to other colours, as pinks, &c. This Is effec¬
ted by paffing the dyed cloth or filk through hot wa- Archil
ter lightly impregnated with the archil. The bloom Ar jms,
thus communicated foon decays upon expofure to the , 11 oc u\*
air. Mr Hellot informs us, that by the addition of a .
little folution of tin-, this drug gives a durable dye ;
that its colour is at the fame time changed towards a
Icarlet; and that it is the more.permanent in propor¬
tion as it recedes the more from its natural colour.
Prepared archil very readily gives out its colour to
water, to volatile fpirits, and to fpirit of wine ; it is
the fubftance principally made ufe of for colouring the
fpirits of thermometers. As expofure to the air de-
ftroys its colour upon cloth, the exclufion of the air
produces a like effedt in theie hermetically fealed tubes,
the fpirits of large thermometers becoming in the com-
pafs of a few years colourlefs. M. 1’Abbe Nollet ob-
ferves (in the French Memoirs for the year 1742),
that the colourlefs fpirit, upon breaking the tube, foon
refumes its colour, and this for a number of times fuc-
ceffively ; that a watery tindture of- archil, included
in the tubes or thermometers, loft its colour in three
days ; and that, in an open deep veffel, it became co¬
lourlefs at the bottom, while the upper part retained *■
its colour. See Colovr-Making, n* 38.
A folution of archil in water, applied on cold
marble, ftrains it of a beautiful violet, or purplifti blue
colour, far more durable than the colour which it com¬
municates to other bodies. Mr du Fay fays he has
feen pieces of marble ftained with it, which in two
years had fuffered no fenfible change. It finks deep
into the marble, fometimes above an inch ; and at the
fame time fpreads upon the furface, unlefs the edges
be bounded by wax or other like fubftances. It feems
to make the marble fomewhat more brittle.
Linnaeus informs us, in the Swedilh Tranfadtions
for the year 1742, that the true archil mofs is to be
found on the weftern coafts of England. It has been
for a confiderable time part prepared by Meffrs Gor¬
dons at Leith, from a fpedes found in the Highlands
of Scotland.
ARCHILOCHIAN, a term in poetry, applied to
a fort of verfes, of which Archilochus was the inventor,
confifting of feven feet; the four firft whereof are ordi¬
narily dadtyls, though fometimes fpondees ; the three
laft trochees, as in Horace,
Solvitur acris hyems, grata vice verts & Favoni.
ARCHILOCHUS, a famous Greek poet and mu-
fician, was, according to Herodotus, cotemporary with
Candaules and Gyges, kings of Lydia, who flourifhed
about the 14th Olympiad, 724 years before Chrift. But
he is placed much later by modem chronologifts; viz.
by Blair 686, and by Prieftley 660 years, before
Chrift.
He was born at Paros, one of the Cyclades. His fa¬
ther Teleficles was of fo high a rank, that he was cho-
fen by his countrymen to confult the oracle at Del-
phos concerning the fending a colony to Thafos : a
proof that he was of one of the moft diftinguiftied fa¬
milies upon the ifland. However, he is faid to have
fullied his birth by an ignoble marriage with a flave
called Enipo, of which alliance our poet-mufician was
the fruit.
Though Archilochus fhowed an early genius and at¬
tachment To poetry and mufic, thefe arts did not pre¬
vent
ARC [ 2.11
Archilo* vent ills' going into the army, like other young men of
, ch»s- ltjs birth; but in the firft engagement at which he was
1 ' prefent, the young poet, like Horace, and like our own
Suckling, loft his buckler, though he faved his life.by
the help of his heels. It is much eajier,. faid he, to get
a new buckler than a new exigence. Tills pleafantry,
however, did not fave his reputation; nor could his
poetry or prayers prevail upon Lycambes, the father
of his miftrefs, to let him marry his daughter, though
Hie had been long promifed.to him. After thefe mor¬
tifications, his life feems to have been one continued
tiffue of difgrace and refentment.
Archilochum proprio rabies armavit ianibo.
Hor. Art. Poet, 79.
Archilochus, with fierce refentment warm’d,
Was with his own fevere iambics arm’d. Francis..
The rage of Archilochus was- proverbial in antiquity;
which compared the provoking .this fatirift to the:
treading upon, a farpent: A comparifon.. not very fe--
vere, if it be true that Lycambes, and, as fome fay, his
three daughters, were fo mortified by his fatire, as to
be driven to the confolation of a halter. .
In this piece, many adventures are mentioned, full of
defamation, and out of the knowledge of the public.
There were likewife many loofe paflages in it; and it
is faid to have been ou account of this fatire that the,
*Val. M«-Lacedemonians laid a prohibition, on his- verfes *.
lib. 6. c. 3. However; according to Plutarch, there is no bard of -
antiquity by whom the two arts of poetry and mufic
have been fo much advanced as by Archilochus. To
him is attributed.particularly thefudden tranfition from
one rhythm, to another of a different kind, and the,
manner of accompanying thofe irregular meafures upon;
the lyre. Heroic poetry, in hexamiter verfe, .feems to
have been folely in ufe among the more ancient poets
and muficians; and the tranfition from one rhythm to
another, which lyric poetry required, was unknown to
them; fo that if. Archilochus was the .firft author of,
this mixture, he might with propriety be ftyled the.
Inventor of Lyric Poetry, which, after his time, became
a fpecies of verfification wholly diilindf from heroic.—
To him .is likewife afcribed the invention of Epodes.
See Epote.
Our poet-mufician is generally ranked among the
firft vigors of the Pythic games : and we learn from
Pindar, that his mufe was not always a termagant;
for though no mortal efcaped her rage, yet fhe was at
times fufficiently tranquil and pious to di&ate hymns •
in praife of i the gods and heroes. One in particular^
written in honour of Hercules, acquired him the ac¬
clamations, of all. Greece ; for he fung it in full affembly
at the Olympic games, and had the fatisfaftion of re¬
ceiving from the judges the crown of victory confe-
crated to real merit. This hymn-, or ode, was after¬
wards fung in honour of-every vidtor at Olympia, whet
had no poet to celebrate his particular exploits..
Archilochus was at daft, flain by one Callondax Co-
ray, of the iftand of Naxos-; who, though he did it in
fight, according to the laws-of war, was driven out of
the temple of Delphi, by command of the oracle, for
having deprived of life a man confecrated to the Mufes. .
The names' of Homer and Archilochus were equally
revered and celebrated in Greece, as the two moft excel-
N” a6.
5 ] A R C
lent poets which the nation had ever produced. This Archima*
appears from an epigram in the Anthologia; and from Sus
Cicero, who ranks him with poets of the firft clafs, and Archinfde*
in his Epiftles tells us, that the grammarian Ariftopha- . * .
nes, the moft rigid and fcrupulous critic of his time,
ufed to fay, that the longeft poem of Archilochus al¬
ways appeared to him the moft excellent.
ARCHIMAGUS, the high-prieft of the Perfiaw
Magi or worftiippers of fire. He refided in the high-
eft fire-temple 5 which was had in the fame veneration
with them as the temple of Mecca among the Maho¬
metans. Zoroaftres firft fettled it at Balch ; but after
the Mahometans had over-run Perfia in the 7th cen.--
tury, the Archimagus was forced to remove from thence
into Kerman, a province of Perfia, lying on the fouthv
ern ocean,. where it hath continued to this day. Da¬
rius Hyftafpes took upon himfelf the dignity of Ar¬
chimagus : for Prophyry tells us, he ordered before
his death, that, among the other titles, it fhould be en¬
graven on his monument, that he had been Mafter of
the Magi; which plainly implies that he had borne
this office among them, for none but the Archima¬
gus was mafter of the whole fe<ft. From hence it
feems to have proceeded, that the kings of Perfia were
ever after looked on to be of the facerdotal tribe, and-
were always initiated into the facred order of the Ma¬
gi, before they took on them the crown, and were in¬
augurated into the kingdom.
ARCHIMANDRITE, in ecclefiaftical hiftory,
was a name given by the ancient Chriftians to what
we now call an abbot. Father Simon obferves, that
the word mandrite is Syriac, and fignifies a folitary
monk.
ARCHIMIDES, a celebrated geometrician, born-
at Syracufe in the ifland of Sicily, and related to
Hiero king of Syracufe. He was remarkable for his-
extraordinary application to mathematical ftudies; in-
which he ufed to be fo much engaged, that his fervants1
were often robliged to take him from thence by force.
He had fuch a furprifmg invention in mechanics, that'
he affirmed to Hiero, if he had another earth, where¬
on to plant his machines, he could move this which we-
inhabit. He is faid to have formed a glafs fphere, of
a moft: furprifmg workmanfhip, wherein the motions of
the heavenly bodies were reprefented. He difcovered
the exadt quantity of the filver which a goldfmith had
mixed with the gold in a crown he had made for the-
king : he had the hint of this difcovery from his per¬
ceiving the water rife up the fides of the bath as he
went into itr, and was filled with fuch joy, that he ran-
naked .out of the bath, crying, “I have found it! I
have found it!” By the invention of machines, he, for-
a long time, defended Syracufe on its being befieged by
Marcellus (See Syracuse). On the city’s being ta¬
ken, that general commanded his foldiers to have a
particular regard to the fafety of this truly great man ;
but his- care was ineffeaual. “ What gave Marcellus
the greateft concern (fays Plutarch), was the unhappy
Archimides, who was at that time in his mufaeum, and
his mind, as well as his eyes, fo fixed and intent upon*
fame geometrical figures, that he neither heard the
noife and hurry of the Romans, nor perceived the city *
was taken. In this depth of ftudy and contemplation,
a foldier came luddenly upon him, and commanded hinv
to
ARC [ 21
'41 Archime- to follow hfm to Marcellas; which he refufing to do
des- till he had finilhed his problem, the foldier, in a rage,
v drew his fword, and ran him through the body.”
Others have related the circumftances of his death in a
fomewhat different manner. It however happened 203
years before the ChrifUan aera. Cicero, when he was
quaedor in Italy, difcovered his tomb, on which was
t"! • Tafcul, carved a cylinder and fphere *• Some, of the works of
»' 1- iv. th;s great mathematician are loft, but others are pre-
ferved. His pieces which remain are, I. Two books
of the Sphere and Cylinder. 2. The Dimenfions of a
Circle. 3. Of Centres of Gravity, or Equiponde¬
rants. 4. Of Spheroids and Conoids. 5. Of fpiral
Lines. 6. The Quadrature of a Parabola. 7. Of the
Number of the Sand. 8. Of Bodies that float on Fluids.
The beft edition of thefe is that publifhed at London,
in 1675:, 410. Among the works of Archimedes which
are loft, ■we may reckon the defcriptions of the follow¬
ing inventions, which we may gather from himfelf and
other ancient authors. 1. nupi or his account
of. the method which he ufed to difcover the mixture
of gold and filver in the crown. 2. His defcription of
the k<>x*ix, or an engine to draw water out of
places where it is ftagnated. Athenxus, fpeaking of
the prodigious (hip built by the order of Hiero, tells
us, that Archimedes invented the cochlion, by means
of which the hold, notwithftanding its depth, could be
drained by one man. lib. v.) Diodorus
Siculus informs us (lib. v.') that he contrived this ma¬
chine to drain Egypt, and that by a wonderful mecha-
nifm it would empty the water from any depth. 3.
The Em?, by means of which (according to Athenteus,
Aii*»o<r, lib. v.) he launched Hiero’s great ftiip. 4- The
Tf«rr«fo», of the power of which Tzetzes gives a hy¬
perbolical relation, Chil. ii. hift. 3 J. 5. The machines
he ufed in the defence of Syracufe againft Marcellus.
A R C H I T
]N the utmoft latitude of the word, fignifies the art
of building in general; but the term is moft fre¬
quently applied only to the conftrudlion of fuch build¬
ings as are necellary for the purpofes of civil life, fuch
as houfes, churches, halls, bridges, porticos, ire.
Hiflory of Architecture.
The origin of this art, like that of moft others, is
totally unknown. We are aflured, however, that it is as
old as Cain: for Mofes tells us that he built a city; tho’
what were the materials, or how the buildings were con-
, ftnnfted, we are entirely ignorant. It is commonly
Materials faid, that the firft materials employed in building were
firft ufed branches and twigs of trees, wherewith men conftruc-
in build- ted huts, fuch as the •caigwavis in ufe among the A-
“’S- merican Indians at prefent. This, however, appears
difputable. The natural fhelter afforded by hollows
in the fides of mountains or rocks, it may be fup-
pofed, would much more readily fuggeft the idea of
ufmg ftones and earth as materials for building houfes.
Indeed, confidering that tents were not invented before
the days of Jabal, Tubal-Cain’s brother, it is very pro¬
bable that fuch temporary houfes as the Indian wig-
, Vox.. II. Part I.
7 ] ARC
Of thefe we have an account in Polybius, Livy, and Archipe-
Plutarch. 6, His burning-glafles, with which he is faid la£°
to havefet fire to the Roman galleys. Galen, Arcjlite(^;
lib. iii. 7* His pneumatic and hydraulic engines, con- y-—<
cerning which he wrote books, according to Tzetzes,
Chil. ii. hift. 35.
ARCHIPELAGO, in geography, a general term
fignifying a fea interrupted with iflands; it is however
more efpecially applied to that lying between Europe
and Afia, which contains the iflands anciently called
Cyclades and Sporades. See thefe two words.
ARCHIPHERACITE, minifters in the Jew-
ifh fynagogues appointed to read and interpret the
Perakim, or titles and heads of the law and the pro¬
phets.
ARCHPRESBYTER, or arch-priest, a prieft
eftablifhed in fome diocefes with a fuperiority over the
reft. He was anciently chofen out of the college of
preibyters at the pleafure of the bilhop. Thefe arch-
prelbyters were much of the fame nature with deans
in the cathedral churches, as the college of prefbyters
anfwers to the chapter. See Presbyter.
ARCHISYNAGOGUS, the chief of the fyna-
gogue ; the title of an officer among the Jews, who
prefided in their fynagogues and affemblies. The num¬
ber of thefe officers was not fixed, nor the fame in all
places ; there being 70 in fome, and in others only
one. They are fometimes calledof the fyna-
ogue, and had a power of excommunicating fuch as
elerved that puniihment.
ARCHITECT, a perfon {killed in architecture, or
tire art of building ; who forms plans and defigns for
edifices, conducts the work, and direCls the feveral ar¬
tificers employed in it. The word is derived from
princeps, and' Texra,, faber, workman; q. d. the
principal workman.
E C T U R E-
warns were not originally known; otherwife the method
of covering poles with the {kins of beafts,inftead offmali
branches or twigs, muft very foon have taken place.
Thefe temporary houfes feem to have come into ufe
only when men began to lead an idle wandering life,
like the Tartars, and could not be at the trouble off
conftruCting durable habitations in every place where
they were obliged to wander with their cattle ; and Ja¬
bal perhaps from them took the hint of making por¬
table houfes or tents. Accordingly we fee, that no
nations, except thofe who are in a perpetually unfettled
ftate, make ufe of fuch -wretched materials. Even
in America, where the human race has appeared in
the rudeft form, they were no fooner collected into
reat bodies under the emperors of Mexico and Peru,
ran ftone-buildings began to be ereCted.
We are not, therefore, to look for the origin of ar¬
chitecture in any Angle nation ; but in every nation,
when the inhabitants began to leave off their favage
way of life, and to become civilized j and if there is
any nation to be found w hich hath been alw-ays in a ci¬
vilized ftate, wre may be affured that architecture hath
always had an exiftence there. But whatever may be
in this; the origin of regular buildings hath been de-
E e dueed
21
8 A R C H T T
ducei from ths conRruftion of the meaneft huts in a
-very natural and plaufible manner by feveral authors.
“ Anciently (fays Vitruvius) men lived in woods,
2 and inhabited caves; but in time, taking perhaps ex-
:Primitive ample from birds, who with great induftry build their
■huts. nefts, they made themfelves huts. At firft they made
xvvrv huts, very probably, of a conic figure ; becaufe
fig. i. ' t^at *s a %ure °f the fimpleft ftrudure ; and, like the
birds, whom they imitated, compofed them of branches
of trees, fpreading them wide at the bottom, and join¬
ing them in a point at the top ; covering the whole
with reeds, leaves, and clay, to fcreen them from tem-
3 pefts arid rain.
Their im- “ But finding the conic figure inconvenient on ac-
provement count of its inclined fides, they changed both the form
and conftruftion of their huts, giving them a cubical
Plate figure, and building them in the following manner:
XXXIV. Having marked out the fpace to be occupied by the
-%'2- hut, 'they fixed in the ground feveral upright trunks
. of trees to form the fides, filling the intervals between
them with branches clofely interwoven and covered
- with clay. The fides being thus completed, four large
beams were placed on the upright trunks: which, being
well joined at the angles, kept the fides firm, and
likewife ferved to fupport the covering or roof of the
building, compofed of many joilts, on which were laid
jeveral beds of reeds, leaves, and clay.
“ Infenfibly mankind improved in the art of build¬
ing, and invented methods to make their huts lafting
and handfome as well as convenient. They took off
the bark, and other unevenneffes, irom the trunks of
•trees that formed the fides ; raifed them, probably, a-
bovc the dirt and humidity, on ftones; and covered each
of them with a fiat ftone or flate, to keep off the rain.
The fpaces between the ends of the joifts were clofed
with clay, wax, or fome other fubftance; and the ends
of the joifts covered with thin boards cut in the man¬
ner of triglyphs. The pofition of the roof was like¬
wife altered : for being, on account of ■ its flatnefs, un¬
fit to throw off the rains that fell in great abundance
during the winter feafon, they raifed it in the middle ;
giving it the form of a gable roof, by placing rafters on
the joifts, to fupport the earth and other materials that
xompofed the covering.
jTjg. 3. “ From this fimple conftruAion the orders of archi-
tecfture took their rife. For when buildings of wood
were fet afide, and men began to erett folid and {late¬
ly edifices of ftone, they imitated the parts which ne-
ceflity had introduced into the primitive huts; in fo
much that the upright trees, with the ftones at each
end of them, were the origin of columns, bafes, and
capitals ; and the beams, joifts, rafters, and ftrata of
materials that formed the covering, gave birth to ar¬
chitraves, frizes, triglyphs, and cornices, with the co¬
rona, the mutules, the modillions, and the dentils.
“ The firft buildings were in all likelihood rough
■and uncouth ; as the men of-thofe times,had .neither
experience nor tools: but when, by long experience
and reafoning upon it, the artifts had eftabliftied cer-
■tain rules, had invented many inftruments, and by great
pra&ice had acquired a facility in executing their ideas,
they made quick advances towards perfeftion, and at
length difcovered certain manners of building, which
fucceeding ages have regarded with the higheft venera-
Juop.”
^ C 1 U R E. Hiftory.’j
Among the ancient Egyptians, A {Tyrians, and Per- 4
fians, this art was carried to an incredible length State of atT
The pyramids of Egypt are fuch ftru&ures as wouldchiteaure
exceed the power of the moft potent monarch on earth ®monS.the!
to raife at this day. The largeft of thefe, according Syp lanS'
to the account of M. Goguet, is near 500 feet high,
and contains 313,590 folid fathoms. It is compofed
of ftones enormoufly large ; many of them being 30
feet long, four feet high, and three in breadth; and
all this huge mafs of building was coated over with
fquare flags of marble.—The ftnufhire called the laby¬
rinth, in the fame country, according to Herodotus,
who faw it, excelled every thing which he could have
conceived from the imagination either of himfelf or-o-
thers. Within the fame circuit of walls they had in-
clofed 5000 halls, 12 of which were of a Angular form
and beauty ; and of thefe, half were above, and half
below ground; and the whole was terminated by a py¬
ramid 40 fathoms high. All this prodigious mafs of
building was compofed of white marble, and the walls
were adorned with engravings.—The ebelifles were not
lefs aftonifiling; the largeft of them being entire pieces
of granite, no lefs than 18© feet high.—Near Andera,
in Upper Egypt, are the ruins of a palace of gray
granite, the cielings of which arefupported by columns
of fuch thicknefs, that four men can fcarcely fathom
them. The cielings themfelves are compofed of ftones
of the fame kind, fix or feven feet in breadth and 18
feet in length. The grand hall is 112 feet long, 60
high, and 58 broad. The roof of the whole edifice
is a terrace, on which the Arabs formerly built a very
large village, the ruins of which are ftill vifible. 5
Among the Babylonians and Perfians, too, fuch im-Among the
menfe piles of building have been raifed, as appear ut-Babylo,li'
terly inconceivable, and incredible to many modern au-ansil,ui
thors where their former grandeur is not demonftrable Per ,ans'
by ruins vifible at this day. The ruins of Perfepolis,
the ancient capital of Perfia, were fo ftupendous in the
time of Avicenna the Arab phyfician, that his coun¬
trymen could not believe fuch ftrudtures pofiible to be
eredted but by evil fpirits. Of their extraordinary
magnificence, indeed, we may have fome idea from the
account of the ftair-cafes belonging to the palace. The
remains, foroe time ago, confifted of 9 5 fteps of white
marble, fo broad and flat, that 12 horfes might conve¬
niently go up abreaft. 6
In thefe vaft ftrudtures, however, the nations ofwhomTheir
■we fpeak deem to have regarded the greatnefs, ratherbuiitlings
than the elegance or ufefulnefs of their works. In themor® jA
pyramids and obelilks of Egypt this is exceedinglyf^great-
confpicuous; but whether it was fo in the labyrinth ornefs than
in the palace at Thebes above mentioned, it is impof-elegance,
fible to determine, unlefs the buildings were entire, and
w.e knew for what purpofe they had been defigned. If
the kings who built the pyramids defigned to immor¬
talize their memories by building, they certainly could
not have fallen upon any thing more proper for this
purpofe ; though even in this they have fome how or
other failed, the names of thole who eredted them not
being certainly known even in the time of Herodotus.— 7
It is certain, however, that neither the ancient Affy-,r£norantof'
rians nor Babylonians knew the method of conftrudt-jlle,ufe
■ing arches. The roofs of all their halls were flat, andarC es*
covered with prodigioufly large ftones, fome of them
fp big as to coyer a whole room fingly. Their manner
of
Hiflory. A R C H I T
of building was alfo quite deftitute of what is now
called tajh; the columns were ill-proportioned, and
their capitals executed in the pooreft manner imagi¬
nable. This was obferved by the Greeks, who im¬
proved upon the proportions formerly ufed, and were
the inventors of three of the five orders of architecture,
8 viz. the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. “ Anciently
And of pro-(fays Vitruvius) they were ignorant of the art of pro¬
portioning portioning the various parts of a building: they ufed
columns. cojurnns ., km they cut them at hazard, without rules,
without principles, and without having any attention
to the proportions which they ought to give them :
they placed them likewife without any regard to the
other parts of the edifice. Dorus, fon of Helen and
grandfon of Deucalion, having caufed a temple to be
9 built at Argos in honour of Juno, that edifice was
the'^Doric ^oun^ by chance to be conftrufted according to the
order. tafte and proportions of the order which afterwards
they called Doric. The form of this building having
appeared agreeable, they conformed to it for the con-
ftruftion of edifices which they afterwards had to
build.
“Aboutthe fame time, the Athenians fent into A-
fia a colony under the conduit of Ion, nephew of Do¬
rus : this undertaking had very good fuccefs. Ion
feized on Caria, andcthere founded many cities: thefe
new inhabitants thought to build temples. They pro-
pofed for a model that of Juno at Argos ; but, igno¬
rant of the proportion which they ought to give to the
columns, and in general to the whole edifice, they
fought for rules capable of regulating their operation.
Thefe people wanted, in making: their columns fuffi-
oiently ftrong to fupport die whole edifice, to render
them at the'fame time agreeable to the fight. For
this purpofe, they thought to have given it the fame
proportion that they found between the foot of a man
and the reft of his body. According to their ideas,
the foot made a fixth part of the human height: in
confequence, they gave at firft to a Doric column, ta¬
king in its chapiter, fix of its diameters; that is to fay,
they made it fix times as high as it was-thick: after-
10 wards they added to it a fevendi diameter.
OftHelonic “This new order of■ architedlure was not long in
giving birth to a fecond : they would immediately go
beyond • their firft invention. The lonians tried to
throw frill more delicacy and elegance into their edifi¬
ces. They employed the fame method which they had
before put in practice for the compofition of the Doric
order: but inftead of taking for a model the body of a
man, the lonians were regulated by that of a woman.
With a view to make the columns of this new order
more agreeable and more pleafing, they gave them
eight times as much1' height as they had diameter.
They alfo made channelings all along the trunk to imi¬
tate the folds of the robes of women : the volutes of.
the chapiter reprefented that part of the hair which
hung in curls on each fide of the face. The lonians
added, laftly, to thefe columns a bafe, which was not in
ufe in the Doric order.” According to Vitruvius’,
thefe bafes were made in the manner of twifted cords,
as n kind of cafe for the columns. This order of ar-
chite&ure was called Ionic, from the name of the peo¬
ple who had invented it.
Such is the account given by Vitruvius of the origin
of improvements in the proportion of columns. Had
E C T U It E. 219
thefe improvements, however, exifted in fuch early
times, Homer, who -was greatly pofterior to them, would
certainly have made mention of fomething of that kind;
but in all his writings he gives us no account of any
thing like columns of ftone, but ufes a word which
would rather incline us to think that his columns were'
nothing more than bare polls. IT
It is remarkable, that improvements in architedlure Hintsofim-
did not take place in any nation till after, or about, theprovement
time that Jerufalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar. ProbabIy
The grandeft buildings eredled among the A fi yrians
feemto have owed their exiftence to this monarch; andt°,np'0^
it can fcarce be imagined that he would not endeavour
to imitate the architedlure of Solomons temple, to
which, by his conqueft of Jerufalem, he had full ac-
cefs.—It is alfo remarkable, that the dimenfions of the
two pillars, Jachin and Boaz, fet up by Solomon, very
nearly correfpcnd with thofe of the Doric order, firft
invented by the Greeks, and which Originally came
from their colonies fettled in Afia Minor. The height
of Solomon’s pillars, without the chapiter, was 18 cu¬
bits ; that of the chapiter itfelf was five cubits ; the
circumference was 12 cubits ; from whence, according
to the Scripture language, we may reckon the diame¬
ter to have been exadlly four cubits.’ Had they been
a Angle cubit higher, they would have been precifely
of the fame height with columns of the original Doric
order. We do not indeed mean to afiert, that this fa¬
mous temple gave a model of architedlure to the whole
world ; although it is fcarce conceivable but imitations -
of it, as far -as it could be known, muft have taken place
among many nations. 1 j -
Notwithftanding all their defedts, however, the E-Egyptian
gyptian buildings undoubtedly had an air of vaft gran-ban(iuetir‘S-
deur and magnificence, if we may credit the defcription
given of one of their banqueting-rooms- by Vitruvius.” 6
The ufual fize of one of thefe rooms was from 100 to
r 5© feet in length, and its breadth fomewhat more
than half its length. At the upper end, and along the
two fides, they placed rows of pillars tolerably well
proportioned to one another, though net of any regu¬
lar order ; and at the lower part they made a magnifi¬
cent and Ipacious1 entrance : this, with its ornaments,
feems to have taken up one end of the building entire.
We are not told that there were any pillars there; tho*
perhaps they placed two or more toward the angles on
each fide, for uniformity, the central fpace being e-
nough for an entrance in the grandeft and moft auguft
manner. The'fe rows of columns were fet at a diftance '
from the wall, forming, a noble portico along the two
fides and upper end of the building. Upon the pillars
was laid an architrave; and from this was carried up a
continued wall with three quarter columns, anfwering
dire£11 y to -thofe below, and in proportion one fourth
fmaller in all their parts. Between thefe three quarter
columns were placed the windows for enlightening the
building. From the tops of the lower pillars to the
wall was laid a floor: this covered tire portico over- •
head within, and made on theoutfide a platform, which
was furrounded by a corrider with rails and ballufters.
This was-terraced, and ferved as a plain for people to
walk on; and from this they could look through the
windows clown into the room. To this terrace there
was no covering required, as the Egyptians were in no'
fear-of rain. The Egyptians decorated this fort of ‘
E-e 2 - buildingg
220 A R C H I T
building with ftatues ; and no kind of ornament could
anfwer it fo well, as the light cannot fall upon ftatues
to fuch advantage in any direction, as when it comes
from above, in fuch a regular, proportioned, and unin-
, j terrupted manner.
Ancient We have already taken notice, that among the an-
architec- cient Egyptians, Perfians, and Babylonians, the vaft
ture fupe- ftrength and extent of their buildings feems to have
deurto^h"^cen w^at they chiefly valued ; and in this they cer-
modern. ^ ta^n^7 as muck excelled the Greeks and modern nations
as the latter excel them in the beautiful proportion
and elegance of their ftrudttires. There are not want¬
ing, however, fome modern authors, who endeavour to
deprive the ancients of what is juftly their due, and
will have every thing to be exaggerated which feems be¬
yond the power of modem princes to accompliflx. In
this way M. Goguet remarkably diftinguifhes himfelf;
and that without giving any reafon at all, but merely
that he takes it into his head. Speaking of the won¬
ders of ancient Babylon, “ All thefe works (fays he),
fo marvellous in the judgment of antiquity, appear to
me to have been extremely exaggerated by the authors
who have fpoken of them. How can we conceive, in
effect, that the walls of Babylon could have been sr8
feet high and 81 in thicknefs, in a compafs of near
ten leagues ?” To this we may eafily reply, that the
pyramids of Egypt, and the immenfe wall which di¬
vides China from Tartary, fhow us, that even fuch a
work as the wall of ancient Babylon is faid to have
been is not altogether incredible. The loweft com¬
putation of the dimenfion of the Chinefe wall is, that
it extends in length 1200 miles, is 18 feet high at a
medium and as many thick ; according to which com¬
putation, it muft contain 9,504,000 folid fathoms ;
and yet, if we may credit the Chinefe hiftorians, this
.immenfe mafs of building was finilhed in five years. If
therefore we can fuppofe Nebuchadnezzar, or whoever
■fortified the city of Babylon, to have been capable of
employing as many men for 10 years as were employ¬
ed in railing the Chinefe wall, we may fuppofe him
able to have fortified the city of Babylon as ftrongly as
it is faid to have been ; for the mafs of building is not
quite double that of the Chinefe wall, though nearly
.fo, amounting to 18,189,’600 folid fathoms. When
onr author afterwards gafeonades about the works of
the French king, it is difficult to avoid laughter at
hearing him declare, that “ infinitely more money has
been expended, and much more genius required, as well
as more power-, tale, and time, to finilh Verfailles,
•with all its defedls, than to conftnnft a pyramid, or e-
red an obeliflt.” The genius, tafte, and time, we
.fliall not difpute ; but as the fame author confeffes that
J 00)000 men were employed for 30 years together in
the conftrudion of the largeft pyramid, we think the
power may juftly be doubted. This doubt will appear
ftill the more reafonable, when we confider what time
-the ahovementioned number of men would have taken
to accomplilh fomc of the works of which M. Goguet
•boafts fo much. The canal of Languedoc, he tells us,
.extends in length upwards of 70 leagues, and required
the removal of two millions of cubic fathoms of earth.
This was no doubt a great work; but had 100,000
men been employed upon it at once, they muft have
removed this quantity of earth in three weeks, fuppo-
Jing each to h.ave removed only a Angle fathom u-day.
E C T U R E. Hi Rory.
Nor can we imagine, that any modem work will at all
ftand in competition with the works of the ancients
as to greatnefs, whatever they may do in other re-
fpeds. I4
As to the improvements in archite&ure, the Greeks Architec*
were undoubtedly the firft European nation wh© began tureimpro-
to diilinguifh themfelves in this way. Whence they Y,ed the
took the firft hint of improvement, we have no means0ieeks*
of knowing: though, as we have already hinted, it is
fcarce credible but that Solomon’s temple muft have
fomewhat contributed thereto ; efpecially as we learn
from Scripture, that the capitals of the columns there
were ornamented in the richeft manner. The origin of
the Doric and Ionic orders we have already given an
account of from Vitruvius; to which we may add, that
the volutes, which are the peculiar ornament of the Io¬
nic capital, are by fome faid to reprefent the natural
curling down of a piece of bark from the top of a
beam, which is fuppofed to have been the firft kind of 75
column.—The Corinthian order was not invented till Origin of
long after the others, and is faid to have taken its rife Corin-
from the following accident: A bafliet had been fetthianorder.
upon the ground, and covered with a iquare tile ; there
grew near it a plant of acanthus or bears-breech ; the
leaves Ihot up and covered the outer furface of the
bafliet; and as the ftalks rofe up among them, they
.foon reached the tile which overhung the edges of the
bafket at the top ; this flopping their courfe upwards,
they curled and twifted themfelves into a kind of vo¬
lutes. In this fituation a fculptor, Callimachus, faw it;
the twifted part of the ftalk reprefented to him the vo¬
lutes of the Ionic capital, which, as they were here
fmaller, and 'more numerous, appeared in a new form:
he faw the beauty of raifing them among leaves, and
was ft ruck with the reprefentation of a noble and lofty
capital; which being afterwards put into execution, has
been uniVerfally admired.
In their private houfes the Greeks had greater conve-pr;vate
niences, but much left magnificence, than the Romans, houfes of
as the former referved the ufe of their grandeft archi- theGreeks,
.tedlure for their temples and public buildings. The en¬
trance to their private houfes, however large they were,
was always fmall, narrow, and plain. The whole edi¬
fice ufually confifted of two courts, and feveral ranges
of building. The porter’s lodge, if fuch a phrafe may
be allowed, was ufually on the right hand of this nar¬
row entrance, and oppofite to this were the (tables.
From this entrance one came into the firft or fmaller
court. This had piazzas on three fides; and on the
fourth, which was ufually the fouth fide, there were
hutments of pilafters, which fupporied the more inward
parts of the cieling.—A ipace being thus left between
the one and the other, they had places for the lodgings
of men and maid fervants, and fuch as had the princi¬
pal care of the houfe. Upon the fame floor with thefe
hutments they had feveral regular apartments, confift-
ing of an antichamber, a chamber, and clofets ; and a-
bout the piazzas, rooms for eating and other common
purpofes.—Oppofite to the entrance was a lobby or
veftibule, through which lay the paflage into the feve¬
ral rooms ; and through this, in front, one entered a
large paflage, which led into the larger or principal
fquare. Round this they had four piazzas, which, iu
the common way of building, were all of one height;
but, in more magnifident houfes, they made that which
faced
iHiftory. A R G H I T
faced the great entrance loftier, and every way nobler,
than the other three. A nobleman of Rhodes added
this to the common method of building ; and it was
thence called the Rhodian manner. In tins more noble
part of the building were the apartments of the family.
Thefe were adorned with lofty galleries, and here were
the belt rooms: they were called the mens apartments ;
for, in rude times, the Greeks lodged their wives and
female relations in the beft rooms of the firft court,
where they had alfo their feparate and detached place.
The two fides of this larger court were kept for the re¬
ception of vifitors; andfervants were appointed to wait
upon them. The mailer of the houfe entertained his
guefts the firft day in his own apartments; but after
this, how long foever they ftaid, they lived without re-
ftraint in one of thofe feparate piazzas, and joined the
family only when they chofe it. Thus was the upper
end and two fides of the great court difpofed of; and
its lower end, being the fame range of building that
was the upper end of the firft court, held the lady of
17 the houfe and her female friends.
!< Of the Ro- The Romans borrowed their archite&ure from the
4 mans. Greeks, but did not imitate them in the modefty of
their private dwellings. They placed the principal front
of their houfe towards the fouth, and on this they be¬
llowed all the decoration of expenlive ornament. They
had here lofty galleries and fpacious rooms, and every
thing carried an air of greatnefs and Ihow. In their
country houfes they preferved the fame fituation and
the fame front, but the inner diftribution was different.
At the entrance they placed the meaner and more of-
fenfive offices, after the manner of the Greeks. The
firft gallery, which received the ftranger at his entrance,
had on one fide a paffage to the kitchen, and on the
other to the ftalls where they kept cattle, that their
noife or fmell might not be offenfive within, while yet
they were in readinefs for all fervices. Thefe ftalls were
placed to the left, as in the Greek houfes ; on the
right was the kitchen, 'which had its light from above,
and its chimney in the middle. Farther within the
building were placed on one fide bathing-rooms, and
on the other family-conveniences, in the manner of our
butteries and ftore-rooms: the bathing-rooms were on
the left, and the others on the right. Backwards, and
full to the north, they placed their cellars, for fear of
the fun, and over thefe were other ftore-rooms. From
this part of the ftrufture one came into the court; for
in thefe there generally was only one court: this was
taken up by fervants, and thofe who had tire care of the
cattle; and on each fide there were ftalls for tire cattle.
In front from the entrance, but very far from all thefe
annoyances, flood the nobler apartments for themafter
18 of the family.
Decline of How magnificent the Romans were in their temple?
inong the an^ Puhhc buildings, is yet to be feen in what remains
Romans. thelT15 and which are not only models for all modern
architedls, but have never been furpaffed or even equal¬
led to this day. But though the art of architecture
continued almoft at its higheft pitch among the Ro¬
mans for two centuries, it declined exceedingly as the
empire began to fail. Tacitus relates, that after the
battle of ACthim no men of genius appeared; and af¬
ter the reign of Alexander Severus, a manner of build¬
ing altogether confufed and irregular was introduced,
wherein nothing of the true graces and majefty of the
E C T U R E. 221
former was preferved. When the empire was entirely 19
over-run by the Goths, the conquerors naturally intro-Gothic
duced their own method of building. Like the ancient"1*""^1" of
Egyptians, the Goths feem to have been more ftudiousbul in£'
to amaze people with the greatnefs of their buildings
than to pleafe the eye with the regularity of their
ftruCture, or the propriety of their ornaments. They
corrected themfelves, however, a little by the models of
the Roman edifices which they faw before them: but
thefe models themfelves were faulty ; and the Goths
being totally deftitute of genius, neither architecture
nor any other art could be improved by them.
Mofi writers who mention the ancient buildings in
this ifland, particularly -the religious ones, notwith-
ftanding the ftriking difference in the ftyles of their
conftruCtion, clafs them all under the common deno¬
mination of Gothic} a general appellation by them ap¬
plied to buildings not exactly conformable to feme one
of the five orders of architecture. Our modern anti¬
quaries, more accurately, divide them into Saxon,—
Norman,—and Saracenic, or that fpecies vulgarly tho’
improperly called modern Gothic. 23
It has been maintained by fome, that the Saxon Of theSax-
churches, after they began to be built with ftone, con- onandNm-
fifted only of upright walls, without pillars or arches,maa
the conftruCtion of which it is alledged they were en¬
tirely ignorant of. But this opinion is not only con¬
tradicted by the teftimony of feveral cotemporary or
very ancient waiters, who exprefsly mention them both,
but alfo by the remains of fome edifices univerfully al¬
lowed to be of Saxon w7orkmanfliip, one of them the
ancient conventual church at Ely. Indeed, it is highly
improbable that the Saxons could be ignorant of fo
ufeful a contrivance as the arch. Many of them, built
by the Romans, they muft have had before their eyes ;
fome of which have reached our days: two particularly
are now remaining in Canterbury only ; one in the
caftle-yard, the other at Riding-gate. And it is not
to be believed, that once knowing them and their con¬
venience, they would negleft to make ufe cf them; or
having ufed, would relinquifii them. Befides, as it ap¬
pears from undoubted authorities they procured work¬
men from the Continent to conftruCt their capital build¬
ings “ according to the Roman manner,” this alone
would be fufficient to confute that ill-grounded opinion;
and at the fame time proves, that wffiat we commonly
call Saxon, is in reality Roman architecture.
This was the ftyle of building praCtifed all over Eu¬
rope ; and it continued to be ufed by the Normans,
after their arrival here, till the introduction of wffiat is
called the modern Gothic, which was not till about the
end of the reign of Henry II. fo that there feems to
be little or no grounds for a diftinCtion between the
Saxon and Norman architecture. Indeed it is faid,
the buildings of the latter were of larger dimenfions
both in height and area; and they were conftruCted
with a ftone brought from Caen in Normandy, of
which their workmen were peculiarly fond: but this was
Amply an alteration in the fcale and materials, and not in
the manner of the building. The ancient parts of moft
of our cathedrals are of this'early Norman work.—The
charaCteriftic marks of this ftyle are thefe : The wndls
are very thick, generally without buttreffes; the arches,
both within and without, as well as thofe over the
doors and windows, femicircular, and fupported by
very
222 A R C H I T
very folld, or rather clumfy, columns, with a kind of
regular bafe and capital: in iliort, plainnefs and foil*
dit'y coniiitute the itriking features of this method of
building. Neverthelefs, the archite&s of thofe days
fometimes deviated from this rule: their capitals were
adorned with carvings of foliage, and even animals ;
and their maflive columns decorated with fmall half
columns united to them, and their furfaces ornamented
with fpirals, fquares, lozenge net-work, and other fi¬
gures, either engraved or in relievo. Various inftances
of thefe may be feen in the cathedral of Canterbury,
particularly the under croft, the monaftery at Lindis-
farn, or Holy Ifknd, the cathedral at Durham, and
the ruined choir at Orford in Suffolk. The columns
I, I, i, i, (Plate XXXIIL), are at the monaltery of
.Lindisfarn, or Holy Ifland. Thofe 2, 2, 2,. belong to
the ruined chancel at Orford in Suffolk. N° 3 is at
Chrift-church, Canterbury. N° 4, a column with two
remarkable projections like claws, in the fouth aifte of
at Romfey- church, Hampfhire.
©f the mo» To what country or people the modern Gothic, or
•dem Go- the ftyle of building, with pointed arches fo called,
S-owes its origin, feems by no means fatisfa&orily de-
%Ie. termined. Some have imagined it may poffibly have
taken its rife from thofe arcades we fee in the early
Norman or Saxon buildings- or walls, where the wide
femicircular arches-crofs and interfeCl each other, and
form at their interfeftion a narrow and /harp-pointed
arch : But it is more generally conjedtured to be of
Arabian extraction, and’to have been introduced into
Europe by fome perfons returning from the Crufades
in the Holy Land. Sir Chriftopher Wren was of that
opinion, and it has been fubfcribed to by moft writers
who have treated on this fubjeCt.
“ Modern Gothic, as it is called (fays Rious), is
difiinguilhed by the lightnefs of its work, by the ex-
ceffive boldnefs of its elevations and of. its ledtions ;
by the delicacy, profufion, and extravagant fancy of.
its ornaments. The pillars of this kind are as flcnder-
as thofe of the ancient Gothic are mallive ; fuch pro¬
ductions, fo airy, cannot admit the heavy Goths for
their author. How can be attributed to them a ftyle
of architecture, which was only introduced in the tenth
century of our ter a, fey eral years after the deftruCtion
of all thofe kingdoms which the Goths had raifed
upon the ruins of the Roman empire,, and at a tims<
when the very name of Goth was entirely forgotten ?
From all the marks of the new architecture, it can only
be attributed to the Moors; or, what is the fame thing,
to the Arabians or Saracens, who have exprefled, in
their architecture, the fame tafte as in their poetry;
both the one and the other falfely delicate, crowded
withfuperfluous ornaments, and often very unnatural:
the imagination's highly worked up in both ; but it is
an extravagant imagination ; and this has rendered the.
edifices of the Arabians (we may include the other o-
rientals) as extraordinary as their thoughts. If any
one doubts of this affertion, let us appeal to’ any one
who has feen the.mofques and palaces of Fez, or .fome
of the cathedrals in Spain built by the Moors : one
model of this fort is the church at Burgos; and even
in this ifland there are not wanting feveral examples
of the fame ; fuch buildings have been vulgarly called
modern Gothic, but their true appellation is Arabic,
Saracenic, or Morefque.*--This manner was introduced
E c T tl R E. Hiftorjf
into Europe thro’ Spain. Learning ffouriftied: among
the Arabians all the time that their dominion was in
full power; they ftudied philofophy, mathematics,
phyfic and poetry. The love of learning was at once
excited; in all places that wer^, not at too great
a diftance from Spain, thefe authors were read; and
fuch of the Greek authors as they had tranflated into |
Arabic, were from thence turned into Latin. The
phyfic and philofophy of the Arabians fpread themfelves
in Europe, and with thefe their architeClure: many
churches were built after the Saracenic mode ; and o-
thers with a mixture of heavy and light proportions,
the alteration that the difference of the climate might
require, was little, if at all confidered. In moft fou-
thern parts of Europe, and in Africa, the windows
(before the ufe of glafs), made with narrow apertures,
and placed very high in the walls of the building, occa-
fioned a fliade and darknefs within fide, and were all i
contrived to guard againft the fierce rays of the fun ;
yet were ill fuited to latitudes, where that glorious lu*
minary fliades its feebler influences, and is rarely feen
but through a watery cloud.”
Mr Grofe, however, thinks the above opinion is notfuf-
ficiently favoured by the obfervations of feveral learned
travellers -who have accurately furveyed the ancient
mode of building in thofe parts of the world. Thus
Cornelius le Brun, an indefatigable and inquifitive tra¬
veller, has publifhed many views of eaftern buildings,
particularly about the Holy Land: in all thefe, only
one Gothic ruin, the church near Acre, and a few
pointed arches occur; and thofe built by the Chri-
ftians when in poffeffion of the country. Near Ifpa-
han, in Perfia, he gives feveral buildings wuth pointed
arches : but thefe are bridges and caravanferas, whofe
age cannot be afcertained ; confequently are as likely
to have been built after,as before the introduction of
this ftyle into Europe. At Ifpahan itfelf, the mey
doen, or grand, market-place, is furrounded by divers
magnificent Gothic buildings ; particularly the royal ■
mofque, and the Talael Ali-kapie, or theatre. The
magnificent bridge of Alla-werdie-chan, over the river
Zenderoet, 540 paces long and 17 broad, having 33
pointed arches, is alfo a Gothic ftruCture; but no
mention is made when or by whom thefe are built.
The Chiaer Baeg, a royal garden, is decorated with
Gothic buildings ; but thefe were, it is faid, built only
in the reign of Scha Abbas, who died anno 1629.
One building indeed, Mr Grofe admits, feems at firft
as if it W'ould corroborate this affertion, and that the
time when it was eredled might be in fome degree fix¬
ed ; it is the tomb of Abdalla, one of the apoftles of
Mahomet,probably him furnamed Abu Beer. “ If this
tomb (fays he)is fuppofed to have been built foon af- •
ter his death, eftimating that even to have happened
according to the common courfe of nature, it will
place its ereClion about the middle of the feventh cen¬
tury : but this is by far too1 conjectural to be much de¬
pended on. It alfo ieems as if this was not the com¬
mon ftyle of building at that time, from the temple of
Mecca; where, if any credit is to be given to the
print of it in Sale’s Koran, the arches are femicircu-
lar. The tomb here mentioned has one evidence to
prove its antiquity ; that of being damaged by the in¬
juries of time and weather. . Its general appearance
much refenables the eaft end of the chapel belonging
to
Architecture .
Plate 2XXDI.
(lory. A R C H I T
to Ely Houfe, London, except that which is fille'd up
there by the great window : in the tomb is an open
pointed arch, where alfo the columns or pinnacles on
each fide are higher in proportion.”
As to the fuppofition that this kind of architefture
was brought into Spain by the Moors (who poffefled
themfelves of a great part of that country the begin¬
ning of the eighth century, which they held till the
latter end of the fifteenth), and that from thence, by
way of France, it was introduced into Britain ; this
at firft feems plaufible: though according to Mr Grofe,
the only inftance which feems to corroborate this hy-
pothefis, or at leaf! the only one proved by authentic
drawings, is the mofque at Cordua in Spain ; where,
if we may judge from the views publilhed by Mr Swin-
burn, although moft of the arches are circular or horfe-
fhoe falhion, there are fome pointed arches formed by
the interfedlion of two fegments of a circle. This
mofque was, as it is there faid, begun by Abdoulrah-
man I. who laid the foundation two years before his
death, and was finifhed by his fan HilTem, or Ifcan,
about the year 800. If thefe arches were part of the
original ftrudlure, it would be much in favour of the
fuppofition; but as it is alfo faid that edifice has been
more than once altered and enlarged by the Mahome¬
tans, before any wrell-grounded conclufion can be drawn,
it is neceflary to afcertain the date of the prefent build¬
ing.
There are alfo fereral pointed arches in the Moorifh
palace at Grenada, called the Alhambra ; but as that
was not built till the year 1273, long after the intro-
duftion of pointed arches into Europe, they are as
likely to be borrowed by the Moors from the Chriftiars,
as by the Chriftians from the Moors. The greateft
peculiarity in the Moorifh archite&ure is the horfe-
fhoe arch, which containing more than a femicircle,
contraifls towards its bafe, by which it is rendered un¬
fit to bear any eonfiderable weight, being folely calcu¬
lated for ornament. In Romfey-church, Hampfhire,
there are feveral arches fomewhat of that form.
The drawings of the Moorifh buildings given in Les
De/icei de 1'Efpagne, faid to be faithful reprefentations,
there are no traces of the ftyle called Gothic architec¬
ture : there, as well as in the Moorifh cattle at Gibral¬
tar, the arches are all reprefented circular. Perhaps a
more general knowledge of thefe buildings would throw
fome light on the fubjeft: poffibly the Moors may,
like us, at different periods have ufed different manners
of building.
The marks which conflitute the character of Go¬
thic, or Saracenical architedlure, are its numerous and
prominent buttrefles, its lofty fpires and pinnacles, its
large and ramified windows, its ornamental niches or
canopies, its fculptered faints, the delicate lace-work
©f its fretted roofs, and the profufion of ornaments la-
vifhed indifcriminately over the whole building: but
its peculiar diflinguifhing charadteriftics are, the fmall
clultered pillars and pointed arches formed by the feg¬
ments of two interfedting circles; which arches, though
la ft brought into ufe, are evidently of more fimple and
obvious conftrudtion than the femicircular ones ; two
flat ftones, with their tops inclined to each other, and
touching, form its rudiments; a number of boughs
flack into the ground oppofite each other, and tisd' to-
E C T U R E.
gether at the top, in order to form a bower, exadlly
defcribe it: whereas a femicircular arch appears the re-
fult of deeper contrivance, as confifting of more parts;
and it feems lefs probable chance, from whence all thefe
inventions were firft derived, fhould throw feveral
wedge-like ftones between two fet perpendicular, fo as
exadlly to fit and fill up the interval.
Bifhop Warburton, in his notes on Pope’s Epiftles,
in the odtavo edition, has the following ingenious ob-
fervationson this fiubjedt:—“ Our Gothic anceftorshad
jufter and manlier notions of magnificence, on Greek
and Roman ideas, than thefe mimics of tafte, who
profefs to ftudy only claffic elegance ; and becaufe the
thing does honour to the genius of thofe barbarians, I
fhall endeavour to explain it. All our ancient churches
are called without diftindtion Gothic, but erroneoufly.
They are of two forts; the one built in the Saxon
times, the other in the Norman. Several cathedral
and collegiate churches of the firft fort are yet remain¬
ing,^ either in whole or in part; of which this was the
original: When the Saxon kings became Chriftians,
their piety (which was the piety of the times) confift-
ed chiefly in building churches at home, and perform¬
ing pilgrimages abroad, efpecially to the Holy Land ;
and thefe fpiritual exercifes aflifted and fupported one
another; for. the moft venerable as well as moft ele¬
gant models of religious edifices were then in Paleftine.
From thefe the Saxon builders took the whole of their
ideas, as may be feen by comparing the drawings
which travellers have given us of the churches yet
Handing in that country, with the Saxon remains of
what we find at home ; and particularly in that fame-
nefs of ftyle in the latter religious edifices of the
knights temporals (profefledly built upon the model of
the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerufalem), with-
the earlier remains of our Saxon edifices. Now the
architeSure of the Holy Land was Grecian, but
greatly fallen from its ancient elegance. Our Saxon
performance was indeed a bad copy of it, and as much
inferior to the works of St Helene and Juftinian, as
theirs were to the Grecian models they had followed :
yet ftill the footfteps of ancient art appeared in the cir¬
cular arches, the entire columns, the divifion of the en¬
tablature into a fort of architrave, frize, and comiche,
and a folidity equally diffufed over the whole mafs.
This, by way of diftinction, I would call the Saxon
architeaure. But our Norman works had a very dif¬
ferent original. When^ the Goths had conquered
Spain, and the genial warmth of the climate and the
religion of the old inhabitants had ripened their wits
and inflamed their miftaken piety, both kept in exer-
- cife by the neighbourhood of the Saracens, through e-
mulation of their fervice, and averfion to their fuper-
ftition, they ftruck out a new ipecies of architeaure,
unknown to Greece and Rome, upon original princi¬
ples, and ideas much nobler than what had given birth
even to claflical magnificence. For this northern peo¬
ple having been accuftomed, during the gloom of pa-
ganifm, to worfhip the deity in groves (a praaioe
common to all nations); when their new religion re¬
quired covered edifices, they ingenioufly projeaed to
make them refemble groves, as nearly as the diftance
of architeaure would permit; at once indulging their
old prejudices, and providing for their prefent conve¬
niences.
223
224 A R C H I T
nlences, by a cool receptacle in a fultry climate : and
with what (kill and fuccefs they executed the projedt
by the affiftance of Saracen architefts, whofe exotic
ftyle of building very luckily fuited their purpofe, ap¬
pears from hence, that no attentive obferverever viewed
a regular avenue of well grown trees intermixing their
branches overhead, but it prefently put him in mind
of the long vifto through the Gothic cathedral; or even
entered one of the larger and more elegant edifices of
this kind, but it prefented to his imagination an ave¬
nue of trees; and this alone is what can be truly called
the Gothic ftyle of building. Under this idea of fo
extraordinary a fpecies of architedhire, all the irregular
tranfgreffions aguinft art, all the monftrous offences a-
gainft nature, dilappear; every thing has its reafon, e-
very thing is in order, and an harmonious whole arifes
from the ftudious application of means proper and pro¬
portionate to the end. For could the arches be other-
wife than pointed, when the workmen were to imitate
that curve which branches of two oppofite trees make
by their infertion with one another ? or could the co¬
lumns be otherwife than fplit into diftinct fliafts, when
they were to reprefent the ftems of a clump of trees
growing clofe together ? On the fame principles they
formed the fpreading ramification of the ftone-work in
the windows, and the ftained glafs in the interftices;
the one to reprefent the branches, and the other the
leaves of an opening grove, and both concurred to pre-
ferve that gloomy light which infpires religious reve¬
rence and dread. Laftly, we fee the reafon of their
ftudied averfion to apparent folidity in thefe ftupendous
maffes, deemed fo abfurd by men accuftomed to the
apparent as well as real ftrength of Grecian architec¬
ture. Had it been only a wanton exercife of the ar-
tift’s Ikill, to Ihow he could give real ftrength without
the appearance of any, we might indeed admire his
fuperior fcience, but we muft needs condemn his ill
judgment. But when one confiders, that this furpri-
fmg lightnefs was neceftary to complete the execution
of his idea of a fylvan place of worfhip, one cannot
fufficiently admire the ingenuity of the contrivance.
This too will account for the contrary qualities in what
I call the Saxon arehite<fture. Theie artifts copied, as
has been faid, from the churches in the Holy Land,
which were built on the models of the Grecian archi-
teclure, but corrupted by prevailing barbarifm; and
ftill farther depraved by a religious idea. The firft
places of Chriftian worftiip were fepulchres and fub-
terraneous caverns, low and heavy from neceffity. When
Chriftianity became the religion of the ftate, and fump-
tuous temples began to be eredted, they yet, in regard
to the firft pious ages, preferved the maffive ftyle, made
ftill more venerable by the church of the Holy Se¬
pulchre ; where this ftyle was, on a double account,
followed and aggravated.”
Rife and In Britain, before the Roman invafion, the natives
progrefs of appear to have had no better lodgings than thickets,
architec- dens, and caves. Some of thefe caves, which were
ture inBri- t}lejr winter-habitations, and places of retreat in time
tam. 0f -war, were formed and rendered fecure and warm by
art, like thofe of the ancient Germans, which are thus
defcyibed by Tacitus : “ They are ufed to dig deep
caves in the ground and cover them with earth, where
they lay up their provifions, and dwell in winter for the
fake of warmth. Into thofe they retire alfo from their
N° 26.
E C T U R E. Hiftorj
enemies, who plunder the open country, but cannot j
difcover thefe fubterranean receffes.” Some of the
fubterraneous, or carth-honfes, as they are called, are
ftill remaining in the weftern ifles of Scotland and in
Cornwal. The fummer habitations of the moft ancient
Britons were very flight; and, like thofe of the Fin-
nians, confifted only of a few flakes driven into the
ground, interwoven with wattles, and covered over with
the boughs of trees.
When Julius Caefar invaded Britain, the inhabitants
of Cantium (Kent), and of fome other parts in the
fouth, had learned to build houfes a little more fub-
ftantial and convenient. “ The country (fays Caefar)
abounds in houfes which very much referable thofe of
Gaul.” The firft ftep towards this improvement feems
to have been that of daubing the wattled walls of their
houfes wfith clay to fill up the chinks and make them
warmer. “ The Germans ufed for this purpofe a kind
of pure refplendent earth of different colours, which
had an appearance of painting at a diftance;” but the
Gauls and Britains chofe rather to whitewafh the clay
after it was dry with chalk. Inftead of the boughs of
trees, they thatched thefe houfes with ftraw, as a much
better fecurity againft the weather. They next pro¬
ceeded to form the walls of Jarge beams of wood, in¬
ftead offtakes and wattles. This feems to have been
the mode of building in Britain, when it was firft in¬
vaded by the Romans. “ The Britons (fays Diodorus
Siculus, who w'as cotemporary with Caefar) dwell in
wretched cottages, which are conftrufled of wood, co¬
vered with ftraw.” Thefe wooden houfes of the ancient
Gauls and Britons were not fquare but circular, with
high tapering roofs, at the top or centre of which was
an aperture for the admiffion of light and emiflion of
fmoke. Thofe of Gaul are thus defcribed by Strabo :
“ They build their houfes of wood, in the form of a
circle, with lofty tapering roofs.” The foundations of
fome of the moft magnificent of thefe circular houfes
were of ftone, of which there are fome veftiges ftill re¬
maining in Anglefey and other places. It was proba¬
bly in imitation of thefe wooden houfes, that the moft
ancient ftone edifices, of which there are ftill fome re¬
mains in the weftern iflands of Scotland, were built
circular, and have a large aperture at the top.
When the Britons were invaded by the Romans, they
had nothing among them anfwering to our ideas of a
city or town, confifting of a great number of contigu¬
ous houfes, difpofed into regular ftreets, lanes, and
courts. Their dwellings, like thofe of the ancient
Germans, were fcattered about the country, and gene¬
rally fituated on the brink of fome rivulet for the fake
of water, and on the Ikirt of fome wood or foreft for -
the conveniency of hunting and pafture for their cat¬
tle. As thefe inviting circumftances were more con-
fpicuous in fome parts of the country than others, the
princes and chiefs made choice of thefe places for their
refidence ; and a number of their friends and follow¬
ers, for various reafons, built their houfes as near to
them as they could with ccnveniency. This naturally
produced an ancient Britifti town, which is defcribed
by Caefar and Strabo in the following manner : “ From
the Caff he learnt that the town of Caffivelaun was at
no great diftance: a place defended by woods and
marflies, in which very great numbers of men and cat¬
tle were colletf ed. For what the Britons call a town,
Hiftory. A R C II I T
is a tra<5i of woody country, furrounded by a mound
and ditch, for the fecurity of themfelves and their cat¬
tle againft the incurfions of their enemies.” “ The
forefts of the Britons are their cities : for when they
have inclofed a very large circuit with felled trees, they
build within it houfes for themfelves and hovels for
their cattle. Thefe buildings are very flight, and not
defigned for long duration.” The palaces of the Bri-
tilh princes were probably built of the fame materials,
and on the fame plan, with the houfes of their fubjefls,
and differed from them only in folidity and magnitude.
Though the communication between this ifland and
the Continent was more free and open after the firft
Roman invafion than it had been before, and fome of
the Britifli princes and chieftains even vifited Rome,
then in its greateft glory ; it doth not appear that the
% people of Britain made any confiderable improvements
in their manner of building for at lead a hundred years
after that invafion. For when the renowned Chararia-
cus was carried prifoner to Rome, A. D. 52, and ob-
ferved the beauty and magnificence of the buildings in
that proud metropolis of the world, he is faid to have
expreffed great furprife, “ That the Romans, who had
fuch magnificent palaces of their own, fhould envy the
wretched cabbins of the Britons.”
It muft appear very furprifing that the ancient Bri¬
tons, when they were fo ignorant of architecture, were
capable of erecting (if indeed it was eredted by them)
fo ftupendous a fabric as that of Stonehenge on Salif-
bury plain : A fabric which hath been the admiration
of all fucceeding ages, and hath outlafted all the folid
and noble ftrudtures which were eredted by the Romans
in this ifland. See the article Stonehenge.
Of another very extraordinary fpecies of building fe-
veral remains are found in the Highlands of Scotland.
They confift of ruins ; the walls of which, inftead of
being cemented with lime or fome other fimilar fub-
ftance, or of being railed with dry ftones, as was the
method before cement came into ufe, are defcribed as
having been vetrified, or the ftones run and compacted
together by the force of fire. Concerning the origin,
ufe, &c. of thefe buildings, different opinions have
been formed ; and even the reality of them as works of
contrivance has been called in queftion: of all which
particulars the reader will find an account under the
article Forts (Vitrefied).
But for whatever purpofes, or by whatever means,
the above and other fimilar ftruCtures of a peculiar na¬
ture were ereCted, we have fufficient evidence that the
people of Britain, before they were fubdued and in-
ftrufted by the Romans, had but a rude knowledge of
architecture, and were very meanly lodged. As foon,
however, as the Romans began to form fettlements and
plant colonies in this ifland, a fudden and furprifing
change enfued in the ftate of architecture. For that
wonderful people were as induftrious as they were
brave, and made hafte to adorn every country that they
conquered. The firft Roman colony was planted at
Camelodunum, A. D. 50; and when it was deftroyed
by the Britons in their great revolt under Boadicia,
only eleven years after, it appears to have been a large
and well built town, adorned wkhftatues, temples, the¬
atres, and other public edifices.
The Romans not only built a prodigious number of
folid, convenient, and magnificent ftruCtures for their
Vol, II. Parti.
E C T U R E. 22$
own accommodation, but they exhorted, encouraged,
and inftruCted the Britons to imitate their example.
This was one of the arts which Agricola, the moft ex¬
cellent of the Roman governors, employed to civilize
the Britons, and reconcile them to the Roman govern¬
ment. “ The following winter (fays Tacitus) was
fpent by Agricola in very falutary meafures. That
the Britons who led a roaming and unfettled life, and
were eafily inftigated to war, might contract a love
to peace and tranquillity, by being accuftomed to a
more pleafant way of living, he exhorted and aflifted
them to build houfes, temples, courts, and market¬
places. By praifmg the diligent and reproaching the
indolent, he excited fo great an emulation among the
Britons, that after they had ereCted all thofe neceffary
edifices in their towns, they proceeded to build others
merely for ornament and pleafure, as porticoes, galle¬
ries, baths, banqueting-houfes, &c.” From this time,
which was A. D. 80, to the middle of the fourth cen¬
tury, architecture and all the arts immediately connect¬
ed with it greatly flourilhed in this ifland; and the
fame tafte for ereCting folid, convenient, and beautiful
buildings, which had long prevailed in Italy, was in¬
troduced into Britain. Every Roman colony and free
city (of which there was a great number in this coun¬
try) was a little Rome, encompaffed with ftrong walls,
adorned with temples, palaces, courts, halls, bafililks,
baths, markets, aqueduCts, and many other fine build¬
ings, both for ufe and ornament. The country every
where abounded with well-built villages, towns, forts,
and ftations ; and the whole was defended by that high
and ftrong wall, with its many towers and caftles,
which reached from the mouth of the river Tine on
the eaft to the Solway Firth on the weft. This fpirit
of building,, which was introduced and encouraged by
the Romans, fo much improved the tafte and increafed
the number of the Britifli builders, that in the third ■
century this ifland was famous for the great number '
and excellence of. its architects and artificers. When
the emperor Conftantius, father of Conftantine the ■
Great, rebuilt the city of Autun in Gaul, F\. D. 296,,
he was chiefly furnifhed with workmen from Britain,.
“ which (fays Eumenius) very much abounded with
the beft artificers.”
Not very long after this period, architecture and all
the arts connected with it began to decline very fenfi-
bly in Britain, and in all the provinces of the weftem
empire. This was partly owing to the building of
Conftantinople, which drew many of the moft famous
architects and other artificers into the eaft, and partly
to the irruptions and depredations of the barbarous na¬
tions.
The final departure of the Romans was followed by
the almoft total deftruCtion of architecture in this ifland.
For the unhappy and unwarlike people whom they left
behind, having neither ikill nor courage to defend the
numerous towns, forts, and, cities which they poffeffed,
they were feized by.their ferocious invaders, who firft
plundered and then deftroyed them. By this means,.
the many noble. ftruCtures with which Provincial Bri¬
tain had been adorned by the art and induftry of the
Romans, were ruined or defaced in a very little time j
and the unfortunate Britons were quite incapable of
repairing them, or of building others in their room,.
That long fticceffion of miferies in which they were in.
Ef velvecL
26
A R C H I T
solved by the Scots, Pitls, and Saxons, deprived them
of the many ufeful arts which they had learned from
their former mafters, and lodged them once more in
forefts, dens, and caves, Jike their favage anceftors.
The moft wanton and extenfive devaftations were
thofe committed by the Anglo-Saxons ; among whom
it feems to have been a maxim to deftroy all the towns
and caftles which they took from their enemies, inftead
of preferving them for their own ufe.
It cannot be fuppofed, that a people who wantonly
demolifhed fo many beautiful and ufefal ftruftures had
any tafte for the arts by which they had been erefted.
The truth is, that the Anglo-Saxons at their arrival in
this illand were almoft totally ignorant of thefe arts ;
fand, like all the other nations of Germany, had been
accuftomed to live in wretched hovels, built of wood
,or earth, and covered with ftraw or the branches of
trees : nor did they much improve in the knowledge
?of architedlure for 200 years after their arrival. Du¬
ring that period, mafonry was quite unknown and un-
praftifed in this ifland ; and the walls even of cathe¬
dral churches were built of wood. “ There was a time
(fays Venerable Bede) when there was ,not a ftone
church in all the land ; but the cuftom was to build
..them all of wood. Finan, the fecond bifhop of Lin-
disfarne, or Holy Illand, built a church in that ifland,
A. D. 65.2, for a- cathedral, which yet was not of
ftone, but of wood, and covered with reeds; and fo it
continued till Eadhert, the fucceflbr of St Cuthbert,
and feventh bifliop of Lindisfarne, took away the reeds,
and covered it all over, both roofand walls, with Iheets
of lead.” The firft cathedral of York was built of the
Fame materials ; and a church of ftone was efteemed a
kind of prodigy in thofe times that merited a place in
hiftory. “ Paulinus, the firft biftiop of York, built a
.church of ftone in the city of Lincoln, whofe walls
(fays Bede) are ftill Handing, though the roof is fallen
down; and fome healing miracles are wrought in it
; every year, for the benefit of thofe who have the faith
to feek them.-”
There does not feem to have been fo much as one
church of ftone, nor any artifts who could build one,
in all Scotland, at the beginning of the eighth centu¬
ry. For Naitan king of the Pi&s, in his famous let¬
ter to Ceolfred abbot of Weremouth, A. D. 710, ear-
neftly intreats him to fend him fome mafons to build a
church of ftone in his kingdom, in imitation of the
Romans ; which he promifes to dedicate to the honour
of the appftle Peter, to whom the abbey of Weremouth
was dedicated: and we are told by Bede, who was
then living in that abbey, that the reverend abbot Ceol-
-fred granted this pious requeft, and fent mafons accord¬
ing to his defire.
Mafonry was reftored, and fome other arts connect¬
ed with it introduced into England, towards the end
.of the feventh century, by two clergymen, who were
great travellers, and had often vifited Rome, where
they had acquired fome tafte for thefe arts. Thefe
.were, the famous Wilfrid bifhop of York, and after¬
wards of Hexham, and Benedict Bifcop, founder of
.the abbey of Weremouth. Wilfrid, who was one of
■the moft ingenious, active, and magnificent prelates of
the feventh century, was a great builder, and erected
Feveral ftrutures at York, Rippon, and Hexham,
which we.re the admiration of the age in which he
E C T U R E. Hiftory.
flouriftied. The cathedral of Hexham, which was one
of thefe ftructures, is thus defcribed by his biographer: ftts
“ Having obtained a piece of ground at Hexham from If i 1ft
Queen Etheldreda, he there founded a moft magnifi- c. a*,
cent church, which he dedicated to the bleffed apoftle
St Andrew. As the plan of this facred ftructure feems
to have been infpired by the Spirit of God, it would
require a genius much fuperior to mine to defcribe it
properly. How large and ftrong were the fubterra-
neous buildings, conftructed of the fineft poliflied
ftones ! How magnificent the fuperftrudture, with its
lofty roof, fupported by many pillars, its long and
high walls, its fublime towers, and winding flairs ! In
one word, there is no church on this fide of the Alps
fo great and beautiful.” This admired edifice, of
which fome <veftiges are ftill remaining, was built by
mafons and other artificers brought from Rome by the
munificence of its generous founder. Benedict Bifcop
was the cotemporary and companion of Wilfrid in fome
of his journeys, and had the fame tafte for the arts.
He made no fewer than fix journeys to Rome, .chiefly
with a view of collefting books, pictures, ftatues, and
other curio fities, and of perfuading artificers of various
kinds to come from Italy and France and fettle in
England. Having obtained a grant of a confiderable
eftate from Egfrid king of Northumberland, near the
mouth of the river Were, he there founded a mona-
ftery, A. D. 674. “ About a year after the founda- sedx Hip,
tions of this monaftery were laid, Benedict crofled the Abbat.
fea into France, where he colledted a number of ma¬
fons, and brought them over with him, in order to
build the church of his monaftery of ftone after the
Roman manner, of which he was a great admirer.
Plis love to the apoftle Peter, to whom he defigned to
dedicate his church, made him urge thefe workmen to
labour fo hard, that mafs wras celebrated in it about a
year after it was founded. When the work was far ad¬
vanced, he fent agents into France to procure if poffible
fome glafs-makers, a kind of artificers quite unknown
in England, and to bring them over to glaze the win¬
dows of his church and monaftery. Thefe agents were
fuccefsful, and brought feveral glafs-makers with them ;
who not only performed the work required by Bene-
dict, but inftructed the Englifti in the art of making
glafs for windows, lamps, drinking-vefiels, and other
ufes.”
But though thefe arts of building edifices of ftone,
with windows of glafs and other ornaments, were thus
introduced by thefe two prelates in the latter part of
tire feventh century, they do not feem to have flourifti¬
ed much for feveral centuries. It appears from many
incidental hints in our ancient hiftorians, that ftone
buildings were ftill very rare in the eighth and ninth
ages ; and that when any fuch buildings were erected,
they were the objedts of much admiration. When Al¬
fred the Great, towards the end of the ninth century,
formed the defign of rebuilding his ruined cities,
churches, and monafteries, and of adorning his domi¬
nions with more magnificent ftrudlures, he was obliged
to bring many of his artificers from foreign countries.
“ Of thefe (as we are told by his friend and compa¬
nion Aflerius) he had an almoft: innumerable multitude,
colledted from different nations; many of them the
moft: excellent in their feveral arts.”
In the other parts of this ifland architedlure was, as
might
Hittory. ARCHITECTURE.
might naturally be imagined, in a ftill lefs flourifhing ftate.
It appears indeed to have been almoft entirely loft among
the pofterity of the ancient Britons after they retired
to the mountains of Wales. The chief palace of the
kings of Wales, where the nobility and wife men af-
fembled for making laws, was called the •white fa cia,
becaufe the walls of it were woven with whit^ wands
which had the bark peeled off. By the laws of Wales,
whoever burnt or deftroyed the king’s hall or palace
was obliged to pay one pound and eighty pence, be-
fides one hundred and twenty pence for each of the ad¬
jacent buildings, which were eight in number; viz.
the dormitory, the kitchen, the chapel, the granary,
the bake-houfe, the ftore-houfe, the liable, and the
dog-houfe. From hence it appears, that a royal reli-
dence in Wales, with all its offices, when thefe laws
were made, was valued at five pounds and eighty pence
of the money of that age, equal in quantity of filver
to fixteen pounds of our money, and in efficacy to one
hundred and lixty. This is certainly a fufficient proof
of the meannefs of thofe buildings which were only of
wood. Even the caftles in Wales, in this period, that
were built for the lecurity of the country, appear to
have been conftrudted of the fame materials; for the
laws required the king’s vaffals to come to the building
of thefe caftles with no other tools but an axe.
The arts of building do not feem to have been much
better underftood by the Scots and Fids than by the
ancient Britons in the former part of this period.
When Finan, the fecond bilhop of Lindisfarne, built a
church of wood in that illand, A. D. 652, he is faid to
have done it more Scoiorum, after the manner of his
countrymen the Scots ; and it hath been already ob-
ferved, that Naitan king of the Fids was obliged to
bring mafons from Northumberland when he refolved
to build a church of ftone in his dominions, A. D. 710.
After this laft period, it is probable that the Fids,
and perhaps the Scots, began to learn and pradife the
an of mafonry; becaufe there are ftill feme ftone build¬
ings of a very lingular conftrudion, and great antiquity,
to be feen in Scotland. Thefe buildings are all circular;
though of two kinds fo different from each other, that
they leem to be the works of different ages and of dif¬
ferent nations. The largeft of thefe ftrudures are in
a very extraordinary tafte of architedure;. and are thus
defcribed by a modern antiquary, who viewed them
Gordon’s /-with no little attention : “ Having arrived at the bar-
tinerariumr^ck of Glenelg, I was conduded to the remains of
S»nah’‘trI~ t^°^e ftupendous fabrics, feated about two miles from
’ p‘ thence, in a valley called GUnbeg, in which four of
them anciently ftood. Two of thefe are now almoft
quite demolilhed, the third is half fallen down, the
fourth is almoft entire. The firit I met with lies to¬
wards the north fide of the valley, and is called Cajile
Chalamine, . or Malcom's Caftte. It (lands upon a com
fiderable eminence, and affords us a fine profped of
the iiland of Sky afid a good part of the fea-coafl.
The/oundation of this only appears ; as alfo of that'
other, on the eaft end of the valley, called Cajile Cho-
nel. About a quarter of a mile further, upon the
bank of a rivulet which paffes through the middle of
the glen, (lands the third fabric, called Caftle T'ellve.
I found it compdfed of ftones without' cement; not
laid in regular courfes, after the manner of elegant
buildings, but rudely and without order. Thofe to¬
ward the bafe were pretty large, but afcending higher
they were thin and flat, fome of them fcarce exceeding
the thicknefs of an ordinary brick. I was furprifed to
find no windows on the outlide, nor any manner of en¬
trance into the fabric, except a hole towards the weft,
at the bafe, fo very low and narrow, that I was forced
to creep in upon hands and knees, and found that it
carried me down four or five fteps below the furface
of the ground. When I was got within, I was en¬
vironed betwixt two walls, having a cavity or void
fpace which led me round the whole building. Oppo-
fite to the little entry on the outfide was a pretty
large door in the fecond pr inner wall, which let me
into the area or inner court. W’hen I was there, I
perceived that one half of the building was fallen down,
and thereby had the opportunity of feeing a complete
fection thereof. The two walls join together at the
top, round about, and have’formed a large void fpace
or area in the middle. But to give a more complete
idea of thefe buildings, I fhall defcribe the fourth,
called Ca file Trod dan, which is by far the mod entire
of any in that country, and from whence I had a very
clear notion how thefe fabrics wrere originally contrived.
On the outfide were no windows, nor were the mate¬
rials of this caftle any wife different from thofe of the
other already defcribed, only the entry on the outfide
was fomewhat larger; but this might be occafioned
by the falling of- the ftones from above. The area o£
this makes a complete circle; and there are four doors
in the inner wall, which face the four cardinal points
of the compafs. Thefe doors are each eight feet and
a half high, and five feet wide, and lead from the area
into the cavity between the tw-o walls, which runs-
round the whole building. The perpendicular height '
of this fabric is exaiftly 33 feet; the thicknefs of both
Avails, including the cavity between, no more than 12
feet; and the cavity itfelf is hardly wide enough for
two men to walk abreaft : the external circumference
is 178 feet. The whole height cf the fabric is divided;
into four parts or (lories, feparated from each other by
thin floorings of flat ftones, which knit the two walls'*
together, and run quite round the building ; and there •
have been winding (lairs of the fame flat ftones afcend¬
ing betwixt wall and wall up to. the top. Thp under-
moft partition is fomewhat below the furface cf the
ground, and is the wideft ; the others grow narrower
by degrees till the walls clofe at the top. Over each
door are nine fquare windows, in a direft line above -
each other, for the admiflion of light; and between
every row of windows are three others in the uppermoft
(lory, rifing above a cornice which projects out from the
inner wall and runs round the fabric.” From this de-
fcriptien of thefe fingular edifices, it plainly appears,
that they were defigned both for lodging and defence;
and confidering the ftate of the times in which they
were built, they were certainly very well contrived for
anfwering both thefe purpofes.
The ftone edifices of the other kind which were
probably erected in this period, and of which fome few
are ftill to be feen in Scotland, are not fo large as the
former, but more artificial. They are (lender, lofty,.
circular towers, of cut ftone, laid in regular rows, be¬
tween 40 and 50 feet in external circumference, and *
from 70 to too feet high, with one door fome feet
from the ground. They are exaftly fimilar to the
E £■ 2r round!
228
A R C H I T
round tower of Ardmore, and feveral others, in Ireland;
and therefore were probably built about the fame time,
which was in the tenth century, and for the fame pur-
pofes ; which are believed by fome to have been for
the confinement of penitents while they were perform¬
ing penance. On this account thefe towers are always
found in the neighbourhood of churches both in Scot¬
land and Ireland ; and are faid to have been ufed in this
Jirchtoh- marmer: “The penitents were placed in the upper-
vol. i. moft ftory of the tower (which commonly confifted of
,p. 307. five or fix ftories); where having made probation, or
done penance, fuch a limited time, according to the
heinoufnefs of their crimes, they then were permitted
to defcend to the next floor, and fo on by degrees,
until they came to the door, which always faced the
entrance of the church, where they flood to receive
abfolution from the clergy, and the bleffings of the
people.” A tedious procefs, to which few penitents
in the prefent age would willingly fubmit. Other
writers are of opinion, that the defign of thefe circular
towers (of which one is ftill remaining at Abernethy
and another at Brechin) was to be places from
whence the people were called to public worflrip by
the found of a horn or trumpet, before the introduction
of bells.
This art received very great improvements in the
12th century; which indeed may be called the age of
architecture ; when the rage for building was more vio¬
lent in England than at any other time. The great
and general improvements that were made in the fa¬
brics of houfes and churches in the firft years of this
century, are thus defcribed by a cotemporary writer.
‘0meric Vi- “ The new cathedrals and innumerable churches drat
tal. Hiji were built in all parts, together with the many mag*
^ccJaa nificent cloifters and monafteries, and other apartments
' ' of monks, that were then ereCted, afford a fufficient
proof of .the great felicity of England in the reign of
Henry 1. The religious of every order, enjoying
peace and profperity, difplayed the moft aftonilhing
ardour in every thing that might increafe the fplendor
of divine worftiip. The fervent zeal of die faithful
prompted them to pull down houfes and churches every
where, and rebuild them in a better manner. By this
•means the ancient edifices that had been raifed in the
-d ays of Edgar, Edward, and other Chriflian kings,
were demolimed, and others .of greater magnitude
and magnificence, and of more elegant workmanftiip,
were erected in their room, to the glory of God.”
As the prodigious power of religious zeal, what¬
ever turn it happens to take, when it is thoroughly
heated, Is well known, it may not be improper to give
-one example of the arts employed by the clergy and
monks of this period, to inflame the pious ardour of
the kings, nobles, and people, for building and adorn¬
ing churches. When Joffred Abbot of Croyland re-
iblved to rebuild the church of his monaftery in a moft
magnificent manner, A. D. nc6, he obtained from
the Archbiftiops of Canterbury and York, a bull dif-
•penfing with the third part of all penances for fin to
thofe who contributed any thing towards the building
,©f that church. This bull was directed not only to
the king and people of England, but to the kings of
France and Scotland, and to all other kings, earls, ba¬
tons, archbilhops, bilhops, abbots, priors, redtors, pre¬
sbyters, and clerks, and to all true .believers in Chrift,
E c T U R E. Hiftory.
rich and poor, in all Chriftian kingdoms. To make
the beft ufe of this bull, he fent two of his moft eloquent
monks to proclaim it over all France and Flanders, two
other monks into Scotland, two into Denmark and Nor¬
way, two into Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland, and others
into different parts of England. “ By this means (fays
the hiftorian) the wonderful benefits granted to all the
contributors to the building of this church were pub-
lilhed to the very ends of the earth; and great heaps
of treafure and maffes of yellow metal flowed in from
all countries upon the venerable Abbot Joffred, and
encouraged him to lay tire foundations of his church.”
Having fpent about four years in colleding mountains
of different kinds of marble from quarries both at
home and abroad, together with great quantities of
lime, iron, brafs, and other materials for building, he
fixed a day for the great ceremony of laying the foun¬
dation, which he contrived to make a very effectual
mean of raifing the fuperftru&ure : For on the long-
expe&ed day, the feaft of the Holy Virgins Felicitas
and Perpetua, an immenfe multitude of earls, barons,
and knights, with their ladies and families, of abbots,
priors, monks, nuns, clerks, and perfons of all ranks,
arrived at Croyland, to aflift at this ceremony. The
pious Abbot Joffred began by faying certain prayers,
and fhedding a flood of tears on the foundation. Then
each of the earls, barons, knights, with their ladies,
fons, and daughters, the abbots, clerks, and others,
laid a ftone, and upon it depofited a fum of money, a
rant of lands, tithes, or patronages, or a promife of
one, lime, wood, labour, or carriages, for building
the church. After this the Abbot entertained the
v/hole company, amounting to jooo perfons, at din¬
ner. To this entertainment they were all intitled; for
the money, and grants of different kinds, which they
had depofited on the foundation-ftones, were alone fuf¬
ficient to have raifed a very noble fabric. By fuch
arts as thefe the clergy infpired kings, nobles, and
people of all ranks, with fo ardent a fpirit for thefe
pious works, that in the courfe of this period almoft
all the facred edifices in England were rebuilt, and
many hundreds of new ones raifed from the foundation.
Nor was this fpirit confined to England, but prevailed
as much in Scotland in proportion to its extent and
riches. King David I. alone, befides feveral cathe¬
drals and other churches, built no fewer than thirteen
abbeys and priories, fome of which were very magni¬
ficent ftrutftures.
The facred architerfure of the Anglo-Normans in
the beginning of this period did not differ much in its
ftyle and manner from that of the Anglo-Saxons:;
.their churches being in general plain, low, ftrong, and
dark; the arches both of the doors and windows fe-
micircular, with few or no ornaments. By degrees,
through much practice, our architects, who were
all monks or clergymen, improved in their tafte and
fkill, and ventured to form plans of more noble, light,
.and elevated ftruCtures, with a great variety of orna¬
ments.; which led to that bold magnificent ftyle of build¬
ing, commonly, though perhaps not very properly, called
the later Gothic. It is not improbable that .our monk-
,iih architects were aflifted in attaining this ftyle of
building by models from foreign countries, or by in-
ftruCtions from fuch of their own number as had vifit-
ed Italy, France, Spain, or the Eaft. But the origin .
Hiftory. A R C H I T
of this ftyle of archite£lure has been already confi-
dered, and the charaifters by which it is diftinguifhed
from the ancient Gothic have alfo been defcribed:
(See n° 21. fupra.) Its firft appearance in England
was towards the latter end of the reign of king Hen¬
ry II. But it was not at once thoroughly adopted ;
fome fhort folid columns and femicircular arches being
retained and mixed with the pointed ones ; as for ex¬
ample, in the well end of the Old Temple Church;
and at York, where under the choir there remains
much of the ancient work, the arches of which are
but jud pointed and rife on fhort round pillars. In the
reign of Henry III. however, this manner of build¬
ing feems to have gained a complete footing ; the cir¬
cular giving place to the pointed arch, and the maf-
five column yielding to the flender pillar. Indeed, like
all novelties, when once admitted, the rage of falhion
made it become fo prevalent, that many of the ancient
and folid buildings, eredled in former ages, were taken
down in order to be re-edified in the new talle, or had
additions patched to them, of this mode of architec¬
ture. The prefent cathedral church of Salilbury was
begun early in this reign, and finilhed in the year 1258.
It is entirely in the Saracenic ftyle; and, according to
Sir Chriftopher Wren, may be juftly accounted one of
the bell patterns of architeflure of the age in which
it was built. Its excellency is undoubtedly in a great
meafure owing to its being conftru&ed on one plan;
whence arifes that fymmetry and agreement of parts,
not to be met with in many of our other cathedral
churches ; which have molily been built at different
times, and in a variety of ftyles. Prom this time till
the reign of Henry VIII. the fafhionable pillars in
churches were of Purbic marble, very flender and round,
encompaffed with marble fhafts a little detached, having
each a capital adorned with foliage, which joining,
formed one elegant capital for the whole pillar. The
windows were Tong and narrow, with pointed arches
and painted glafs, which was introduced about that
time, or at leaft became more common. In this cen¬
tury alfo they began to delight in lofty fteeples, with
fpires and pinnacles. In the fourteenth century, the
pillars confifted of an aflemblage of fhafts not detach¬
ed, but united, forming one folid and elegant column;
the windows, efpecially thofe in the eaft and weft ends,
were greatly enlarged, divided into feveral lights by
ftone mullions running into ramifications above, and
forming numerous compartments in various fanciful
fhapes. Thofe windows, filled with ftained glafs of
the moft lively colours, reprefenting kings, faints, and
martyrs, and their hiftories, made a moft folemn and
glorious appearance. There were feveral other varia¬
tions, efpecially in the tafte of the carvings and other
ornaments, which are too minute for general hiftory.
As to the ftate of civilarchitedlure during the famepe-
tiod: The houfes of the common people in the country,
and of the lower burgeffes in towns and cities, were very
little improved in their ftructure, that moft numerous and
ttfeful order of men being much depreffed in the times
we are now delineating. • Even in the capital city of
London, all the houfes of mechanics and common bur-
geffes were built of wood, and covered with ftraw or
reeds, towards the end of the twelfth century. But
the palaces, or rather caftles, of the Anglo-Norman
tings, barons, and prelates, were very different from
E C T U R E. 229
the refidences of perfims of the fame rank in the Anglo-
Saxon times. For this we have the teftimony of a
perfon of undoubted credit, who was well acquainted
with them both. “ The Anglo-Saxon nobles (fays
William of Malmfbury) fquandered away their ample
revenues in low and mean houfes; but the French and
Norman barons are very different from them, living at
lefs expence, but in great and magnificent palaces.’’
The truth is, that the rage of building fortified caftles,
was no lefs violent among the Norman princes, prelates,
and barons, than that of building churches. To this
they were prompted not only by the cullom of their
native country, but alfo by their dangerous fituation in
this ifland. Surrounded by multitudes, whom they
had depreffed and plundered, and by whom they were
abhorred, they could not think themfelves fafe with¬
out the protedlion of deep ditches and ftrong walls.
The conqueror himfelf was fenfible, that the want of
fortified places in England had greatly facilitated his
conqueft, and might facilitate his expulfion; and there¬
fore he made all poffible hafte to remedy this defedl,
by building very magnificent and ftrong caftles in all
the towns within the royal demefnes. “ William (fays
Matthew Paris)excelled all his predeceffors in building
eaHles,and greatly haraffed his fubje&s and vaffals with
thefe works.” All his earls, barons,and even prelates,
imitated his example ; and it was the firft care of every
one who received the grant of an eftate from the crown,
to build a caftle upon it for his defence and refidence.
The difputes about the fucceflion in the following
reigns, kept up this fpirit for building great and ftrong
caftles. William Rufus was ftill a greater builder than
his father. “ This William (fays Henry Knyghton)
was much addi&ed to building royal caftles and pala¬
ces, as the caftles of Dover, Windfor, Norwich, Exe¬
ter, the palace of Weftminfter, and many others, tefti-
fy ; nor was there any king of England before him
that eredled fo many and Inch noble edifices.”
Henry I. was alfo a great builder both of caftles and
monafteries. But this rage for building never prevail¬
ed fo much in any period of the Englilh hiftory as., in
the turbulent reign of king Stephen, from A. D.
1135 to A. D. 11 f 4. “ In this reign (as we are told
by the author of the Saxon Chronicle) every one'who
was able built a caftle ; fd that the poor people were
worn out with the toil of thefe buildings, and the
whole kingdom was covered with caftles.” This laft
expreflion will hardly appear too ftrong, when we are
informed, that befides all the caftles before that time
in England, no fewer than 1115 were raifed from the
foundation in the fhort (pace of 1-9 years. See the ar¬
ticle Castle.
The caltles, monafteries, and greater churches of
this period, were generally covered with lead, the
windows glazed; and when the walls were not of Afh-
ler, they were neatly plaftered, and whitewalhed on
both fides. The doors, floors, and roof, were com¬
monly made of oak planks and beams, exa&ly fmooth-
ed and jointed, and frequently carved. It is hardly
neceffary to obferve, that the building one of thele
great and magnificent caftles, monafteries, or churches,
of which there were many in England, mull have been
a work of prodigious expence and labour; and that
the architects and artificers, by whom that work was
planned and executed, muft have attained confiderable
dexterity
230
ARCH ITECTURE.
Hiftoryf
dexterity ia their refpe&ive arts. Several of thefe ar¬
chitects have obtained a place in hiftory, and are high¬
ly celebrated for their fuperior Ikill. William of Sens,
architeft to Archbilhop Lanfranc in building his cathe¬
dral, is faid, by Gervafe of Canterbury, to have been
a moil exquifite artill both in ftone and wood. He made
not only a model of the whole cathedral, but of every
particularpiece of fculpture and carving, for the direction
of the workmen, and invented many curious machines
for loading and unloading fhips, and conveying heavy
weights by land, becaufe all the ftones were brought
from Normandy. Matthew Paris fpeaks even in a
higher drain of Walter of Coventry, who flourilhed to¬
wards the end of this period, when he fays, that “ fo
excellent an archited had never yet appeared, and pro¬
bably never would appear, in the world.” This enco¬
mium was undoubtedly too high ; but it is impoffible
to view the remains of many magnificent fabrics, both
facred and civil, that were ereded in this period, with¬
out admiring the genius of the architeds by whom
they were planned, and the dexterity of the workmen
by whom they were executed.
In the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII. or ra¬
ther towards the latter end of that of Henry VII. when
brick building became common, a new kind of low
pointed arch grew much in ufe: it was defcribed from
four centers, was very round at the haunches, and the
angle at the top was very obtufe. This fort of arch is
to be found in every one of Cardinal Wolfey’s build¬
ings ; alfo at Weft Sheen ; an ancient brick gate at
Mile End, called King John'i Gate; and in the great
gate of the palace of Lambeth. From this time Go¬
thic architedure began to decline; and was foon after
fupplanted by a mixed ftyle, if one may venture to call
it one ; wherein the Grecian and Gothic, however dif-
cordant and irreconcileable, are jumbled together.
Concerning this mode of building, Mr Warton, in his
obfervations on Spencer’s Fairy Queen, has the follow¬
ing anecdotes and remarks :
“ Altho’ the Roman or Grecian architenure did not
begin to prevail in England till the time of Inigo Jones,
yet our communication with the Italians, and our imi¬
tation of their manners, produced fome fpeeimens of
that ftyle much earlier. Perhaps theearlieft was Somer-
fet Houfe in the Strand, built about the year 1549,
by the Duke of Somerfet, uncle to Edward VI. The
monument of Bifhop Gardiner, in Winchefter cathe¬
dral, made ia the reign .of Mary, about 1555, is deco¬
rated with Ionic pillars. Thefe verfes of Spencer,
Did rife
On rtately pillars, fram’d after the Doric guife.
bear an allufion to fome of the falhionable improve¬
ments in building, which at this time were growing
more and more into efteem. Thus alfo BiPnop Hall,
who wrote about the fame time, viz. 1598 :
There findeft thou fome ftately Doricke frame,
Or neat lonicke work. ... -
But thefe ornaments were often abfurdly introduced
into the old Gothic ftyle : as in the magnificent por¬
tico of the fchools at Oxford, eredled about the year
1613; where the builder, in a Gothic edifice, has af-
feftedly difplayed his univerfal fkill in the modern ar-
chiteifture, by giving us all the five orders together.
However, moft of the great buildings of Queen Eliza¬
beth’s reign have a ftyle peculiar to themfelves both in
form and finiftiing; where, though much of the old
Gothic is retained, and great part of the new tafte is
adopted, yet neither predominates ; while both, thus
diftindtly blended, compofe a fantaftic fpecies, hardly
reducible to any clafs or name. One of its chara<Ster-
iftics is the affedlation of large and lofty windows :
where, fays Bacon, “ you {hall have fometimes fair
houfes fo full of glafs, that one cannot tell where to
come to be out of the fun.”
To return now to our general hiftory, and to con¬
clude : In the ijth and 16th centuries, when learning
of all kinds began to revive, the chafte architecture of
the Greeks and Rogsnans feemed as it were to be re¬
called into life. The firft improvements in it began
in Italy, and owed their exiftence to the many ruins
of the ancient Roman ftrudtures that were to be found*
in that country, from whence an improved method of
building was gradually brought into the other countries
of Europe : and though the Italians for a long time
retained the fuperiority as architects over the other
European nations; yet, as men of genius travelled
from all quarters into Italy, where they had an oppor¬
tunity of feeing the originals from whence the Italians
copied, architects have arifen in other nations equal, if
not fuperior, to any that ever appeared in Italy. Of
this we have a recent inftance in our own countryman
Mr Mylne, who lately gained the prize -in architecture
at Rome, where it would no doubt be difputed by
fuch natives of Italy as were belt {killed in that art.
Part!. PRINCIPLES of ARCHITECTURE.
MANY, ages muft have elapfed before architecture
came to be confidered as a fine art. Utility was
rts original dgftmation, and ftill continues to be its prin¬
cipal end. Experience, however, has taught us, that
architecture is capable of exciting a variety of agree¬
able feelings. Of thefe, utility, grandeur, regularity,
order, and proportion, are the chief.
Biftinftion Architecture, being an ufeful as well as a fine art,
of build- leads us to diltinguifh buildings, and parts of buildings,
ings. int:o three kinds, viz. what are intended for ufe folely,
what for ornament folely, and what for both. Build¬
ings intended for utility folely, ought in every part .to
correfpond precifely to that intention: the lead.devia¬
tion from ufe, though contributing to ornament, will
be difagreeable ; for every work of ufe being confider¬
ed as a mean to an end, its peifeClion as a mean is the
capital circumftance, and every other beauty in oppo-
fuion is negleCted as improper. On the other hand, in
fuch things as are intended folely for ornament, as co- -
lumns, obelilks, triumphal arches, &c. beauty alone
ought to be regarded. The.principal difficulty in ar¬
chitecture lies in combining ufe and ornament. In or¬
der to accompliffi thefe ends, different and even oppo-
fite means muft be employed ; which is the reafon why
they arefo feldom united in perfection; and hence, in
buildings of. this kind; the only practicable method is,
to
Part I.
ARCHITECTURF.
231
Principles, to prefer utility to ornament according to the charac-
——Y-—' ter of the building : in palaces, and fuch buildings as
admit of’a variety of ufeful contrivance, regularity
ought to be preferred ; but in dwelling-houfes that are
too fmall for variety of contrivance, utility ought to
prevail, negledting regularity as far as it ftands in op-
pofition to convenience.
tntrinfic In confidering attentively the beauty of vifible ob-
md re la- je<5ls, we difeover two kinds. The firft may be termed
tive beau- intrinfic beauty, becaufe it is difeovered in a fmgle ob-
jeft, without relation to any other. The fecond may be
termed relative beauty, being founded on a combina¬
tion of relative objects. Architefture admits of both
kinds. We fhall firft give a few examples of relative
beauty.
The proportions of a door are determined by the life
to which it is deftined. The door of a dwelling-houfe,
which ought to correfpond to the human fize, is confi¬
ned to feven or eight feet in height and three or four
in breadth. The proportions proper for a liable or
coach houfe are different. The door of a church ought
to be wide, in order to afford an eafy paffage for a
multitude; and its height mull be regulated by its
widenefs, that the proportion may pleafe the eye. The
fize of the windows ought always to be proportioned
to that of the room they are deftined to illuminate; for
if the apertures be not large enough to convey light to
every comer, the room mull be unequally lighted,
which is a great deformity. Steps of ftairs Ihould like-
wife be accommodated to the human figure, without
regarding any other proportion ; they are accordingly
the fame in large and in fmall buildings, becaufe both
are inhabited by men of the fame fize.
We fhall next confider tntrinfic beauty, blended with
that which is relative. A cube itfelf is more agree¬
able than a parallelopipedon ; this conftantly holds in
fmall figures: but a large building in the form of a cube
is lumpifh and heavy ; while a parallelopipedon, fet on
its fmaller bafe, is more agreeable on account of its e-
levation : Hence the beauty of Gothic towers. But if
this figure were to be ufed in a dwelling-houfe, to make
way for relative beauty, we would immediately per¬
ceive that utility ought chiefly to be regarded ; and
this figure, inconvenient by its height', ought to be fet
on its larger bafe : the loftinefs in this cafe would be
loft ; but that lofs will be more than liifficiently com-
penfated by the additional convenience. Hence the
form of buildings fpread more upon the ground than
railed in height, is always preferred for a dwelling-
houfe.
Internal With' regard to the internal divifions, utility re-
divilions of fluires that the rooms be refta-ngular, to avoid ufelefs
houfes. Ipaces. An hexagonal figure leaves no void fpaces ;
but it determines the rooms to be all of one fize, which
is both inconvenient and difagreeable for want of va¬
riety. Though a cube be the moft agreeable figure,
and may anfwer for a room of a moderate fize ; yet, in
a very large room, utility requires a different figure.
Unconfined motion is the chief convenience of a great
room ; to obtain this the greateft length that can be
had is neceffary. But a fquare room of large fize is
inconvenient. It removes chairs, tables, &c. at too
great a diftance from, the hand, which, when unem¬
ployed, muft be ranged along the fides of the room.
Utility, therefore, requires a large room to be a paral¬
lelogram. This figure is likewife beft calculated forPdnciples.
the admiflion of light; becaufe, to avoid crofs-lights,' v
all the windows ought to be in one wall; and if the op-
pofite wall be at fuch a diftance as not to be fully light¬
ed, the room muft: be obfeure. The height of a room
exceeding nine or ten feet has little relation to utility ;
therefore proportion is the only rule for determining
the height when above that number of feet. 26'
Artifts who deal in the beautiful, love to entertainUrility and
the eye; palaces and fumptuous buildings, in which in-bea“ty
trinfic beauty may be fully difplayed, give them an 0P'patible?m'
portunity of exerting their tafte. But fuch a propen-P
fity is peculiarly unhappy with regard to private dwell¬
ing-houfes ; becaufe, in thefe, relative beauty cannot be
dilplayed to perfection without hurting intrinfic beau¬
ty. There is no opportunity for great variety of form
in a fmall houfe; and in edifices of this kind, internal
convenience has not hitherto been happily adjufted to
external regularity. Perhaps an accurate coincidence
in this refpeCt is beyond the reach of art. Architects,
however, conftantly fplit upon this rock ; for they ne¬
ver can be perfuaded to give over attempting to recon¬
cile thefe two incompatibles : how otherwife Ihould it
happen, that of the endlefs variety of private dwelling-
houfes, there fliould not be one found th^it is generally
agreed upon as a good pattern ? the unwearied propen-
fity to make a houfe regular as well as convenient o-
bliges the architect, in fome articles, to facrifice con¬
venience to regularity; and, in others, regularity to
convenience ; and accordingly the houfe which turns
out neither regular nor convenient, never fails to diff
pleafe.
Nothing can be more evident, than that the form of
a dwelling-houfe Ought to be fuited to the climate; yet
no error is more common than to copy in Britain the
form of Italian houfes, not forgetting even thofe parts
that are purpofely contrived for collecting air, and for
excluding the fun: witnefs our colonnades and logics,
defigned by the Italians to gather cool air, and exclude
the beams of the fun, conveniences which the climate
of this country does not require. 27
We Avail next view architecture as one of the fineArchitec-
arts; which will lead us to the examination of fuchtuie confi-
buildings, and parts of buildings, as are calculated fole-^ered as a
ly to pleafe the eye. Variety prevails in the works of“ne art*
nature ; but art requires to be guided by rule and com-
pafs. Hence it is, that in fuch works of art as imitate
nature, the great art is, to hide every appearance of art?
which is done by avoiding regularity and indulging
variety. But in works of art that are original and not
imitative, fuch as architecture, ftriCt regularity and u-
niformity ought to be ftudied, lb far as confiftent with
utility. . 28
Proportion is not lefs agreeable than regularity andDifference
uniformity; and therefore, in buildings intended tobetween
pleafe the eye, they are all equally eflential. It is ta-PTPor'
ken for granted by many waiters, that in all the parts r,1,^ h
of a building there are certain ftriCt proportions w hichanJ qUan.
pleafe the eye, in the fame manner as in found theretity.
are certain ftriCt proportions w'hich pleafe the ear; and
that, in both, the flighteft deviation is equally difagree¬
able. Others feem to reliih more a comparifon between
proportion in numbers and proportion in quantity ;
and maintain, that the fame proportions are agreeable
in both. The proportions, for example, of the num¬
bers
232 A R C H I T
Principles.bsrs 16, 24, and 36, are agreeable ; and fo, fay they,
'“""“'f'-"-' are the proportions of a room, whole height is 16 feet,
the breadth 24, and the length 36. But it ought to be
confidered, that there is no refemblance. or relation be¬
tween the objects of different fenfes. What pleafes the
ear in harmony, is not the proportion of the firings of the
inftrument, but of the found which thefe firings pro¬
duce. In architecture, on the contrary, it is the pro¬
portion of different quantities that pleafes the eye, with¬
out the leafl relation to found. The fame thing may
be faid of numbers. Quantity is a real quality of every
body; number is not a real quality, but merely an idea
that arifes upon viewing a plurality of things in fuccef-
fion. An arithmetical proportion is agreeable in num¬
bers but have we from this any reafon to conclude,
that it mufl alfo be agreeable in quantity? At this rate,
a -geometrical proportion, and many others, ought alfo
to be agreeable in both. A certain proportion may.
coincide in quantity and number; and amongfl an end*
lefs variety of proportions, it would be wonderful if
there never fhould be a coincidence. One example is
given of this coincidence in the numbers 16, 24, and-
36; but, to be convinced that it is merely accidental,,
we need but refleft, that the fame proportions are not
applicable to die external figure of a houfe,. and far lefs.
to a column;
It is ludicrous to obferve writers acknowledging the
neceffity of accurate proportions, and yet differing wide¬
ly about them. Laying afide.reafoning and philofophy,
one fad univerfally agreed on ought to have undeceived
them, that the fame proportions which pleafe in a model
are not agreeable in a large building : a room 48 feet
in length, and 24 in breadth and height, is well propor¬
tioned;: but a room 12 feet.wide and high, and 24long>
29 _ approaches to a gallery.
Beaut van- Perrault, in his comparifon of the ancients and mo-
arooortio derns, goes to the oppofite extreme; maintaining, that
™ the different proportions affigned to each order of co¬
lumns,are arbitrary,. and that the beauty of thefe pro-,
portions is entirely the effed of cuflom. But he fhould
have confidered, that if thefe proportions had not ori¬
ginally been agreeable, they could, never have, been
eflablifhed by cuflom..
For illuflrating this point, we fhall add a few exam¬
ples of the agreeablenefs of different proportions. In a
fumptuous edifice, the capital rooms ought to be large,
otherwife they will not be proportioned to the fize of
the building; for the fame reafon, a very large room is
improper in a.fmall houfe; But in things thus related,
the mind requires not aprecife or, Angle proportion, re-
jeding all others; on the contrary, many dilfcrent pro¬
portions are equally agreeable.. It is only when a pro¬
portion becomes loofe. and diflant, that the agreeable¬
nefs abates, and at lafl vanifhes. Accordingly, in build¬
ings, rooms of different proportions are found to be
equally agreeable, even where the proportion is not
influenced by utility. With regard to the proportion
the height of a room fliould bear to the length and
breadth,. it mufl be extremely arbitrary, confidering
the.uncertainty of the eye as to the height of a room,
when it exceeds i6 or 1 ? feet. In columns, again, e-
very archjted mufl confefs that the proportion of height
and thicknefs varies betwixt 8 diameters and 10, and
that every proportion between thefe two extremes is
agreeable., Befides, there mufl certainly be.a further
E C T U R E. Part:
variation of proportion, depending on the fize of the Principle !
column. A row of columns 10 feet high, and a row1"^—•
twice that height, requires different proportions: The
intercolumniations mufl alfo differ in proportion accord¬
ing to the height of the row.
Proportion of parts is not only itfelf a beauty, but is
infeparablyconneded with a beauty of the higheff relifh,
that of concord and harmony; which wall be plain from
what follows: A room, the parts of which are all finely
adjufled to each other, fliikes us not only with the J
beauty of proportion, but with a pleafure far fuperior.
The length, the breadth, the height, the window's,
raife each of them a feparate emotion : Thefe emotions
are fimilar; and, tho’ faint when feparately felt, they
produce in conjunction the emotion of concord or har- |
mony, which is very pleafant. On the other hand,
where the length of a room far exceeds the breadth, ;j
the mind, comparing together parts fo intimately con- |
neded, immediately perceives a difagreement or dif-
proportion w'hich dilgufls. Hence a long gallery,
however convenient for exercife, is not an agreeable
figure of a room.
In buildings deflined chiefly or folely to pleafe the
eye, regularity and proportion are eflentially neceflary,
becaufe they are the means of producing intrinfic beau- 5
ty. But a fkilful artifl will not confine his view to re-Form ofjt
gularity and proportion ; he will alfo fludy congruity, ftruaurep
which is perceived when the form and ornaments of at0 be AnH
ftrudure are fuited to the purpofe for which it is ap-ed t0
pointed. Hence every building ought to have an ex-forr^vhkli
preffion fuited to its deftination. A palace ought to-they are‘5
be fumptuous and grand ; a private dwelling, neat and intended,
modeft ; a play-houfe, gay and fplendid; and a monu¬
ment, gloomy and melancholy. A heathen temple has I
a double deilination: It is confidered as a houfe dedi- 1
cated to fome divinity; therefore it ought to be grand, i
elevated, and magnificent: It is alfo confidered as a j
place of worftiip ; and therefore ought to be fomevvhat S
dark and gloomy, becaufe dimnefs or obfeurity pro¬
duces that tone of mind wfiiich is favourable to humi- |
lity and devotion. Columns, befides their chief defti¬
nation of being fuppprts, contribute to that peculiar ;!
ex preffion which the deftination? of a building requires..
Columns of different proportions ferve to exprefs lofti- I
nefs, lightnefs, &c. as well as ftrength.. Situation may
alfo contribute to expreflion: Conveniency regulates
the fituation of a private dwelling-houfe; and thefitua-
tion of a palace ought to be lofty. This leads to a
queftion, Whether the fituation, where there happens
to be no choice, ought, in any meafure, to regulate
the form of the edifice? The connexion between a,
great houfe and a neighbouring field, though not ex¬
tremely intimate, demands, however, fome congruity.,
It would, for example, difpleafe us to find an elegant
building, thrown away upon, a wfild uncultivated conn- • j
try:. congruity requires a poliftied field, for fuch a
building. The old Gothic form of building was well
fuited to the rough uncultivated regions where it was |
invented ; .but was very ill adapted to the. fine plains
of France and Italy. I
The external flrudlure of a houfe leads naturally toInternaij
its internal ftrufture. A large and fpacious room,divifion I.
which is the.firft that commonly receives us, is a bad houfes> j
contrivance in feveral refpedts. In the firft place,
when immediately from, the open air .we Hep into fuch
Parti. ARCHITECTURE. 233
Principles, a room, its fize in appearance is diminifticd by con- with a row of vafes, is an unhappy conceit, by pla- Principles^ •
i trafl; it looks little, compared with the great canopy cing a thing, whofe natural dellination is utility,—w—
of the fky. In the next place, when it recovers its where it cannot have even the appearance of ufe. As
grandeur, as it foon doth, it gives a diminutive ap- to carvings upon the external furface of a building,
pearance to the reft of the houfe; pafling from it, e- termed buffo relievo when flat, and alto relievo when
very apartment looks little. In the third place, by prominent, all contradiftory expreflions ought to be
its fituation it ferves only for a waiting-room, and a avoided. Now, firmnefs and folidity being the pro-
paflage to the principal apartments. Rejecting there- per expreffions of a pedeftal, and, on the cgntrary,
fore this form, a hint may be taken from the climax lightnefs and delicacy of carved work, the pedeftal,
in writing for another that appears more fuitable: A whether of a column or of a ftatue, ought to be fpa-
handfome portico, proportioned to the fize and faftiion ringly ornamented. The ancients never ventured any
©f the front, leads into a waiting-room of a larger ftze, bolder ornament than the baffo relievo,
and this to the great room, all by a progreflion of With refpedlt to ornaments of the fecond kind, it is
fmall to great. a great blunder to contrive them fo as to make them
Grandeur is the principal emotion that architecture appear ufelefs. A blind window, therefore, when nc-
is capable of raifmg in the mind : it might therefore ceiTary for regularity, ought to be fo difguifed as to
be the chief ftudy of the artift, in great buildings de- appear a real window: when it appears without dif-
ftined to pleafe the eye. But as grandeur depends guile, it is difguftful, as a vain attempt to fupply the
partly on fize, it is unlucky for archite&ure that it is want of invention; it fhows the irregularity in a ftrong-
governed by regularity and proportion, which never er light, by fignifying that a window ought to be there
deceive the eye.by making obje&s appear larger than in point of regularity, but that the architect had not
they are in reality. But though regularity and pro- Ik ill fufficient to connett external regularity with in¬
portion contribute nothing to grandeur, fo far as that ternal convenience.
emotion depends on fize ; yet they contribute greatly As to the third, it is an error to fink pilafters fo far
to it by confining the fize within fueh bounds that it into the wall, as to remove totally, or moftly, the ap-
can be taken in and examined at one view; for when pearance of ufe.. They fhould always project fo much
objeAs are fo large as not to be comprehended but from the wall, as to have the appearance of fupport- -
in parts, they tend rather to ■ diftraA than fatisfy the ing tire entablature over them.
mind. From ornaments in general, we defcend to a pillar, Column!. -
We fliall next pafs.to fuch ornaments as contribute the chief ornament in great buildings. • The deftination
to give buildings a peculiar expreffion. It has been of a pillar is to fupport, really, or in appearance, un¬
doubted, whether a building can regularly admit any other part termed the entablature. With regard to
ornament but what is ufeful, or at leaft has that ap- the form of a pillar, it muft be obferved, that a circle
pearance. But, confidering the double aim of archi- is a more agreeable figure than a fquare, a globe than
tefture as a fine, as well as an ufeful art, there is no a cube, and a cylinder than parallelopipedon. This -•
reafon why ornaments may not be added to pleafe laft, in the language of archite&ure, is faying, that a
the eye, without any relation to utility. A private column is a more agreeable figure than a pilafter ;
dwelling-houfe, it is true, and other edifices, where and for that reafon it ought to be preferred,' when all
ufe is the chief aim, admit not regularly any ornament other cireumftances are equal. • Another reafon con-
but what has at leaft the appearance of ufe ; but curs, that a column annexed to a wall, which is a plain
temples, triumphal arches; and other buildings in- furface, makes a greater variety than a pilafter. Be-
tended chiefly, or folely for ftiow, may be highly orna- fides, pilafters at a diftanCe are apt to be miftaken for
32 mented. _ _ pillars r and the fpeAator is difappointed, when, on a
Different This fuggefts a divifion of ornaments into three nearer approach, he difcovers them to be only pilafters..
lands of or; kinds, viz.. I. Ornaments that are beautiful without As to the parts of a column, a bare uniform cylin-
naments. relation to uie ; fuch as ftatues, vafes, bafib or alto re- der,' without a capital, appears naked ; and without a
lievo : 2. Things in themfelves not beautiful, but pof- bafe, appears too ticklifidy placed to ftand firm ; it
foiling the beauty of utility, by impofing on the fpec- ought therefore to have feme finifhing at the top and
tator, and appearing to be ufeful; fuch as blind win- bottom: Hence the three chief parts of a column, the
dows : 3. Where things are beautiful in themfelves, flvaft, the bafe, and the capital. Nature undoubtedly
and at the fame time take on the appearance of ufe ; requires proportion among thefe parts, but it admits
fuch as pilafters. of variety of proportion. Vitruvius and feme of the
With regard to xke firft, we naturally require that elder writers feem to think, that the proportions of
a ftatue be fo placed, as to be feen in every 'direftion, columns were derived from the human figure, the ca-
and examined at different diftances. Statues, there- pi.tal reprefenting the head, the bafe the feet, and the
fore, are properly introduced to adorn the great ftair lhaft the body. The Tufcan has been accordingly
that leads to the principal door of a palace, or to lef- denominated the Gigantic ; the Doric, the Herculean-, •
fen the void between pillars. But a niche in the ex- thedonic, the Matronal; and the Corinthian, the Vir-
ternal front is an improper place for a ftatue. There ginal \—The Compofite is a mixture of the Corinthi-
is. an additional reafon againft placing them upon the an and Ionic. ■ As to the bafe, the principle of utility
roof or top of the walls : their tickliih fituatiofi gives interpofes to vary it from the human figure, and to
pain, as they have the appearance of being in danger proportion it fo to the whole, .as to give the column the
of tumbling down ; befides, we are inclined to feel appearance of ftability. 34 -!
from their being too much expofed to the inclemen- Among the Greeks, we find only three orders 0fWhether
ties of the weather. To adorn the top .of the wall columns, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, di-new ,ord.er3
• V01. Il. Parti. G.g. Itiiiguilhedvented.—'
244 A R C H I T
Principles, fllnrulflied from each other by their deftinat.ion as
well as by their ornaments, it has been difputed,
whether any new order can be added to thefe : fome
hold the affirmative, and give for inflances the Tufcan
and Compofite ; others maintain, that thefe properly
are not diflintt orders, but only the original orders,
with fome flight variation. The only circumflances
that can ferve to diflinguifh one order from another,
are the form of the column, and its dellination. To
make the firft a diftinguifiiing mark, without regard
to the other, would multiply orders without end. De-
flination is more limited, and it leads us to diilinguifh
three kinds of orders; one plain and ftrong, for the
purpofe of liipporting plain and maffy buildings ; one
delicate and graceful, for fupporting buildings of that
charadter; and between thefe, a third, for fupporting
buildings of a mixed nature. So that, if deflination
alone is to be regarded, the Tufcan is of the fame or¬
der with the Doric, and the Compofite with the Corin¬
thian.
The ornaments of thefe three orders ought to be
fuited to the purpofes for which they are intended.
Plain and ruftic ornaments would not be a little dif-
cordant with the elegance of the Corinthian order,
and fweet and delicate ornaments not lefs with the
35 ftrength of the Doric.
Stales re- With refpedt to buildings of every kind, one rule,
garding dictated by utility, is, that they be firm and liable,
general* ^Another, dictated by beauty, is, that they alfo ap-
1 ' pear fo to the eye: for every thing that appears tot¬
tering, and in hazard of tumbling down, produceth
in the fpedlator the painful emotion of fear, inflead
of the pleating emotion of beauty:; and accordingly
it fhould be the great care of the artift, that every
part of* his edifice appear to be well fupported.
Some have introduced a kind of conceit in architec¬
ture, by giving parts.of buildings the appearance of
.falling; of this kind is the church of St Sophia in
Conftantinople; the round towers in the uppermoft
ilories of Gothic buildings is in the fame falfe talle.
The moil confiderable ornaments ufed in architec¬
ture are the five orders of columns, pediments, arches,
ballufters, Ssfc. of which in the following chapters.
Chap. I. Of the Order: of Archhctture,
An order confifts of two principal .members, the
ConuMN and the Entablature ; each of which is
compofed of three principal parts. Thofe of the Co¬
lumn are, the Buf , the Shaft, and the Capital; and
thofe of the Entablature are, the Architrave, the
prize, and the Cornice. All thefe are fubdivided in¬
to many leJfer parts, whofe number, form, and di-
menfions, chara&erife each order, and exprefs the
degree of llrength, delicacy, ridhnefs, or fimplicity
peculiar to it.
Parts%of an The parts that compofe an order may be diftributed
order divi- jnto two different claffes. In the frjl may be ranged
**eCl all that have an analogy to the primitive huts, and
woe a es. reprefcrit fome part tjiat was neceflary in their con-
flruction. Such are the fliaft of the column, with
the plinth of its bafe., and the abacus of its capital ;
likewife the architrave and triglyphs, the mutules,
modilions, or dentiles, which all of them reprefent the
rafters, ox fiorpe other pieces qf timber ufed to fup-
E C T U R E. PartTi
port the covering; and the corona, reprefenting the Principle*,;
beds of materials that compofed the covering. Allv-—
thefe may properly be dillinguilhed by the name of
efential members. The fubfervient parts, contrived
for the ufe or ornaments of the former, and common¬
ly called mouldings, may conllitute the fecond clafs.
There are eight regular mouldings in ornamenting
columns: the fillet, liftel, or fquare; the allragal,
or bead ; the torus, or tore; the fcotia, mouth, or
cafement; the echinus, ovolo, or quarter-round ; the
inverted cyma, talon, or ogee ; the cyma, cyma rec¬
ta, or cymation ; the cavetto, or hollow. The names
of thefe allude to their forms, and their forms are
adapted to the purpofes for which they are intended.
See Plate XXXVIII.
The ovolo and talon, as they are ftrong at the ex¬
tremities, are fit for fupports ; the cyma and cavetto,
though improper for fupports, ferve for coverings to
Ihelter other members ; the torus and aftragal, being
ftiaped like ropes, are intended to bind and fortify the
parts with which they are connedled: But the ufe of
the fcotia and fillet is only to feparate and diftinguilh
the other mouldings, to give a graceful turn to the
profile, and to prevent the confufion which would
arife from joining feveral curved members together.
There are various methods of deferibing the con¬
tours of mouldings ; but the fimpleft and bell is to
form them of quadrants of circles. ^
An affemblage of what are called effential parts profjic :
and mouldings is termed a profile. The molt perfect what. ’
profiles are fuch as are compofed of few mouldings,
varied in form and fize ; and fo difpofed, that the
ftraight and curved ones fucceed each other alter¬
nately. When ornaments are employed in mould¬
ings, fome of them ftiould be left plain, in order to
give a proper repofe : For when all are ornamented,
the figure of the profile is loft. t
Columns, in imitation of trees, from wdiich ^ey {
drew their origin, are tapered in their fhafts. In the on 0f c9 j
antiques the diminution is varioufly performed : be- hunns. |
ginning fometimes from the foot of the ftiaft, and at
others from one quarter, or one third of its height;
the lower part being perfedlly cylindrical. The for¬
mer of thefe was moll in ufe amongft the ancients,
and, being the moll natural and graceful, ought to
have the preference, though the latter hath been
more univerl'ally pradlifed by modern artifts.
The firft architedls, fays Mr Auzoult, probably
made their columns in ftraight lines, in imitation of
trees ; fo that their fliaft was a fruftum of a cone;
but finding this form abrupt and difagreeable, they
made ufe of fome curve, which, fpringing from the
extremities of the fuperior and inferior diameters of
the column, (welled beyond the fides of the cone,
and by that means gave a more pleafing figure to the
contour.
Vitruvius, in the fecond chapter of his third book,
mentions this practice, but in fo obfeure and curfory a
manner, that his meaning hath not been underltood ;
and feveral of the modern architedls, intending to
conform themfelves to his doffrine, have made the
diameters of their columns greater in the middle than
at the foot of the ftiaft. Leon Baptifta, Alberti, and
others of the Florentine and Roman architects, have
carried this to a very great excels; for which they
have
Ar c hitx c t xtr h .
s>-
S/ie otwru/owf-of
I*la t c XXXIV.
^^e^^retu//'a/?{Joeff /oj-/fi(w/.
Parti. A R C H I T
principles, have been juflly blamed, as it is neither natural, rea-
fonable, nor beautiful.
Monfieur Auzoult obferves, that a column, fup-
pofmg its ihafts to be the fruftum of a cone, may
have an additional thicknefs in the middle, without
being fwelled there beyond the bulk of its inferior
parts ; and fuppofes the addition mentioned by Vi¬
truvius to fignify nothing but the increafe towards
the middle of the column, occafioned by changing
the ftraight line, which at firfl: was in ufe, for a
curve.
This fuppofition is extremely juft, and founded on
what is obferved in the works of antiquity; where
there is no inftance of columns thicker in the middle
than at the bottom, though all have the fwelling hint¬
ed at by Vitruvius, all of them being terminated by
curves; fome granite columns excepted, which are
bounded by ftraight lines; a proof, perhaps, .of their
antiquity, or of their having been wrought in the
quarries of Egypt by bungling and unikilful work¬
men.
Monfieur Blondel, in his book entitled Refolution
dss quatre principaux problemes d’Architecture, teaches
various manners of diminifhing columns; the beft^
and fimpleft of which is by means of the inftrument
which Nicomedes invented to defcribe the firft con-
chaid: for this, being applied at the bottom of the
fhaft, performs at one fweep both the fwelling and
the diminution; giving fuch a graceful form to the
column, that it is univerfally allowed to be the moft
perfeft prjriftice hitherto difcovered. The columns
in the Pantheon, accounted the moft beautiful among
the antiques, are made in this manner; as appears
by the exa& meafures of one of them to- be found in
36 Defgodet’s antiquities of Rome.
Vignola’s To give an accurate idea of the operation, it will
method, be neceifary firft to defcribe Vignola’s method of di¬
minution, on which it is grounded. “ As to this
fecond method, fays Vignola, it is a difcovery of my
own; and although it be lefs known than the for¬
mer, it will be eafily comprehended by the figure.
Having therefore determined the meafures of your
P1.XXXIV column, (that is to fay, the height of the fhaft, and
its inferior and fuperior diameters), draw a line in¬
definitely from C through D, perpendicular to the
axis of the column: this done, fet off the diftance
CD, which is the inferior femi-diameter, from A,,
the extreme point: of the fuperior femi-diameter, to >
B, a point in the axis ; then from A, through :B, draw
the line ABE, which will cut the indefinite line C D
in E ; and, from this point of interfeftion E, draw thro’
the axis of the column any number of rays as Eb a, on
each of which, from the axis towards the circumfe¬
rence, fetting off the interval C D, you may find any
number of points, a, a, a, through which if a curve be
drawn, it will defcribe the fwelling and diminution of
4o the column.”
des’sTn- Though this method be fufficiently accurate for
ftruinent. PFa^ce> efpecially if a confiderable number of points
be found, yet, ftri&ly fpeaking, it is defe&ive ; as the
curve muft either be drawn by hand, or by applying
a flexible ruler to all the points; both of which are
liable to variations. Blondel therefore, to obviate this
objection, (after having proved the curve pafling from
A to C through the points a a, to be of the fame na-
E C T U R E. 235
ture with the firft conchoid of the ancients), employed Principles,
the inftrument of "Nicomedes to defcribe it; the con-V—"'Y—
ftrudtion of which is as follows :
Having determined, as above, the length of the
lhaft, with the inferior and fuperior diameters of the
column, and having likewife found the length of die
line C D E, take three rulers, either of wood or me¬
tal, as EG, I D, and AH; of which let F G and
I D be fattened together at right angles in G. Cut
a dove-tail groove in the middle of F G, from top to
bottom; and at the point E on the ruler I D (whole
diftance, from the middle of the groove in F G, is the
fame as that of the point of interfeftion from the axis
of the column) fix a pin ; then on the ruler A H fet
off the diftance A B, equal to C D the inferior femi-
diameter of the column, and at the point B fix a but¬
ton, whofe head muft be exactly fitted to the groove
made in F G, in which it is to Aide ; and, at the other
extremity of the ruler A H, cut a flit or canal from
H to K, whofe length muft not be lefs than the diife-
rence of length between E B and E D, and whofe
breadth muft be fufficient to admit the pin fixed at E,
which muft pafs through the flit, that the ruler may
Aide thereon.
The inftrument being thus completed, if the mid¬
dle of the groove, in the ruler F G, be placed ex¬
actly over the axis of the column,-it is evident that
the ruler A H, in moving along the groove, will with
the extremity A defcribe the curve A a a C ; which-
curve is the fame as that produced by Vignola’s me¬
thod of diminution, fuppofing it done with the utmoft
accuracy; for the interval A B, a b, is always the
fame-; and the point E is the origin of an infinity of
lines, of which die parts B A, ba, ba, extending from
the axis to the circumference, are equal to each other
and to D C. And if the rulers be of an indefinite
fize, and the pins at E and B be made to move along;
their refpeftive rulers, fo that the intervals A B and
D E may be augmented or diminifhed at pleafure, it is
likewife evident that the fame inftrument may, be thus -
applied to columns of any fize. 4*
Lithe remains of antiquity the quantity of the di-Qyantityof’
minution is various; but feldom lefs than one eighthciiminutioi>1
of the inferior diameter of the column, nor more than
one fixth of it. The laft of thefe is by Vitruvius e-
fteemed the moft perfect.
Of the Tuscan Order;-
This is the moft folid and Ample of all the orders, pi.xx.xtf..
It is compofed of few parts, devoid of ornaments,
and fo maffy, that it feems capable of fupporting the
heavieft burden. There are no remains of a regular
Tiifcan order among the antiques : the dodtrine of
Vitruvius concerning it is obfeure ; and the profiles of
Palladio, Scamozzi; Serlio, de I’Orme, and Vignola,
are all imperfedh-
The height of the Tufcan column is 14 modules, or
femi-diameters, each confifting of 30 minutes; and
that of the whole entablature 34 modules ; which be¬
ing divided into 10 equal parts, three of them are for
the height of the architrave, three for the frize, and '
the remaining four for the cornice. The capital is
one module j the bafe, including the lower cindture off
G g 2- the:
ARCHITECTURE.
Tart I.
, Principles, the ftiaft is likewife one module; and the {haft, with
its Upper cinfture and aftragal, 12 modules.
Thefe are the general dimenfions of the order ; the
particular dimenfions may be learned by infpedlion of
the plates.
In the remains of antiquity, the quantity of dimi¬
nution at the top of the Tufcan column is various ;
but feldom lefs than one eighth, nor more than one
fixth, of the inferior diameter of the column. The
laft of thefe is_generally preferred ; and Chalmers and
others make the fame diminution in all columns, with¬
out regard to their order.
Of the Doric Order.
Plate3 This order is next in (Irength to the Tufcan ; and,
• XXXVI* being of a grave, robufl, and mafculine afpedt, is by
Scamozzi called the Herculean. As it is the moil
ancient of all the orders, it retains more of the ftruc-
ture of the primitive huts than any of the reft; the
triglyphs in its frize reprefenting the ends of the
joifts, and the mutules in its cornice reprefenting the
- rafters.
The height of the Doric column, including its ca¬
pital and bafe, is 16 modules, and the height of the
entablature four; the latter of which being divided
into eight parts, two of them are for the architrave,
three for the frize, and three for the cornice.
In moft of the antiques, the Doric column is exe¬
cuted without a bafe. Vitruvius likewife makes it
without one ; the bafe, according to him, having
been firft employed in the Ionic order, in imitation of
the fandal of a woman’s foot. Scamozzi blames this
pra&ice, and moft of the. modern architects are of his
44 opinion.
Ornaments In the profile of the theatre of Marcellus, the
of the frize :fr;ze is enriched with hulks and rofes; the architrave
confifts only of one fafcia and a fillet; the drops are
conical; the metope is enriched with a bull’s Ikull,
adorned with a garland of beads, in imitation of thole
on the temple of Jupiter Tonans, at the foot of the
-Capitol. In,fome antique fragments, and in a great
many modern buildings, the metopes are alternately
adorned with ox-lkulls >and pateras. But they may
be filled with any other, ornaments, according to the
deftination of the building.
45
The Ionic Order
Plate --Is of a more fiender make than the Doric or Tuf-
XXXVII. can ; its appearance is dimple, yet graceful and ma-
jeftic; . its ornaments are few ; fo that it has been
compared to a fedate matron, in decent, rather than
. magnificent, attire.
Among .the ancients, the form of the Ionic profile
appears to have been more pofitively determined than
. that of any other order ; for,. in all the . antiques at
Rome (the temple of Concord excepted), it is exactly
the fame.
The modern artifts have likewife been unanimous
in their opinions ; all of them, excepting Palladio
and his imitators, having employed the dentil, cor¬
nice, and the other parts of the profile, nearly as
they are found in the Collifeum, the temple of For¬
tune, and the theatre, of Marcellus.
The height of the Ionic column is 18 modules, Principles,
and that of the entablature 4I, or one quarter of the ^
height of the column, as in the other orders, which
is a trifle lefs than in any of the antique Ionics. In
all the antiques, the bafe is Attic ; and the fliaft of
the column may either be plain, or fluted with 24
flutings, or 20 only, as in the temple of Fortune.
The plan of the flutings may be a trifle more than a
femicircle, as in the forum of Nerva, becaufe they
then appear more diftindt. The fillets, or intervals be¬
tween them, muft not be broader than one third of the
breadth of a fluting, nor narrower than one fourth.
The ornaments of the capital muft correfpond with
the flutings of the fhaft; and there muft be an ove
..above the middle of each fluting. The volutes ought
to be traced according to Mr Goldman’s method,
which is as follows : 44
Plate XXXVIII. fig. 9. Draw the cathetus, F C,Method of
whofe length muft be 15 minutes, or one fourth of adl'awinS
module ; and, from the point C, deferibe the eye ofvo*utes•
the volute A E B D, of which the diameter is to be
6J- minutes; divide it into four equal fedtors by the
diameters A B, D E. Bifedt the radii C A, C B,
in 1 and 4; and on the line 1, 4, conftrudt a fquare
I, 2, 3, 4. From the centre C, to the angles 2, 3,
draw the diagonals C 2, C 3, and divide the fide of
the fquare 1, 4, into 6 equal parts, at 5, 9, C, 12, 8.
Then through the points 5, 9, 12, 8, draw the lines
5, 6, 9, to, 12, 11, 8, 7, parallel to the diameter E D,
which will cut the diagonals in 6, 7, 10, 11 ; and the
points r, 2, 3, 4, J, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, n, 12, will be
the centres of the volute. From the firft centre 1,
with the diftance I F, deferibe the quadrant F G.;
from the fecond centre 2, with the diftance 2 G, de¬
feribe the quadrant G H ; and, continuing the fame
operation from all the 12 centres, the contour of the
volute will be completed.
Fig. 10. The centres for deferibing the fillet are
found in this manner. Conftrudt a triangle, of which
the fide A F is equal to the part of the cathetus con¬
tained between A F and the fide.F V, equal to C 1 ;
place the diftance F S from F towards A, equal to
F S the breadth of the fillet, and through the point
S draw the line S T, which will be to C 1 in the fame
proportion as A S is to A F; place this line on the
diameter of the eye A B; divide it into three qqual
parts ; and, through the points of divifion, draw lines
parallel to the diameter E D, which will cut the dia¬
gonals C 2, C 3, and you will have twelve new cen¬
tres, from whence the interior contour of the fiflet
may be deferibed in the fame manner as the exterior
one was from the firft centres.
Of the Corinthian Order.
47
The proportions of this . order are extremely deli- Plate
cate. It is divided into a great variety of members, XXXIX.
and enriched with a profufion of ornaments. Sca¬
mozzi calls it xht ,virginal order ; and indeed it has all
the delicacy in its make, and all the delicacy in its
. drefs, peculiar to young girls.
The moft perfeft model of the Corinthian order is
generally allowed to be in the three columns in the
Campo Vaccino at Rome, the remains, as it is thought,
. of the temple of Jupiter Stator.
The
Akchitec ture .
Elate,XL.
,>,>///.(<>)
Part I.
ARCHITECTURE,
237
fjtjinciple?. The Corinthian column fhould be 20 modules high,
nj—y-—' and the entablature 5; which proportions are a me¬
dium between thofe of the Pantheon and the three co-
!lumns. The bafe of the column may be either Attic
or Corinthian : They are both beautiful. If the enta¬
blature be enriched, the ftiaft may be fluted. The flu-
n tings may be filled, to one third of their height, with
cabblings, as in the infide of the Pantheon 5 which will
ftrengthen the lower part of the column, and make it
lefs liable to injury.
In moft of the antiques at Rome, the capital of this
order is enriched with olive-leaves ; the acanthus be¬
ing feldom employed but in the Compofite. De Cor-
demoy, however, prefers the acanthus.
The divifions of the entablature bear the fame pro¬
portions to each other, as the Tufcan, Ionic, and Com¬
pofite orders.
I 48 The Composite
jjlate XL. Is, flriflly fpeaking, only a fpecies of the Corinthian;
and therefore retains, in a great meafure, the fame cha-
rarier.
lifferent It does not appear that the ancients affected any
linds of or-particular form of entablature to this order. Some-
ments. times the cornice is entirely plain, as in the temple of
Bacchus ; at others, as in the arch of Septimius Se-
verus, it is enriched with dentils differing very little
from the Ionic ; and in the arch of Titus, there are
both dentils and modilions ; the whole form of the
profile being the fame with the Corinthian, as exe¬
cuted in the antiques at Rome.
The modem architects have varied more in this
than in any other order, each following the bent of
his own fancy.
The height of the Compofite column, and parts of
the entablature, is the fame with that of the Corin¬
thian. The foot of the leaves of the capital ought
not to project beyond the upper part of the fliaft.
The different bunches of leaves fhould be ftrongly
marked; the fprigs which arife between the upper
ones fhould be kept flat upon the vafe ; and the orna¬
ments of the volutes muft not projedt beyond the fillets
that inclofe them.
Chap. II. Of Pilaften.
These differ from columns only in their plan;
which is a fquare, as that of columns is round. Their
bales, capitals, and entablatures, have the fame parts,
with the fame heights and projections, as thofe of co¬
lumns : they are alfo diftinguilhed in the fame manner,
by the names of Tufcan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and
Compofite.
The column is undoubtedly more perfect than the
pilafter. However, they may be employed with great
propriety on many occasions. Some authors declaim
againft pilafters, becaufe, according to them, they do
not admit of diminution. But this is a miftake ; there
are many inftances, in the remains of antiquity, of their
being diminiflied. Scamozzi always gave his pilafters
the fame diminution as his columns : Palladio and Ini¬
go Jones have likewife diminiihed them in many of
their buildings.
Hlafters Pilafters are employed in churches, galleries, halls,
where ufe- and other interior decorations, to lave room ; for,
*<d. as they feldom projedt beyond the folid wall above
one quarter of their diameter, they do not occupy Principles,
near fo much fpace as columns. They are likewife
ufed in exterior decorations; fomelimes alone, in-
ftead of columns, on account of their being lefs ex-
penfive; and fometimes they accompany columns,
being placed behind them to fupport the architraves,
where they enter the building, as in the Pantheon at
Rome ; or, in the fame line with them, to fortify the
angles, as in the portico of Septimius.
When pilafters are ufed alone, they fhould projedt
one quarter of their diameter beyond the walls.
When placed behind columns, efpecially if they be
very near them, they need not projedt above one
eighth of their diameter. But, when placed on a line
with columns, their projedtion muft be regulated by that
of the columns ; and confequently, it can never be lefs
than a femidiameter, even when the columns are en¬
gaged as much as poflibls^ 52
The fhafts of pilafters are frequently adorned with How orna-
flutings, in the fame manner as thofe of columns; the merited,
plan of which may be a trifle more than a femicircle i
their number muft be feven on each face, which makes
them nearly of the fame fize with thofe of columns.
The intervals, or fillets, muft either be one third or one
fourth of the fluting in breadth.
The capitals of pilafters are profiled nearly in the Plate XLS.
fame manner as tliofe of columns.
Chap. III. Of Attics. S3
These very properly follow the pilafters; being
nothing more than fquare pillars with their cornices.
They had their origin in Athens, where it was for
many ages a rule in building to conceal the roof.
For this purpofe, nothing ferved fo well as a kind of
low or little order ranged in a continued line, fmgly,
or with the interruption of ballufters; which, riling
above the reft of the work and before the roof, hid
it perfedtly, and placed fomething agreeable in view.
The place of Attics, therefore, is at the uppermoft
extremity of a building, to which they ferve as a
crown, or very properly make a finiftung for the
other orders when they have been ufed in the ftruc-
ture. They muft never Hand under any thing except
fuch ornaments as are placed at the very top. Thefe
Attics Ihould never exceed in height one third of the
height of the order on which they are placed, nor be
lefs than one quarter of it. The bafe, dye, and cornice,
of which they are compofed, may bear the fame pro¬
portions to each other as thofe of pedeftals do ; and
the bafe and cornice may be compofed of the fame
mouldings as thofe pedeftals. Sometimes the Attic is
continued throughout; at others, it projects, and forms
a pilafter over each column of the order. The breadth
of this pilafter is feldom made narrower than the up¬
per diameter of the column below it, and never broad¬
er. Its projeftion may be equal to one quarter of its
breadth.
-Chap. IV. Of Peifans, Caryatides, and Termini. 54
Besides columns and pilafters, it is fometimes cu-
ftomary to employ reprefentations of the human fi¬
gure, to fupport entablatures in buildings. The male
figures are called Persians; and the female, Carians,
or Caryatides.
Tire
23B A R C H I T
Principles The Terpens are fo called from a vidlory gained
' « 1 over the Perfians by Paufanias, who having brought
_ . .5S f home fpoils and trophies to the Athenians, they fixed
Perfians uPon Petfian figures for thofe which Ihould fupport
entablatures, and thus kept in mind that there were
once Perfian flaves in Athens. To reprefent thefe
conquered people in the lowed ftate poflible, they
loaded them with, the heavieft entablature, viz. that
of the Doric order. In procefs of time, however,,
other figures befides thofe of Perfians were introdu¬
ced, and other entablatures put over them; but the
56 name was ftill retained.
OfCar/a- The proper Caryatides are women drefled in long
1 es‘ robes, after the Afiatic manner; and the origin of
tiie device was as follows.—The Carians had been
long at war with the Athenians ; but being at length
totally vanquifiied, their wives were led away cap¬
tives ; and, to perpetuate the memory of this event,
trophies were ere<5tedj in which figures of women
dreffed in the Caryatic manner, were ufed to fup¬
port entablatures like the Perfians ; and. though o-
ther female figures were, afterwards ufed in the fame
manner, the name of Caryatides was always retained.
The ancients made frequent ufe of Perfians and
Caryatides, and delighted in diverfifying them a
thoufand ways. The modern artifts have followed1
their example; and there is a great variety of com-
pofitions of. this kind, to be met with.in different parts
of Europe.
Indecent attitudes, diftorted features, and all mon-
ftrous produdtions, ought to be avoided, of which
there are many examples in Gothic buildings. On
the contrary, the attitudes fhould be fimple and
graceful, the countenance always pleafing, though va¬
ried and ftrongly marked agreeable to the nature of
57 the object-reprefentedl
Their pro- The Caryatides, or female figures, fhould never
portions, much exceed the human fize. But the Perfians or
male figures, may be of any fize ; and the larger the
better, as they will ftrike the beholder with the greater
awe and aftonifhment. Perfians may be ufed with
propriety in arfenals,. galleries of armour,, &c. under
the figures of: captives, heroic virtues, &c. Their en¬
tablature ought to be Doric, and bear the fame pro¬
portion to them as to columns of the fame height.
The entablature for Caryatides ought to be either Ionic,
or Corinthian, according as the character of.the figures
58 is more or lefs delicate.
Tesmini. Termini are fometimes emplbyedj iiiftead of Per-
fians or Caryatides, to fupport the entablatures of mo¬
numents, chimney-pieees, and fuch like compofitions.
Thefe figures owre their origin to the ftones ufed by
the ancients to mark the limits of particular pofTef-
fions., Niima Fbmpilius, to render thefe inviolable,
confecrated the terminus into a deity, and inftituted:
feftivals and facrifices to his honour. In a fhort time,,
what was formerly only large upright ftones, w'ere
reprefented in human fhape; and afterwards intro¬
duced as ornaments to temples and other buildings.
The termini are now principally ufed as ornaments
for gardens and fields.
^ Chap. V. Of Pcdeftals.
Most writers confider the Pedeftal as a neceflary
part, of the order, without which it is not complete..
E C T U R E. Part)!
It is indeed a matter of little importance whether itPrincip®
be confidered in that light, or as a diftinft compofi-'—-'v'-ty
tion : we ftiall therefore treat of a pedeftal as a di- '
ftindt body, having no more connexion with the or¬
der than an attic, a bafement, or any other part with ||
which it may on fome occafions be affociated.
A pedeftal confifts of three principal parts : the f j
bafe, the dye, and the cornice. The dye is always ||
nearly of the fame figure; being conftantly either a II
cube or a parallelopipedon: but tire bafe and cornice ||
are varied and adorned with more or fewer mouldings, jll
according to the fimplicity or richnefs of the compofi- \
tion in which the pedeftal is employed. Hence pe-
deftals are, like columns, diftinguiftied by the names 1
of Tufcan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Compo- ’
Jite. 6cj 1
Some: authors are averfe to pedeftals, and compare Pedeftal*
a column raifed on a pedeftal to a man mounted on'vhere P?
ftilts ; imagining that they were introduced merely Per* *
from neceuity, and1 for want of columns of a fuffi-
cient length. It is indeed true, that the ancients of¬
ten made ufe of artifices to lengthen their columns;
as appears by fome that are in the Baptiftery of Con-
ftantine at Rome ; the ftiafts of which, being too fhort
for the building, were lengthened and joined to their j
bafes by an undulated' fweep, adorned with acanthus
leaves. Neverthelefs, there are many occafions where j
pedeftals are evidently neceffary ; and fome in which
the order, were it not fo raifed, would lofe much of its
beautiful appearance.' Thus, in the infides of churches, :
if the columns that fupport the vault were placed im¬
mediately on the ground, the feats would hide their |
bafes and a good part of their ftiafts; and in the
theatres of the ancients; if the columns of the. feene. I
had been placed immediately on the ft age, the a&ors
would have hid a part of them from the audience. In 1 ]
anterior, decorations, a pedeftal.diminilhes the parts of
the order, which otherwife might perhaps appear too
clumfy, and hath the advantage of placing the column
in a more favourable view, by raifing its bafe nearer ]
the level of the fpeclator’s eye. In a fecond order of
arcades, there is no avoiding pedeftals ; as without ' j
them it is impoffible to give the arches any tolerable
proportion. 6r
With regard to the proportion that pedeftals ought Their prej
to bear to that of the columns they fupport, it is by Pomon9*;
no means fixed. Both the ancients and moderns vary
greatly on this head. Vignola’s proportions are ge¬
nerally reckoned the heft. He makes his pedeftals in
all the orders of the fame height, viz. one third of the
column; and as their breadth of courfe increafes or
diminifties in the fame degree as the diameters of their
refpedtive columns do, the charafter of the order; is al¬
ways preferved,,which, according to any other method,, l
is impoflible..
As to the divifions of the pedeftals; if the whole
height be divided into nine parts, one of them may
he given to the height of the cornice, two to the bafe,.
and the fix remaining to the dye. The breadth of
the dye is always made equal to that of the plinth of
the column.. The projection of the cornice may be
made equal to its height; and the bafe being divided
into three parts, two of them will be for the height of.
the plinth, and one'for the mouldings, whofe projec--
tion muft be lefs than that of the cornice. Thefs
jneafurcs
63
different
" mnia"
ufed
y the an-
i ents.
64
] Wed by
I Vignola.
A R C H I T
meafares are common to all pedeftals. See Hate
XLL
Chap. VI. Of Intercolumniations.
Columns are either engaged, or infulated; and,
when infulated, are either very near the wall, or at a
confideratjle diftance from it. Engaged columns, or
fuch as are near the walls of a building, are not li¬
mited in their intercolumniations, as thefe depend on
the breadths of the arches, windows, niches, or other
decorations placed between the columns. But columns
that are entirely detached, and perform alone the
office of fupporting the entablature, as in periftyles,
porches and galleries, mull be near each other, for the
fake both of real and apparent folidity.
The intercolumniations among the ancients were
various. Thofe ufed in the Ionic and Corinthian or¬
ders were the pycnoftyle, of which the interval was
equal to one diameter and a half of the column ; the
fyftyle, whofe interval was equal to two diameters s
the euftyle, to two and a quarter ; the diaftyle to three,
and the arseoftyle to four. In the Doric order, they
ufed other intercolumniations, regulating them by the
triglyphs, one of which was always placed directly
over the middle of each column; fo that they were
either fyftyle, monotriglyph, of one diameter and a
half; diaftyle, of two diameters and three quarters ; or
arseoftyle, of four diameters ; and the Tufcan intervals
were very wide, fome of them being above feven dia¬
meters, which was very practicable, as the architraves
were of wood.
Among thefe different intercolumniations, the pyc¬
noftyle and fyftyle are too narrow; for although the
ancients made frequent ufe of them, that ought ra¬
ther to be afcribed to neceffity than choice. For as
the architraves were compofed of fingle ftones, ex¬
tending from the middle of one column to the middle
of another, it would have been difficult, efpecially in
large buildings, to find blocks of a fufficient length
for diaftyle intervals. With regard to the arseoftyle
and Tufcan intercolumniations, they are by much too
wide, and can only be ufed in ruftic buildings, where
the architraves are of wood; neither is the diaftyle
fufficiently folid in large compofxtions. The euftyle
is a medium between the narrow and broad intervals ;
and being at the fame time both fpacious and folid,
hath been preferred to any of the reft by the ancients
as well as the moderns.
Vignola obferved nearly the fame proportion in all
his intercolumniations 5 which practice, though con¬
demned by fpveral writers, is certainly preferable to
any other ; as it preferves the character of each order,
and maintains in all of them an equal degree of real
folidity. Setting afide therefore the pycnoftyle and
fyftyle difpofitions on account of their want of fpace,
and the araeoftyle for its deficiency in point of ftrength,
it may be eftablilhed, that the diaftyle and euftyle in¬
tercolumniations (the latter of which on moft occa-
fions, ought to have the preference) may be employ¬
ed in all the orders without di(Vinciion, excepting the
Doric ; in which the moft perfedt interval is ditri¬
glyph ; neither the monotriglyph, nor the arxoftyle,
being to be fuffered but in cafes of neceffity.
Sometimes, on account of the windows, doors,
niches, and other decorations, which correfpond with
E c T u R E>
439
the intercolumniations of the periftyle, or gallery, it is Principles'
not poffible to make the intervals fo narrow at euftyle,
or even as diaftyle : wherefore the moderns, autho«
rifed by fome few examples of the ancients, where
grouped columns are employed, have invented a man¬
ner of difpofing them, called by Perrault araojlyie,
which admits of a larger interval, without any detri¬
ment to the apparent folidity of the building. This
kind of difpofition is compofed of two fyftyle interco¬
lumniations ; the column that feparates them being
approached towards one of thofe at the extremities,
fufficient room only being left between them for the
projedlion of the capitals; fo that the great fpace is
three diameters and a half wide, and the little one
half a diameter.
In periftyles, galleries, or porticos, all the interco¬
lumniations muft be equal; but in a logic, or porch,
the middle interval may be broader than the others,
by a triglyph or modilion, or three or four dentils;
unlefs the columns at the angles be coupled or group¬
ed with pilafters; in which cafe, all the intervals
Ihould be of the fame dimenfions.
When buildings are very fmall, as is frequently the
cafe in temples and other inventions ufed for orna¬
menting gardens, the intercolumniations may be broad¬
er, in proportion to the diameter of the columns, than
ufual; becaufe, when they are nearer each other than
three feet, there is hardly room for a bulky perfon to
pafs between them.
Chap. ViI. Of Arches.
65
Arches are not fo magnificent as colonnades ; but Arches,
they are more folid and lefs expenfive. They are wherept'*-i
proper for triumphal entrances, gates of cities, ofPen
palaces, of gardens, and of parks, and, in gene¬
ral, for all openings that require an extraordinary
breadth. 66
There are various manners of adorning arches. How a-
Sometimes their piers are rufticated ; femetiffies they doi'ne<1,
are adorned with pilafters, termini, or caryatides ;
and fometimes they are made fufficiently broad to ad¬
mit niches or windows. The circular part of the
arch is either furrounded with ruftic key-ftones, or
with an archivolt enriched with mouldings; which,
in the middle, is fometimes interrupted by a confole,
a malk, ferving at the fame time as a key to the arch,
and as a fupport to the architrave of the order. The
archivolt is fometimes fupported by an impoft, at the
head of the pier; and at others by columns placed
on each fide of it, with a regular entablature, or ar¬
chitrave and cornice. There are likewife inftances of
arcades without piers, the arches being turned on
fingle columns as in the temple of Faunus at Rome,
&c. This pradlice, however, ought to be feldom imi¬
tated, as it is neither folid nor handfome.
When arches are large, the key-ftone Ihould never
be omitted, but cut in the form of a confole, and car¬
ried clofe under the foffit of the architrave, which on
account of its extraordinary length, requires a fup¬
port in the middle. The impofts of arches ftiould ne¬
ver be omitted ; at leaft, if they be, a platform ought
to fupply their place. If columns are employed with¬
out pedeftals in arcades, they Ihould always be raifed
oh a plinth. In all arches, the circular part ought
not to fpring immediately from the impoft, but
take
ARCH ITECTURE.
s. take its rife at fuch a difiance above it as is necefiary
ardor to have the whole curve feen at the proper
point .of view.
The void or aperture of arches fliould never be
higher nor much lower, than double their breadth ;
the breadth of the pier Ihould feldom exceed two
thirds, nor be lefs than- one third, of - the breadth of
the arch; and the angular pier ought to be broader
than the others, by one half, one third, or one fourth ;
the impoft Ihould not be more than one feventh, nor
lefs than one ninth of the aperture ; and the archivclt
muft hot be more than one.eighth, nor lefs than one
tenth of it. The breadth of.the confole muft, at the
bottom, be equal to that of the archivolt; and its fides
nmft be drawn from the centre of the arch : the length
of it mufi not be lefs than one and a half of its fmalleft
breadth; nor more than double. The thicknefs of the
pier depends on the-breadth of-the portico; for it muft;
be ftrong enough to refill the prelfure of its vault. But
with regard to the beauty of the building, it Ihould not
be lefs than one quarter of the breadth of the arch, nor
made in the form of a bafevient, on which the order Pnnciplt
that decorates the principal ftory is placed. The'
proportion of thefe bafements is not fixed, but de¬
pends on the nature of the rooms .on the ground-floor.
In the palace of the Porti in Vicenza, the height of
the bafement is equal to- that of the order. In fome
buildings, its height exceeds mo thirds of that of thfc
order; and, in others, only half the height of the or¬
der. It is not, however^, advifable to make the
bafement higher than the order it fupports : neither
Ihould it be lower than one half of the order. / v (
The ufual method of decorating bafements is withDecoia-
ruftics of different kinds. The bell, where neatnefstions, &
and finilhing is aimed at, are fuch as have a fmoothof bafe'
furface. Their height, including the joint, fhould ne-ments*
ver be lefs, nor much more, than half a module of
the order placed on the bafement. Their figure may
be from a fquare to a fefquialtera; and their joints
may be either fquare or chamfered. The fquare ones
Ihould not be broader than one eighth of the height
of the-ruftic, nor narrower than one tenth; and their
more than one third. Thefe are. tlie general dimen-
fidns of arches..
68 Chap. VIII. Of Orders above Orders.
Wh e n, in a building, two or more orders are em- -
ployed, one -above another, the laws of folidity require
the. ftrongeft Ihould be placed lowermoft. Hence the
Tufcan muft fupport the Doric, the Doric the Ionic,
the Ionic the Compofite or Corinthian, and the Com-
pofite the Corinthian.
This rule, however, is: not always ftriftly adhered to.
Moft authors place the Componte above the Corinthian.
There are likewife examples where the fame order is
repeated, as in the theatre of Statilus Taurus, and the
Colifeum ; ,and others, where an intermediate - order is
omitted, , and the Ionic placed on the Tufcan, or the
Corinthian on the Doric, But.none of thele.prafiices
ought; to be imitated*
In placing columns above one' another; the axis of
all the columns ought.to correfpond, or be in the fame
(jO) perpendicular line, at leaft infront.
Propor* With regard to the proportions of columns placed
tions ofco .at>ove each .other, .Scamozzi’s rule, That the lower
^ ed^Vov diameter 'of the fuperior- column ihouM conftantly be
cachethen*e<lua* t0 upper diameter of the inferior one, is uni-
verfally efteemed the beft, and gives all the. columns
the.appearance of.one long tapering tree,, cut into fe-
veral pieces. According to this rule, the Doric .co¬
lumn will be to. the Tufcanv as 13y. to 14 ; the Ionic
to the Doric, as 15 to 16 ; the Compofite or Corinthi¬
an to the Ionic, as. 16* to 18 ; and the Corinthian to
the Compofite,-as 16i to 20.
In Britain there , are few examples of more, than
two ftories of columns in. the fame afpedt; and though
in Italy, and other parts of Europe, we frequently meet
with three, and • fometimes more ; yet it is a pradlice
by no means to be imitated ; for. there is no poflibility
of avoiding many linking iaconfiftencies, or of preferr¬
ing the charadler of each order, in its intercolumnial
decorations.
■jo Chap. IX. Of Bafement s:
Instead of employing feveral orders one above the
ether in a compoiiiion, the. ground-floor is fome times
26.
depth muft be equal to their breadth; thofe that are
chamfered muft form a reftangle; and the breadth
of the whole joint may be from one fourth to one third . j
of the height of the flat furface of the ruftic. .
Chap. X. Of Pediments. l&i
Pediments, among the Romans, were ufed only >
as coverings to their facred buildings, till Casfar ob- '
tained leave to cover his houfe with a pointed roof, ;
after the manner of temples. In the remains of anti- ]
quity we meet with two kinds of pediments, the tri¬
angular and the circular. The former of thefe are j
promifeuoufly applied to cover fmall or large bodies : .
But1 the latter, being of a heavier figure, are never 1
ufed but. as coverings to doors, niches, windows, or
gates.
As a pediment reprefents the roof, it fhould never
be employed but as a finilhing to the whole compofi- i
tion.
The- ancients introduced but few pediments into their j
buildings, ufually contenting themfelves with a Angle 5
one to adorn the middle dr principal- part; But fome
of the moderns, and particularly the Italians, have been
fo immoderately fond of them, that their buildings fre- !
quently confift of almoft nothing elfe.
The girder being a neceffiary part in the conftruc- :
tion of a roof, it is an impropriety to intermit the
horizontal entablature of a pediment, by which it is
reprefented, to make, room for a niche, an arch, or a j
window7. 73 '
In regular architefture, no other form of pediments Forms,&
can be admitted; befides the triangular and circular,
Both of them are beautiful; and when a confiderablements* '
number of pediments are introduced, as when a range .
of windows are adorned with them, thefe two figures
may be. ufed alternately, as in the niches of the Pan¬
theon, and in- thofe of the temple of Diana at Nif-
mes.
The proportion of pediments depends upon their • <
fize ; for the fame proportions wall not do in all cafes.
When the bafe of the pediment is fhort, its height
muft be increafed ; and when the pediment is long,
the height muft be. diminiilicj. The beft proportion -
fo»
ARCHITECTURE. 241
. for the height is from one fifth to one fourth of the The general proportion for the apertures, both of | Pnncpks.
-> bafe, according to the extent of the pediment, and gates and doors, whether arched or fquare, is, that v
the character of the body it covers. The materials the height be about double the breadth. 77
of the roof mull alfo be attended to; for if it be co- The moll common, and indeed almolt the only Pic's,
vered with tiles, it will be neceflary to raile it more ornaments for gates are the piers by which they are
than one quarter of the bafe, as was the cuitom of fupported, and which were originally no more than
the ancients in their Tufcan temples. ' bare polls into which the hinges of the gate were dri-
The tympan is always on a line with the front of ven. Though this, however, is the only proper ufe
the frize ; and when large, admits of various orna- of piers, it mult be concealed as much as poffible,
ments> and they mult feem as if placed there only for orna¬
ment. As they are to be fixed to the wall before the
houfe, fo they mull alfo be proportioned to it; and
as they are to be leen in the fame view with the
front of the houle, their correfpondenee with it is
Chap. XL Of Ballujirades.
Ballustrades are fometimes of real ufe in build-
75
■portion,
of bal¬
ings 5 and at other times they are only ornamental, equally necelfary. They are to be placed on a plinth,
Such as are intended for ufe, as when they are em- and fomething mull be allowed by way of ornament
ployed in flair-cafes, before windows, or to inclofe ter- and finilhing at the top. All the luxuriance of fancy
ralfes, &c. mull always be nearly of .the fame height; may be employed in the decoration of piers : but it
never exceeding three feet and a half, nor ever lefs will be proper to obferve this general rule, that the
than three. But thofe that are principally defigned pier being an inferior building, it mull never be
for ornament, as when they finilh a building, Ihould richer than the front of the '’houfe. If, for inllance,
be proportioned to the archite&ure they accompany : the front of the houfe is ornamented with columns of
and their height ought never to exceed four fifths of the Doric order, the Ionic mult not be ufed in the
the height of the entablature on which they arc pla- piers 5 and it will be found better to omit columns
ced } nor Ihould it ever be lefs than two thirds there- altogether, than to make ufe of the Tufcan order for
of, without counting the zocholo, or plinth, the piers in any cale. If the Ionic or Corinthian orders
height of which mull be fufficient to leave the whole are employed in the front of the houfe, the Doric or
ballullrade expofed to view. Ionic may be ufed with propriety in the piers. One
The bell proportion for ballullrades is to divide the piece of ornament is almoll univerfal in piers, namely,
whole given height into thirteen equal parts ; eight a niche with its feat, made as if for the conveniency
of the-fe for the height of the ballufter, three for the of weary travellers. On this account, it will be pro-
bafe, and two for the cornice or rail j or into, four- per to raife the columns on pedellals, becaufe the
teen, (if it be required to make the ballulter lefs), continued moulding from their cap will be a good
giving eight parts to the ballulter, four to the bafe,
and two to the rail. One of thefe parts may be cal¬
led module; and being divided into nine minutes,
may ferve to determine the dimenfions/of the particu¬
lar members.
In ballullrades, the diltance between two ballulters
Ihould not exceed half the diameter of the ballulter
ornament under the niche. The bafe of the columns
ought always to be the Attic.
Infide-doors, however fmall the building may be,
Ihould never be narrower than two feet nine inches \
nor Ihould they ever, in private houfes, exceed three
feet fix inches in breadth, which is more than fuffi¬
cient to _admit the bulkielt perfon. Their height
meafured in its thickelt part, nor be lefs than one third Ihould at leall be fix feet three or four inches ; other-
0^t- wife a tall perfon cannot pafs without Hooping. In
The breadth of the pedellals, when they are placed churches, palaces, &c. where there is a conllant in-
on columns or pilallers, is regulated by them } the grefs and egrefs of people, the apertures mull be lar-
dye never being made broader than the top of the ger. The fmallell breadth that can be given to a
lhaft, nor much narrower 5 and when there are nei- gate is 8-j- or 9 feet, which is but juft fufficient for the
ther columns nor pilafters on the front, the dye fhould palfage of a coach.
not be much lower than a Iquare, and leldom high- Plate XLII. fig. 1. Is a ruftic door, compoled by
er. On Hairs, or any other inclined planes, the fame the celebrated Vignola, in which the aperture occu-
proportions are to be obferved as on horizontal ones, pies two thirds of the whole height, and one half of
, the whole breadth; the figure of it being a double
Chap. XII, Of Gates, Doors, and Piers* fquare. The ruftics may be either fmooth or hatch-
, . ed ; their joints mull form a redtangle, and the
1 I here are two kinds of entrances, viz. doors and breadth of each joint may be one third, or two fe-
gates. The former ferve only for the paflage of per- venths, of the vertical furface of a ruftic. The joints
fons on foot; but the latter likewife admit horfemen of the claveaux, or key-ftones, mull be drawn to the
and carriages. Doors are ufed as entrances to church- fummit of an equilateral triangle, whofe bafe is the
es and other public buildings, to common dwelling- top of the aperture. The architrave furrounding the
homes, and apartments : And gates ferve for inlets aperture may be compofed either of a large ogee and
to dties, ortrelTes, parks, gardens, palaces, &c. fillet, or of a platband and fillet. Its whole breadth
1 he apertures of gates being always wide, they are mull be one tenth of the breadth of the aperture ;
genera y made in the form of an arch, that figure the remaining part of each pier being for the ruftics.
t.,e rongsft‘ But doors, which are generally The entablature is Tufcan : the cornice is to be one
0t . 1 r , ,m. ons’ are commonly parallelograms, fifteenth of the whole height of the door; and what
and doled horizontally remains below it bdng divided lnto 2I j parts>
H h the
and clofed horizontally.
Vol. II. Parti.
242
A RCHITECTURE.
Part t
Principles, the two uppermoft of them will be for the frize and dinal Sermonetti. The height of the aperture is fome- Principl
J architrave, and the remaining 19 for the ruftics and what more than twice its breadth j which breadth oc- '
plinth at the foot of the door. *■
Fig. 2. Is a difpofition of Michael Angelo’s. The
windows of the Capitol at Rome are of this kind 5 and
copies one third of the breadth of the whole compofi-
tion. The order is Compolite ; and the height of the
entablature is equal to one quarter of the height of
Sir Chriftopher Wren hath executed doors of the fame the column. He has made a break in it over each
kind under the femicircular porches in the flanks column : but, unlefs the column project confiderably.
of St Paul’s. The figure of the aperture may be a it will be as well to carry the entablature on in ;
double fquare; the architrave one fixth of the breadth
of the aperture ; and the whole entablature one quar¬
ter of its height. The front of the pilafters or co¬
lumns on each fide, muft be on a line with the fafcia
of the architrave 5 and their breadth muft be a femi-
diameter.
ftraight line. The dimenfions of the particular parts
may be meafured on the defign.
Fig. 3. Is alfo a compofition of Mr Chambers, exe¬
cuted at Goodwood, the feat of his grace the duke of
Richmond, in Suflex. The diameter is one quarter
of the height, exclufive of the finilhing, which is equal
Fig. 3. Is likewife a defign of Vignola’s. It is of to one diameter : and the height of the pier, from
the Corinthian order, and executed in the Cancellaria the top of the entablature downwards, being divided
at Rome. The height is equal to double its breadth ; into eleven and a half parts, one of thefe parts is gl¬
and the whole ornament at the top is equal to one ven to the bafe, bile to each rultic, and one and a half
third of the height of the aperture. The architrave to the aftragal, frize and cornice.
1 breadth one fifth of the breadth of the aperture $
and the pilalters, that fupport the confoles are half as
broad as the architrave. The whole is well imagined,
but rather heavy 5 and it will be belt to reduce the
architrave to one fixth of the aperture, diminiihing
the entablature proportionally.
Fig. 4. Is a defign of Serlio’s. The aperture may
be either twice as high as broad, or a trifle lefs. The
diameter of the columns may be equal to one quar¬
ter of the breadth of the aperture ; and their height
may be from eight diameters to eight and a half.
The entablature mull be fomewhat lefs than one
Fig. 4. Is a compofition of the late earl of Burling¬
ton’s, that great architect and patron of the fine arts,
w'hich is executed at Chifwick, and at Bedford-houfe
in Bloomlbury-fquare, with Ibme little difference.
Fig. 5. Is an invention of Mr Chambers.
Fig. 6. Is one of Inigo Jones’s ; of which kind he
hath executed a couple at Aimlbury in Wiltfhire, the
feat of his grace the duke of Queenlberry.
Chap. XIII. Of Windows.
The firfi: confideration with regard to windows is Proportion
/! U ' 4.^ ~ of winHnw*
quarter of the height of the columns j and the height their fize, which varies according to the climate, the °f window*
r 1 t . 1 . ii* _ • _ r .i -ij:  -d  •
of the pediment may be one quarter of its bafe.
deftination of the building, &c. In Britain, the win¬
Fig* 5- Is a door in the falon of the Farnefe at dows of the fmalleft private houfes are commonly
Rome, defigned by Vignola. The aperture forms a from 3 to 3J feet broad j and being generally twice
double fquare. The entablature is equal to three their breadth in height, or fomewhat more, in the
elevenths of its height, the architrave being one of principal apartments, they generally rife to within a
thefe elevenths 5 and the whole ornaments on the foot or two of the cielings of the rooms, which are
fides, confifting of the architrave and pilafters, is frequently no higher than 10 feet, and at moft 12 or
equal to two fevenths of the breadth of the aperture : 13. But, in more confiderable houfes, the apart-
the cornice is Compofite, enriched with mutules and ments are from 15 to 20 feet high, and fometimes-
dentils 5 and the frize is adorned with a feftoon of more ; and in thefe the windows are from 4 to 5 and
Ipurel.
5-y feet broad, and high in proportion. Thefe dimeu-
Fig. 6. Is copied from a door at Florence, faid to fions are fufficient for dwelling-houfes of any fize in
be a defign of Cigoli’s. The height of the aperture is this country ; when they are larger, they admit too
a trifle more than twice its breadth. It is arched ; much of the cold air in winter. But churches, and
and the impoft is equal to half a diameter. Tne co- other buildings of that kind, may have larger wii
lumns are Ionic, fomewhat above nine diameters high
and their fhafts are garnifhed each with five ruftic
dows, proportioned to the fize of the ftru&ures.
The proportions of the apertures of windows de-
cinftures. The entablature is lefs than one quarter pend upon their fituation. Their breadth in all the
of the column ; and the breadth of the tablet, in ftories muft be the fame ; but the different heights of
hich there is an infcription, is equal to the breadth the apartments make it neceffary to vary the height
r , r .i j  vi T„ ^.1—  : 1 Ia.
of the aperture.
‘ Plate LII. fig. 1. Is a pier invented by Mr Cham¬
bers. Its diameter may be one quarter of its height.
of the windows likewife. In the principal floor,
may be from 2-g- of the breadth to 2-f, according as
the rooms have more or lefs elevation. In the ground-
exclufive of the plinth and vafe ; and the height of ftory, where the apartments are lower, the apertures
both thefe may be equal to one diameter of the pier,
or a trifle lefs. The ruftics may either be plain,
of the windows feldom exceed a double fquare 5 and,
when they are in a ruftic bafement, they are frequent-
hatched, or vermiculated : the height of each courfe ly made much lower. The height of the windows of
may be one eleventh part of the height of the pier,
counting to the top of the - entablature ; the entabla¬
ture two elevenths j and the bafe of the pier one ele¬
venth part.
Fig. 2. Is likewife a compofition of Mr Chambers,
the fecond floor may be from x-|- of their breadth to
if ; and Attics and Mezzanines may be either a per-
feft fquare, or fomewhat lower. |
The windows of the principal floor are generally uow orn*|
moft enriched. The fimpleft method , of adorning mented. [j
imitated from M. Angelo Buonaroti’s defign for Car- them is, with an architrave furrounding the aperture,
and
Tart I. A R C H I T
j Principles, and crowned with a frize and cornice. The windows
• ' of the ground-floor are fometimes left entirely plain,
without any ornament j and at others they are fur-
rounded with ruftics, or a regular architrave with a
frize and cornice. Thole of the fecond floor have ge¬
nerally an. architrave carried entirely round the aper¬
ture ; and the fame is the method of adorning Attic
and Mezzanine windows : but the two lafl: have fel-
dom either frize or cornice ; whereas the fecond-floor
windows are often crowned with both.
The breads of all the windows on the fame floor
fhould be on the fame level, and railed above the floor
from two feet nine inches to three feet fix inches at
the very moll. When the walls are thick, the breafts
Ihould be reduced under the apertures, for the con-
veniency of looking out. In France, the windows are
frequently carried quite down to the floor. When
the building is furrounded with gardens, or other
beautiful objects, this method renders the rooms ex¬
ceeding pleafant.
The interval between the apertures of windows de¬
pends in a great meafure on their enrichments. The
breadth of the aperture is the kail diltance that can
be between them $ and twice that breadth Ihould be
the largeft in dwelling-houfes ; otherwife the rooms
will not be lufficientiy lighted. ‘ The windows in all
the ftories of the fame afpeft mull be placed exactly
above one another.
Plate XLI1I. fig. i. Is a defign of P. Lefcot, ab¬
bot of Clagny, executed in the old Louvre at Paris.
The apertures may be a double lquare,.or a trifle
more 5 the architrave from one fixth to one leventh
of the breadth of the aperture : the pilalter is equal
to that breadth, when the architrave is narrow; or
lefs by one quarter, or one fifth, when it is broad.
The whole entablature Ihould not exceed one quarter
of the height of the aperture, nor be much lower.
The confoles may be equal in length to half the
breadth of the aperture at moll, and to one third of it
at lealt.
Fig. 2. Is a defign of Palladio’s, executed at the
Chiericato in Vicenza : its proportions are not much
different from the following. The plat-band that
fupports the window is equal to the breadth of the ar¬
chitrave.
Fig. 3. Is likewife a defign of Palladio’s, executed
by him in many of his buildings. The aperture is a
double Iquare. The breadth of the architrave is one
fixth of the breadth of the aperture ; and the frize
and cornice together are double the height of the ar¬
chitrave. The breadth of the confoles is two thirds
of the breadth of the architrave.
Fig. 4. Is a defign of Ludovico da Cigoli ; and ex¬
ecuted in the ground-floor of the Ranunchini palace
at Florence.
Fig. 3. Is a defign of Inigo Jones, executed at the
Banqueting-houfe. The aperture may be a double
fquare ; the architrave may be one fixth of its breadth;
the whole entablature one quarter of its height 5 and
the breadth of the confoles two thirds of the breadth
of the architrave.
Fig. 6. Is a defign of M. Angelo Buonorati, execu¬
ted at the Farnefe.
Chap. XIV. Of Niches and Statues.
It hath been cuftomary, in all ages, to enrich differ-
E C T U R E. 243
ent parts of buildings with reprefentations of the hu- Principles,
man body. Thus the ancients adorned their temples, u—-v—^
baths, theatres, &c. with llatues of their deities, he¬
roes, and legiflators. The moderns ftill preferve the
fame cuftom, placing in their churches, palaces, &c.
ftatues of illuffrious perfons, and even groups compo-
fed of various figures, reprefenting occurrences collec¬
ted from hitlory, tables, &c. Sometimes thefe ilafues
or groups are detached, raifed on pedeftals, and placed
contiguous to the walls of a building, or in the middle
of a room, court or public;fquare. But they are moll
frequently placed in cavities made in the walls, called 8l
niches. Of thefe there are two forts ; the one formed Different
like an arch in its elevation, and femicircular or femi- kinds of
elliptical in its plan j the other is a parallelogram both niches-
in its plan and elevation.
The proportion of both thefe niches depends on the
charadlers of the llatues, or the general form of the
groups placed in them. The lowelt are at leall a
double fquare in height; and the highelt never exceed
24- of their breadth.
With regard to the manner of decorating them, now 4eCo.
when they are alone in a compofition, they are gene- rated,
rally inclofed in a pannel, formed and proportioned
like tjje aperture of a window, and adorned in the
fame manner. In this cafe the niche is carried quite
down to the bottom ; but on the fides and at the top,
a fmall fpace is left between the niche and the archi¬
trave of the pannel. And when niches are intermix¬
ed with windows, they may be adorned in the fame
manner with the windows, provided the ornaments be
of the fame figure and dimenfions with thole of the
windows.
The fize of the ftatue depends on the dimenfions of Statues,
the niches. They Ihould neither be fo large as to have
the appearance of being rammed into the niches as in
Santa Maria Majora at Rome; nor fo narrow as to
feem loll in them, as in the Pantheon. The diltance
between the outline of the llatue and fide of the niche
Ihould never be lefs than one third of a head, nor
more than one half, whether the niche be fquare or
arched ; and wjien it is fquare, the diltance from the
top of the head to the cieling of the niche fhould not
be greater than the diltance on the fides. Statues
are generally raifed on a plinth, the height of which
may be from one third to one half of a head ; and
fometimes, where the niches are large, the llatues
may be raifed on fmall pedeltals.
The character of the llatue Ihould always correfpond
with the charadjer of the architedlure with which it
is furrounded. Thus, if the order he Doric, Hercules,
Jupiter, Mars, jEfculapimt, and all male llatues, re¬
prefenting beings of a robult and grave nature, may
be introduced 5 if Ionic, then Apollo, Bacchus, &c. ;
and if Corinthian, Venus, Flora, and others of a deli¬
cate nature, Ihould be employed.
Chap. XV. Of Chimney-pieces.
Among the ancients there are very few examples
of chimney-pieces to be met with. Neither the Itali¬
ans nor French have excelled in compofitions of this
kind. Britain, by being poflefled of many able fculp-
tors at different times, has furpaffed a:l other nations^
both in talleof defign, and workmanlhip.
H h 2 , The
8+
ARCHITECTURE.
j The fize of the chimney muft be regulated by the The coldnefs of the Britilh climate is a ftrong ob-
dimenfions of the room where it is placed. In the jedlion to high 100ms; fo that it is not uncommon to
Proportions ^Tia^e^: apartments, the breadth of the aperture Ihould fee the molt magnificent apartments not above 15, 16,
and fitua-never be lefs than three feet, or three feet fix inches, or at molt 18 feet high; though the extent of the
tions. In rooms from 20 to 24 feet fquare, or of equal fuper- rooms would require a much more confiderable eleva-
ficial dimenfions, it may be from 4 to 44- feet broad ; tion. But where beauty is aimed at, this pradice
in thofe of 24 to 27, from qi to 5 ; and in inch as ex ought not to be imitated.
ceed thefe dimenfions, the aperture may even be ex- When rooms are adorned with an entire order the
tended to 54- or 6 feet. entablature fhould never exceed one fixth of the whole
The chimney (hould always be fituated fo as to be height in flat-cieled rooms, and one fixth of the up-
immediately feen by thofe Who enter the room. The right part in coved ones ; and when there are neither
middle of the partition wall is the mofl: proper place columns nor pilaflers, but only an entablature its
in halls, falons, and other rooms of palfage; but in height fhould not be above one feventh of thefe
drawing-rooms, dreffing-rooms, and the like, the mid-' heights. If the rooms be finifhed with a fimple cor-
dle of the back-wall is the beft fituation. In bed- nice, it fhould never exceed one fourteenth nor ever
rooms, the chimney is always in the middle of one of be lefs than one fifteenth part of the above mentioned
the partition-walls: and in clofets and other very height,
fmall places, to fave room, it is put in a corner. Where-
High room:
improper in
Britain.
wo chimneys are ufed in the fame room, they
fhould be placed either direftly facing each other, if
in different walls, or at equal diflances from the centre
of the wall in which they both are.
The proportion of the apertures of chimney-pieces
of a moderate fize is generally a perfect fquare ; in
Chap. XVII. Of Cielings.
Cielings are either flat, or coved in different man¬
ners. The fimpleft of the flat kind are thofe adorned
with large compartments, furrounded with one or fe-
veral mouldings, either let into the cieling, or projec-
fmall ones, it is a trifle higher ; and in large ones, a ting beyond its furface : and when the mouldings that
trifle lower. Their ornaments confift in architraves, form the compartments are enriched, and lome of the
frizes, cornices, columns, pilaflers, termini, caryati- compartments adorned with well executed ornaments,
des, confoles, and all kinds' of ornaments of fculpture, fuch cielings have a good effeft, and are very proper
reprefenting animals and vegetables, &c. likewife for common dwelling-houfes, and all low apartments,
vafes, chalices, trophies of arms, &c. In defigning Their ornaments and mouldings ds not require a bold
them regard muff be had to the nature of the place relief; but, being near the eye, they muft be finifhed
where they are to be employed. Such as are intend- with tafte and neatnefs. For higher rooms, a flat ciel-
ed for halls, falons, guard rooms, gallaries, and other ing which has the appearance of being compofed of
large places, muft be compofed of large parts, few in various joifts framed into each other, and forming
number, of diftinft and fimple forms, and having a compartments of various geometrical figures, fhould
bold relief; but chimney-pieces for drawing-rooms, be employed. The fides of the joifls forming the com-
drefling-rooms, &c. may be of a more delicate and partments are generally adorned with mouldings, and
complitated nature. reprefent either a fimple architrave, or an architrave-
Chimney-pieces are cdmpofed of wood, ftone, or cornice, according to the fize of the compartments
marble ; the laft of which ought to be preferred, as fi- and the height of the room.
gures or profiles are beft reprefented in a pure white. Coved eielings are more expenfive ; but they are
Plate XLIV. Exhibits different defigns for chim- likewife more beautiful. They are ufed promifcuoufly
ney-pieces by Palladio and Inigo Jones. Their pro- in large and fmall rooms, and occupy from one fifth
portion may be gathered from the defigns, which are to one third of the height of the room. If the room
accurately executed. be low in proportion to its breadth, the cove muft like¬
wife be low ; and when it is high, the cove muft be fo
Chap. XVI. Of the Proportion? of Rooms. likewife : by which means the excels of the height
will be rendered lefs perceptible. But, where the ar-
The proportions of rooms depend in a great mea- chiteft is at liberty to proportion the height of the
fure on their ufe, and actual dimenfions : but, with room to its fuperficial dimenfions, the moll eligible
regard to beauty, all figures, from a fquare to a fef- proportion for the cove is one fourth of the whole
quilateral, may be employed for the plan. height. In parallelogram-figured rooms, the middle-
The height of rooms depends on their figure. Flat of the cieling is generally formed into a large flat pan-
cieled ones may be lower than thofe that are coved, nel. This pannel, with the border that furrounds it.
If their plan be a fquare, their height Ihould not ex- may occupy from one half to three fifths of the
ceed five fixths of the fide, nor be lefs than four fifths; breadth of the room. The figure of the cove is com-
and when it is oblong, their height may be equal to monly either a quadrant of a circle or of an elliple,
their breadth. But coved rooms, if fquare, mull be taking its rife a little above the cornice, and finifliing
as high as broad; and when oblong, they may have at the border round the great pannel in the centre,
their height equal to their breadth, more one fifth. The border projeds fomewhat beyond the coves on the
one quarter, or even one third of the difference be- outfide ; and, on the fide towards the pannel, it is ge-
tween the length and breadth: and galleries ftiould nerally made of fufficient depth to admit the orna-
at leaft be in height one and one third of their breadth, ments of an architrave, or architrave and cornice,
and at mofl; one and a half, or one and three-fifths. In Britain circular rooms are not much in ufe ; but
they
Alien itec T cue.
. />//. 4.
r ^ S’
Plate X)
SiCSc//.
1
(
)
s
■
i
I
—s
Plate ^LVI.
Archite c txxre.
Plate XLYTT-
'PPBeMt^rrn. M></ :
art I. A R C H I T
nciples. they are very beautiful. Their height muft be the
'fame with that of iquare rooms; their cielings may
be flat; but they are handfomer when coved, or of a
concave form.
Arcs donblaux, or foffits of arches, when narrow,
are ornamented with guillochs, or frets; but when
broad, they may be adorned in a different manner.
When the profiles of the room are gilt, the cielings
ought likewife to be gilt. The ufual method is to
gild all the ornaments, and to leave the grounds white,
pearl colour, light blue, or of any other tint proper
to fet off the gilding to advantage. Painted cielings,
fo common in France and Italy, are but little ufed in
Britain.
Chap. XVIII. Of Stairs and Stair-cafes.
There are many kinds of Stair-cafes : for, in fome,
the fteps are made ftraight; in others winding ; in
others, mixed of both. Of ffraight flairs, fome fly
direftly forward, others are fquare, others triangular.
Others are called French flights, or windingjlairs,
(which in'general are called fpiral, or cockle-flairs') ;
of which fome are fquare, fome circular or round, and
fome elliptical or oval; and thefe again are various,
fome winding about a folid, others about an open
newel. Stairs mixed of ftraight and winding fteps
are alfo of various kinds ; fome are called dog legged;
fome there are that wind about a folid newel, and o-
thers that fly about a fquare open newel.
Stair-cafes Great care ought to be taken in placing of the
where to be ftair-cafe in any building ; and therefore ftair-cafes
Maced. ought to be defcribed and accounted for juftly when
the plan of a building .is made. For want of this,
fbmetimes unpardonable errors have been committed :
fuch as having a little blind flair cafe to a large houfe,
or, on the other hand, a large fpacious ijair-cafe to a
little one.
Palladio fays, in placing flair-cafes, the utmoft care
ought to be taken ; it being difficult to find a place
convenient for them, that will not at the fame time
prejudice the reft of the building. But commonly
the flairs are placed in the angle, wing, or middle of
the front.
To every ftair-cafe are required three openings.
Firft, the door leading thereto.
Secondly, the window, or windows that give light
to it;
And, thirdly, the landing.
Firft, the door leading to the ftair-cafe ffiould be
fo placed, that moft of the building may be feen be¬
fore you come at the flairs, and in fuch a manner
that it may be ealy for any perfon to find out.
Secondly, for the windows ; if there be but one,
it muft be placed in the middle of the ftair-cafe, that
thereby the whole may be enlightened.
Thirdly, the landing of flairs fhould be large and
Ipacious for the convenient entering into rooms: in
a word, flair-cafes (hould be fpacious, light, and ealy
in afcent. The height of large fteps muft never be
lefs than fix inches, nor more than feven inches and a
half.
The breadth of fteps fliould never be lefs than 10
inches, nor more than i8 inches f and the length of
them not lefs than three feet, nor more than 12.
E C T U R E.
245
Plate XLV. fig. I. A ftair-eafe of two flights.— Principles.
fhews the manner of drawing the ramp, whi h is ' v 
to rife equal to the height of the firft ftep of the next 91
flight, and as much as its kneeling •, as is (hewn by the
ramp interfering the rail of the lecond flight.
Fig. 2. Shews the ftraight rail interfering a cir¬
cular cap.
_ Fig. 3. Serion of two different hand-rails.
Fig. 4. Shews the manner of dove-tailing the rifer
into the ftep.
Plate XLVI. fig. 1. Reprefents a ftair-cafe, with 9*
flights, and its landing-rail.
Fig. 2. Shews the folid part of the ftep out of
which the fcroll is formed; where a reprelents the 0-
v erf ail of the ftep; b, The thicknefs of the bracket,
with its mitring to the rifer ; and, c, The //ring-b'jard.
Fig. 4. Shews the fcale for drawing the fcroll of
fig. 3—To perform which, take the diftance from 1
to the centre, in fig. 3. and let it from 1 to the cen¬
tre in fig. 4.; divide that extent into three parts, then
fet 4 fuch parts on the upper fide of the icale, and
draw the line from 4 to one ; let one foot of your
compafles at 4, and ftrike the circular line ; let that
be divided into 12 equal parts, and then draw lines
from 4 through thofe divifions to the upright line.
The fcale being thus made, draw the fcroll of fig. 3.
by it in the following manner.
Set one foot of your compafles in 1, and defcribe a
ftroke at c; take the fame diftance, and with one
foot in 2, crofs the ftroke at c y then from c, turn
the part from 1 to 2, and proceed in the fame man¬
ner ; for if the diftance were taken in the fcale from
1 to the centre, it would ftrike the circle-too flat; and
if taken from 2, it would ftrike the circle too
quick.
When this is well underftood, there will be little diffi¬
culty in drawing the fcroll below fig. 2.; which throws
itfelf out farther in proportion than that in fig. 3. ;
for this will always be the cafe when the upper line
of the fcale, which confifts of four divifions in fig. 4.
is made but with three divifions or lefs ; whence
it appears, that the upper line of the fcale may be
drawn at what length you pleafe, according as you
would bring in or keep out the fcroll.
Plate XLVII. Shews the manner of fquaring
twift-rails.
Fig. 2. Exhibits the pitch-board, to fliew what
part of the ftep the twifted part of the rail contains;
the three doted lines drawn from the rail to the
pitch-board reprefent the width of the rail, which is
to be kept level. The doted lines a and b ihew how
much half the width of the rail turns up from its firft
beginning to 3.
Fig. 3. Shews the fame pitch-board with the man¬
ner of the rail’s turning up. If the fides of the
twifted part of the rail be fliaped by the rail-mould,
fo that they diretft down to its ground-plan, that
is, the upper fide of the rail being firft ftruck by
the mould, then apply the mould to the under fide,
as much back as the level of the pitch-board (hews,
by being ftruck on the fide of the rail, and then fig. 3.
being applied to the outfide of the rail, from its firft
twilling part to 3, will ftiow how much wood is to be
taken off.
Fig- ^
24.6
Practice.
ARC H ITECTURE. Part II.
Fig. 5. Exhibits the fquare of the rail, with the
raking line of the pitch-board drawn through the
middle on the upper fide; then draw the depth of
the fide the rail parallel to this, and the dotted lines
from the diagonal of the rail, thefe lines fhew what
quantity of wood will be wanting on the upper and
lower fides of the rail. Set your compafles at c, and
draw the circular iiroke from the raking part of the
pitch-board to & ; take the diftance a b and transfer
it from a to b, in fig. 7. The leveral diftances
thus found may be let at any number of places, ran¬
ging with the ftraight part of the rail; and it then
forms the width of the mould for the twilling part of
the rail.
Fig. 7. Shows the fweep of the rail. The rail
cannot be fixed lels than one fourth part from the
nojing or front of the Hep.
The remaining part of the pitch-board may be di¬
vided into any number of parts, as here into four j
from thefe divifions draw lines acrofe the pitch-board
to the ranking line ; then take the dillances from the
ground line of the pitch-board to the plan of the
rail, and let them perpendicular from the ranking line
of the pitch board; and thefe divifions, when the
rail is in its proper pofition, lie diredlly over the di¬
vifions on the ground plan.
In this figure, /, m, and «, rife as much above 0 as
the dotted line in fig. 5- does above the width of the
rail; and they fink as much below 0 as the other
dotted line in fig. 5. falls below the width of the rail;
the fame thicknel's mull be glued upon 0, though the
greatell part will come off in fquaring. The reafon
of placing the letters /, m, and «, where they are,
is, that they might not obftrudl the fmall divifions of
the rail-mould.
Fig. 4. Shews how to find the rail when it takes
more than one Hep. The remaining part of the pitch-
board is divided into four parts, as before in fig. 7*
and it takes in two fuch parts of the next Hep. Draw
lines from thefe divifions to the diagonal of the pitch-
board as in fig. 7. then take the diilance a b, and fet it
from c to d, and lb proceed with the other divifions.
Another way to find the outfide of the rail-mould
is, to draw all the divifions acrofs the plan of the rail ;
then take the diilance from the ground line of the
pitch-board to 4, transfer it from the diagonal of the
pitch-board to 4 on the rail; and fo proceed with
the other dillances. Now, when the rail is put in its Praftke.
proper fituation c will be perpendicular to b, and all ' /~~l
the divifions, as 1, 2, 3, 4, ire. in the rail, will be
perpendicular to x, 2, 3, 4, fac. in the ground-plan. .
Fig. 6. Shews the plan of a rail of five Heps.
To find the rail.—Set five divifions, as from e to h,
which is the height of the five Heps; draw the diagon¬
al h to the plan of the rail; then take the diilance e/,
and transfer it to g h, and proceed in the fame man¬
ner with the other feven dillances.
To find the width of the rail-mould.—Draw the
lines acrofs the plan of the rail, as at £ ; fet that
diltance from the diagonal to t y and fo proceed with
the reft, as Ihewn in fig. 4.
Having formed the fides of the rail perpendicular
to its ground-plan, and having fquared the lower end
of the rail, then take a thin lath, and bend it with the
rail, as is reprelented by m, fig. x.
This is the readieft method of fquaring a lolid rail;
but if the rail be bent in the thicknefles, the nofing of
the fteps mull be drawn upon a cylinder, or fome o-
ther folid body of a fufficient width to cqntain the
width of the rail or firing-board.
r Reprefents the depth of the rail, touching the
nofe of each ftep. Take a fufficient number of thick-
nelles of this width, to make the thicknels of your
rail, glue them altogether upon your cylinder or
templet, confine them till they are dry, and the rail
taken off is ready fquared. Proceed in the lame man¬
ner with the architrave, marked a.
Chap. XIX. Of Roofs. 94
Plate XLVIII. Fig. 1. Shews the form of a trqf-
led roof, with three ring pofts, that may carry leven-
ty feet or upwards.
Fig. 2. Exhibits an M roof, capable of carrying as
great an extent as the former. Indeed both thefe de¬
signs are capable of carrying almoft any extent.
Fig. 3. Reprelents two different forts of truffes.
Fig. 4. Shews the manner of piecing timber. Some¬
times the joint may be extended as far as a, with ano¬
ther bolt through it. To the right is fhewn a different
fort of joint.
Fig. 5. Shews the manner of truffing a girder. If
the truffes are full long, with the pieces b and r, you
may make them as light as you pleafe.
Fig. 6. Reprefents the manner of truffing partitions.
Part II. PRACTICE of ARCHITECTURE.
HAving thus deferibed and given rules for the moft
generally received proportions of the different
arts of buildings, both of the ufeful and ornamental
ind, we muft next give an account of the method of
erecting different kinds of edifices ; and here the judg¬
ment of the architect muft neceffarily be very much
employed, as no fixed rules have been laid down by
which he can be direfled in all cafes. As a neceffary
preliminary, however, to the conftrudtion, we muft
firft confider,
Chap. I. The Situations of Houfes.
Though it muft be, in many cafos, impoffible to
chufe fuch a fituation as might be agreeable either to
the archited or the proprietor, yet where a choice can
be made, there are certainly a great many circum-
ftances that will determine one fituation to be prefer¬
able to another. Thefe circumftances depend entirely
on the perfon who is to inhabit the houfe. A farmer,
for inftance, ought to dwell in the moft centrical part
of his farm ; an independent gentleman muft regard
the healthinefs, the neighbours with whom he can con-
verfe, the profpeft from his houfe, and alfo the afpedl
of the ground near it. To anfwer thefe purpofes of
health and pleafure, an open elevated fituation is the
beft, as the air is there pure, and the profped extenfive;
but two elevated a fituation is difagreeable, as being
both difficult of accefs, and expofed to cold and bleak
winds. To build in bottoms between hills is both un¬
healthful and unpleafant, the houfe being in a manner
buried.
fart II. ARCHITECTURE.
247
P"
6
Qualities of
:he ground
secefl'ary to
3e cxamin-
d- .
Rocky
ground
fometimes
iangerous.
98
Bandy or
boggy
ground how
managed.
buried, and the ground near it generally marfhy from
the rain-water which runs down from the hills, which
renders the air uuwholefome. As a garden alfo is a
very neceffary article to a country habitation, the foil
is by no means a matter of indifference y and there¬
fore it may be concluded, that an elevated fituation
on a gravelly loam, near fome running water, is the
bell fituation for a country houfe.
Chap. II. Of the conJlruElim of Edifices in general.
The proper fituation of a houfe, or any other budd¬
ing, being cholen, according to its intended nature, the
next thing to be confidered is to lay the foundation in
a proper manner. The only fecurity of a houle, or any
other building whatever, is in having a good founda¬
tion, and no error is fo dangerous asx that which is
committed here ; as the Ihrinking of the foundation
but the breadth of a ftraw may caufe a rent of five or
fix inches wide in the fuperftrudfure. To guard a-
gainlt errors of this kind, the qualities of the ground
for a confiderable depth muff be carefully obferved.
The bell foundation is that which confifts of gravel
or Hone 5 but, in order to know’ whether the inferior
ftrata are fufficient for the fupport of the building, it
will be advifable to fink wells at Ibme little diftance.
By attending to what is thrown up in digging thefe,
the architect will be acquainted with what lies under
the ftony or graveHy bed which on the furface pro-
mifes fo much fecurity, and will know what meafures
to take.
But though a ftony or gravelly bottom is undoubt¬
edly the moft fure and firm, where all is found beneath,
there is nokiad of ground which may prove more fal¬
lacious, or occafion fitch terrible accidents. The reafon
of this is, that fuch kind of ground often contains ab-
folute vacuities; nor is rockitfelf, though a foundation
upon a rock is ftrong even to a proverb, free from dan¬
gers of the fame kind. Caverns are very frequent in
rocky places; and ftiouldan heavy building be ere&ed
over one of thefe, it might fuddenly fall down altoge¬
ther. To guard againft accidents of this kind, Palla¬
dio advifes the throwing down great weights forcibly
on the ground, and obferving whether it founds hol¬
low, or fhakes; and the beating of a drum upon it,
by the found of which an accuftomed ear will know
whether the earth is hollow or not.
Where the foundation is gravel, it will be proper to
examine the thicknefs of the ftratum, and the qualities
of thole that lie under it, as they have appeared in
digging. If the bed of gravel is thick, and the under
ftrata of a found and firm kind, there needs no affift-
ance ; if otherwife, we muft have recourfe to various
methods in order to fitppiy the defedf.
The other matters which may occur for a foundation
are clay, fand, common earth or rotten boggy ground.
Clay will often both raife and fink a foundation ; yet
it has a folidity which, with proper management, is
very ufeful. The marfiiy, rotten or boggy ground is
of all others the worft; yet even upon this great build¬
ings may be raifed with perfeft fafety, provided pro¬
per care be taken. In cafe of boggy earths, or un¬
firm fand, piling is one of the moft common methods,
of fecuring a foundation; and, notwithftanding the na¬
tural difadvantage of the earth, piles, when properly
executed, are one of the firmeft and moft fecure foun- Praftice.
dations.
In ^foundations near the edge of waters, we Ihould pounda-
always be careful to found to the very bottom, as many tions near
terrible accidents have happened from the ground be- waters dan-
ing undermined by rivers. The fame method is to be terous.
followed when the ground on which we build has been
dug or wrought before. It ought never to be trufted
in the condition in which it is left; but we muft dig
through it into the folid and unmoved ground, and
fome way into that, according to the weight and big- too
nefs of the intended edifice. The church of St Peter’s Defeft in
at Rome is an inftance of the importance of this laft St Peter’s
obfervation. That church is in great part built upon at Rome,
the old circus of Nero ; and the builders having ne-
glefted to dig through the old foundation, the ftruc-
ture is confequently lb much the weaker. The walls
were judged of ftrength enough to bear two. fteeples
upon the corners of the frontifpiece ; but the foun¬
dation was found too weak when it was injpoffible to
remedy the defeat perfedtly.
Before the architeft, however, begins to lay the
foundation of the building, it will be proper to con-
ftruft fuch drains as may be neceffarv for carrying off
the. rain, or other refufe water that would otherwife 101
be colle&ed and lodge about the houfe. In making of Drainshow
drains for carrying off this water, it will be neceffary made.
to make large allowances for the different quantities
that may be colle&ed at different times. It muft alfo
be confidered, that water of this kind is always loaded
with a vaft quantity of fediment, which by its continual
falling to the bottom will be very apt to choakupthe
drain, efjiecially at thofe places where there happen fo
be angles or corners in its courfe. The only method of
preventing this is by means of certain cavities difpofed
at proper diftances from one another. Into thefe the
fediment will becolledted, and they are for that realbn 10a
called fefpnols. With regard to thefe, the only direc- Sefspoofi.
tions neceffary are, that they be placed at proper dif¬
tances, be fufficiently large, and placed fo as to be
eafily cleaned. It is a good rule to make a fefspool at
each place where the water enters the drain ; as by this
means a confiderable quantity of fediment will be pre¬
vented from entering the channel at all. Others are
to be made at proper diftances, efpecially where there
are any angles. They muft be made fufficiently large;
the bigger, in moderation, the better; and they muft
alfo be covered in fuch a manner as to be eafily got at
in order to be cleaned. But as putrid water is exceed-^
ingly noxious, it will be neceffary to carry up a brick
funnel over every fefspool, in order to prevent the col--
leffion of the putrid effluvia, which would otherwife
occafion the death of the perfon who cleaned it. 10^
All drains ought to be arched over at top, and may Proportions
be moft conveniently built of brick. According to of drains,
their different fizes, the following proportions of height
and thicknefs may be obferved. If the drain is 18
inches wide, the height of the walls may be one foot,
and their thicknefs 9 inches; the bottom may be
paved with brick laid flatwife, and the arch turned 4
inches. If the drain is 22 inches wide, the fide walls
are then to be one foot three inches in height, and the
reft conftru£Ied as before. If it is 14 inches wide, the
height of the walls may be 9 inches, and the fweep
of the arch 4. A drain of a yard wide (hould have the
fame
248
architecture.
Part I.
Practice, fame height, and the arch turned over it ought to be for we fee, in the remains of their works, walls thus Praftice.
9 inches thick. Upon the fame principles and propor- carried up to an exorbitant height. It is to be obferved,
tions may other drains of any fize be conftruCted.
The fewers and drains being conftrufled in a manner
however, that, befides perfect truth in their perpen¬
diculars, they never grudged iron-work, which contri-
©f buildings proportioned to the fize of the intended building, the buted greatly to the itrength of their buildings. The
how laid, architect may next proceed to lay the foundation of the
walls. Here the firit care muft be, that the floor of the
foundat ion be perfectly fmooth and level. rI he Italians
begin with laying over it an even covering of ftrong oak
plank; and upon that they lay, with the moll exadt
care, the fir ft courfe of the materials. Whether we
take this method, or begin upon the naked floor, all
muft be laid with the moft exact truth by rule and line.
When the board plat is laid, a courfe of ftone is the
belt firft bed, and this is to be laid without mortar j
for lime would make the wood decay, which otherwiie,
in a tolerably good foil, will laft for ages. After this,
all the courles Ihould follow with the lame perfect even-
nefs and regularity. If the materials are brick, they
fhould be laid on with an equal, and not too great
thicknefs and diminution of walls is in a great meafure
arbitrary. In common houfes built of brick, the ge¬
neral diminution from the bottom to the top is one half
the thicknefs at the bottom 5 the beginning is two
bricks, then a brick and a half, and laftly one brick,
thicknefs. In larger edifices, the walls muft be made
proportional iy thicker 5 but the diminution is preferved
much in the lame manner. Where ftones are ufed re¬
gard muft be had to their nature, and the propriety
as their figures for holding one another. Where the
wall is to be compofed of two materials, as ftone and
brick, the heavieft ought always to be placed under-
moft. 107
There is one farther particular regarding theftrength Angles how
of a plain wall, and that is, the fortifying its angles, fort‘^et*•
quantity of mortar : if ftone, they ought to be placed This is beft done with good ftone on each fide, which
regularly, and in the fame fituation in which they lay
1 the quarry : for many ftones which will bear any^
gives not only a great deal of ftrength, but a great
deal of beauty. Pilafters properly applied are a great
ight flatwife, and in their natural pofition, are of ftrengthening to walls. Their beft diftance is about
fuch a grain, that they will Iplit otherwile. 1 he join¬
ings of the under courfe muft be covered by the iofid
ofthe next courfe all the way up) and the utmoft care
•muft be taken that there be no vacuity left m the wal,
tor the weight w ill moft certainly cruih it in. 1 he lels
mortar there is in a foundation, the better. Its ule is
to cement the bricks and ftones together; and the even-
er they are, the lefs will be required for that purpole.
Where mortar is ufed to fill up cavities, it becomes
part of the wall; and not being of equal ftrength with
the folid materials, it takes from the firmneis of the
building. For the fame reafon, nothing can be more
abfurd than to fill up a foundation witn loofe ftones or
bricks thrown in at random j and where this is done,
the ruin of the building is inevitable. Where the
foundation of a principal wall is laid upon piles, it will
be neceftary alfo to pile the foundations of the parti-
!or tions, though not fo ftrongly.
Thicknefs The thicknefs of foundation-walls in general ought
and dirai- to be double that of the walls which they are to fup-
nutions of p0rt> rpiie loofer the ground, the thicker the founda-
wall, &c. t;on_waii ought to be } and it will require the fame ad¬
dition alfo in proportion of what is to be raifed upon it.
The plane of the ground muft be perfectly level, that
the weight may prefs equally every where : for when
it inclines more to one fide than another, the wall will
fplit. The foundations muft diminifli as they rife, but
the perpendicular is to be exaftly kept in the upper
and lower parts of the wall; and this caution ought to
be obferved all the way up with the fame ftriftnefs. In
fome ground, the foundation may be arched) which will
fave materials and labour, at the fame time that the
fuperftruclure has an equal fecurity. This pra&ice is
j06 peculiarly ferviceable where the foundation is piled.
Diminution As the foundation-walls are to diminifli in thicknefs,
of the f0 are thofe which are built upon them. This is ne-
thicknefs ceffary order to fave expence, but is not abfolutely
«f wa Is. ^ to ftrengthen the wall) for this would be no lefs
ftrong though it was continued all the way to the top
of an equal thicknefs, provided the perpendicular was
exa&ly kept. In this the ancients ,were very expert)
No. 27.
every 20 foot, and they ftiould rife five or fix inches
from the naked of the wall. A much {lighter wall of
brick with this alfiftance, is ftronger than a heavier
and maflier one built plain. In brick walls of every
kind, it is alfo a great addition to their ftrength to lay
fome chief courfes of a larger and harder matter) for
thefe ferve like finews to keep all the reft firmly toge¬
ther, and are of great ufe where a w'all happens to fink
more on one fide than another. As the openings in a 108
wall are all weakenings, and as the corners require to Windows
be the ftrongeft parts, there ftiould never be a window improper
very near a corner. Properly, there fliould always be near the
the breadth or the opening farm to the corner. In the
moft perfeft way of forming the diminution of walls,
the middle of the thinneft part being direttly over the
middle of the thickeft, the whole is of a pyramidal
form) but where one fide of the wall muft be per¬
pendicular and plain, it ought to be the inner, for the
lake of the floors and crofs walls. The diminiftied
fide, in this cafe, may be covered with a fafcia or cor¬
nice, which will at once be a ftrength and ornament. Io9
Along with the conftrudion of walls, that of the Chimneys,
chimneys muft alfo be confidered) for errors in the
conftruiftion of thefe, will render the moft elegant
building extremely dilagreeable. The common
caufes of fmoking are either that the wind is too
much let in above at the mouth of the fliaft, or the
fmoke is ftifled below) and fometimes a higher build¬
ing, or a great elevation of the ground behind, is
the fource of the mifchief) or laftly, the room in
which the chimney is may be fo fmall or clofe, that
there is not a fufticient current of air to drive up the
fmoke. Aim oft all that can be done, while the walls
are conftrudtmg, to prevent ifnoke, is, to make the
chimney vent narrower at bottom than at top :
yet this muft not be carried to an extreme; becaufe
the fmoke will then linger in the upper part, and all
the force of the draught w ill not be able to fend it
up. As for the methods of curing {moky chimneys
in houfes already built, fee the article Chimney.
After
AH C HIT E, C TTJHE .
Elate XL ! > ,
•Ss'ct/e/ vf
. /Cci/k
U33?art II.
AkGfliTEGTUkE.
249
After the walls are finlfhed, the roof is the next con-
J fideration : but concerning it vety little can be faid
of the inclofed ground : they will thus fill up a part of < Praftice. _
the entrance, and will leave all about the houfe fome ' "
only that its weight muftbe proportioned to theftrength inclofed ground by way of yard. From the barn to the
of the walls. It muft alfo be lb contrived as to ptefs liable may be extended a fence with a gate in the mid-
—11 •' ’ '' ’■ —1 iL- ! --^-11 a die, and this gate ought to front the door of the houfe.
This much being fettled,, the plan of the houfe and
equally upon the building ; and the inner trails muft
bear their lhare of the load as well as the outer dries*
A roof ought neither to be too mafly nor too light; out buildings may be made as follows. The door may
as being neceflary for keeping the walls together by its
prefliire, which it is incapable of doing while too light;
and if too heavy, it is in danger of throwing them
open into a plain brick paflage, at the end of which
may be carried up a fmall ftair-cafe. On one fide of
the paflage may be a common kitchen ; and on the o-
down. Of thefe two extremes, however, the laft is to ther fide a better dr larger room, which will lerve the
family by way of parlour. Beyond this may Hand on
moft commonly One fide the pantry, and on the other the dairy room,
They are
x ... t , n account
of the heat of the kitchen, which renders it improper
be accounted the worfi.
With regard to the floors, they
made of wood; in which cale, it will be necellary that the laft being twice the fize of the former,
it ftrould be well fealbned by being kept a confiderable placed on the fame fide with the parlour,
time Before it is uled. The floors of the fame ftory
flrould Be all perfectly on a level; not even a threlhold to be near them. On the kitchen fide, a brew-houfe
rifing above the reft: and if in any part there is a room
or clofet whofe floor is not perfedlly level, it ought not
to be left fo, but raifed to an equality with the reft ;
what is wanting of the true floor being fupplied by a
falfe one.
In mean houfes, the floors riiay be made of clay, ox
blood, and a moderate portion of fharp land. Thele
may very conveniently be placed. More rooms may
be added on the ground-floor as occafion requires; and
the upper ftory is to be divided into bed-chambers for
the family, with garrets over them for the fervants.—
A houfe of this kind is reprefented Plate XL1X.
fig. 1. ; and one of a fome what better kind fig. 2.
where a private gentleman who has a fmall family
three ingredients, beaten thoroughly together and well may find conveniency. liy
fpread, make a firm good floor, and of a beautiful co- On Plate L. is reprelented a gentleman’s country- Of an cle
lour. In elegant houfes, the floors of this kind are feat, built on a more elegant plan. Here the front gart coun¬
made of plafter of Paris, beaten and fifted, and mixed may extend 6c feet in length, the depth in the cen- feat.
tiu-   .  tre be;ng 40 feet, and in each of the wings 45. The
offices may be difpofed in wings ; the kitchen in the
one, and the ftables in the other; both of which, how-
with other ingredients. This may be coloured to any
hue by the addition of proper fubftances ; and, when
well worked and laid, makes a very beautiful floor, fie-
fides thefe, halls, and fome other ground-fooms, are ever, may correfpond in their front with the reft of
paved Of floored with marble Or ftdne ; and this either the building, which they ought alfo to do w ith 0
plain or dotted, of of a variety of colours : but the
univerfal practice of carpeting has, in a great meafure
fet afide the bellowing any ornamental workmanfhip
upon floors. In country buildings, alfo, floors are fre¬
quently made of bricks and tiles. Thefe, according to
their fliapes, may be laid in a variety of figi
they are alfo incapable of fome variation i
according to the nature of the earth from which they
were made. They may be laid at any time ; but for
thofe of earth or plaller, they are beft made in the be¬
ginning of fummer, for the fake of their drying.
Chap. III. 0/the dijlribution of the Apartments of
HonfeS) with other conveniences.
another. Theft wings may have a projection of 13
feet from the dwelling-houfe, to Which they ought to
be connected, not by ftraight lines, but by curves, as
fepreftnted fig. 2.
The beft proportion of theft Offices to a houfe ex-
; and tending 65 feet in front, is 35 feet. If they are final-
colour, ler, the houfe will look gigantic ; if larger, they w ill
jeflen its afpeCt. To a front of 35 feet, a depth of 48
is a very good proportion. There ought alfo to be a
covered communication between the dwelling-houfe
and offices, which muft not appear only to be a plain
blank wall, but muft be ornamented with gates, as in
the figure. The arch by which the offices are joined
to the dwelling-houfe muft be proportioned to the ex¬
tent of the buildings; and there cannot be a better pro-
As houfes are built only for the fake of their inha- Port‘°n than five feet within the angles of the build-
bitants, the diftribution of the apartments muft of ne- ’ngSi % this means the wings, which have only a pro-
, ,8 ceffity be directed by the w'Sy of life in which the in- jedlion of 13 feet, will appear to have one of r8, and
flan of a habitants are engaged* In the country, this is com- t^e be agreeably broken,
farm-houfe-monly farming ; and here, befides the houfe for the With regard to the internal diftribtition of a houfe
family, there is alfo necelfary a barn for the reception °f this kind, the under flory may be conveniently di-
of the produce of the ground, a liable for cattle, a v'ded ’ntci three rooms. The hall, which is in the cen-
cart-houft for keeping the utenfils under cover, and tre> vt‘h ofccupy the whole of the projecting part, ha-
ftieds for other ufes To accomplilh thefe purpofes, v'nS a room on each fider The length of the hall
let a piece of ground be taken of five times the extent be 24 feet, and its breadth 12 : the rooms on
of the front of the houft, and inclofed in the leaft ex- each fltJe it muft be 16 feet long, and 11 wide,
penfive manner. Back in the centre of this let the Of thefe two front rooms, that on the right hand may
houfe be placed, and in the front of the ground the be conveniently made a waiting-room for perfens of
barn and the liable, with the adjoining {beds. Thefe better rank, and that on the left hand a dreffing-room
are to be fet, one on each fide, to the extreme meafure f°r the mailer of the houft. Behind the hall may run
Vol. II. Part I* I i *
Of the
Earl of
Wemyfs’s
houfe.
A R C H I T E
:• a paffage of four feet and an half, leading to the a-
“•J partments in the hinder part of the houle and the ftair-
cafe. Thele may be dilpofed as follows. Dire&ly
behind the hall and this palfage the fpace may be oc¬
cupied by a faloon, whole length is 24 feet and its
breadth 17. On the left hand of the palfage, behind
the hall, is to be placed the grand Itair-cale ; and as
it will not fill the whole depth, a pleafant common
parlour may terminate on that fide of the houfe. On
the other fide, the paffage is to lead to the door of
the great dining parlour, which may occupy the whole
Ipace.
A plan of a houfe of the fame kind, but fomewhat
different in the diftribution, is reprefented below in
the fame plate. The front here extends 68 feet, and
the wings projedl 28 feet 5 their depth is 48, and their
breadth 36. The hall may be 26 feet long and x 7 broad.
On the left hand of the hall may be a waiting-room
16 feet long and 10 broad } behind which may be a
handlbme dining-room. The paflage into this waiting-
room Ihould be at the lower end of the hall j and it
muft have another opening into the room behind it.
On the right hand of the hall is the place of the great
flair-cafe, for which a breadth .of 16 feet three inches
is to be allowed. In the centre of the building, be¬
hind the hall, may be a drawing room 26 feet long
and 16 broad ; and behind the flair-cafe will be room
for a common parlour of 16 feet fquare. The paffage
of communication between the houfe and wings may be
formed into colonnades in a cheap manner behind : a
flight of Heps, railed with a fweep, occupying the
centx'e of each, and leading up to a door, and the co¬
vering being no more than a Hied fupported by the
plaineft and cheapeft columns.
The two wings now remain to be difpofed of. That
on the right hand may contain the kitchen and offices
belonging to it, and the other the flables. The front
of the right-hand wing may be occupied by a kitchen
entirely, which will then be 30 feet long and 164-
wide j or it may be made fmaller, by fetting off a
fmall room to the right. Twenty-two feet by 16 will
then be a good bignefs. The other room will then
have the fame depth of 16 feet, and the width to the
front may be 74> Beyond the kitchen may ftand the
flair-cafe, for which 74 feet will be a proper allow¬
ance; and to the right of this may be a fcullery 12 feet
10 inches deep from the back front by 7 in breadth.
To the left of the flair may be a fervants hall 16 feet
fquare, and behind that a larder 12 feet 10 by 14
feet 6. In the centre of the other wing may be a
double coach-houfe : for which there fhould be allow¬
ed the whole breadth of the wing, with 10 feet 6 inch¬
es in the clear ; and on each fide of this may be the
flables. The external decorations of the front and
wings will be better underflood from the figure than
they can be by any defcription.
Plate LI. fliows the plan and elevation of the houfe
of the Earl of Wemyfs at Newmills. The propor¬
tions of the rooms are marked in the plan; and the
front, being decorated with columns of the Ionic or¬
der, will fufficiently fliow in what manner any of the
five orders may be induced with propriety and ele¬
gance.
C T U R E. Parti]
Praftice
Chap. IV. Of Aquatic Buildings.
1. Of Bridges. t
These are conflru&ed either of wood or Hone ; of
which the laft are evidently the llrongefl and moft du¬
rable, and therefore, in all cafes to be preferred where
the expence of erecting them can be borne. The
proper fituation for them is eafily known, and requires
no explanation ; the only thing to be obfervcd is, to
make them crofs the flream at right angles, for the
fake of the boats that pafs through the arches, with
the current of the river ; and to prevent the continual
flriking of the fixeam agaiufl the piers, which in a
long courfe may endanger their being damaged and
deftroyed in the end.
Bridges built for a communication of high roads,
ought to be fb ftrong and fubllantial as to be proof
againfl all accidents that may happen, to have a free
entrance for carriages, afford an ealy paflage to the
watei*s, and be properly adapted for navigation, if the
river admits of it. Therefore the bridge ought to
be at leaf! as long as the river is wide in the time of its
greatefl flood : becaufe the Hoping of the waters above
may caufe too great a fall, which may prove danger¬
ous to the veffels, and occafion the under gravelling
the foundation of the piers and abutments; or, by re¬
ducing the paffage of the water too much in time of
a great flood, it might break through the banks of the
river, and overflow the adjacent country, which would
caufe very great damages ; or if this fhould not hap¬
pen, the water might rife above the arches, and en¬
danger the bridge to be overfet, as has happened in
many places.
When the length of the bridge is equal to the
breadth of the river, which is commonly the cafe, the
current is leffened by the fpace taken up by the piers;
for which reafon this thicknefs fliould be no more than
is neceffary to fupport the arches ; and it depends, as
well as that of the abutments, on the width of the ar¬
ches, their thicknefs, and the height of the piers. 123
The form of the arch is commonly femicircular; but Proper
when they are-of any great width, they are made ellip- ^™es°f
tical, becaufe they would otherwife become too high.
This has been done at the Pont Royal at Paris, where
the middle arch is 75 feet, and its height would have
been 37.5 feet, inflead of which it is only 24 by being
made elliptical.
Another advantage of much more importance arifes
from the oval figure, which is, that the quantity of ma-
fonry of the arches is reduced in the fame proportion
as the radius of the arch is to its height. That is, if
the radius is 36 feet, and the height of the arch 24, or
three-fourths of the radius, the quantity ofmafbnry of
the arches is likewife reduced to three-fourths; which
muft leflen the expence of the bridge confiderably.
Notwithftanding thefe advantages, however, the lateft
experiments have determined legmentsof circles to be-
preferable to curves of any other kind; and of thefe
the femicircle is undoubtedly the bell, as prefling moft
perpendicularly on the piers.
When the height of the piers is about fix feet, and
the arches are circular, experience has Ihown, fays Mr
JBelidor,
Alt C III T E C T TJIti: .
Plate L.
An C HIT n C T IT TV T •
ritvfe HI.
%
*art It. A R C H I T
yftPrafHce. Belidor, that it is fufficient to make the thicknefs of
-y——I pjers t{le p^,. Qf Qf (.^g aj.c}1) an£J
two feet more } that is, the thicknefs of the piers of
an arch of 36 feet, ought to be 8 feet} thofe of an
arch of 48.feet, to be jo.
When the arches are of a great width, the thicknefs
E C T U R E.
Table containing the thicknefs of pie
r of bridges.
H
Otfhicknefs
»£ the piers. 0f tjle piers may be reduced to the fixth part of that —
riitf the arch-
jfcones.
width 5 but the depreflion of the two feet is not done
at once 5 that is, in an arch of above 48 feet, 3 inches
are taken off for every 6 feet of increale of the width
of the arch. For inftance, the thicknefs of the piers
fupporting an arch of 72 feet wide, fliould be 14 feet,
according to the preceding rule 5 but by taking off
3 inches for every 6 feet, above an arch of 48 wide,
the thicknefi of the piers is reduced to 13 feet; confe-
quently, by following the fame rule, the thicknefs of
the piers fupporting an arch of 16 fathoms wide, will
be 16 feet} all the others above that width are the
fixth part of the width.
After this, Mr Belidor gives a rule for finding the
thicknefs of the piers which fupport elliptic arches, and
makes them fironger than the former : the abutments
he makes one fixth part more than the piers of the lar-
geft arch. But it is plain that thele rules are infufficient,
being merely guefs-work, determined from fome works
that have been executed.
The thicknefs of the arch-ftones is not to be deter¬
mined by theory, nor do thofe authors who have writ¬
ten on the fubjeft agree amongft themlelves. Mr Gau¬
tier, an experienced engineer, in his works, makes the
length of the arch-ftones, of an arch 24 feet wide, two
feet} of an arch 45, 60, 75, 90 wide, to be 3, 4, 5, 6,
feet long relpedfively, when they are hard and dura¬
ble, and fomething longer when they are of a foft na¬
ture : on the contrary, Mr Belidor fays, they ought to f from 6 t0 f j each increa£n_ T "‘T tion of thfi
be always one twenty-fourth part of the width of the the firft vertical column(4the v idth ^ ^tabIe.
arch whether the ftone be hard or foft} becaufe, if they t0 I00 fee for e fi;e feei> 20
are foft, they wetgh notTo much. The other columns exprefs the thicknefs of piers in
But that the length of the arch-ftones fhould be but feetand declmai accordf tQ. the fefpeftive heS at
a foot in an arch of 24 feet wide 2, 3, 4, m arches of the head of the ’co]um aSnd the f
48, 72, 96 feet, feems incredible }_ becaufe the great gainft it in the firft colu^n< the arch a"
Thus, for example, let the width of the arch be 6a
feet, and the height of the piers 12 } then the number
12.718, under 12, and againft 60, exprefles the thick¬
nefs of the piers, that is 12 feet and 8.6 inches : we muft
obferve again, that the length of the ,key-ftone is 2 feet
The firft horizontal line exprefles the height of the Explana-
Veight of the arches would crufli them to pieces, by
the preflure againft one another} and therefore Mr
Gautier’s rule appears preferable } as he made the
length of the arch-ftones to increale in a flower pro¬
portion, from xo to 45 feet wide, than in thofe above
that width, we imagine that the latter will be fuffi¬
cient for all widths, whether they are great or little }
therefore we ftiall fuppofe the length of the arch-ftpnes
of 30 feet in width to be two feet, and to increale one
foot in 15} that is, 3 feet in an arch of 45 feet} 4, 5, 6,
in an arch of 60, 75, and 90 feet: and lb the reft in
the fame proportion.
in an arch of 30 feet wide } 3, 4, 5, 6, in an arch of 45,
6°) 75’ 9° 5 that of 20 feet wide, 1 foot 4 inches}
arid the length of any other width is found by adding
4 inches for every 5 feet in width.
As this table contains the thicknefles of piers in re-
l|)e£f to afehes that are commonly uled in practice, wc
imagined, that to carry it farther would be needlefs }
becaufe the difference between the thicknefs of the piers
of any contiguous arches being but fmall, thofe between
any two marked here, may be made equal to half the
fum of the next below and above it: thus the thicknefs
of the piers of an arch 52 or 53 feet wide is nearly equal
to 10.222, half the fum of the thicknefles 9.805 and
10.64 of the arches 50 and 55 feet wide, when the
height of the piers is 6 feet.
Re&angular piers are feldom ufed but in bridges o- Form of
ver fmall rivers. In all others, they project the bridge piers,
by a triangular prifm, which prefents an edge to the
I i 2 ftream,
ARCHITECTURE.-
Part II.
ftream, in order to divide the water more eafily, and to
prevent the ice from.fheltering there, as well as veffels
from running foul again ft them : that edge is termina¬
ted by the adjacent furfaces at right angles to each o-
ther at Weftminfter-bridge, and make an acute angle
at the Pont Royal of about 60 degrees j but of late
the French terminate this angle by two cylindric fur-
faces, whole bales are arcs of 60 degrees, in all their
new bridges.
Slope of the When the banks of the rivers are pretty high, the
bonds of the piles, to faften the infide wall to the outfide Praftice.
one ; thefe tie-beams are let into the bonds and bolted v—v—J
to the adjacent piles: this being done, the bottom is
cleared from the loole fand and gravel, by a machine
like thole ufed by ballaft-heavers 5 and when well pre¬
pared clay is rammed into this coffer very tight and
linn, to prevent the water from oozing through.
Sometimes thele incloiures are made with piles only
driven clofe to each other; atothers, the piles are notch¬
ed or dove-tailed one into the other; but the moft ufual
bridge is made quite level above, and all the arches of method is to drive piles with grosves in them, j or 6
an equal width ; but where they are low, or for the
fake of navigation, a large arch is made in the middle of
the ftream, then the bridge is made higher in the middle
than at the entls : in this cafe, the Hope muft be made
eafy and gradual on both fides, fo as to form above
feet diftant from each other, and boards are let down
between them.
This being done, pumps and other engines are ufed
to draw the water out of the inclofures, fo as to be
quite dry ; then the foundation is dug, and the ftones
one continued curve line, otherwile it appears difagree- are laid with the ufual precautions, oblerving to keep
able to the eye. Mr Belidor will have the defcent of fome of the engines always Handing, in order to draw
that Hope to be one twenty-fourth-part of the length ; out the water that may ooze through the batardeau.
but this is undoubtedly too much, as one fiftieth part of
the length is quite fufficient for the defcent.
: The width commonly allowed to fmall bridges is 30
feet : but in large ones near great towns, theie 30 feet
are allow'ed clear for horles and carriages, befides a
banquet at each fide for foot paftengers of 6 to 9 ft et
each, raifed about a foot above the common road; the
parapet-walls on each fide are about 18 inches thick,
and 4 feet high; they generally project the bridge with
a cornilh underneath : fometimes balluftrades of ftone
or iron are placed upon the parapet, as at Weftffiinfter;
but this is only praclifed where a bridge of a great
length is made near the capital of a country.
The ends of bridges open from the middle of the two
large arches with two wings, making an angle of 45
degrees with the reft, in order to make their entrance
more free and ealy : thefe wings are fupported by the
fame arches of the bridge next to them, being conti¬
nued in the manner of an arch, of which one pier is
much longer than the other.
How the wort is to be carried on.
Methods of As the laying the foundation of the piers is the moft
laying the difficult part of the whole work, it is neceflary we Ihould
foundation, i *•_ ■   a i—*-
The foundation being cleared, and every thing ready
to begin the work, a courle of ftones is laid; the outfide
all round with thelargeft ftretchers and headers that can
be had, and the infide filled with all.ilers well jointed, the
whole laid in terrafs mortar : the facings are crampt
together, and let in lead ; and fome cramps are alio
tiled to faften the facings with the infide. The fame
manner is to be obferved throughout all the courles to
the height of low-water mark ; after which the facings
alone are laid in terrafs mortar, and the infide with the
beft of the common fort. When the foundation is
carried to the height of low-w ater mark, or to the
height where the arches begin, then the Iliaft or mid¬
dle wall is to be carried up nearly to the height of the
arches, and there left flanding till all the piers are fi-
nilhed, in order that the malbnry may be fulficieutly
dry and fettled before the arches are begun. j22
As the piers end generally with an arch at each end, Proper
it is cuftomary to lay-the foundation in the fame man- form of the
ner: which is not fo well as to continue the bafe re£t-ba^e-
angular quite to the ends of the piers, and as high as
low-water mark ; both becaufe the foundation becomes
then fo much broader, and alfo becaufe the water will
not be able to get under it: for when the current fets
foundation, w;tfi an eafy cafe, that is, when the depth of the againft a flat furface, it drives the fand and mud againft
1. _ ' — i ^ o -1  1      1 -c _ n  
131
By batar-
deaus.
water does not exceed 6 or 8 feet; and then proceed
to thofe which may happen in a greater depth of water.
One of the abutments, with the adjacent piers, is in-
it fo as to cover it entirely ; whereas if a fliarp edge
be prelentedto the ftream, it carries every thing away,
and expofes the foundation to the continual aclion of
clofed by a dyke called batardeau by the French, of a the water, which in courle of time muft deftroy it.
fufficient width for the work, and room for the work¬
men. This batardeau is made by driving a double row
of piles, wffiofe diftance is equal to the depth of water,
and the piles in each row are 3 feet from each other
After the intervals between the arches are filled up
with ftones laid in a regular manner without mortar,
and the gravel is laid over them ; two drains or gutters
are to be made lengthwile over the bridge, one on each
they are faftened together bn the outfide by bonds of fide next to the foot-path, about fix feet wide and a foot
6 by 4 inches: this being done, frames of about 9 feet deep ; which being filled with fmall pebble ftones,
wide are p'aced on the infide to receive the boards ferve to carry off the rain water that falls on the bridge,
which are to form the inclofure : the two uprights of and to prevent its filtering through the joints of the
thefe frames are two boards of an inch and half thick, arches, as often happens. 133
lharpened below to be driven into the ground, and fa- The former method of laying the foundation by Method of
ftened together by double bonds, one below and the means of batardeaus is very expenfive, and often meets
other above, each feparated by the thicknefs of the up- with great difficulties t for when the depth of water is ^'waTprac-
rights; thefe bonds ferve to Hide the boards between : 8 feet or more, it is fcarcely poffible to make the ba- tifed at
after thefe frames have been driven into the ground as tardeaus fo tight as to prevent the water from oozing Weftmin-
hard as can be, then the boards themfelves are likewife through them ; and in that cafe the number of engines fter bridge,
driven in till they reach the firm ground underneath. required, as well as the hands to work them, become
Between every two piles tie beams are faftened to the very extenfive; and if part of the batardeau ffiould
break
Part II.
Practice, break by Tome extraordinary wind or tide, the work-
4 « 'men would be expofed to very great danger.
The next and belt method therefore is to build With
coffers, when it is pra&icable, fuch as were ufed at
Wefttninfter bridge. Here the height of water was 6
feet at a medium when lowed, and the tide rofe about
jo feet at a medium alfo : lb that the greateif depth
of water was about 16 feet. At the place where one
of the piers of the middle or great arch was to be,
the workmen began to drive piles of about 13 or 14
inches fquare, and 34 feet long, fliod with iron, fo as
to enter into the gravel with more eafe, and hooped a-
bove to prevent their fplitting in driving them : theie
piles were driven as deep as could be done, which was
13 or 14 feet below the furface of the bed of the ri¬
ver, and 7 feet dilfant from each other, parallel to
the Ihort ends of the pier, and at about 30 feet diifant
from them : the number of thefe piles was 34, and
their intent to prevent any vtfTels or barges from ap¬
proaching the work ; and in order to hinder boats
from paffing between them, booms were placed fo as
to rife and fall with the water.
This being done, the ballaft-men began to dig the
foundation under the water of about 6 feet deep, and
5 wider all round than the intended coffer was to be,
with any eafy flope to prevent the ground from falling
in : in order to prevent the current from wafhing the
fand into the pit, fhort grooved piles were driven be¬
fore the twTo ends and part of the fides, not above 4
feet higher than low-water mark, and about 15 feet
diftant from the coffer : between thefe piles rows of
boards were let into the grooves down to the bed of the
river, and fixed there.
The bottom of the coffer wasmade of a ftrong grate,
confiding of two rows of large timbers, the one long-
wife and the other croffwife, bolted together with
wooden trunnels, ten feet wider than the intended foun¬
dation. The fides of the coffer were made with fir tim-
berslaid horizontally clofe oneover another,pinned with
oaken trunnels, and framed together at the corners,
excepting at the two faliant angles, where they were
fecured with proper irons, fo that the one half might
be loofened from the other if it fltould be thought ne-
ceffary ; thefe fides were lined on the infide as well as
on the outfide with three-inch planks placed vertically 5
the thicknefs of thofe fides was 18 inches at the bot¬
tom, reduced to 15 above, and they were 16 feet high ;
befides, knee-timbers were bolted at the angles, in or¬
der to fecurethem in the ftrongeft manner. The fides
were faftened to the bottom by 28 pieces of timber on
the outfide, and 18 within, calledJlraps, about 8 inches
broad, and 3 or 4 inches thick, reaching and lapping
over the ends of the fides : the lower part of thefe
ftraps had one fide cut dove-tail fafhion, in order to
fit the mortifes made near the edge of the bottom to
receive them, and were kept in their places by iron
wedges} which being drawn out when the fides were
to be taken away, gave liberty to clear the ftraps
from the mortifes.
Before the coffer was launched, the foundation was
examined, in order to know whether it was level; for
which purpofe feveral gauges were made, each of which
confifted of a ftone of about 15 inches fquare and three
thick, with a wooden pole in the middle of about 18
feet long. The foundation being levelled and the cof-
253
fer fixed dire£tly over the place with cables faftened to Prafliee
the adjacent piles, the mafons laid the firft courfe of L——v—^
the ftones for the foundation within it ; which being fi-
nifhed, a fluice made in the fide was opened near the
time of low-water; on which the coffer funk to the
bottom $ and if it did not let level, the fluice was (hut,
and the water pumped out, fo as to make it float till
fuch time as the foundation was levelled : then the ma¬
fons crampt the ftones of the firft courfe, and laid ale-
cond ; which being likewile crampt, a third courfe was
laid : then the fluice being opened again, proper care
was taken that the coffer Ihould fettle in its due place.
The ftone-work being thus railed to within two leer of
the common low-water mark, about two hours before
low-water the fluice was (hut, and the water pumped
out fo far as that the mafons could lay the next courfe
of ftone, which they continued to do till the water was
rifen fo high as to make it unfafe to proceed any far¬
ther : then they left off the work, and opened the fluice
to let in the water. Thus they continued to work
night and day at low-water till they had carried their
work fome feet higher than the low-water mark :
after this, the fides of the coffer were loofened from
the bottom, which made them float ; and then were
carried afliore to be fixed to another bottom, in order
to ferve for the next pier.
It mull be obferved, that the coffer being no higher
than 16 feet, which is equal to the greateft depth of
water, and the foundation being 6 feet under the bed
of the river } the coffer was therefore 6 feet under wa¬
ter when the tide was in but being loaded with three
courfes of ftones, and well fecured with ropes faftened1
to the piksj it could not move from its place. By ma¬
king it no higher, much labour and expence were fa-
ved 5 yet it anfwered the intent full as well as if it had
been high enough to reach above the highell flood.
The pier being thus carried on above low-water
mark, the mafons finilhed the reft of it during the
intervals of the tides in the ufual way ; and after all
the piers and abutments were finilhed in a like manner,
the arches were begun and completed as mentioned
before : the whole bridge was built in about feven
years, without any accidents happening either in the
work or to the workmen, which is feldom the cafe in
works of this nature. I54
It may be obferved, that all the piers were built Materials-
with lolid Portland (tone, fome of which weighed four empl°ye£b
tons. The arch-ftones were likewife of the lame fort:
but the reft of the mafonry was finilhed with Kentilh
ragjlones ; and the paths for foot paflengerswere pa¬
ved with purbec, which is the hardeft ftone to be had
in England, excepting Plymouth marble. ,35
This method of building bridges is certainly theea- This me-
fieft and cheapeft that can be thought of, but cannot thod fome-
be ufed in many cafes : when the foundation is fo bad tirals inJ',
as not to he depended upon without being piled, or the 1>ra ica ,ie'
depth of water is very great, with a ftr-ong current and
no tide, it cannot then be pradlifed. For if piles are
to be ufed, it will be next to impoflible to cut them off
in the fame level five or fix feet below the bed of the
river, notwithftanding that faws have been invented for
that purpofe : becaufe if they are cut off feparately, it
will be a hard matter to do it fo nicely that the one fliall
not exceed the other in height; and if this is not done,
the grating or bottom of the cofferwill not be equally
ARCHITECTURE.
35+ A R C H I T £
, Pradlice. Tupported, whereby the foundation becomes precari-
^ 'ous . neither can they bb cut off altogether} for piles
are to be driven as far as the bottom of the coffer ex¬
tends, which at Weftminfter bridge was 27 feet} the
iaw mull have three feet play, which makes the total
length of the faw 30 feet} now, if either the water is
deeper than it is there, or the arches are wider, the
faw muft flill be longer } fo that this method is im¬
practicable in any fuch cafes.
In a great depth of water that has a ftrong current
and no tide, the coffers muft reach above the water,
which makes them very expenfive, and unwieldy to
manage, as well as very difficult to be fecured in their
places, and kept fteady : fo that there is no probabi-
136 lity of ufing them in fuch a cafe.
Ruffian me- jn feme cafes, when there is a great depth of water,
10 ' and the bed of the river is tolerably level, or where it
can be made fo by any contrivance, a vef> ftrong frame
of timber about tour times as large as the bate of the
piers may be letdown with ftones upon it round the
edges to make it fink : after fixing it level, piles muft
be driven about it to keep it in its place } and then the
foundation may be laid in coffers as before, which are
to be kept fteady by means of ropes tied to the piles.
This method has frequently been uled in Ruffia }
and though the bed of the river is not very folid, yet
fuch a grate, when once well fettled with the weight of
the pier upon it, will be as firm as if piles had been
driven under the foundation } but to prevent the water
from gulling under the foundation, and to fecure it
againft all accidents, a row of dove-tail piles muft be
driven quite round the grating : this precaution being
taken, the foundation will be as fecure as any that
can be made.
French me- The French engineers make ufe of another method
ihod. in raifing the foundations of mafonry under water}
which is, to drive a row of piles round the intended
place, nearer to, or farther from, each other, accord¬
ing as the water is more deep or (hallow : thefe piles
being ftrongly bound together in feveral places with
horizontal tie-beams, ferve to fupport a row of dove¬
tail piles driven within them : when this is done, and
all well fecured according to the nature of the fitua-
tion and circumftances, they dig the foundation by
means of a machine with fcoops, invented for that
purpofe, until they come to a folid bed of gravel or
clay } or if the bed of the river is of a foft confidence
to a great depth, it is dug only to about fix feet, and a
grate of timber is laid upon it, which is well fecured
with piles driven into the oppofite corners of each
fquare, not minding whether they exceed the upper
furface of the grate much or little.
When the foundation is thus prepared, they make
a kind of mortar called beton, which confifts of twelve
parts of pozolano or Dutch terrafs, fix of good land,
nine of unflaked lime^ the beft that can be had, thir¬
teen of ftone fplinters not exceeding the bignefs of an
egg, and three parts of tile-duft, or cinders, or elfe
feales of iron out of a forge: this being well worked
together muft be left ftanding for about 24 hours, or
till it becomes fo hard as not to be feparated without
a pick-ax.
This mortar being thus prepared, they throw into
the coffer a bed of ruble-ftone, not very large, and
fpread them all over the bottom as nearly level as they
C T t? R E* Part tl.
can ; then they fink a box full of this hard mortar, Pradtice.
broken into pieces, till it come within a little of the v *  
bottom } the box is fo contrived as to be overfet of
turned upfide down at any depth } which being done,
the pieces of mortar foften, and (b fill up the vacant
fpaces between the ftones } by thefe means they fink
as much of it as will form a bed of about. 12 inches
deep all over : then they throw in another bed of ftone,
and continue alternately to throw one of mortar and
one of ftone till the work approaches near the furface
of the water where it is levelled, and then the reft is
finilhed with ftones in the ufual manner.
Mr Belidor fays, in the fecond part of his Hydrau¬
lics, vol. ii. p. 188, that Mr Millet de Montville ha¬
ving filled a coffer containing 27 cubic feet, with ma¬
fonry made of this mortar, and funk it into the fea, it
was there left ftanding for two months, and when it
was taken out again it was harder than ftone itfelf. j-?
We have hitherto mentioned fuch fituations only Impoffibilb
where the ground is of a foft nature : but where it isty of builds
rocky and uneven, all the former methods prove inef- fn&
fedfual} nor indeed has there yet been any one propo- cjfesmC
fed which can be always ufed upon fuch occafions, e-
fpecially in a great depth of water. When the water
is not fo deep but that the unevennefs of the rock can
be perceived by the eye, piles (Irongly (hod with iron
may be railed and let fall down, by means of a machine,
upon the higher parts, fo as to break them off"piece by
piece, till the foundation is tolerably even, efpecially
when the rock is not very hard} which being done ei¬
ther this or in any other way that can be thought of, a
coffer is made without any bottofn, which is let down
and well lecured, fo as not to move from its place : to
make it fink, heavy ftones fliould be fixed on the out-
fide } then ftrong mortar and ftones muft be thrown in¬
to it} and if the foundation is once brought to a level,
large hewn ftones may be let down fo as to lie flat and
even : by thele means the work may be carried on
quite up to the furface of the water. But when the
water is fo deep, or the rock fo hard as not to be level¬
led, the foundation muft be founded, fo as to get near¬
ly the rifings and fallings} then the lower part of the
coffer muft be cut nearly in the fame manner, and the
reft finiihed as before. It muft however be oblerved,
that we fuppofe a poflibility of finking a coffer } but
where this cannot be done, no method that we know of
will anfwer. t$§
Among the aquatic buildings of fhfc anciefits none Trajan's
appears to have been more magnificent than Trajan’s ov®<'
bridge. Dion Caffius gives the following account o^eferibed *
it : •* Trajan built a bridge over the Danube, which
in truth one cannot fufficiently admire } for though all
the works of Trajan are very magnificent, yet this far
exceed* all the others : the piers were 20 in number, of
fquare ftone : each of them tyo feet high above the
foundation, 60 feet in breadth, and diftant from one
another 170 feet. Though the expence of this work
muft have been exceeding great, yet it becomes more
extraordinary by the river’s being very rapid, and its
bottom of a foft nature : where the bridge was built,
was the narrowed part of the river thereabout, for in
moft others it is double or treble this breadth } and al¬
though on this account it became (b much the deeper
and the more rigid, yet no other place w’as fo fuitable
for this undertaking. The arches were afterwards
broken
Wooden
bridges.
Part II. A R C H I T
Praflice broken down by Adrian ; but the piers are ftill remain-
' ingf, which feem as it were to teitify that there is no¬
thing which human ingenuity is not able to effed.”
'I he whole .length then of this bridge was 1590 yards j
fome authors add, that it was built in one fummer, and
that Apollodorus of Damalcus was the architect, who
left behind him a defcription of this great work.
Where Hone bridges cannot be ereiled on account
of the expence, very ilrong and durable ones may be
confirudied of wood : in which cale they ought to be
fo framed, as that all the parts may prefs upon one a-
nother like the arch of a itone bridge; and thus, in-
ftead of being weakened by great weights palling over
them, they will become the Wronger. How this is to
be accomplilhed, will be better underilobd from the
figure at bottom of Plate L. which reprefents a wooden
bridge conftrudfed after this manner, than it can be by
any defcription.
2. Of Harbours.
E C T U R E.
25S
 don thefe, tlle firft thing to be confidered is the litu-
-proper for ation $ which may be lome large creek or balbn ofwa-
harbours. ter, in or near the place where the harbour is intended
to be made, or at the entrance of a large river, or near
the fea : for a harbour Ihould never be dug entirely out
of dry land, unlefs upon fome extraordinary occafions,
where it is impoflible to do othcrwile, and yet a har¬
bour is abfolutely necelfary. When a proper place is
found, before it is fixed upon, it mull be confidered
whether (hips can lie there fafe in f.ormy weather, e-
fpecially when thofe winds blow which are moil dan¬
gerous upon that coaft ; whether there be any hills, ri¬
ling ground, or high buildings, that will cover it; in
thele cafes, the fituation is very proper but if there be
nothing already that will cover the fhips, it mult be
obferved whether any covering can be made at a mo¬
derate expence, otherwife it would be ulelefs to build
a harbour there.
The next thing to be confidered is, whether there
be a fufficient depth of water for large fl.ips to enter pier is entlrely finifhed.
with fafety, and he there without touching the ground j It muft Hkewife be oh
and if not, whether the entrance and infide might not
be made deeper at a moderate expence : or, in cafe a
fufficient depth of water is not to be had for large
ffiips, whether the harbour would not be ufeful for
fmall merchantmen ; for fuch a one is often of great
advantage, when fituated upon a coait much frequent¬
ed by fmall coafting veflels.
The form of the harbour muft be determined in fiich
a manner, that the Ihips which come in when it is
flormy weather may lie fafe, and fo as there may be
fufficient room for as many as pafs that way : the
depths of water where the piers are to be built muft
be taken at every 10, 15, or 20 feet diftance, and
marked upon piles driven here and there, in order
that the workmen may be direfled in laying the foun-
be made of ftone as high as low-water mark, and the Praftice.
reft finiQied with brick. If this manner of building  1
ffiould ftill be too expenfive, wood muft be ufed ; that
is, piles are driven as clofe as is thought necellary j
which being faftened together by crofs-bars, and co¬
vered with ftrong oaken planks, from a kind of coffer,
which is filled with all kinds of ftones, chalk, and
(hingles. _ ^ 143
The manner of laying the foundation in different French me-
depths of water, and in various foils, recjuires particu- .ot
lar methods to be followed. When the water is very buildlnS-
deep, the French throw in a great quantity of ftones at
random, fo as to form a much larger bale than would
be required upon dry land ; this they continue to with¬
in 3 or 4 feet of the.furface of the water, where they
lay the ftones in a regular manner, till the foundation
is railed above the water: they then lay a great weight
of ftones upon it, and let it (land during the winter to
fettle j as likewife to fee whether it is firm, and refifts
the force of the waves and w inds : after that, they fi-
niffi the fuperftruifture with large ftones in the ufual
manner. I44.
As this method requires a great quantity of ftones, A P™*-
it can be prattifed only in places where ftones are in ra:jle one*
plenty ; and therefore the following one is much pre¬
ferable. A coffer is made with dove-tail piles of about
30 yards long, and as wide as the thicknefs of the
foundation is to be ; then the ground is dug and level¬
led, and the wall is built with the beft mortar.
As foon as the mortar is tolerably dry, thofe piles
at the end of the wall are drawn out, the fide-rows are
continued to about 30 yards farther, and the end in-
cloled; then the foundation is cleared, and the ftones laid
as before. But it muft be obferved, that the end of
the foundation finilhed is left rough, in order that the
part next to it may incorporate with it in a proper
manner ; but if it is not very dry, it will incline that
way of it (elf, and bind with the mortar that is thrown
in next to it: this method is continued till the whole
aterials.
obferved, that the piers are not
made of one continued folid wall ; becaufu in deep wa¬
ter it would be too expenfive : for which reafon, two-
walls are built parallel to each other, and the interval
between them is filled up with (hingle, chalk, and ftone-
As thefe walls are in danger of being thruft out or o-
verfet, by the corps in the middle, together with the
great weight laid at times on the pier, they a e tied
or bound together by crofs-walls at every 30 or 40 yards
diftance, by which they fupport each other in a firm
and ftrong manner.
In a country where there is a great plenty of ftones,
piles may be driven in as deep as they will go, at about
two, or three feet diftance j and when the foundation is
funk anddevelled, large ftones maybe let down, which
will bed themft-lves : but care muft be taken to lay
them clofe, and fo as to have no two joints c
't-l- r, . . , . , ^ mem cioie, anu 10 as to nave no two joints over each
mJ.rraS,„S ' r j ? »hat kmdof «|,er| a„d when the w.ll i, come wilhin reach, the
matemjs are to be ufed, whether ftone, bnck, or wood, ftones muft be crampt together.
When ftones are to be had at a moderate price, they
ought to be preferred, becaufe the work will be much
ftronger, more lading, and need fewer repairs, than if
made with any other materials: but when ftones are
fcarce, and the expence becomes greater than what is
Another method praHiied, is to build in coffers much Another
after the fame manner as has been done in building the method
piers of Weftminfter bridge j but as in this cafe the withcoffers-
ends of the coffers are left in the wall, and prevent their
allowed for building the harbour The foundation"?" j°ininS u ^ Water tight>the water that Pe*
6 uour, tne roundation may netrates through and enters into the corps may occa-
fiop:
ARCHiTECTtfR.fi,
fion the wall to buffl: and to tumble down. Another
inconveniency anting from this manner of building is,
that as there are but few places without worms, which
Part II*
Practitioners fuppofe, that if the thicknefs of a pier Praftice.
is equal to the depth of the water, it is fufficient ;
for a greater fecurity they allow 2, 3, or 4 feet more.
ill deltroy wood where-ever they can find it; by their This might probably do, if piers were built with folid
146
Ruffian n
thod.
147
Thickneft
"bf piers.
means the water is let into the pier, and confequently
makes the work liable to the fame accident as has been
rttentioned aboVe.
To prevent thefe inconveniencies, the beft method is
to take the Wood away, andjoggle the ends of the walls
together with large ftones, pouring terrafs-mortar into
the joints ; when this is done, the Water between the
two Walls may be pumpt out, and the void {pace filled
up with ftone and ihingle as ufual i or if thefe joggles
cannot be made water-tight, fome dove tail piles mud
be driven at each end as c'loft to the wall as can b*
done, and a ftrong fail-cloth put ontheoutfide of them,
which, when the water is pumpt out, will ftick fbclofe
to the piles and wall, that no water can come in. This
method is commonly uled in Piuflia.
The thicknefs of a pier depends on two confidera-
tions : it ought to be both filch as may be able torefift
the fhock of the waves in flormy weather ; and alfo to
be of a fufficierit breadth above, that fliips may be la¬
den or unladen whenever it is thought necaTary. Now,
becaufe the fpecific gravity of fea-watef is about one
half that of brick, and as 2 to 5 in compatifon of ftone ;
and fince the preffure of ftagnated water againft any
furface is equal to the weight of a prifm of water whofe
altitude is the length of that futface, and whofe bafe is
a right angled ifofceles triangle, each of the equal fides
being equal to the depth of the water } therefore a pier
built with bricks, whole thicknefs is equal to the depth
of the water, wnll weigh about four times as much as
ftones crampt together; but as this is hardly ever the
cafe, and on the contrary, as the infide is filled up with
Ihingle, chalk, or other loofe materials, their rule is
not to be depended upon ; befides it makes the fpace
above too narrow for lading and unlading the fhips,
unlefs in a great depth of water 5 fo that it does not
appear that theirmethod can be followed, excepting in
a very few cafes where the water has but very Httle
motion.
When flohe can be had, no other materials ftiould
be ufed, becaufe they being of a larger bulk than brick,
will better refift the waves by their own weight, till
fiich time as the mortar is grown hard ; for after this
is effected, brick will refift better againft the adion of
fea-water than fbft ftones.
The wall muft. be built with terrafs mortar from the
bottom to the height of low-water mark, and the reft
finiftied with cinder or tile-duft mortar, which has been
found fufficiently good in thofe places where the wall
is wet and dry alternately. The upper part of the
pier fliould be paved with flat hewn ftones laid in ftrong
mortar, in order to prevent any water from penetra¬
ting into it: iron rings ought alfo to be fixed here'and
there at proper diftances, to faften the (hips, and pre¬
vent them from ftriking againft; the pier when agita¬
ted by the waves.
Wooden fenders or piles ftiould be driven at the in¬
fide clofe to the wall, and crampt to it with iron, to
prevent the ftitps from touching them, and from being
the preffure of the water againft it j and one of ftone of worn by the continual motion. Where the fea breaks
_i—. n..    againft the piers with great violence, breakers fhould
be made at proper diftances} that is, two rows of piles
are driven nearly at right angles to the piers for the
length of about 12 or 15 feet, and at about 8 or 10
feet diftant from each other ; and then another to join
the two former : thefe piles being covered with planks,
and the infide being filled with fhingle and ruble-ftones,
then the top is paved with ftones of about a foot ini
length, fet long wife to prevent the waves from tear¬
ing them up. This precaution is ablblutely neceffary
where the water rufhes in very ftrongly.
the fame breadth, about fix times and a quarter as
much. Now this is not the force to be confidered,
fince this preffure is the fame within as without the
pier : but it is that force with which the waves ftrike
againft the piers, and that depends oh the weight and
velocity of the waves, which can hardly be determi¬
ned ; becaufe they vary according to the different
depths of water, the diftance from the fliore, and ac¬
cording to the tides, winds, and other caufes. Con¬
fequently the proper thicknefs of the piers cannot be
determined by any other means than by experience.
ARC
ARC
Military Architecture, the fame with what is o-
therwife called fortification. See Fortification.
Naval Architecture, the art of building ihips.
See Ship Building.
j ARCHITRAVE,-in architeifture, that part of a
column which lies immediately upon the capital, being
the loweft member of the entablature. See Flate
XXXV.
Over a chimney, this member is called the mantle-
piece ; and over doors or windows, the hyperthyron.
ARCHITRICLINUS, in antiquity, the mafter or
dire&or of a feaft, charged with the order and oeco-
nomy of it, the covering and uncovering of the tables,
the command of the fervants, and the like.
The architricliuus was fometimes called fervut tri-
No 27.
cliniarchd, arid by the Greeks vnoytvrrAc, i. e. pragu- Archivaulf,;
Jlator, or fore-tajier. Potter alfo takes the architri-Archive,
cliuus for the fame with the fympofiarcha. '■
ARCHIVAU.LT, in architecture, implies the in¬
ner contour of an arch, dr a band adorned vt ith mould¬
ings, running over the faces of the arch-ftones, and
bearing upon the impofts. It has only a fingle face in
the Tufcan order, two faces crowned in the Doric and
Idnic, and the fame mouldings as the architrave in the
Corinthian and Compofite.
ARCHIVE, or Archives, a chamber or apartment
wherein the records, charters, and other papers and
evidences, of a ftate, houfe, or community, are pre-
ferved, to be confulted occafionally.
We fay, the archives of a college, of a monaflery,
&c--
AUG C 257 ] ARC
Archivift, &c. 1'he archives of ancient Rome were in the tem-
|] pie of Saturn $ the archives of the court of chancery
Archons. are |n the rolls office.
ARCHIVIST, Archivista, a keeper of an ar¬
chive.
Under the emperors, the archivift was an officer of
great dignity, held equal to the proconfuls, vefted with
the quality of a count, ffyled clarijjitnus, and exempted
from all public offices and taxes. Among the ancient
Greeks and Perfians, the trufl was committed to none
but men of the firft rank ; among the Franks, the
clergy being the only men of letters, kept the office
among themfelves.—‘Since the ereftion of the eleftoral
college, the Archbifhop of Mentz has had the diredli-
on of the archives of the empire.
ARCIIMARSHAL, the grand marfhal of the em¬
pire, a dignity belonging to the eledfor of Saxony.
ARCHONS, in Grecian antiquity, were magiftrates
* See the appointed after the death of Codrus *. They were cho-
article At- fen from the moft illuflrious families till the time of
tica. Ariftides, who got a law paffed, by which it was en¬
abled, that, in eledling thefe magiilrates, lefs regard
* fhould be paid to birth than to merit.
The tribunal of the archons was compofed of nine
officers. The firfl was properly the arcAoB ; by whofe
name the year of his adminiffration was diftinguifhed.
The title of the fecond was king ; that of the third,
polemarchus: to thefe were added fix thefmothetce.
Thefe magiftrates, eledted by the fcrutiny of beans,
were obliged to prove, before their refpedtive tribes,
that they had fpfung, both in their father’s and their
mother’s fide, for three defcents, from citizens of
Athens. They were likewife to prove that they were
attached to the worfhip of Apollo, the tutelary god of
their country ; that they had in their houfe an altar
confecrated to Apollo ; and that they had been refpedl-
fully obedient to their parents; an important and fa-
ered part of their charadfer, which promifed that they
would be faithful fervants to their country. They were
likewife to prove, that they had ferved.in a military
capacity the. number of years which the republic re¬
quired of every citizen : and this qualification gave
the flate experienced officers; for they were, not al¬
lowed to quit the army till they were 40 years old.
Their fortune too, of which they were to inform thofe
before whom they were examined, was a warrant for
their fidelity.
After the commiffioners, who were appointed to in¬
quire into, their charatter and other requifites, had
made a report of them, they were then to fwear that
they would maintain the laws ; which obligation if they
neglefted, they engaged to fend to Delphi a ftatue of
the weight of their bodies. According to a law of So¬
lon, if an archon got drunk, he was condemned to pay
a heavy fine, and fometimes even puniflied with death.
Such magiftrates as the Athenian archons were well
entitled to refpedf. Hence it was eternal infamy to
infult them ; and hence Demoflhenes obferved, that
to treat the thefmothetae with difrefpeif, was to fhow
difrefpeft to the republic.
Another qualification indifpenfably required of the
fecond officer of this tribunal, who was called the king,
Was, that he had married the daughter of an Athenian
citizen, and that he had efpoufed her a virgin. This
Was exaffed of him, fays Demofthenes, becaufe part of
Von. II. Parti.
his duty was to facrifice to the gods jointly with his Archoa
wife, who, inffead of appealing, would have irritated ||
them, iflhe had not poflelled both thofe honours.
The enquiry into the private title of thenine archons . U!cr'
was very fevcre j and this attention was the more ne-
cefl’ary, as they had a right to take a feat in the Are¬
opagus, after they had quitted their office, and given
an account of their adminiftration.
When any obfcurity occurred in ^the laws relative to
religion and the worfhip of the gods, the interpretation
was fubmitted to the tribunal of the archons.
Ariftotle obierves, that Solon, whofe aim was to make
his people happy, and who found their government iu
his time arillocfatical, by the eleflion of the nine ar¬
chons, who were annual magiftrates, tempered their
power, by eftabliftiing the privilege of appealing from
them to the people, called by lot to give their fuftrage,
after having taken the oath of the Heliaftce, in a place
near the Panathenaeum, where Hiffus had formerly
calmed a fedition of the people, and bound them to
peace by an oath.
The archons were the principal officers, not only in
civil, but likewife in facred matters, and efpecially in
the myfteries of Bacchus. The archons, however,
who were furnamed epqnymi, were chiefly employed in
civil affairs; yet they prefided at the great feafts, and
held the firft rank there. Hence they are fometimes
ftyled priejls.
Archon is alfo applied by fbme authors to divers
officers, both civil and religious, under the eaftern or
Greek empire. Thus biffiops are fometimes called
archontes j and the fame may be faid of the lords of
the emperor’s court. We alfo read of the archon of
the antimenjia, archon of archons, grand archon, archon
of churches, archon of the gofpel, archon of the ’walls, ire.
ARCHONTICI, in church-hiftory, a branch of
Valentinians, who maintained that the world was not
created by God, but by angels called drehontes.
ARCHPRIEST, Archpresbtter, a prieft or
prefbyter eflablifhed in fome diocefes, with a pre-emi¬
nence over the reft. Anciently the archprieft was the
firft perfon after the bifliop : he was feated in the
church next after the biffiop ; and even a<Red as his
vicar, in his abfence, as to all fpiritual concerns. la
the fixth century, there were found feveral archpriefts
in the fame diocele ; from which time fome will have
them to have been called deans. In the ninth century,
they diftinguiffied two kinds of cures or parifhes : the
fmaller governed by Ample priefts; and t he baptifmal
churches by archpriefts; who, befide the immediate
concern of the cure, had the infpeftion of the other in¬
ferior .priefts, and gave an account of them to the
bifliop, who governed the chief, or cathedral church,
in perfon. There are archpreffiyters ftill fubfifting in
the Greek church ; vefted with moft of the fundlions
and privileges of chorepifcopi or rural deans.
ARCHTREASURER, the great treafurer of the
German empire. This office was created with the
eighth deflorate, in favour of the eleflor Pala¬
tine, who had loft his former deflorate, which was
given to the duke of Bavaria, by the emperor Fer¬
dinand II. who took it away from Frederic V. eleftor
Palatine, after the battle of Prague, where he was de¬
feated in maintaining his eleflion to the crown of Bo¬
hemia. The dignity of archtreafurer was contefted be-/
K k tween
ARC [ 258 ] ARC
Archilute tween the eledtor of Brunfwick, who ckimed it in
II r virtue of his defcent from the ele&or of Frederic and
. Ar<^lc- . the eledlor Palatine.
v ARCHILUTE, Arcileuto, a long and large lute,
having its bafs firings lengthened after the manner of
the theorbo,'and each row doubled, either with a little
odlave or an unifon. It is ufed by the Italians for
playing a thorough bafs.
ARCHYTAS of Tarentum, a philofopher of the
Pythagorean fedt, and famous for being the mailer of
Plato, Eudoxas, and Philolaus, lived about 408 years
before Chrill. He was an excellent mathematician,
particularly in that part of the fcience which regards
mechanics : he is faid to have made ft wooden pigeon
that could fly, and to be the firfl that brought down
mathematics to common ufes. He is faid to be the in¬
ventor of the ten categories. He aflerted, that God
was the beginning, the fupporter, and the end, of all
things. There are two epillles preferved in Diogenes
Laertius, one from Archytas to Plato, and another
from Plato to Archytas. He acquired great reputa¬
tion in his legiflative capacity. He likewife command¬
ed the army feven times, and was never defeated ; but
was at lafl call away in the Adriatic Sea, and thrown
upon the coall of Apulia.
ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, a fmall handfome town of
France, in Champagne, feated on. the river Aube. E.
Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 48. 40.
ARCO, a llrong town and callle in the Trentin,
belonging to the houfe of Aullria. It was taken by
the French in 1703, and abandoned foon after. It
Hands on the river Sarca, near the north extremity of
the lake Garda. E. Long. 9. 55. N. Lat. 45. 52.
ARCONA, a llrong town fituated on the Hand of
Rugen in the Baltic. It Hood on a high promontory,
with the call, north, and fouth lides defended by lleep
and lofty precipices, and the welt by a wall fifty feet
high, proportionably thick, and fecured by a deep and
broad ditch. It was, however, taken and ruined, in
1168, by Valdemar king of Denmark One of the
conditions impoled by the conqueror was, that the in¬
habitants Ihould deltroy a temple they had eredled to
St Vitus, and deliver up the vail treafure belonging
to this tutelary faint. Another was, that they Ihould
pay 40 filver yokes for oxen, by way of tribute, and
enter as foldiers in the Danilh fervice when called upon.
ARCOS,' a llrong city of Andalufia, in Spain,
feated on a high craggy rock, at the bottom of which
runs the Gaudeleto. Its llrength lies not only in i|;s
fituation, but in the works erected for its defence, and
it is inacceffible on every fide but one. The governor
refides in an old callle, from whence there is a delight¬
ful profpeH, which extends very far into the neigh¬
bouring country. W. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 36. 40.
ARCTIC, in allronomy, an epithet given to the
north pole, or the pole railed above our] horizon. It
is called the arEiic pole, on occafion of the conllellation
of the little bear, in Greek called <*g>tTos; the laft liar
in the tail whereof nearly points out the north pole.
ArElk Circle is a lefler circle of the fphere, parallel
to the equator, and 230 30/ dillant from the north
pole ; from whence its name. This, and its oppofite
the antarttic, are called the two polar circles ; and may
be conceived to be deferibed by the motion of the poles
of the ecliptic, round the poles of the equator, or of Arftium
the world.
ARCTIUM, Burdock. : A genus of the polyga- Arfhirus,
mia aequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of ’ l-' *
plants} and in the natural method ranking under the
49th order, Compojittf-capitatce : The calyx is globular;
wRh leales having hooks refledled at the tops.—The
fpecies are three, viz. the lappa or common burdock,
the tomentofum, and the perfonata. All thefe are
troublefome weeds, fo require no direction for their
culture. The tender items of the common kind, de¬
prived of the bark, may be boiled and eat like Ypara-
gus. When raw, they are good with oil and vine¬
gar. Boys catch bats by throwing the prickly heads
of this fpecies up into the air. Cows and goats eat this
herb ; (heep and horfe refufe it; fwine are not fond
of it. The feeds, which have a bitteriih fubacrid
tafte, are recommended as very efficacious diuretics,
given either in the form of emulfion, or in powder to
the quantity of a dram. The roots, which talle fweet-
iffi, with a flight aufterity and bitterifhnefs, are efteem-
ed aperient, diuretic, and fudorific ; and faid to a£t
without irritation, fo as to be fafely ventured upon in
acute diforders.
ARTOPHYLAX, (from apxro?, bear, and
I guard,') in aftronomy, a conllellation, otherwife call¬
ed Bootes.
ARCTOPUS, in botany : A genus of the polyga-
mia dioecia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 45th order, Umbe/latcx. The umbella of the
male is compound ; the involucrum confills of five
leaves; the. corolla has five petals; the Itamina are
five; and two piltilli : The umbella of the herma¬
phrodite is Ample ; the involucrum is divided into
four parts, is fpinous, large, and contains many male
flowers in the dilk. There is but one fpecies of ardlo-
pus, viz. the echinatus, a native of Ethiopia.
ARCTOT1S, in botany : A genus of the polyga-
mia neceflaria order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Cotnpojitce-difcoides. The receptacle
is brillly ; the corona of the pappus is pentaphyllous y
and the calyx is imbricated with feales loofe at the
top. It is commonly called anemofpermos, from the
refemblance of its feeds to thofe of the anemone.
The fpecies are 11 ; all of them natives of Ethiopia,
or the Cape of Good Hope. Of thele the anguflifo-
lia with fpear-ffiaped leaves, and the alpera with wing-
fhaped woolly leaves, are moll remarkable for their
beauty, having rays of a fine yellow or deep gold co¬
lour. They flower in May and June.
Culture. All the fpecies of ardlotis may be propa¬
gated by cuttings; which ffiould be frequently renew¬
ed, as the old plants are fubjeft to decay in winter.
They may be planted in any of the fummer months,
in a bed of light frefh earth ; obferving to fhade them
from the fun until they have taken root. They ffiould
be expofed to the open air until the latter end of Octo¬
ber, or longer, if the weather is favourable, when they
mufl be removed into the green-houfe.
ARCTURUS, in aflronomy, a fixed flar, of the
firfl: magnitude, in the conftellation of Ardlophylax, or
Bootes. The word is formed of *gxT»s, bear, and «f«,
tail, q. d. bear’s tail, as being very near it. This
ftar
Ardc*.
A R D
[ 259 ]
A R D
ftar was known to the ancients, as in the following things as the heron tribe ufually feed on ; alfo vege- ^
verfe of Virgil :
ArBurutn, pluviafque Hyades, geminofque Briones,
See alfo Job ix. 9. xxxviii. 32.
ARCUATION, in gardening, the method of rai¬
ling trees by layers, which is done i“
tables of all kinds. It often fleeps on one leg ; runs v
very fall; and is faid not only to fly well, but to con¬
tinue on the wing for a long time together. The flefii
is faid to be very tough.
2. The virgo, with a ftraight greenifli bill and crim-
1 the following fon irides. The crown of the head is afli-colour ; the
manner : reft of the head, the upper part of the neck behind,
Strong mother-plants or ftools muft be planted in a and all the under parts, to the bread, black $ the back,
clear border, and in a ftraight line, about fix feet a- rump, and tail, and all the under part from the breaft,
funder. When thefe have (hot five or fix main are of a bluifh afti-colour : behind each eye fprings a
branches from the root, and as many collateral tuft of long white feathers, which decline downwards,
branches, the former muft be bent to the ground, and and hang in an elegant manner : the quills and tail
there faftened. The fmall branches muft be covered are black, at the ends j the legs black. This fpecies is
three inches deep upon the joints, and have a large found in many parts of Africa and Afia, where they
bafon of earth made round them to hold the water. frequent marflies and the neighbourhood of rivers, as
About the middle of September they may be open- their food is fifh, like moft of the heron genus. It is
ed, and if they have taken root, may be immediately frequently kept in menageries, being endowed with
removed into the nurfery j but if they have not fuffi- great gentlenefs of manners, added to its being an ele-
ciently Extended their roots, they muft be 1'uffered to gant bird. At various times puts itfelf into ftrange
remain till the fpring, and then tranfplanted. and uncouth attitudes, efpecially thofe which imi-
ARCQCCIO, Arcutio, a machine made of a tate dancing ; and Keyfler mentions one in the Great
board, covered with pieces of hoops, like the tilt of a Duke’s gallery, at* Florence, which had been taught
waggon ; ufed in Italy to prevent children from being to dance to a certain tune, when played or fung to it.
overlaid and fmothered by nurfes or others. Every The name this bird is known by in the eaft is kurki.
nurfe in Florence is obliged to lay her child i
cutio, under pain of excommunication.
ARDAMON, or Ardama. in antiquity, a veflel
of water placed at the door of a perfon deceafed, till
the time of burial, as a token that the family a
querky. Sometimes it will breed in confinement:
one is recorded to have lived 24 years at Verfailles,
where it had been bred.
3. The leucogeranos of Pallas, or Siberian crane of
Pennant, is four and a half feet when (landing ereft.
nru r*. W.1II in /- S- n 1 ^, .. . * 1    1 . _ ^ _
mourning, and to ferve to fprinkle and purify perfons The bill is of a red colour $ the irides are white ; the
as they came out of the houfe. plumage is white as fnow, except the 10 firft greater
ARDASSES, in commerce, the coarfeft of all the quills, with the coverts of them, which are black : the
filks of Perfia ; and as it were the refufe of each kind, legs are long and red. This fpecies inhabits the vaft
In this fienfe, they fay, the /egis, the boufets, the choufs, marfties and lakes in Siberia, efpecially thofe about the
and the payas ardajfes, to fignify the word of thofe Ifchim, and along the rivers Ob and Irtifti. It makes
four forts of Perfian filks. its neft among the reeds, feldom acceflible by man, up-
ARDASSINES, in commerce, called in France on rifing green graflTy tufts, made up (3f herbs and grafs
ablaques j a very fine fort of Perfian filks, little inferi- heaped together ; and lays two afli coloured eggs, fpot-.
or in finenefs to the fourbaftis, or rather cherbaffis, and ted with brown. They are (hy birds, and always up-
yet it is little ufed in the filk manufaflures of Lyons on their guard again!! an enemy ; having a centinel to
and Tours, becaufe that kind of filk will not bear hot warn them of an approach : on the lead alarm they
water in the winding. cry aloud, not unlike the fwan, and fly off direflly.
ARDEA, in ornithology, a genus of the order of The fportfman finds, in courfe, much difficulty in ap-
grallae. The general characters of this order are preaching them within gun-(Jiot j for, as they Hand
thefe : The bill is ftraight, (harp, long, and fomewhat near five feet high from the ground, they are enabled
compreffed, with a furrow that runs from the noftrils to efpy him at a greater diftance. Sometimes indeed
towards the point; the noftrils are linear; and the he approaches them under cover of a ftalking-horfe, or
feet have four toes. Under this genus Linnaeus com- other objeft ; at other times a fmall dog will divert
prebends the grus or crane, the ciconia or ftork, and their attention, as they will without fear attack the
the ardea or heron, of other authors. See plates LIV. dog, while his mailer gets within reach. In breeding
LV. time, however, they are more bold, as they will defend
1. The firft fpecies is the pavonia, or crowned crane, their young even againft men, fo as to make it dange-
which has an ereifl briftly creft, with the temples and rous to come near their haunts. The male and fe-
two wattles naked. The head is black ; the creft is male are faid to guard the neft by turns,
yellowifti, and tipped with black at the top ; the wings 4. The grus, or common crane of Englilh authors,
are white ; and the feathers of the tail black, and of has a naked papillous crown ; the prime feathers of the
an equal length. It is a native of Africa, particularly wings are black ; the body is alh-coloured ; the prime
the coaft of Guinea, as far as cape Verd; at this laft feathers of the tad are ragged. This Ipecies is far (pread,
place they are faid to be exceedingly tame, and will being met with in great flocks throughout northern
often come into the court-yards to feed with the poul- Europe and Afia; in Sweden, Ruffia throughout, and
try. fhefe birds are often kept in our menageries, Siberia as far as the river Anadyr, migrating even to
an.d> w*1" belter 0f njghts, live a good while. Their the ar£tic circle. In Kamtfchatka they are only feen
chief food is fuppofed to be worms, and fuch other on the fouthern promontory; are migratory, returning
K. k 2 north-
A R D r 260 1 A R
Ardea. northward to breed in the fpring, and generally choo-
fing the fame places which Had been occupied by them
the feafon before. In the winter they,inhabit the warm¬
er regions, fuch as Egypt, Aleppo, India, &c. they are
alfo met with at the Cape of Good Hope, changing
place with the feafon. In their migrations they fre¬
quently Hy fo high as not to be vifible ; their palling
only being known by the noife they make, which is
louder than any other bird. In France they are feen
in fpring and autumn ; but for the mod part are mere
padengers.—This fpecies leems to have been formerly
a native of Britain ; as we find in Willoughby, page 52.
that there was a penalty of twenty pence for dellroy-
ing an egg of this bird ; and Mr Ray informs us, that
in his time they were found during the winter in large
flocks in Lincolnfhire and Cambridgelhire : but at
prefent the inhabitants of thofe counties are fcarcely
acquainted with them $ fo that thole birds feem now
to have forfaken our illand. We are told that they
make their ned in the marlhes, and lay two bluidi
eggs. The young birds are thought very good food.
They feed on reptiles of all kinds, and in turn on
green corn ; of which lad they are faid to make fo
great havock, as to ruin the farmers where-ever the
flocks of thefe depredators alight.
5. The Americana, or hooping crane of Edw'ards,
is a native of America. The crown of the head and
temples are naked and papillous ; the forehead, nape
of the neck, and prime wing-feathers, are black ; but
the body is white : The under part of the head, as far
as the lower chap, is red; the beak is yellowidi, and
jagged at the point; the feet are red, and the prime
tail-feathers white. This is an American fpecies, of¬
ten feen at the mouths of the Savanna, Aratamaha,
and other rivers near St Augudine : in Ipring going
to the north to breed, like the common crane, and re¬
turning, like that bird, to the fouth in autumn. In the
fummer they are found in Hudfon’s Bay, at which place
they arrive in May, and retire in September ; and are
chiefly met with in unfrequented placesj in the neigh¬
bourhood of lakes, where they breed. The nefl is
made on the ground, compofed of grafs and feathers.
They lay two white eggs, like thofe of the fwan, and
fit 20 days j the young are at fird yellow, changing
to white by degrees. Thefe birds have a loud long
note, which may be hefird at a great didance : their
food is chiefly worms and infeds, which it fearches
for at the bottom of ponds. The natives of Hudfon’s
Bay call this fpecies Wapaw-uchechank.
6. The argil, or hurgil, of Ives, is a very large fpe-
’cies; from tip to tip of the wings meafuring 14 feet
jo inches j and from the tip of the bill to the claws
feven feet and a half: the bill is 16 inches round at the
bafe, of different colours, and nearly of a triangular
ihape; the feathers of the back and wings are very
drong, and of an iron colour ; thofe of the bread long :
over the belly a great deal of down, of a dirty white :
the legs and half the thighs are naked 5 the naked
parts full three feet in length.
This monflefi, as Ives terms it, inhabits Bengal, and
is alfo found at Calcutta ; at the lad place called Hur¬
gil/, or Argill. It majeflically flalks along before one,
and appears at fird like a naked Indian. The com*
mon opinion is, that the fouls of the Bramins poffefs
thefe birds. On opening one of thefe, a terapin, or
land tortoife, 10 inches long, was found in its craw, Ardea.
and a large male black cat was found entire in its do- ' 1 V" "'
mach. In Sumatra there is faid to be a great variety
of the dork kind; lome of a prodigious fize, and
otherwife curious; as the Boorong Cambing, and
Booringoolar.
The fame fpecies leems to have been remarked by Latham’s
Mr Smeathman in Africa, while refident there ; an Synopjftst
adult of one of which will often meafure feven feet vo*’
when (handing ereff. -He defcribes the plumage much part
the fame as Mr Ives’s bird ; adding, that the gape
is monflroully wide : the head is covered with wdiite
down, thinly difperfed, appearing not unlike a grey¬
headed man : on the middle of the neck before, a long,
conic membrane, like a bladder, fprinkled very thinly
with fliort down, rifing or falling as the animal moves
the beak, and always appearing inflated. Thefe birds
are met with in companies. When i’een at a didance,
near the mouths of rivers, coming towards an obferver,
which they do with the wings extended, they may
well be taken for canoes, upon the furface of a fmooth
fea : when on the land banks, for men and women
picking up fliell-filli or other things on the beach.
One of thefe, a young bird, about five feet in height,
was brought up tame, and prefented to the chief of the
Bananas, where Mr Smeathman lived ; and being ac-
cudomed to be fed in the great hall, foon became fami¬
liar; duly attending that place at dinner-time, and pla¬
cing itfelf behind its mafler’s chair, frequently before
any of the guefls entered. The fervants were obliged
to watch it narrowly, and to defend the provifipns
with fwitches in their hands; but, notwithflanding this,
it would frequently (hatch off fomewhat or other, and
was known once to have purloined a whole boiled fowl,
which it (wallowed in an inflant. Its courage is not
equal to its voracity ; fora child of eight or ten years
old foon puts it to flight with a fwitch, though at fird
it feems to dand upon its defence, by threatening with
its enormous bill widely extended, and crying out with
a loud hoarfe voice like a bear or tyger. It is an ene¬
my to (mall quadrupeds, as well as birds and reptiles,
and defiroys fowls and chickens, though it dare not at¬
tack a hen with her young openly : it preys alfo on
rats, young kittens, and the like ; and has been known
to (wallow a cat whole : a bone of a (bin of beef being
broken afunder, (erves it but for two morfels. The
individual above mentioned ufed to fly about the ifland,
and rood very high among the filk,cotton trees; from
whence, at two or three miles diftance, it could fpy
the dinner carrying acrofs the yard ; when, darting
from its ftation, it would enter promifeuoufly with the
women who carried in the diflies. When fitting, it
was oblerved to red itfelf on the whole length of the
hind part of the leg. It fometimes flood near, for
half an hour after dinner, With the head turning alter¬
nately, as if liflening to the converfation ; and during
this time would every three or four minutes void the
excrements, which were liquid and whitifh ; and took
care always to do this on his legs, by wheeling the
back parts round over one or the other, and this regu¬
larly on different legs ; for if he had muted on the
left leg lad, he would be fure to do the fame on the
right the next time, never making any miflake.
7. The ciconia, or white dork of Ray, has naked
eye-balls, and black prime wing-feathers. The Ikin be¬
low.
A R D [ 261 ] A R D
low the feathers, as alfo the beak, feet, and claws, are creft were formerly much edeemed as ornaments for Aidea.
of a blood colour. It is a native of Europe, Afia, caps and head-pieces j lb that aigrette and egret came
and Africa 5 but is leldom or never to be met with in to fignify any ornament to a cap, though originally
Italy. The ciconia feeds upon amphibious animals, the word was derived from a eaufe de I’aigreur
It is fuch an enemy to ferpents, that it is reckoned al- de fa voix.
moll a crime to kill a llork. From this favourable 10. The herodias or crillata maxima of Catelby, is
treatment, they are feen in Holland and the Low Coun-. creftcd behind, has a dulky-coloured back, reddifh
tries walking unconcerned in the middle of the llreets. thighs, and the bread fpeckled with oblong black fpots.
Stories are birds of padage ; they f'pend the dimmer in It is lour feet and a half when eretd j the bill is about
'V t^ eight incites from the angle of the mouth to the end of
it j and the cred is made up of long, narrow, brown
feathers, the longed being dve inches in lenglh, which
it can erect and let fall at pleasure. It is a native of
Virginia, and feeds not only upon filh and frogs, but
on lizards, efts, &c.
11. I he dtlLris, or bittern, has a fmooth head; it
is variegated through the whole body with dark-colour-
Europe, and difappear all at once, and go off to Egypt,
Ethiopia, &c. before winter, amd do not return till a-
bout the middle of March.
8. The major, or common heron, has a black cred
depending from the back part of the head, an afh-co-
loured body, and a black line and belt on the neck and
bread. It is a native of Europe. This bird is re¬
markably light in proportion to its bulk, fcarce weigh
ng three pounds and an half: the length is three feet ed fpots of different figures and lizes. It is a native of
inches; the breadth five feet four inches. The Europe, and inhabits chiedy the fen-countries. It is
body is very fmall, and always lean; and the fkin fcarce
thicker than what is called gold-beater’s Ikin. It mud
be capable of bearing a long abdinence, as its food,
which is fidi and frogs, cannot be readily got at all
times. It commits great devadation in our ponds
with fkulking among the reeds and ledges; and its
ufual podure is with the head and neck erect, and the
beak pointed diredly upwards. It will fuffer perfons-
to come very near it without rifing; and has been
known to drike at boys and at fportfmen, when wound-
times this
proverb
was abfurd-
ly corrupt¬
ed to He
5, does not
know a
bauik from
f hand fa'll!.
but being unprovided with webs to fwim, nature has ed and unable to make its efcape. It dies principally
furnidied it with very long legs to wade after its prey, about the dude of the evening, and then rifes in a very.
It perches and builds in trees, and fometimes in high Angular manner, by a fpiral afeent, till it is quite out
cliff's over the fea, commonly in company with others, of fight. It makes a very drange node when it is a-
like rocks. It makes its ned of dicks, lines it with wool, mong the reeds, and a diderent and very fingular one
and lays five or fix large eggs of a pale green colour, as it riles on the wing in the night. It builds its ned
During incubation, the male pades much of his time with the leaves of water plants on fome dry clump a-
perched by the female. They defert their nefts during mong the reeds, and lays five or fix eggs of a cinerous
the winter, excepting in February, when they relort to green colour. This bird and the heron are very apt
repair them. It was formerly in this idand a bird of to drike at the fowler’s eyes when only maimed. The
game, beron-hawking being fo favourite a diverfion of food of the bitteru is chiefly frogs; not that it rejects
our ancedors, that laws were enadled for the prelerva- fidi, for dnall trouts have been met with in their do-
tion of the fipecies, and the perfbn who dedroyed their machs. In the reign of Henry VIII. it was held in
eggs was liable to a penalty of twenty Ihillings for each much edeem at our tables, and valued at one dulling.,
offence. Net to know the hawk from the heron-diaw Its dedi has much the flavour of a. hare, and. nothing
was an old proverb*, taken originally from this diver- of the fifliinefs of that of the heron,
don ; but in courfe of time ferved to exprefs great ig- 12. The violacea, or creded bittern of Catefby, has
norance in any fcience. This bird was formerly much a white cred; the body is variegated with black and
edeemed as a food ; made a favourite didi at great ta- white, and bluifh below. Thefe birds are feen iu
bles, and was valued at thefame rate as a pheafant. It Carolina in the rainy leafons: but in the Bahama
is faid to be very'long-lived: by Mr Keyfler’s account Mauds, they breed in bufhes growing among the.
it may txceed 60 years; and by a. recent intlance of rocks in prodigious numbers, and are of great ufe to.
one that was taken in Holland by a hawk belonging to the inhabitants there ; who, while thefe birds are
'the Stadtholder, its longevity is again confirmed, the young and unable to By, employ themfelves in taking
bird haying a diver plate faitened to one leg, with an them for the delicacy of their food. They are, in
infenption, importing it had been b'efore druck by the fome of thefe rocky Hands, fo numerous, that ui a
eleftor of Cologne’s hawks in 1735—The cinerea of few hours two men will load one of their calapatches,
Linnaeus is the female of this fpecies. or little boats, taking them perching from off the rocks
9. The garzetta, or egret, is creded behind ; the and bulhes, they making no attempt to efcape, though
body is white, the beak black, and the feet greenidi. almod full grown. They are called by the Bahamians
It is a mod elegant bird. It weighs about one pound ;, crab-catchers, crabs being what they modly fuhfid on ;
and the length is 24 inches, to the end of the legs 32. yet they are well-taded, and free from'any rank or
It is a native of the ead. But that formerly it was ddiy favour.
very frequent in Britain, appears by fome of the old There are 67 other fpecies enumerated by ornitho-
bills of fare : in the famous fead of Archbidiop Neville, logids.
we find no lefs than a thoufand aderides, egrets or e- Ardea (anc. geog.), a town of Latium, the royal
grittes, as it is differently fpelt. Perhaps the edeem refidence of Turnns king of the Rutuli, (Livy); fo
they were in as a delicacy.during thofe days occadoned called, either from the augury of the heron, (Hygi-
their extirpation in our idands; abroad they are dill nus); or from the exceffive heat of the country, (Mar-
common, efpecially in the fouthern parts of Europe, tial). It was a marlhy, fickly fit nation, (Strabo, Se-
where they appear in docks.. The fcappulars and the neca). It was built by Danae, the mother of Perfeus,.
(Virgil),;,
A R D [
(Virgil) ; about five miles diftant from the fea, and 20
from Rome: now a hamlet. It was a Roman colony,
(Livy) ; the inhabitants called Ardeates. E. Long.
J7- 49- Lat. 41. 30.
ARDEBIL, or Ardevil, a town of Perfia in the
province of Aderbijan. It was taken and burnt by
Jenghiz Khan in 1222, when moft of the inhabitants
were deftroyed : but it has been fince rebuilt; and is
ftill ranked for dignity among the belt cities of the
kingdom, on account of its having been the refidence
and burying-place of fome of the Perfian kings ; par¬
ticularly the fepulchre of bheik Sefi is at this place,
to which the people refort in pilgrimage. He founded
a place, which they call his kitchen, with a revenue
fufficient to maintain jooo poor people, and to feed
them three times a-day. Three or four of the largeft
principal ftreets have (hops, and are planted on each
fide with elms and linden trees, to keep off the excef-
five heat of the fun ; but the houfes are poorly built,
with bricks dried in the fun : yet molt of them, that
are not in the bazars or market places, have the plea-
fure and conveniency of a garden full of trees bearing
fruit $ and there are large ipots in the out-parts of the
town, where the houfes are at a diltance from each
other, and the fpaces between planted with trees, which
render the city of a large extent. The meidan, or
great fquare, is 300 paces long, and 150 broad, having
/hops all round $ which, when this place was in a flou-
rilhing condition, were ftored with all manner of valu¬
able commodities.
Through the city there pafs two branches of a rivu¬
let, which have been fometimes enlarged by the melt¬
ing of the fnow on the mountains, that they have
been forced to make canals to divert the fiream. In
the reign of Sha Abbas, it broke down the dykes, and
carried away a great number of houfes. The city is
without walls, and is feated in the midfl: of a large
plain encompafled with mountains, the highefi: of which
lies wellward, and is always covered with fnow. Thefe
render the air Ibmetimes extremely hot, and at others
intolerably cold, which occafion epidemical dillempers,
that carry off great numbers of people. The foil pro¬
duces no fruit near the city but apples, pears, and peach¬
es ; and yet is good both for corn and pafture. The
Iheep are lb numerous, that 100,000 have palled over
the city bridge in a day. There are here feveral forts
of mineral w aters, which lerve both for common bath¬
ing, and for the cure of various difeales ; one of thele
is a fulphureous fpring, whofe exhalations render the
circumambient air extremely difagreeable. There are
three Iprings which produce as hot water as if it was
boiling, and from which waters are conveyed to the
public baths in the city. About half a league from
the city, on the right hand of the public road, there
is a pool of handing water, which is covered all over
with fait like ice. E. Long. 47. 30. N. Lat. 37. 55.
ARDEN, the common name of forefts among the
Celtae, from the wildly extenfive one which ranged for
500 miles in length acrofs the country of Gaul, or co¬
vered more than half the county of Warwick in Bri¬
tain, and the files of which ilill retain the appellation
of Arden, to the much fmafler one of the ancient Mab-
cenion, that covered and iorrounded the fite of the
prelent Manchefler. Written A nine n by Caefar and
Tacitus in fpeaking of the forelt in Gaul, and Ardven
262 ] A R D
by Offian in mentioning the woods of Caledonia, it Ardenburg-
cannot (fays Mr Whitaker) be compounded of ar the 11
prepofitive article in Celtic, and the fubftantive den, as Ardrah.
Baxter and Cambden aflert it to be ; but is formed of v
ard an adjeclive, and ven the fame as den. The mean¬
ing of the name therefore is not, as Mr Baxter renders
it, limply the hills, or even, as the ingenious tranflator
of Olfian interprets it, the high hill. Ard fignifies ei¬
ther high or great, and ven or den either an hill or
■wood. Arduen, Ardven, or Arden, then, means a con-
fiderable wood. Hence, only, the name became ap¬
plicable to fuch very different files, as the plains of
Warwicklhire and the hills of Scotland : and it was gi¬
ven, not only to the moft extenfive forefts, to that
which was the greateft in Gaul, or lb confiderable in
Britain ; but to many that were important only with¬
in their own contrafled diftr'ufts, as the wood of Man-
cenion abovementioned, and others.
ARDENBURG, a towm of the Netherlands, in
Dutch Flanders, and formerly the moft confiderable in
that country ; but has been difmantled by the Dutch.
E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 51. 16.
ARDENNE, a forert in France, formerly of vaft
extent ; but the trees are in many places grubbed up,
and where they flood are built cities, towns and ab¬
beys. At prefent it extends irom Thionville, near the
county of Liege, to Donchery and Sedan, on the con¬
fines of Champagne. The roads are fo narrow in Ibme
places, that two waggons cannot pafs each other; and
therefore the waggoners are obliged to provide them-
felves w ith bells or horns to give one another notice to
flop in time.
AR.DENTES, in middle-age writers, an appella¬
tion given to thole afft'ufted with the Ignis Sacer, or
Eryfipelas. They were thus called, as feeming to be
fcorched or burned with the difeafe. Hence alfo the
abbey of St Genevieve at Paris is called Domus drden~
tium, by realbn, as it is find, that great numbers were
cured of that diftemper at the Ihrine of this faint, in
the reign of Lewis VI.
ARDES, a town of France, in Lower Auvergne,
and the principal place of the duchy of Mercceur. It
ferves as a mart for the commodities and trade between
Upper and Lower Auvergne. E. Long. 3. 10. N.
Lat. 45. 22.
ARDFERT, a town of Ireland, was the ancient
capital of .Kerry, with an univerfity, which was held in
the higheft efteem. It is a bilhop’s fee, and borough
by ancient prefcription, and has been held in commen-
dam with the bilhopric of Limerick ever fince the Re-
ftoration. The biftiops were anciently called Bilhops
of Kerry. St Brandon, to whom the cathedral is de¬
dicated, had his firft education in this county, under
Bilhop Ert ; but he finilhed his ftudies in Connaught,
St Jarlath bilhop of Tuam being his preceptor. The
ruins here are very extenfive. Near the cathedral was
an anchorite tower, the loftieft and fineft in the king¬
dom, being 120 feet high : it fell fuddenly in 1771.
In the ruined churches there are leveral infcriptions
round the mouldings of the tomb-ftones ; and over an
arch, behind Lord Glandore’s houle, is an infcription
in relief done in a mafterly manner, but the characters
unknown.
ARDRAH, a fmall territory or kingdom of Africa,
in Guinea properly fo called. It lies at the bottom
of
ARE
of the gulph of St Thomas, and has a town called Ar-
dres, fuppoled to be the capital. The inhabitants are
very licentious, and have neither temple nor any place
for religious worihip. However, they are very courage¬
ous; and their king was abfolute till lately that the
king of Dahomay made war upon this and the neigh¬
bouring territories, brought them under fubjedtion, and
burnt the towns, particularly Ardres. The air is very
unwholefome to Europeans j yet the natives live to a
great age ; but the fmall-pox makes great deftrudlion
among them. This country is fertile in Indian corn,
palm-wine, plants, and fruits, which iaft all the year 3
and they make a great deal of fait.
ARDRES, a fmall but ftrong town of France, in
Lower Picardy. Here was an interview between Fran¬
cis I. and Henry VIII. king of England in 1520. It
is feated in the midlt of a morafs. E. Long. 2. o.
N. Lat. 50. 35.
ARDS, barony of, in the county of Down in Ire¬
land : it is a narrow flip of land, in fome places three,
and in none above fix, miles broad 3 but the foil is for
the moil part tolerably good. It lies between the lake
of Strangford and the fea, and in the fouth part it is
oppofite to Lecale. Sir Thomas Smith obtained a pa¬
tent for this barony from Queen Elizabeth, and fent
his natural Ion with a colony to pofiefs it 3 but he was
intercepted and flain by an Irilhman. After Sir Tho¬
mas’s death, Ards was granted by James 1. to fome of
the Scots nobility.
ARDUBA, an ancient city of the Pannonians. It
was taken by Germanicus about the 7th year of the
Chrifiian aera 5 but its redudfion was more owing to the
difagreement that reigned among the inhabitants than
to the valour of the Romans. The greater part of the
citizens were for fubmitting 3 but the women more fond
of their ancient laws and liberties than the men, join¬
ed fome Roman delerters, and, falling upon their huf-
bands, killed a great number of them : but being at laft
overcome by the men, who then fubmitted to the Ro¬
mans, the women either threw themlelvts headlong
from the tops of the walls, or, letting fire to their
houles, burnt themlelves and their children to death.
AREA, in general, denotes any plain furface, where¬
on we walk, &c. The word is Latin, importing more
properly a threfliing floor 3 and is derived from mere,
'l to be dry.”
[ 263 ]
ARE
but three petals, and nine ftamina ; the female has no
calyx 3 the corolla has three petals, and the calyx is
imbricated. There are two fpecies, viz.
1. The cathecu, a native of India. This has no
branches, but its leaves are very beautiful : they form
a round tuft at the top of the trunk, which is as llraight
as an arrow. It grows to the height of 25 or 35 feet,
and is a great ornament in garden . The (hell which
contains the fruit is fmooth without, but rough and
hairy within 5 in which it pretty much relembles the
Ihell of the cocoa nut. Its fize is equal to that of a
pretty large walnut. Its kernel is as big as a nutmeg,
to which it bears a great relentblance without, and has
alio the fame whitiflh veins within when cut in two.
In the centre of the fruit, when it is foft, is contained
a greyilh and almoft liquid fubilance, which grows hard
in proportion as it ripens. The ex trail of this nut
has been fuppoled to be the terra japonicaof the (hops,
at lealt that it is a very fimilar fubftance both in co¬
lour and tafie: But according to later oblervations,.
the genuine drug feems to be obtained from the Mimofa
Catechu. The rruit when ripe is allringeat, but not
unpalatable, and the (hell is yellowiih. Of this fruit
there is a prodigions confumption in the Eaft Indies,
there being (carce any perfon, from the richeft to the
pooreft, who does not make ufe of it ; and the trade
they drive in it is incredible. The chief ufe that is
made of areca is to chew it with the leaves of betel,
mixing with it lime made of fea fliells *. In order to
chew it, they cut the areca into four quarters, and
take one quarter of it, which they wrap up in a leaf
of betel, over which they lay a little of the lime 3 af¬
terwards they tie it, by twilling it round. This bit
prepared for maftication is called pinang } which is a
Malayan word uled all over the Eaft Indies. The
pinang provokes (pitting very much, whether it be
made with dried or frelh areca) the Ipittle is red,
which colour the areca gives it. This maftication cools
the mouth, and faftens the teeth and gums. When
they have done chewing the pinang, they fpit out the
grofs fubftance that remains in the mouth. They are
under a miilake who imagine that frefli areca melts
entirely in the mouth. Nor is it a lels miftake to
think that the teeth which are tinged red during the
time of chewing, always retain that colour. As foon
they have done chewing the pinang, they walh their
* Cornelius
le Brun af.
ferts, that
they rub
the leaves
of betel
with a red
drug of
with white
chalk.
Area, in architecture, denotes the fpace or fite of mouth with frefli water, and then their teeth are white
ground on which an edifice Hands. It is alfo uled for
inner courts and thofe portions of ground.
Area, in geometry, denotes the fuperficial content
of any figure. Thus, if a figure, e. g. a field, be in
form of a fquare, and its fide be 40 feet long, its area
is faid to be 1600 Iquare feet 3 or it contains 1600 lit¬
tle fquares, each a foot every way.
AREB, a kind of imaginary money ufed in the do¬
minions of the Great Mogul. Four arebs are equal to
one crou, or 100 lacs 5 one lac to 100,000 roupees.
again. The Europeans who live at Batavia, or Mala-
ca, and in the Sunda and Molucca iflands, ule pinang
as much as the Indians do ; and by walking their
teeth they preferve them white. Some pretend that
areca ftrengthens the ilomach, when the juice of it is
fwallowed, as moft of the Indians do. Another pro¬
perty afcribed to it is, its curing or carrying off all
that might be unwholefome or corrupt in the gums.-
When eaten by itfelf, as is fometimes done by the In¬
dians, it impoverilhes the blood, and caufes the jaun-
AREBO, or Aaebon, a town on the flave-coaft of dice) but is not attended with thefe inconveniences
Guinea, in Africa, feated at the mouth of the river
Formofo. The Englilh had once a faCIory there, as
the Dutch have ftill. It is a large oblong place, indif¬
ferently well peopled, and furnilhed with houfes built
of reeds and leaves. E. Long. 5. 5. N. Lat. 5, o.
ARECA, theFausel-nut, in botany, a genus of
the order of palmae pennatifolh*. The male has no calyx,
when mixed in the ufual way with betel. The Sa-
mefe call it p/ou in their language. The beft areca of
the Indies comes from the ifland of Ceylon. The
Dutch Eaft-India Company lend a great deal of it in
their Ihips into the kingdom of Bengal. There grows
in Malabar a fort of red areca, which is very proper
for dyeing in that colour. The fame company fend
fame
ARE [ 264 ] ARE
Afgca. foine of it from time to time to Surat and Amadabat,
“i v for the nfe of the dyers in the dominion's of the Grand
Mogul.
2. The oleracea, or true cabbage-palm, is the moft
beautiful, and perhaps the tailed, of all trees. The
trunk is perfectly ftraight, and marked with rings at
the veltigise of the footftalks of the leaves. Near the
ground it is about feven feet in circumference ; but ta¬
pers as it afcends, and attains the height of 170 or 200
feet. The bark is of an a(li colour till within 25 or
30 feet of the extremity of the tree ; when it alters at
once to a deep fea green, which continues to the top.
About five feet from the beginning of the green part
upwards, the trunk is furrounded with its numerous
branches in a circular manner $ all the lowermoft
Spreading horizontally with great regularity; and the
extremities of many of the higher branches bend wa-
vingly downwards, like lb many plumes of feathers.
Thefe branches, when full grown, are 20 feet long,
more or lefs ; and are thickly let on the trunk alter¬
nately, rifing gradually fuperior one to another : Their
broad curved ibekets lb furround the trunk, that the
fight of it, whilfl: amongft thefe, is loft, which again
appears among the very uppermoft branches, and is
there inveloped in an upright green conic fpire, which
beautifully terminates its great height. The above-
mentiohed branches are fbmewhat round underneath,
and llightly grooved on the upper fide : They are like-
wife decorated with a very great number of green pen-
nated leaves : Some of thefe are near three feet long,
and an inch and an half broad, growing narrower to¬
wards their points, as well as gradually decreafing in
length towards the extremities of the branches. As
there are many thoufand leaves upon one tree : every
branch bearing many fcores upon it, and every leaf be¬
ing fet at a fmall and equal diftance from one another,
the beauty of fuch a regular lofty group of waving fo¬
liage, fufceptible of motion by the moft gentle gale of
wind, is not to be deferibed. The middle rib, in each
leaf, is ftrong and prominent, fupporting it on the un¬
der fide, the upper appearing fmooth and fliining. The
pithy part of the leaf being feraped off, the infide tex¬
ture appears to be fo many longitudinal thread-like fila¬
ments. Thefe, being fpun in the fame manner as they
do hemp, or flax, are tiled in making cordage of every
kind, as well as fifhing nets, which are efteemed
ftronger than thofe ufually made from any other mate¬
rial of the like nature.
Upon removing the large leaves, or branches, which
furroutid the top of the trunk a little way above the
beginning of the green bark juft mentioned, what is
called the cabbage is difeovered lying in many thin,
fnow-white brittle flakes, in tafte refembling an al¬
mond, but fweeter. This fubftance, which cannot be
procured without deftroying the tree, is boiled, and
eaten with mutton by the inhabitants of the Weft In¬
dies, in the fame manner as turnips and cabbage are
with us; though it muft appear the height of extrava¬
gancy and luxury to fell fo ftately a tree, which would
be an ornament to the moft magnificent palace in Eu¬
rope, to gratify the tafte of an epicure, efpecially as
there is but a very fmall part of it eatable. What is
called the cabbage-flower, grows from that part of the
tree where the afti-coloured trunk joins the green part
N° 27.
already deferibed. Its firft appearance is a green hufi- Ateea,
ky fpatha, growing to above 20 inches long and about ||
four broad ; the infide being full of fmall white ftringy Arelate;
filaments, full of alternate protuberant knobs, the final-
left of thefe refembling a fringe of coarfe white thread
knotted : thefe are very numerous and take their rife
from larger footftalks; and thefe footftalks likewife are
all united to different parts of the large parent-ftalk of
all. As this hufky ipatha is opened while thus young,
the farinaceous yellow feed in embryo, refembling fine
faw-duft, is very plentifully difperled among thele
ftringy filaments, which anfwer the ufe of apices in o-
ther more regular flowers : thefe filaments being clear¬
ed of this duff, are pickled, and efteemed among the
beft pickles either in the Weft Indies or in Europe.
But if this fpatha is not cut down and opened whilft
thus young ; if it be fullered to continue on the tree
till it grows ripe and burlts; then the inclofed part,
which whilft young and tender is fit for pickling, will
by that time have acquired an additional hardnefs, be¬
come foon after ligneous, grow bulhy, confifting of
very many fmall leaves, and in time produce a great
number of fmall oval tiun-ftielled nuts, about the big-
nefs of unhulked coffee-berries : Thefe, being planted,
produce young cabbage-trees.
The fockets or grooves, formed by the broad part of
the footftalks of the branches, are uled by the negroes
as cradles for their children. On the inner fide of the
very young footftalks are tender pellicles, which when
dried, it is faid, make a writing paper. The trunks
ferve as gutterings ; the pith makes a fort of fago ; and
the nuts yield oil by deco&ion. In the pith alfo, after
the trees are.felled, there breeds a kind of worms, or
grubs, which are eaten and efteemed a great delicacy
by the French of Martinico, St Domingo, and the ad¬
jacent iflands. Thefe worms, lays father Eabat, are
about two inches long, and of the thicknefs of one’s
finger; the head is black, and attached to the body
without any diftindlion of neck. Their preparation
for the table is as follows : They are ftrung on wooden
Ikewers before a fire ; and as fbon as heated, are rubbed
over with rafpings of cruft, fait, pepper, and nutmeg :
this powder ablorbs all the fat, which during the
cookery would otherwile efcape ; when properly roaft*
ed, they are ferved up with orange or citron laucei
Thefe worms being expofed for Jbme time to the fun,
are faid to yield an oil which is of great efficacy in the
piles. The oil in queftion, fays Eabat, is never to be
heated before its application to the part affedled ; as
repeated experiments have evinced that its Ipirit is to¬
tally diffipated by the fire.
ARELATE, or Arelatum, is a tovtm of Gallia
Narbonenfis, fituated on the Rhone, denoting a town
on, or beyond, a marfh, according to the particular
fituation of the fpeaker; called Prelate Sextanorum,
(Pliny, Mela, Coin), becaufe it had a colony of the
fixth legion. Writers of the lower age call it Arelas,
atis, (Prudentius, Aufonius). There was a double
Arelas, one on each fide of the river and joined by a
bridge, (Aufonius) ; that on the left fide is thought
to have been built by Conftantine. Tiberius’s father
was lent by Julius Caefar at the head of the colony,
(Suetonius) ; and hence the appellation Julia Pater-
na, as appears from an infeription. It was the favou-
ARE I 26c 1 ARE
Arfcmterg rite place of the Romans, and greatly ornamented;
|| and hence called (Aufonius). It is now
Areopagus. ca][ec} ^rles, E. Long, 5. 5. N. Lat. 43. 40.
AREMBERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, defended by a caftle. It is the
capital of a county of the fame name, and Was erected
into a principality by the Emperor Maximilian II. in
favour of John de Ligne, lord of Barbazon, who took
the name of Aremberg. It is feated on the river Ayr.
E. Long. 7. 3. N. Lat. 50. 27.
AREMOR1CA, or Armorica, a part of Gaul be¬
tween the Sequana and Ligeris, (Caefar, Hirtius) ; de¬
noting a country on, or beyond the fea, ar moer, or are
moer, Celtic. Pliny indeed fays, that Aquitania was
formerly called Aremorica; but in this he ilands'.alone.
In the lower age, the term Armorica was confined to
Bretagne in France.
ARENA, in Roman antiquity, a place where the
gladiators fought 5 fo called from its bfeing always
llrewed with land, to conceal from the view of the
people the blood fpilt in the combat. Nero is faid to
have ftrewed the arena with gold dull.
ARENARIA, or Sandwort, in botany: A genus
of the decandria trigynia clals j and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 22d order, Caryophyllce. The
calyx has five open leaves; the petals are five, and en¬
tire ; the Capfule is unilocular, and contains many
feeds. There are 17 Ipecies of arenaria, only feven of
w hich are natives of Britain, viz. the peploides, or fea-
fandwort; the trinervis, or plantain-leaved fandwort 5
the ferpylli-folia, or lead: fandwort; the faxatilis, or
mountain-fandwort; the laricifolia, or larchleaved fand¬
wort 5 the tenuifolia, or fine-leaved fandwort; and the
rubra, or purple-flowered fandwort.
ARENACUM, or Arenacus, one of the four
towns or larger villages in the ifland of the Batavi,
(Tacitus). Now Arenheim, in Guelderland. E. Long.
5. 20. N. Lat. 52. 2.
ARENARII, in antiquity, gladiators who comba¬
ted with beafts in the arena, or amphitheatre. The
arenarii were flaves of the lowed: rank 5 lb that, tho’
manumitted, they were not capable of being Roman
citizens. They w ere the fame with what were other-
wile'called Be/iiarii.
ARENARIUM, in ecclefiaftical wwiters,. denotes
a cemetery or burying-ground.' The arenaria were
properly a kind of pits, or holes, under ground where¬
in the ancient Chriltians not only buried their dead,
but held their religious aflemblies in times of perfecu-
tion.
ARENSBERG, a fmall toWm of Germany, in the
circle of Wefiphalia, upon the fiver Roer. E. Long,
S. 20. N. Lat. 51. 25.
ARENSBOURG, an epifcopal and maritime town
of Livonia in Sweden, feated in the ifle of Ofel, in the
Baltic fea. E. Long. 22. 40. N. Lat. 58. 15.
AREOLA, among anatomifis, the coloured circle
, ^ furrounding the nipple of the bread:.
APvEOPAGUS, a fovereign tribunal at Athens,
famous for the juflice and impartiality of its decrees,
to which the gods themfelves are faid to have fubmit-
fed their differences. It was in the town, on a rock
or hill oppofite to' the citadel. Tire word fignifies
flriftly, rock of Mars.
Plutarch attributes the eflablifliment of the Areo-
Vol. II. Parti.
pagus to Solon. Other authors think differently : and Arespagq*.
w'ith good reafon 5 for it appears undeniable, that this
tribunal was indituted before Solon. But the bed au¬
thorities allow him the honour of its redoration. The
city of Athens, governed till this time by tribunals of
a circumfcribed jurifdidion, which were rtiultiplied by
the mod trifling accidents and circumdances, took no
fixed politicaTof civil form, however clofely united
the members of thole tribunals were by their general
views towards the public good, and by the common
love of their country. As each of thofe tribunals could
only aft in proportion to the power delegated to it,
it was impoflible that fb many different and unequal
impreflions fliould give to the great machine, of the
date that uniform and regular movement which, by
an impulle always the famej would keep each part in
the fituation it fliould maintain with relation to the
whole.
To effeft this univerfal and harmonious power, it
was neceffary to unite the different channels of public
authority, w hich,- by being too much diflributed, lad
its force. This authority Solon collefted, and placed
it all in the court of Areopagus, which confequently
became the main fpring of the government. The
judges of this court, who, under Draco, decided only
in cales of murder, now took cognizance of crimes of
every kind : and the fame tribunal which inflifted ca¬
pital punifliment on murder, poifoning, burning of hou- -
fes, theft, &c. flruck at the roots of thofe crimes, by
arraigning idleneft, luxury and-debauchery. Equally
attentive to flimulate the indolence of the young, and
the languor of the old, thefe fage judges toufed in the
one the laudable ambition to ferve the date, and re-
doted to the others their former aftivity. Satisfied
that extremes produce the fame effefts, they thought
the republic had as much to fear from the excels of
wealth as from the gripe of poverty. Hence they ex-
afted a minute account of the effefts of every indivi*
dual. Hence their great feverity to thofe idle citizens,
who, indead of being ufeful members in a date, are its
bane and its dilhonour. Ifocrates draws a mod beauti¬
ful and flriking pifture of thofe venerable and aflo-
nidling men, and of the order and harmony which
flourifhed in Athens by their wife adminiflration.
The judges of the Areopagus, fays that author,
were more indudrioug to prevent crimes, by reprefent-
ing them in an odious light, than to eflabliih modes of
punifliment. It was their opinion, that the enemies of
the date were the indruments deflined by the gods to
puniflf the wicked ; but that it was their province to
correft and reform public and private manners. They
were vigilantly attentive to the conduft of all the citi¬
zens, but particularly to that of the youth. They
well knew that the impetuofity of juvenile paffion gave
the mod violent fliocks to health and growing virtue ;
that it was the duty of infpeftors of education to fof-
ten the auflerity of moral difeipline with innocent plea-
fure ; and that no recreations were more eligible than
bodily exercifes, which enable a young man to give a
good education its full play, which improve health,
give a pleafurable and agreeable vivacity, and even for¬
tify the mind. The fortunes of the Athenians were
too unequal to admit the fame mqde of education; and
therefore the youth were trained in a manner fuitable
to the rank and circumflances of their relpeftive fami-
ARE [ 266 ] ARE
Areopagus. Hes. Thofe of the inferior clafles were taught agricul-
' * ' ture and commerce ; from this principle, that idlenefs
is followed by indigence, and that indigence excites
to the moll daring and atrocious crimes. Having thus
endeavoured, by wife precautions, to preclude the
entrance of moral evil, they thought they had little tp
fear.
Exercifes of the body, fuch as horlemanfliip and
hunting, were objefts of education to the youth of li¬
beral fortune. In this 1'age dillribution, their great
aim was to prevent the poor from committing crimes,
and to facilitate to the rich the acquifition of virtue.
iNfbt fatisfied with having ellabliflied good laws, they
were extremely careful to lee that they were obferved.
With this view they had divided the city into quar¬
ters, and the country into cantons. Thus every thing
palled under their eyes j nothing elcaped them ; they
were acquainted with the private conduct of every ci¬
tizen. Thofe who had been guilty of any irregula¬
rity were cited before the magiftrates, and were re¬
prehended, or punilhed in proportion to their mifde-
meanour.
The fame Areopagites obliged the rich to relieve
the poor. They reprelled the intemperance of the
youth by a levere difcipline. Corruption in magi-
llrates was fuppreffed by the punilhments denounced
againll it; and the old men, at the fight of the employ¬
ments of the young, felt themielves animated with a
degree of juvenile vigour and .activity.
Religion came likewife under the cognifknce of the
Areopagites. Plato durll never, as we are told by Ju-
ftin Martyr, divulge his privace opinion concerning the
Deity. He had learned from the Egyptians the doc¬
trine of Mofes. It appeared.to him the belt, and he
embraced it with ardour. But his dread of the Areo¬
pagites, who were attached to the prevailing fyilem,
would uot permit him even to name the author of ien-
timents which oppofed the common tradition.
The public edifices, the channels of the ftreets, the
pay of the foldiers, the dillribution pf the public mo¬
ney ; in a word, whatever interefled the republic, was
under the diretlion of the Areopagus. The people
themfejves, jealous as they were of their power, did
nothing without coo Hiking this allembly, and fuffertd
it without a murmur, to amend their precipitate de¬
crees. Yet this authority, however great it may feem,
was fqbje6l to the laws; by them rewards and punilh-
mants were determined; and thofe relpecfable judges
gave an account of the exercife of their trull to public
cenfors, who were placed betwixt them and the people,
to prevent the ariftocracy from growing too powerful.
The moll important qualifications were required in
thofe who entered into the Areopagus. Solon made a
law, by which they who had not been archons for a
year Ihould not be admitted members of the Areopa¬
gus. To give more force to his law, he fubjeded him-
ielf to it, and was only admitted on that title. This
was but the firft ftep ; thofe annual magiflrates, after
having given law to the republic, were interrogated on
their adminillration. If their condud was found irre¬
proachable, they were admitted Areopagites with eu-
logium ; but. the fmallelt miicondud excluded them
from that honour for ever. What adminiflration was
not to be expedcd from a tribunal lb well compofed ?
what veneration was not due to men of fueh rare ta- Areopagus,
leqts and virtue ? Such refped was paid them, that—v 1
people prefumed not to laugh in their prefence ; and
lb well ellablilhed was their reputation for equity, that
thofo whom they condemned, or difmiffed withput
granting their petition, never complained that they had
been unjuflly treated.
The edifice of the Areopagus was extremely fimpie;
and its roof, which was at firll of the moll common
materials, remained in that Hate till the time of Au-
guitus. This we learn from Vitruvius. Qrelles was
the firll who thought of embellishing it. He raifed in
it an altar to Minerva. He likewise adorned it with
two feats of fblid fiver ; on one of which the accufer
fat, and the accufed on the other. The one feat was
confecrated to Injury, and the other to Impudence. **
This religious fkefch was brought to perfedion by E-
pimenides, who eroded altars to thofe allegorical dei¬
ties, and foon after a temple, which'Cicero mentions
in his feqond book of laws. This temple corresponded
with that which Orelles bad built to the Furies, who
brought him to Athens, and procured him the protec¬
tion of Minerva, lipimenides dedicated it a Second
time to the Furies, or fevere Qpddejfes, as they were
termed by the Athenians. A man was thought loft
without refource, and a vidim to every human ill, if
he enforced a perjury by invoking the fagred name of
thofe tremendous divinities.
Thole who employed their thoughts in folving the
myfteries of Paganifm, imagined that the Eumenides
had their temple fo near the court Areopagus, that,
they might enlighten the judges by their inspiration,
and, by their continual afliftance, prevent them from
committing thole errors to which human weakneis is
liable. To prppitiate thofe terrible deities, and to pro¬
cure their favour for the Areopagus, they were wor¬
shipped with great punduahty-and devotion ; and the
fenate itielf appointed their priefts. Demofthenes had
been nominated to prefide over their facrificcs; and he
thought it very extraordinary, that he, to wrhom the
republic had confided fo important an office, Should be
publicly impeached.
It was natural to aftbeiate with the Eumenides the
other deities who fhared with them the Sovereign em¬
pire over the dead. Ephnenides placed in their
temples the Statues of Pluto, of Mercury, and of'S ti¬
lus'. They were all, according to Ppufanias, of an a-
greeable form. Each of them was placed upon an al¬
tar, on which the citizens, or Slrangers, who had been
acquitted by the Areopagus made their grateful offer¬
ings. But it was not to gratitude alone that theSe Se¬
veral deities owed all the incenfe that ftnoked upon
their altars. They who had been accuSed before the
fenate, haraSTed with fuperftition, and uncertain how
thefe deities would be afteCled towards them, were la¬
vish of facrifices to obtain their clemency, by which
they hoped their judges would likewife be influenced.
The tomb of OEdipus w as another of the ornaments
of the Areopagus. It was in the outward court of the
Areopagus, where a barge was likewise placed, which
made a part of the pomp at the public games.
Whatever homage and implicit obedience the court
of Areopagus might derive from all this religious pa¬
rade, the public good was always dearer to them
than
ARE
[ 267 ]
ARE
• <; Areopagus, than any lower adtanta'ges they might have drawn What undoubtedly led him into that millake, was Areopagus,
-f from the altars and temples with which they were fur- an inviolable cuftom of that tribunal, which prohibi- v '
rounded. ted, in pleadings, all that warm and pidurefque ora-
The fenate aflembled in a hall built on the fummit tory which feduces the judgment and inflames the
of a hill, which was afcended with difficulty by the old paffions. When the 4'ufFrages were coIle£led, each
men bent with age. However, as for fome time they perfon gave his in filence. They voted with a imall
only aflembled on the three lalt days of each month, flint, which they held betwixt the thumb and the two
they bore with patience this inconvenient lituation. next fingers, and which they put into one of the two
But public affairs multiplied to fuch a degree, that they urns that flood in a corner of the hall. One flood be-
were obliged to add to the three former fittings a fore the other. The fir'f was called the urn of death ;
fourth, which was held on the feventh day of the the fecond, the urn of compaffton. That of death was
month, and which was loon fucceeded by an aflembly of brafs, and was termed proper ; that of compaffion
every day. Their meetings were fo regular, that they was of wood, and was termed improper. The judges
were not interrupted by the moft fiolemn fellivals, till commonly brought their flint to the affembly, and put
Cephifodorus was archon, who, in the third year of it into the urn 5 but, that all the fuffrages might be
the 105th Olympiad, made a decree, which obliged col!e£led, the herald took the two urn?, and prefent-
the Areopagites to celebrate, after the example of the ed them, one after another, to every fenator, com¬
other courts, the Apaturian feafts, which lafted five manding him, in the name of the republic, no longer
days. to defer his acquittal or condemnation.
This afliduous and painful exercife of their office For this method of giving (eutence, which was called
made the Areopagites feel all the inconvenience of the KgvGlfoy becaufe it kept the vote of each perfon
fituation of their tribunal, and determined them to re- undifcovered, the Thirty Tyrants, to make them-
move it to a part of the city called the Royal Portico, felves mailers of the decifions of the Areopagus, fub-
It was a fqur.re, expofed to all the inclemencies of the ilituted another, by means of which they knew exa£l*
weather. When the judges, who affembled there in ly the opinion of each of the judges ; for they obliged
profound filence, had taken their places, they were in- them to bring their flints publicly, and lay them upon
clofed by a thread, or rather acord, drawn round them, two tables placed before them, tne fituation of which
They held their alfemblies in the night, that their was quite oppofite to that of the urns 5 for the firfl of
attention to public affairs might not be diverted by ex- thole tables was that of l/fe, and the fecond that of
ternal objects,—and (adds Lucian) that they might death.
only be influenced by the arguments, and not by the The firfl; fubftances with which they gave their fuf-
prefence and adtion, of the fpeakers. This circum- frages were not (mail pieces of the bones of a hog, as
llance explains a paffage in Athenaeus, who tells us, fome authors alTert, but fea-fliells, for which pieces of
that none knew the numbers nor faces of the Areopa- brals of the fame form, termedfpondyla, were after*
gites. The cullom of adminiftering jullice in the open wards fubdituted. The fubtlances with which they
air was not peculiar to them. It was followed by all voted were diflinguilhed by their form and. colour,
the other tribunals when they tried for murder: for Thole which condemned were black, and perforated
two reafons t-'-ift, Tiiat the judges, the fworn pro- in the middle ; the others were white, and not perfo*
tedlors of innocence, might not be hurt by being un- rated. The precaution of piercing the black ones
der cover with criminals, wbofe hands were polluted tends to prove, what we have already oblerved, that
with blood. 2dly, that the accufer and the accufed the court of Areopagus fat in the night: for what end
might not be under the fame roof. did it ferve to pierce the black {hells, or flints, if the
When all the members of the fenate were conve- judges could have feen them and the white ones, and
ned, a herald enjoined filence, and ordered the people confequently have diilinguifhed their colours by the
to retire. As'loon as they had departed, the aflem- alfiftance of the light ? But as they pafled fentence in
bly proceeded to bufinefs; and as they deemed the the dark, it is evident that a difterence befides that of
leaft preference a flagrant injuftice, the caufes which colour was neceflary, to know the black ones from the
they were to determine were drawn by a kind of white. The judges were likewife permitted to mul-
lottery ; and the fame chance which brought them up, tiply at pleafure the diftindlions between figns, which
dillributed them to different numbers of judges, fmall effentially diilinguiflied the fates of men.
of great, according to the importance of the feveral After the fuffrages were colleded, they were taken
caufei
In early times, the parties themfelves Hated their
caufe in a fimple manner. The eloquence of advo¬
cates was thought a dangerous talent, fit only to var-
nilh crimes. But afterwards the Areopagus, on this
point, relaxed from their leverity ;—at firll the aqpu-
ied, and foon after the accuiers, were permitted to
engage thofe to make the attack and the defence.
out of the two urns, and put into a third vafe of
brafi. They were then counted j and as the number
of white or of black flints was higher or inferior, one
of the judges drew with his nail a fhcrter or a longer
line on a tablet with a waxen furfac^ on which the
relult of each caufe was marked. The Ihort line ex-
preffed acquittal; the long, condemnation.
With regard to the emoluments of the judges, they
whofe profelfion it was to exert the art of fjseaking were as moderate as thofe of the advocates. The
for others, with accuracy and elegance. length of the procefs did not enhance its expence j and
_ Sextus Empiricus feems not to have fufficiently di- when the decifion of a caufe was poftponed till the next
flinguifhed times, where he fays, that the court of A- day, the committee were only paid an obolus on that
reopagus did not fuffer thofe who are to be tried at day. Hence Mercury, in Lucian, is furprifed that fuch
their bar to avail themfelves of the abilities of other?, fenfible old men as the fenators of Areopagus were
I* 1 2 fliould
ARE [ 268 ] ARE
Arcopagns. fliould fell at To low a price the trouble of afcending
fo high.
As to the number of the judges which compofed
the Areopagus, fome authors, attentive only to a part
of Solon’s regulations, by which he enafted, that for
the future, none but the nine archons fhould be ad¬
mitted members of the Areopagus, have imagined,
that this tribunal was filled anew every year, and that
it never confifted of more than nine magiftrates. This
opinion, and -fome others,' are refuted by the circum-
llantial account which Diogenes Laertius gives us of
the condemnation of Socrates. This great man had
wifhed to fubftitute a rational hypothefis for the fa¬
bulous and extravagant lyflem of religion which pre¬
vailed in his time. His project, however laudable,
appeared impious in the eye of fuperftition. Informa¬
tion was laid againft him before the Areopagus, and
he had as many accufers as fellow-citizens. After the
charges and the anfwers were heard, they proceeded
to fufFrages. The opinions were divided, but not equal¬
ly, for the number of thofe who condemned him ex¬
ceeded by 281 the number of thofe who declared him
innocent. He made an ironical reply to this iniqui¬
tous fentence, by telling his judges, that he took it
for granted, they would admit him to a maintenance
in the Prytanaeum. On this farcafm, 80 of thofe who
had voted in his favour forfook him, went over to the
oppofite party, and condemned him to die. Here then
we have 361 judges who condemn $ to whom if we
add thofe who perfift in acquitting him, the number
muff be very confiderable.
Of all the judgments of the Areopagus, the moft
famous one, excepting that of Mars, was the" fentence
which they palled on Oreftes. His trial, which hap¬
pened under Demophon the 12th king of Athens, in
375 of the Attic tera, owed all its fame to a remark¬
able circumllance, that gave rife to a cuftom which
was obferved ever afterwards. Oreftes had killed his
mother. He was accufed before the Areopagus, and
cited to appear in that court. He would have loft his
life in confequence of the equal divifion of the votes,
had not Minerva, moved with his misfortunes, declared
herfelf for thofe who had abfolved him, and joined her
fuffrage to theirs. Thus Oreftes was faved. In ve¬
neration to this miracle, the Areopagites, whenever
the fuffrages were equally divided, decided in favour
of the accufed, by granting him what they termed the
Jhell of Minerva. Cephalus and Daedalus were con¬
demned by the Areopagus long before the time of
Oreftes.
We find in ancient authors fome decifions of this
tribunal, which bear the ftrongeft marks of juftice,
though their objefts are not interefting. We lhall
here quote an anecdote from Aulus Gellius, and Va¬
lerius Maximus, of a woman, who was accufed of ha¬
ving poifoned her hulband and her fon. She w-as ta¬
ken and brought before Dolabella, who was then
proconful of Afia. She was no fcJoner in his prefence
than (lie owned the fa£t; and added, that Ihe had very
good reafons for putting her hulband and her fon to
death.—“ I had (faid flie) to my firft hulband a
fon whom I tenderly loved, and whofe virtues render¬
ed him worthy of my affedion. My fecond hulband,
and the fon whom I bare to him, murdered my favou¬
rite child. I thought it would have been unjuft to
have fuffered thofe two monfters of barbarity to live. Areopagus,
If you think, Sir, that I have committed a crime, it Arequiba.
is your province to punilh it : I certainly lhall never '—"v '
repent of it.” This affair embarraffed Dolabella. She
was afterwards fent to the Areopagus 5 and that court,
when they had examined her a long time, ordered her
and her accufer to appear before them again a hundred
years after, from the firft day of her trial.
We mull; not, however, fuppofe that the Areopagus
always prelerved its old reputation ; for fuchis the con-
llitution of human affairs, that perfeflion, with regard
to them, is a violent, and confequently a tranfitory,
Hate- Pericles, who lived about too years after So¬
lon, to flatter the people and win them to his party,
tiled his iitmoft efforts to weaken the authority of the
Areopagus, which was then difliked by the multitude.
He took from it the cognizance of many affairs which
had before come under its jurifdi&ion ; and to forward
his defign of humbling it, employed the .eloquence of
Ephialtes, whofe talents were formidable, and who
was an avowed enemy to the great men of Athens.
The Areopagus itfelf feemed to fecond the endea¬
vours of a man who projected its ruin, and by its mif-
condinft haftened its fall. The old rules of the court,
by which none were admitted its members but thole
whofe unexceptionable conduft would fupport its ma-
jefty, feemed too fevere. They grew lefs delicate in
their choice 5 and prefumiug that the faults with which
they difpenfed, would loon be reformed in the fociety
of fo many good examples, vice imperceptibly crept
among them : corruption, at firft fecret and timid,
grew- infenfibly open and daring, and made fuch pro-
grefs, that the moft lhameful crimes were foon exhibi¬
ted on the ftage ; and they were not copied from the
low and abandoned multitude, but from thofe fenators,
once the venerable and auftere cenfors of ddlenefs and
of vice. Demetrius, the comic poet, wrote- a piece
which he entitled The Areopagite, where he ftrips the
maflt off thofe hypocritical legillators, who were now
equally apt to be feduced by wealth and by beauty. So
much had the Athenian fenate degenerated in the days
of Ifocrates, cir. 340 years before the Chriftian sera.
Before this tribunal St Paul was called to give an
account of his dodfrine, and converted Dionyfius one
of their number.
The end of this court of judicature is as obfcure as
its origin, which was derived from very remote anti¬
quity. It exifted, with the other magiftracies, in the
time of Paufanias, i. e. in the 2d century. The term
of its fubfequent duration is not afcertained ; but a
writer, who lived under the emperors Theodofms the
Elder and Younger, in the yth century, mentions it
as extindf.
AREQUIBA, a city of Peru in South America,
fituated in W. Long. 730. S. Lat. 170. It is one of
the moft beautiful cities in all Peru, being delightfully
fituated in the valley of Quilca, too leagues from Li¬
ma, and 20 from the fea, with which it communicates
by a fine river. The entrance into the harbour is ra¬
ther {hallow for (hips of great burden ; but when once
they are entered, they may ride fecurely in t8 fathoms
water. This city was founded in 1539, by order of
Don Francifco Pizarro, in a place known likewife by
the name of Arequiba ; but its fituation being found
difadvantageous, the inhabitants obtained leave to re¬
move
AretJiufi
ARE [ 269 ] ARE
Arcs move to the place where the city now ftands. The
11 houfes are built with Hone, and vaulted ; and, contrary
Arethufa. to what is ufuai in warm countries, they are lofty, neat-
■"•"v—ly furnidied within, and finely decorated on the outfide.
The inhabitants alio are exempt from many difeafes
common in other parts of Peru; which perhaps is owing
to their keeping the llreets clean by means of canals
which extend to the river. The temperature of the air
is extremely good ; and though fometimes a flight froft
is perceivable, the cold is never exceflive, nor the heat
troublefome, lb that the furrounding fields are clothed
with perpetual verdure: Thefe natural advantages
however, are confiderably allayed by its being very
iubject to earthquakes, by which it has already been
five times laid in ruins ; notwithftanding which, it is
populous, and has among its inhabitants fome of the
nobleft families in America.
ARES,' a word of Paracelffcs’s, by which-he would
exprefs that power of nature in the whole material
world, by which fpecies are divided into individuals.
ARETAiUS of Cappadocia, a Greek phyfician, of
the fed of the Pneumatifts, lived in the reign of Au-
guftus, according to lome ; according to others, under
Trajan or Adrian. He wrote feveral treatifes in the
Ionian dialed, on acute difeafes, and other medicinal
fubjeds; fome of which are ftill extant. The bell edi¬
tion of his works is that of Boerhaave, in Greek and
Latin, with notes, ,printed in 1731 ; that of Wigan,
printed at Oxford in 1722, in folio, is alfo much e-
lleemed.
ARETHUSA, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of
Nereus and Coris, and the companion of Diana, who
changed her into a fountain to deliver her from the
purfuit of her lover Alpheus.
Arethusa, a celebrated fountain near the city of
Syracule in Sicily, famous for the quantity of its wa¬
ters, and the number of filhes it contained. Many fa¬
bles were invented by the ancients concerning this foun¬
tain. They had alfo a notion that the river Alpheus
run under or through the waters of the fea, without
mixing with them, from Peloponnefus to Sicily. Mr
Brydone informs us, that it Hill continues to fend forth
an immenfe quantity of water, riling at once to the fixe
of a river, but is entirely abandoned by the filhes it for¬
merly contained in fuch plenty. At fome diftance from
Arethufa is a fountain offrelh water which boils up very
ftrongly in the fea, infomuch that, after piercing the
fait water, it may be fometimes taken up very little af-
feded by it. This fountain Mr Brydone thinks the an¬
cients were ignorant of, or they would not have failed
to ufe it as an argument for the fubmarine journey of
Alpheus.
Mr Swinburn defcribes this once famous fountain as
a large pool of water near the quay, defended from the
fea by a wall, and almolt hidden by houfes on every
other fide. The water is not fait, but bfackilh, and
fit for no purpofe but walhing linen. “ This (fays he)
is the celebrated fountain of Arethufa, whole foft poe¬
tical name is known to every reader. The fable of the
nymph and her conftant lover Alpheus, the excellence
ofthe fpring, and the charms of its fituation, are themes
on which ancient and modern poets have indulged their
fancy, and exercifed their pens. Alas, how altered !
rubbilh chokes up its wholefome fources ; the waves
have found a palfage through the rocks, which repeat¬
ed earthquakes have-lplit 5 and not a fifli is to be feen
in it. Sometimes, after an earthquake, it has been left
dry; and, at other times, the whole mafs of its waters
have been tainted by fubterraneous effluvia. Its foun¬
tain head probably lies among the neighbouring
hills.’'
Arethusa, in botany : A genus of the gynandria
diandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 7th order, Orchidece. The generic character is
taken from the neHarium, which is tubular, fituated at
the bottom of the corolla, and the inferior labium fixed
to the lly lus. There are four Ipecies; all natives of A-
merica, except the capenfis, which is only found at the
Cape of Good Hope.
AREITA, in botany : A genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs; and in the natural merhod ranking
under the 21ft order, Pretia. The corolla is divided
into five parts ; the tube of the corolla is ovated 5 and
the capfule is globular, and confffls o£ but one cell.
There is only one Ipecies, viz. the alpina.
ARETIN (Guido), famous for his mufical improve¬
ments, lived in the 13th century. He was a native of
Arezzo, a city in Tufcany ; and having been taught
the practice of mufic in his youth, and probably re¬
tained as a chorifter in the fervice of the Benedi&ine
monaftery founded in that city, he became a monk pro-
fefled, and a brother of the order of St Benedict.
In this retirement he feems to have devoted himfelf
to the ftudy of mufic, particularly the fyftem of the an¬
cients, and, above all, to reform their method of nota¬
tion. The difficulties that attended the inflruftion of
youth in the church offices were lb great, that, as he
himfelf fays, ten years were generally confirmed barely
in acquiring the knowledge of the plain-fongj and this
confideration induced him to labour after fome amend¬
ment, fome method that might facilitate inltrubtion,
and enable thofe employed in the choral office to per¬
form the duties of it in a corredl and decent manner.
If we may credit thofe legendary accounts that are ex¬
tant in old monkilh manufcripts, we fliould believe he
was aflifted in his pious intention by immediate con-
munications from heaven : fome fpeak of the invention
of the fyllables as the etfeft of inlpiration ; and Guido
himfelf feems to have been of the fame opinion, by his
faying it was revealed to him by the Lord 5 or, as
fome interpret his words, in a dream : but graver hi-
ftorians fay,, that being at vefpers in the chapel of his
monaftery, it happened that one of the offices appoint¬
ed for that day was the hymn * to St John,
UT queant taxis REfonare Jibris
Mira gejlorum FAmuli tuorurn
SOLve pollutis LAbiis reatumy
SanBe Joannes.
During the performance of the hymn, he remarked
the iteration of the words, and the frequent returns of
UT, RE, MI, FA, SOL, la : he oblerved likewife a dif-
fimilarity between the clofenefs of the fyllable mi and
the broad open found of fa, which he thought could
not fail to imprefs upon the mind a lading idea, of their
congruity ; and immediately conceived a thought of
applying thele fix fyllables to perfeft an improvement
either then aftually made by him, or under confidera¬
tion, viz. that of converting the ancient tetrachords
into hexachords..
* Compo-
fed by Paul,
a deacon of
the church
of Aquilcia,
about the
year 770.
Struck.
ARE [ 270 ] ARE
■Struck with the difcovefy, he retired to his ftudy ;
and having perfected his lyftetn, began to introduce it
into prattice : the perfons to whom he communicated
it were the brethren of his own monaftery, from whom
it met with but a cold reception, which, in the epi-
ftle to his friend, he afcribes undoubtedly to its true
caufe, envy : however, his intereft with the abbot, and
his employment in the chapel, gave him an opportu¬
nity of trying the efficacy of his method on the boys
who were training up for the choral fervice, and it ex¬
ceeded the moft fanguine expeftation. “ To the ad¬
miration of all (fays cardinal Baronins,) a boy there¬
by learnt, in a few months, what no man, though
of great ingenuity, could before that attain in feveral
years.”
The fame of Guido's invention foon fpread abroad,
and his method of inftruftion was adopted by the clergy
of other countries. We are told by Kircher, that Her-
mannus, biffiop of Hamburg, and Elviricus bifhop of
Ofnaburg, made ufe of it; and by the authors of the
Hijhire Litteraire de la France, that it was received
in that country, and taught in all the monafteries'in
-the kingdom. It is certain that the reputation of his
great fkill in mufic had excited in the pope a defire to
fee and cOnverfe with him ; of which, and of his going
to Rome for that pufpofe, and the reception he met
with from the pontiff, he himfelf has given a circum-
ilantial account of in the epiille hereafter mentioned.
The particulars of this relation are very curious j
and as we have his own authority, there is no room to
doubt the truth of it. It feems that john XX. or, as
fome writers compute, the 191)1 pope of that name,
having heard of the fame of Guido’s fchool, and con¬
ceiving a defire to fee him, lent three meffengers to in¬
vite him to Rome ; upon their arrival, it was refolved
by the brethren of the" monallery, that he fhould go
thither attended by Grimaldo the abbot, and Peter the
chief of the canons of the church of Arewzo. Arri¬
ving at Rome, he was prelented to the holy father, and
by him received with great kindntfs. The pope had
feveral converfations with him, in all which he interro¬
gated him as to his knowledge in mufic ; and upon
fight of an antiphonary which Guido had brought with
him, marked with the fyllables agreeable to his new
invention, the pope looked on it as a kind of prodigy ;
and ruminating on the dodfritieS delivered by Guide,
would not ftir from his feat till he had learned perfeflly
to fing off a verfe : upon which he declared, that he
could not have believed the efficacy of the method, if
he had not been convinced by the experiment he had
himfelf made of it. The pope would have detained
him at Rome ; but labouring under a bodily difor-
der, and fearing an injury to his health from the air
of the place, and the heats of the fummer, which was
then approaching, Guido left that city upon a promife
to revifit it, and explain to his holinefi the principles
of his new fyftem. On his return homewards, he
made a vifit to the abbot of Pompofa, a town in the
duchy of Ferrara, who was very earned; to have Guido
fettle in the monadery of that place : to which invi¬
tation it feems he yielded, being, as he fays, defirous
of rendering fo great a monaflery dill more famous by
his dudies there.
Here it was that he cbmpofed a traft on mufic, inti-
tled Micrologus, i. e. “ a fhort difeourfe 5” which he
dedicated to Theodald biffiop of Arezzo ; arid finifhed,
as he himfelf at the end of.it tells us, under the pontifi¬
cate of John XX. and in the 34th year of his age. Vof-
fius fpeaks alio of another mufical treattfe written by
him, and dedicated to the fame perfbn.
Mod of the authors who have taken occafion to
mention Guido, fpeakofthe Micrologus as containing
the firm of his doftrine : but it is in a finall traft, in-
titled Argumentum novi Cantus inveniendi, that his de¬
claration of his ufe of the fyllables, with their feveral
mutations, and in ihort his whole doffrine of folmi-
fatiort, is to be found. This traft makes part of an
epiftle to a very dear and intimate friend of Guido,
whom he addreffes thus, “ Beatiflimo atque dulciffimo
fratri Michaeliat whofe requed the trail itfelf feems
to have been compofed.
Whether Guido was the author of any other trails,
is not eafy to determirfi. It nowhere appears that any
of his wmrks were ever printed, except that Baronius,
in his Annales Ecciejiajlici, tom. xi. p. 73, has given
at length the epidle from him to his friend Michael of
Pompofa, and that to Theodald bifhop of Arezzo, pre¬
fixed to the Micrologus'; and yet the writers bn mufic
fpeak of the Micrologus as of a book in the hands of
every one. Martini cites federal manufcriptS of Guido ;
namely, two in the Ambrofian library at Milan, the
one written about the twelfth century, the other lefs'
ancient; another among the archives of the chapter of
Pidoja, a city in Tuftatly ; and a third in the Mbdiceo*
Laurenziano library at Florence,, of the 15th Century :
thefe are clearly the Micrologus. Of the epidle to
Michael of Pompofa, together with the Argumentutn
novi Cantus inveniendi, he menftibns only bne, wffiich
he fays is fomewhere at Ratiibon. Of the feveral trabls
abovernentioned, the lad excepted, a mauufeript is ex¬
tant in the library of Baliol-college in Oxford. Several
fragments of the two fird, in one volume, are alfb a-
mong the Harleian manuferipts now in the Britifh Mu-
feum, No. 3199 ; but lb very much mutilated, that they
afford but ftttall fatisfaftion to a curious inquirer.
Aretin (Leonard), one of the mod learned men of
the 15th century, was fecretary to the republic of
Florence, and tranflated from the Greek intb Latin
fome of the Lives of Plutarch, and AFiftotle’s Ethics:
he alfo compofed three books of the Punic war, that
may ferve a$ a fupplement to thofe wanting in Livy ;
the hidory of the tranfadlions in Italy during his time ;
that of ancient Greece ; that of the Goths; that of the
republic of Florence ; and many other books. He died
in 1443, aged 74.
Are tin (Francis), a man of great reading, and
well acquainted with the Greek language. He tranf¬
lated into Latin the Commentaries of St Chryfodom
upon St John, and about 20 Homilies of the fame fa¬
ther : he alfo tranflated the Letters of Fhalaris into La¬
tin, and wrote a treatile De ba/neis Puteoianis. He
ffudied at Sienna, about the year 1443 ; and afterwards
taught law there with fuch reputation, that they called
him the Prince of Subtilties, and his wit became a pro¬
verb. He difplayed his talents chiefly in difputes, in
which nobody could withfland him. He gave his o-
pinions in law with fo much confidence, as to aflure
thofe who confulted him that they ffiould carry their
caufe : nor did experience contradict him ; for it was a
common faying at the bar, fiich a caule has been con¬
demned
Aretin.
ARE [ 271 ] A R G
iittetin. denned by Aretin, it mud therefore be loft. He
—ir""-' taygbi alfo in the univerfity of Pifa, and in that of Fer¬
rara. He was at Rome under the pontificate of Six-
| tus IV. out did not ftay here long $ for he fopn per¬
ceived that the great hopes which he had built upon
his reputation would poaie to nothing. This pope,
however, declared he would have given him a cardinal’s
hat, bad he not thought he fliould have done a public
I injury by depriving the you cl) of fuch an excellent
prcfetTbr. When old age would not permit him to go
through the duties of his office, they difpenfed with his
reading of leftures, and his falary was continued. He
continued, however, fometimes to mount the chair;
and although his leftures had now but little ipirit in
them, yet he had ftiil many hearers on account of his
reputation. One day when the ftudents were gone to
fbme public ihows, thpre were but 40 perfons in his
auditory : which lb mortified him, that he threw away
his book; and crying out, “ Arptin (hall never ex¬
plain law to a few perlbos,” retired in a paffion, and
would teach no more. He was fevere in his temper,
and never kept a ft rvant longer than a month or two;
for it was a maxim of his, “ that new-hired fervants
always ferve beft.” He was honoured with the title of
knight, and fpent all his life in celibacy ; and his way
of living was fo parfimonious, that he was thereby en¬
abled to amafs a great deal of wealth. He had de-
figntd this wealth for the maintenance of a college;
but he altered his refolution, and left it to his rela¬
tions.
Aretin (Peter), a native of Arezzo, who lived in
the j6th century. He was famous for his i'atirical
writings; and was fo bold as to carry his iuveHives
I - even againft fovtreigns, and from thence got the title
of the Scourge of princes. Francis I. the emperor
Charles V. tnoft of the princes of Italy, feveral cardi¬
nals, and many noblemen, courted his friendfhip by
prefents, either becaufe they liked his compofitions, or
perhaps from an apprehenfion of failing under the laffi
of his i’atire. Aretin became thereupon fo in Talent,
that he is faid to have got a medal ftruck, on Vine fide
of which he is represented with thefe word8, JL Pivino
aretino ; and on the reverfe, fitting upon a thfonp,
receiving the prefents of princes, with thefe words,
I PRINCJPI TRIJaUTATI DA. POPOPI, TRiBUTANO IL
servidor loro. Some imagine that he gave himfelf
the title of Divine, fignifying thereby that he perform¬
ed the functions of a god upon earth, by the thunder¬
bolts with which he ftruck the heads of the higheft
perfonages. He ufed to boaft, that his lampoons did
more fervice to the world than fermons; and it was
Ij faid of him, that he had fubjeHed more princes by his
pen than the greateft had ever done by their arms.
J Aretin wrote many irreligious and obfcene pieces; fuch
are his dialogues, which were called Ragionamenti.
There is likewife imputed to him another very.obfcene
performance, De omnibus Veneris fchernatibus. " It
I msinie was about the year 1525 (fays Mr Chevillier *) that
^mpnmerit Julio Romano, the moft famous painter of Italy, infti-
gated by the enemy of the falvation of mankind, in¬
vented drawings to engrave 20 plates : the fubjeHsare
fo immodeft that 1 dare only name them. Peter Aretin
compofed fonnets for each figure. George Vafari, who,
relates this in his Lives of the Painters, fays, he does
not know which would be the greateft impurity, to caft
one’s eyes upon the drawings of Julio, or to dip into Aretologi
the .verfes of Aretin.” Some fay that Aretin changed ||
his libertine principles; but however this may be, it. Atge’*-
is pertain that he compofed (everal pieces of devotion. ' v
He wrote a Paraphrale on the penitential Pfalms, »od
another on Genefis ; he wrote ajfo the Life of the
Virgin Mary, and that of St Catharine of Sienna,
and of St Thomas Aquinas. He was author likewile
of Ibme comedies. He died in the year 1556, being
about 65 years old.
ARETOLOGI, in antiquity, a fort of philofo-
phers, chiefly of the Cynic or Stoic tribe, who having
no fphool or diiciples of their own, haunted the tables
of great men, and entertained them in their banquets
with diiputations on virtue, vice, and other popular to¬
pics. Thefe are fometimes alfo denominated Circula¬
tory Pbilofophi. In this fenfe, the word is derived from
the Greek virtue, and Aey«?, difcourfe. Some
authors ehooie to derive the word from gratus,
“ agreeable and define Aretologi, by perfons who
drive to divert and entertain their audience with jokes
and pleafant tales ; which latter fetms the more natu¬
ral explication.
ARE.ZZO, a city of Italy, in Tufcany, feated in
the territory of Florence, on the declivity of a hill that
overlooks the neighbouring plain, between the Citta di
Caftelli and Florence. It is an ancient city, and a bi-
fhop’s fee ; ai\d was famous for a kind of earthen ware
much efteemed by the Romans. It was greatly fallen
to decay when Cofmo de Mtdicis took it under his
protection ; fince which it has been recovering gradu¬
ally, It is famed for being the birth place of Mecae-
nas. E. Long. 12. 2. N. I.at. 43. 27.
ARGEA, or Argeli, in Roman antiquity, thirty
human figures, made of Rulhes, thrown annually by the
priefts or veflais into the Tiber, on the day of the ides
of May —Plutarch, in his Roman Qutftions, inquires
why they were called Argea. There are tworeafons
affigned. 'i'he firft, that the barbarous nations who
fifft inhabited thefe parts caft all the Greeks they could
meet with into the Tiber : for Argians was a common
name for all Grecians: but that Hercules perfuaded
them to quit £b inhuman a praftice, and to purge
themlelves of the crime by inftituting this folemnity.
The fecond, that Evander, an ArcaiIiarb and a Iworn
enemy of the Argians, to perpetuate that enmity to
his poftefity, ordered the figures of Argians to be
thus caft into the river
ARGEIA, or Argocis, a diftrift of Peloponnefus,
fituated between Arcadia to the weft, the Egean Sea
to the eaft, Laconica and the Sinus ArgoJicus to the
fouth, and to the north the territory of Corinth and the
Sinus Saronjcus (Livy, Ptolemy); fo called from Ar¬
gos, the capital : Now Romania di Morea.
By the Greeks the people were called Argcii, from
Argior Argos; by the Romans, Argivi, Argives. They
were a colony who migrated, it is faid, from Egypt, un¬
der the command of Inachus. Polemon and Ptolemy
Mendefius, ancient Greek writers, inform us, that Ina¬
chus was contemporary with Ampfis, who demoliffied
Avaris, and expelled the fliepherds out of Egypt. If,
with fome learned chronologtrs, we fuppofe Inachus to
have begun to reform the Argives B. C. iSy6, and to
have died B. C. 1808, he muft have been coeval with
Amofis who reigned in Upper Egypt 15 years before
A R G [ 272 ] ARC
the expulfion of the fhepherds, and 10 years after that
event, which happened B. C. 1806. Inachus was ftyled
the Son of the Ocean, becaufe his origin was not known,
or becaufe he had come by fea into Greece. Before his
arrival the inhabitants were rude and barbarous. Thele
he united and civilized, and inftru&ed in various arts.
His fon Phoroneus inrtituted the laws of government;
and, on that account, has been called thefirji king in
Argos, the frjl of men, and the father of mortals. The
family of Inachus, after having kept pofTeflion of the
throne 347 years, were expelled by Danaus, who ar¬
rived B. C. 1509 with a colony from Canaan. Acrifius,
the laft king of Argos, died B. C. 1313 ; and was
fucceeded by Perfeus, his grandfon, who transferred
the feat of government to Mycenae, 544 years from
the firft year of Inachus, in the reign of Cecrops II.
king of Athens, and about the time when Pelops the
Ion of Tantalus king of Phrygia, having been compel¬
led by Hus to leave his native country, came into Greece
•with great wealth, and acquired fupreme power in the
region afterwards called by his name. In the 37th
year of Euryftheus, grandfon of Perfeus, the Argo-
nautic expedition happened, i. e. B. C. 1224. This
unjuft and tyrannical prince had afligned to Hercules
his tafks j and, after the death of that hero, hebanifh-
ed all his children. Thefe were the Heraclidae who
fled to Athens for protetfion, and who returned to
Peloponnefus 40 years after the deftrudlion of Ttroy.
In the reign of Agamemnon, the Trojan war com¬
menced, and it was carried on with vigour during the
fpace of ten years. In the year B. C. 1184, Troy was
taken, and the war was concluded. Scarcely had the
Grecians fettled in their own country after their return
from this dangerous expedition, when the pofterity
of Hercules invaded Peloponnefus, took pofleflion of
it, and divided it among themfelves. Here the king¬
dom of Mycenae ended, and that of Sparta was efta-
bliihed on its ruins. See Sparta.
ARGEMONE, Prickly poppy : A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
27th order, Rhaeadeee. The corolla cpnfifts of fix pe¬
tals; the calyx is triphyllous ; and the capfule is femi-
valved. Of this genus there are three fpecies, which
are common in many parts of the Weft Indies, and
Called by the Spaniards the devil’s fig} but they are
of no ufe, and have very little beauty.
ARGENCES, a town of France, in Lower Nor¬
mandy, on the river Meance. W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat.
49. 15.
ARGENT, the cbmmon French word forfilver, of
which metal all white fields or charges are fuppofed to
confift. Argent of itfelf is ufed in heraldry to fignify
purity, innocence, beauty, and gentlenefs; and, ac¬
cording to G. Leigh, if it is compounded with
Gul.") « fboldnefs;
Azu. I u; j courtefy;
Ver. virtue ;
Pur; | 'jj | favour ;
Sab. J •" (_religion.
ARGENTAC, a town of France,-in the Limofin,
on the river Dordogne. E. Long. 2.3. N. Lat.
45- S'
ARGENT AN, a town of France, in Lower Nor¬
mandy, and in the diocefe of the Seez, with the title
No. 27. -
of a marquifate. It is feated on an eminence, in the Argefitarj*
middle of a fertile plain, on the banks of the river II
Orne, and carries on a confiderable trade. E. Long. Argentina^
0. 5. N. Lat. 48. 54. 1—■v—
ARGEN FARIA, atown of Ancient Gaul, thought
*to Hand in the place where the city Colmar now ftandsi
It is remarkable for a great victory gained by the em¬
peror Gratian Over the Lentienfes, in the month of
May, A. D. 378. The Romans being but few in
number, were at firft overpowered, and obliged to give
ground; but foon returning to the charge, they gain¬
ed in the end a complete victory. Thirty thoufand of
the barbarians, and among the reft their king Triarius,
were killed on the fpot; and all the reft, except 5000,
taken prifbners.
Argentaria Creta, pdre white earth, found in
Pruflia, and much efteemed for cleaning plate.
ARGENTARIUS is frequently ufed in Roman
writers for a money changer or banker. The argen-
tarii were monied people, who made a profit either by
the changing, or lending of money at intereft. Thefe
had their taberna, or offices, in the forum Romanum,
built there as early as the reign of L. Tarquinius Prif-
cusr The argentarii and fceneratores were much ha¬
ted on account of their covetoulhefs and extortion.
ARGENTATI milites, in Antiquity. Livy,
lib. vi. fpeaks of argentatimilites, as diftinguiftied from
aurati. Aquinas fuppofes thefe to have been fimilar
to the argyrafpides and chryfafpides; but the defcrip-
tions do not quadrate. Livy only reprefents the ar¬
gentati as cloathed in wffiite linen coats.
ARGENTEUIL, a town of the Ifle of France;
feated on the river Seine, five miles north-weft of Paris;
It is a very beautiful place, with fine vineyards. In
the environs are quaries of ftucco. In the benedic-
tine priory they pretend to have the feamlefs coat of
Chrift. E. Long. 2. 28. N. Lat. 48. 52.
ARGENTIERE, a fmall ifland in the Archipela¬
go, near Milo. It is about 18 miles in compafs ; and is
full of barren mountains, producing nothing but bar¬
ley, cotton, and a few grapes fit only for eating. The
barley and cotton are fown round the only village there
is in the ifland. The ladies are handfome enough, have
no other employment but making cotton ftockings, and
take up with the failors who put into the port. The
men all uie the lea, and in time become good pilots.
They have very little religion, are very ignorant, and
of very bad morals. Juftice is adminiftered by an itine¬
rant cadi, who is fometimes the only mufliilman in the
whole ifland. The Only article relating to natural hi-
ftory is the Terra Cimolia fo highly efteemed by the
ancients ; it is a kind of white chalk, which is very
heavy, w-ithout tafte, and crumbles eafily : they ule it
in walking linen. E. Long. 23. 10. N. Lat. 36. 50.
ARGENTINA, in ichthyology, a genus of fillies
belonging to the order of abdominales. The generic
chafaders are thefe: The teeth are in the tongue as
well' as the jaws; the branchioftege membrane has
eight radii or rays; the anus is near the tail; and the
belly-fins cortfift of many rays. There are two fpecies
of argentina, viz. 1. The fphj raena has 15 rays in the
fin at the anus; the air-bladder of this fpecies is coni¬
cal on both fides, and fliines like filver: according to Mr
Ray, falfe pearls are fometimes made of it. 2. The
Carolina has likewife 15 rays in the fin near the anus;
the
A R G [ 273 ] A R G
^rgcntinus the tail is forked, and the lateral lines are ftraight. It
II inhabits the frefh waters of Carolina.
u A^gQ' . ARGENTINUS, a deity worlhipped by the an¬
cients, as the god of filver coin ; as Aifculanus, whom
they made his father, was the god of brafs money,
which was in ufe before filver.
ARGENTON, a town and county of France, in the
duchy of Berry, divided into two by the river Creule.
Here was formerly a cattle ; but it was demolithed by
Lewis XIV. E. Long. 1. 38. N. Lat. 40. 30.
ARGENTORA, Argentina, (Notitiae) 5 Argento-
ratum, (Ptolemy); Argentoratus, (Ammian) ; a city
of the Tribocci; one of the fifty forts built by Dra¬
ins on the Rhine, (Florus) : an appellation formed by
the Romans from the German, Argen StraJJen, or Stra-
ten, “ unfafe roads for travellers,” from themaroding
parties of the garrifons that infetled the roads. Now
SttStraf- Strajburg *,\x\X.\\z lower A1 face, on the rivulet 111, near
urg. the Rhine. E. Long.';. 35. Lat. 48. 38.
ARGENTUM. See Silver.
Argentum Album, in our old cufloms, filver coin,
or pieces ef bullion that anciently palled for money.
By Doomfday tenure, fome rents to the king were paid
in argento albo, common'filver pieces of money : other
rents in libris urjis et penfatis, in metal of full weight
and purity : in the next age, that rent which was paid
in money, was called blanch fearm, and afterwards
white rent; and what was paid in provifions, was
termed black mail.
Argentum Dei, God’s penny, anciently fignified
earned money, or money given to bind a bargain ; in
lome places called er/fj-, or ar/er, and by the civilians
, and canonifts, arrha. Et cepit de prcediBo Henrico
tres ctenariqs de argenti Dei pra mambas.
Argentum Mujivum is a mafs confifting of filver-
like flakes, ufed for the colouring of platter figures,
and for other purpoles, as pigment. It confifts of an
amalagam of equal parts of tin, bifinuth, and mercury.
It is to be mixed with white of eggs, or fpirit varnilh,
and then applied to the intended work, which is after¬
wards to be burniflied.
Argentum Vivum, Mercury or ^uickjilver. See
Mercury, and Chemistry-TWiw.
ARGESTES, is ufed by Vitruvius for the wind
which blows from that quarter of the horizon, which
is 750 from the louth and weflward. Ricciolus ules
the term to denote the wind which blows at 22° 30'
from the welt towards the north, coinciding with that
which is otherwile called wejl north-wejl.
ARGIL, in ornithology, a Ipecies of ardea. See
Ardea.
ARGILLA, clay, in natural hiftory. See Clay.
ARGIVI, or Argeii, the people of Argeia or Ar-
golis. See Argeia.
ARGO, in antiquity, a fiiip or vefltl celebrated a-
mong the poets; being that wherein the Argonauts,
of whom Jafon w'as the chief, made their expedition in
queft of the golden fleece. Jafon having happily ac-
compliihed his enterprift, confecrated the fliip Argo to
Neptune ; or, as others fay, to Minerva, in the lifhmus.
of Corinth ; where, they add, it did not remain long
before it was tranflated into heaven, and made a con-
ftellation. The generality of authors reprefent the fliip
Argo as of a long make, refembling the modern gal¬
leys ; and furnifhed with thirty benches of rowers.
Vot. II. Part I.
It could not, however, be of any great bulk, fince the Argo,
Argonauts were able to carry it on their backs from ||
the Danube to the Adriatic lea. Argonau-
Argo Navis, the Ship Argo, in aftronomy, is a , t‘c’ ,
conllellation in the fouthern hemifphere, whofe ftars, " v
in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 45; in Tycho’s 11;
in the Britannic catalogue, and Sharp’s appendix,
64.
ARGOB (anc. geog.), a canton lying beyond Jor¬
dan, in the half tribe of Manafleh, and in the country
of Balkan, one of the moft fruitful on the other fide of
Jordan. In the region of Argob there w'ere fixty ci¬
ties, called Bq/han-havoth-jair, which had very high
walls and flrong gates, w ithout reckoning many villages
and hamlets which were not inclofed, Deut. iii. 4. 14,
and 1 Kings, iv. 13. But Argob was more particular¬
ly the name of the capiial city of the region of Argob,
which Eufebius fays was fifteen miles weft from Gera-
fa.
ARGONAUTA, the name of a genus of fliell fifli
belonging to the order of vermes teftacea. The fliell
confifts of one fpiral involuted valve. There are two
Ipecies of Argonauta, viz. The argo, with a fubdented
carina, which is found in the Mediterranean and In¬
dian oceans. This is the famous nautilus of authors.
The ftiell feems no thicker nor ftronger than a piece
of paper ; and the fifli that inhabits it is a flepia. It has
been imagined that men firft learned the method of
failing in veflels from what they faw pradfifed by this
creature. When it is to fail it extends two of its arms See Plate
on high ; and between thefe fupports a membrane, LVI.
which it throws out on this occafion : this ferves for its
fail; and the two other arms it'hangs out of the fliell,
to ferve occafionally either as oars or as a fteerage ; but
this laft office is generally ferved by the tail. When the
lea is calm, it is common to fee numbers of thefe crea¬
tures diverting themfelves with failing about in this
manner; but as foon as a ftorm riles, or any thing
gives them dilturbance, they draw in their legs, and
take in as much water as makes them fomewhat hea¬
vier than the fea-vvater in which they fwim, and they
then fink to the bottom. The manner of their void¬
ing this abundant water, when they would rife again,
is by a number of holes, of which their legs are full.
2. The cymbium, with a blunt plaited carina. This
Ipecie s is very finally and is found in the Mediterra¬
nean.
ARGONAUTIC, fomething belonging to the Ar¬
gonauts.
The argonautic expedition is one of „the greateft e-
pochas or periods of hiftory which Sir Ifaac Newton
endeavours to fettle, and from thence to re&ify the an¬
cient chronology. This he fliows, by feveral authori¬
ties, to have been one generation or about thirty years
earlier than the taking of Troy, and 43 years later
than the death of Solomon. See Chronology.
Dr Bryant, however, rejedts the hiftory of the Ar¬
gonautic expedition as a Grecian fable, founded indeed
on a tradition derived from Egypt, and ultimately re¬
ferring to Noah’s prefervation, &c. in the ark. But
although.we are not to believe all the romantic ftories
which poets, and even fome grave hiftorians, have told
us of thofe famous adventurers, yet it feems unreafon-
able to diferedit entirely the Argonautic expedition.
See Argonauts.
Mm
ARGO-
A R G [274
Argonauti- ARGONAUTICA, in’ literary biftory, denotes
ca> poems on the fubjeft and expeditions of the Argonauts.
. rs°"au s' We have the Argonautics of Orpheus in epic verfe,
publifhed by H. Stephans ; the Argonauticon of Vale¬
rius Flaccus, in eight books of Latin heroics, in imita¬
tion of Apollonius, with refpeft to which Burman
oblerves that the imitator has often furpafled the ori¬
ginal 5 the Argonautics of Apollonius Rhodius, an he¬
roic poem, confifting of four books, opus, as Quintili¬
an calls it, non contemnendum.
ARGONAUTS, in antiquity, a company of illuf-
trious Greeks, who embarked along with Jafon, in
the fhip Argo, from Colchis, with a defign to obtain
the golden fleece.
The occafion of this expedition is thus reprelented
by Greek writers. Phryxus, flying with his fifttr
Helle from the rage of their flep-mother Ino, the
daughter of Cadmus, went on board a fliip, whole en-
fign was a golden ram, and failed to Colchis (now,
Mingrelia, part of Georgia). Helle was drowned by
the way, in that fea which from her was called the
Hellefpont, now the Dardanelles. This, according to
fome, was the ground of the poetical fable, that a ram
with a golden fleece fwam away with them to Colchis j
and that the Argonauts undertook their famed expe¬
dition, in order to find that fleece. But Strabo and
Arrian informs us, that it was a practice of the Col-
chians to colledf gold on mount Caucafus by ex¬
tending fleeces acrofs the beds of the torrents 5 and
as the water pafled, the metallic particles remain¬
ed entangled in the wool : hence", according to thofe
hiftorians, the adventure was named the expedition of
the golden fleece. Sir Ifaac Newton thinks that this
expedition was really an embaffy fent by the Greeks,
during the inteftine divifions of Egypt in the reign of
Amenophis, to perfuade the nations upon the coafts of
the Euxine and Mediterranean feas, to take that op¬
portunity of fliaking off the yoke of Egypt, which Se-
foftris had laid upon them ; and that fetching the gol¬
den fleece, was only , a pretence to cover their true
defign.
But the mod judicious and fatisfa&ory account of
the Argonautic expedition feems to be that given by
Dr Gillies in his hiftory of Greece. “ The northern
diftridfs of Theflaly being peculiarly expofed to the
dangerous fury of invaders, the petty princes of that
province entered into a confederacy for their mutual
defence. They aflembled in fpring and autumn at
Thermopylae, a place afterwards fb illuitrious, and
then governed by Amphidyon, a defcendant of Deu¬
calion, whofe name is immortalized in the Amphidy-
onic council. The advantages which the confederates
derived from this.meafure, were foon perceived by
their neighbours. The Central ftates gradually acced¬
ed to their alliance ; and about the middle of the four¬
teenth century before Chrift, Acrifius king of Argos,
and other princes of the Teloponnefus, were allowed
to (hare the benefits and fecurity of this ufeful aflbci-
ation. See Amphictyons.
“ After this event, the Amphidyons appear to have
long confined themfelves to the original purpofe of
their inftitution. The ftates, whofe meafures wmre di-
reded by this aflembly found fufficient occupation in
defending their own territories j and near a century
elapfed, before they undertook, by common confent>
] A R G
any diftant expedition. But it was not to be expeded Argonauts!
that their reftlefi adivity could be always exhauited in 1 v 1
defenfive war. The eftablifhment of the Amphidyons
brought together the chiefs moft difling uilhed by birth
and bravery. Glory and emulation prompted them to
arms, and revenge direded thofe arms againft the bar¬
barians. Jafon, Admetus, and other chieftans of I hef-
faly, having equipped a finali fleet in the neighbouring
harbour o: loleu-, and particularly the flap Argo of
fupenor fize and conftrudion to any before known,"
were animated with a defire to vifit foreign lands, to
plant colonies in thole parts of them that. appeared
moll delightful, and to retort on their inhabitants the
injuries which Greece had luffered from ftrangers. 1 he
princes of the north having proclaimed this fpirited
defign over the central and fbuthern provinces, the
ftandard of enterprize and glory was fpeedily furround-
ed by the flower of the Grecian youth, who eagerly
embraced this honourable opportunity to fignalize their
manly valour. Peleus, Tydeus, Telamon, and in ge¬
neral the fathers of thole heroic chiefs who in the fuc-
ceeding age Ihone wfith diftinguifhed luftre in the plains
of I roy, are numbered among the leaders of the Ar¬
gonauts. They were accompanied by the chofen war¬
riors, and by the venerable prophets, of their refpec-
tive tribes j by an Efculapius, the admired father of
the healing art; and by the divine Orpheus, whofe
fublime genius was worthy to celebrate the amazing
feries of their adventures.
“ Thefe adventures, however, have been too much
adorned by the graces of poetry, to be the proper fub-
jedts of hiftorical compofition. The defigns of the Ar¬
gonauts are veiled under the allegorical, or at lead:
doubtful, phrale, of carrying off the goldenfleece y which,,
though ealily explained, if we admit the report that
the inhabitants of the eaftern banks of the Euxine ex¬
tended fleeces of wool, in order to colled the golden
particles which were carried down by the torrents from
Mount Caucafus, is yet defcribed in fuch various lan¬
guage by ancient writers, that almoft every modern
who examines the fubjed, thinks himfelf entitled to
offer, by way of explanation, lome new conjedure of
his own. But in oppofition to the moft approved of
thefe conjedures, we may venture to affirm, that the
voyage to Colchis was not undertaken with a view to
eftablifh extenfive plans of commerce, or to learch for
mines of gold, far lefs to learn the imaginary art of
converting other fubftances into that precious metal j
all fuch motives fuppofing a degree of /peculation and
refinement unknown in that age to the gallant but un-
inftrudfed youth of Tneflaly. The real objed of the
expedition may be difcovered by its coniequences. The
Argonauts fought, conquered, and plundered ; they
fettled a colony on the fhores of the Euxine 5 and car¬
ried into Greece a daughter of the King of Colchis,
the celebrated Medea, a princels of Egyptian extrac¬
tion, whofe crimes and enchantments are condemned
to eternal infamy in the immortal lines of Euripides.”
Argonauts of St Nicholas, was the name of a mili¬
tary order inftituted by Charles HI. king of Naples, in
the year 1382, for the advancement of navigation, or,
as feme fay, merely for preferving amity among the
nobles. They wore a collar of (hells, inclofed in a fil-
ver crefcent, whence hung a flnp with this device, Non
credo tempori, “ 1 do not truft time.” Hence thefe * I ,
Argonaut i
A R G [ 5
Argophyl- Argonaut knights came to be called knights of the
lam, Jhell. They received the order of St Bafd, archbifliop
, rs°s' of Naples $ and held their aflemblies in the church of
St Nicholas, their patron.
ARGOPHYLLUM, White - leaf (Forjl. Nov.
Gen.) : A genus of the monogynia order, belonging
to the petandria clafs of plants. The capfule is tri-
locular 5 the ne<5tarium is pyramidal, pentagonous, and
the length of the corolla. There is but one fpecies,
the nitidum or glofly, a native of New Caledonia.
This genus has great affinity with the ivy j but differs
in the nectarium, and perhaps in the fruit.
ARGOS, an ancient name of Peloponnefus} from
Argos, one of the kings, (Homer, Strabo).
Argos, the capital, and an inland town, of Argo-
lisorAaGEiA. It had different furnames ; zs Achai-
cum from the country, or an ancient people, (Homer) 5
Hip pium, from its breed of horfcs; and Inachium,
from the river Inachus, which runs by, or from Ina-
chus the founder of the kingdom, whofe name was al-
fo given to the river. The Argives related, that this
was one of the river-gods who adjudged the country to
Juno, when fhe contended for it with Neptune, which
deity in return made their water to vanifh $ the reafon
why the Inachus flowed only after rain, and was dry in
fummer. The fource was a fpring, not copious, on a
mountain in Arcadia, and the river ferved there as a
boundary between the Argives and Mantineans.
Ancient Argos flood chiefly on a flat. The fprings
were near the furface 5 and it abounded in wells, which
were faid to have been invented by the daughters of
Danaus. This early perfonage lived in the acropolis
or citadel, which was named Larijfa, and accounted
moderately ftrong. On the afcent was a temple of
Apollo on the ridge, which in the fecond century con¬
tinued the feat of an oracle. The woman who pro-
phefled was debarred from commerce with the male
fex. A lamb was facrificed in the night monthly 5
when, on tafting of the blood, flie became poffefled
with the divinity. Farther on was a ftadium, where
the Argives celebrated games in honour of Nemean
Jupiter and of Juno. On the top was a temple of Ju¬
piter, without a roof, the flattie off-the pedeftal. In
the temple of Minerva there, among other curious ar¬
ticles, was a wooden Jupiter, with an eye more than
common, having one in the forehead. This flatue, it
was faid, was once placed in a court of the palace j of
Priam, who fled as a fuppliant to the altar before it,
when Troy was facked. In this city was alfo the bra¬
zen tower in which Danae, being confined there by
her father, was deflowered by Jupiter.
Argos retains its original name and fituation, ftand-
ing near the mountains which are the boundary of the
plain, with Napoli and the fea in view before it. The
Ihining jioufts are whitened with lime or plafter.
Churches, mud-built cottages and walls, with gardens
and open areas, are interfperled, and the town is of
confiderable extent. Above the other buildings towers
a very handfome mofijue (haded with folemn cypreffes $
and behind is a lofty hill, brown and naked, of a coni¬
cal form, the fummit crowned with a neglefted cattle.
The devaftations of time and war have effaced the old
city. We look in vain (fays Mr Chandler) for vefli-
gesof its numerous edifices, the theatre, the gymna-
iium, the temples, and monuments, which it once
7S 1 AR C
boafted, contending even with Athens in antiquity and Argos,
in favours conferred by the gods. Arguing
Argos Amphilochicum, (Thucydides), a city of A- ^ '
carnania, (Scylax, Pliny) ; its territory Amphilochia t
fituated on the eaft fide of the Sinus Ambracius, (Thu¬
cydides) j diftant an hundred and eighty fladia to the
fouth-eaft of Ambracia, (Polybius). Alfo called ^r-
gia Amphilochis, (Mela) ; Amphiloci and Amphilochici
the people, (Stephanus). The name is from Amphi-
lochus, fon of Amphiaraus} and from Argos, the name
of his country, in Peloponnefus, (Thucydides).
Argos Hippium. See Argos in Peloponnefus, fu-
pra.
Argos Hippium, the ancient name of Arpi; but
Lampe is a ftill more ancient} afterwards called Argy-
rippa, and Argippa ; built by, and the refidence of,
Diomedes, on the Cerbalus, (Virgil) ; afterwards a
large and populous city, (Livy) : A town of Apulia $
now in ruins, and the place called Arpi.
Argos Peiafgicum, (Homer) ; an appellation deno¬
ting Theffaly ; fo called from the Pelaigi.
Argos Portus, a port of Tufcany, (Strabo) : now
Porto Ferraro, in the north of the illand Elba. E.
Long. ix. 30. Lat. 42. 35.
A11GU1M, an ifland on the coaft of Africa, about
fixteen miles diflant from Cape Blanco, fituated in W.
Long. 16. 30. N. Lat. 20. 20. It is fcarce two miles
in length ; notwithftanding which, it was a bone of con¬
tention for 87 years between the Portuguefe, Dutch,
Englifh, and French 5 and, after a variety of fortune,
has at laft bejen totally abandoned.
This ifland was firft difcovered by the Portuguefe in
1444, whena .fleet bound to the eaft touched at Arguim,
and from fome little trade carried on with the natives, it
was imagined that a lettlement there might be of fome
advantage to Portugal. In confequence of this opi¬
nion, a fort was eredled on the ifland, and the Portu¬
guefe enjoyed the peaceable poffeflion of it till 1638,
At this time, the Dutch having received a minute ac¬
count of the condition of the illand, refolved to attack
it j and accordingly landed without moleftation from
the garrifon, which was too weak to oppofe them. The
Portuguefe, however, defended themfelves with great
intrepidity, and at laft furrendered upon honourable
terms. The Dutch immediately fet about repairing the
fortifications, and fecuring it in the beft manner they
could: however, in 1665, the fort was reduced almoft
to an heap of rubbifti by an Englilh fquadronj but as
the fortifications were totally deftroyed, andonly aflmall
garrifon left there, it was eafily retaken by the Dutch
the next year. They now redoubled their diligence
in ftrengthening the ifland, entering into alliance with
Moorifh chiefs, procuring a number of families to fet¬
tle under protefiion of the fort, and giving extravagant
prices for gums, in order to monopolize the gum-trade.
By this means the gum-trade of the French Senegal
company was almoft entirely deftroyed ; upon which
they fitted out a fquadron, difpofleffed the Dutch, and
had the ifland finally ceded to them by the treaty of
Nimeguen.
Though the Dutch now feemed to be finally expel¬
led, they refolved not to part fo eafily with fuch a va¬
luable fettlement. Under pretence of being fubje<ffs
of the eleflor of Brandenburg, therefore, they erec¬
ted one of the forts which had been demolilhed, and
M m 2 there
ARC [ 276 ] A R G
Arguim. there maintained themfelves in fpite of the utmoft 6n-
|| deavours of the French company to dilpofleis them.
Arguti*. Nurnberlefs were the memorials, protefis,refcripts, &c.
which were publiihed on this occalion, till a new war
in 1701 put an end to them. In 1717, however, the
French company having found all their remonftrances
iheffedtual, fitted out a new fquadron j but this arma¬
ment did not arrive at Arguim before Feb. 26th, 1721.
The Dutch defended themfelves with fuch intrepidity
and conduct as had almolt baffled the utmoft efforts of
the French ; but the latter having found means to draw
off a Moorilh chief from his allegiance, the Dutch were
obliged to evacuate Arguim, and retire to Portendic,
•where they fortified themieives, determining to watch
a favourable opportunity forrecoveringtheir fettlement
at Arguim. This was not long wanting, by means of
the weaknefs of the garrifon and the imprudence of Du¬
val the French diredor ; who having quarrelled with
the Moors, was furpriled, defeated, and killed by theni.j
in confequencc of which, the itetlement fell again in¬
to the hands of the Dutch on the nth of Jan. 1722. In
1723, the Dutch were attacked by another French
fquadron under the command of the Sieur Riguadiere.
This gentleman boafted that the fort could not hold
out one day ; but though he prevailed fo far as to get
poffeffion of the cifterns which contained the water of
the befieged, he was at laft lhamefully repulfed, and
forced to raife the fiege with precipitation. The Dutch
however, did not long enjoy the pofleffion which they
had fo bravely defended ; for, in 17251 their fort was
entirely demolilhed by the French under J)u Caffe, and
has never fince been rebuilt by any European nation.
ARGUMENT, in rhetoric, and logic, an inference
drawn from premifes, the truth of which is indifputa-
ble, or at lead highly probable. See Logic.
Argument, in matters of literature, denotes alfo
the abridgment or heads of a book, hiftory, comedy,
chapter, &e. See Syllabus.
ARGUMENTATION, the ad of inventing or
framing arguments, of making induftions, and draw¬
ing conclufions. See Induction, &c.
Argumentation, according to Cicero, is the deliver¬
ing or unfolding of an argument.—The matter of ar¬
gumentations is propofitions; the form, their duedif-
pofition, with regard to one another, fo as a conclu-'
fion may be drawn from them. See Enthymeme,
Proposition, Ratiocination, Sorites, Syllogism,
&c.
ARGUS, in fabulous hiftory, was the fon of Ari-
ftor, and had 100 eyes, 50 of which were always open.
Juno made choice of him to guard lo, whom Jupiter
had transformed into a white heifer, but Jupiter, pi¬
tying lo for being fo clofely confined, fent Mercury,
who, with his flute, charmed Argus to fleep, fiealed
up his eyes with his caduceus, and then cut off his
head ; when Juno, to reward his fidelity, turned him
into a peacock, and placed his eyes in his tail.
Argus^/Jc//, a fpecies of porcelain-ftiell, beautifully
variegated with fpots, refembling in home meafure
thole in a peacock’s tail.
ARGUTLE, witty and acute fayings, which com¬
monly fignify fomething further than what their mere
words at firft fight feem to import.—Writers on rhe¬
toric fpeak of divers fpecies of argutise, viz.
A&guti® ab alimo, when fomething is faid, which
feems repugnant either to the nature and property of Argntiav
a thing, or to common cuftom, the laws, &c. which ||
yet in reality is confiftent therewith j or when fome- Argyle-
thing is given as a re a Ion of another, which yet is not i
the reafon of it. For inftance, Si Caius nihil didiajjet,
errajfet minus : again, Aureum hoc fceculum ejl, quia
plurimvs jam auro honos venit.
Arguticc ab allujione, thole wherein allufion is made
to fome hiftory, fable, fentence, proverb, or the like j
e. gr. Multi umbram captant & carnem amittunt.
Argutice a comparatis, when two things are com¬
pared together, which yet at firft fight appear very
different from each other, but fo as to make a pretty
kind of fimile or diffimile $ e. gr. Par ejl pauper nil
cupiens principi omnia habenti.
Argutice a repugnantibus, wlien two things meet in
a fubjeCl, which yet regularly cannot be therein3 or
when two things are oppofed to each other, yet the
epithet of the one is attributed to the other, e. gr.
Dum tacent clamant.
ARGYLE (dukes of,) See Campbell.
ARGYLESHIRE, or Argathia, in Scotland,
which, together with Perthftiire and the Weftern
Elands, is faid to have conftituted the ancient King¬
dom of the Scots, while the reft of Caledonia was lub-
je<ft to the Picls and Romans, comprehends Kintyre,
Knapdale, Argyle Proper, Cowal and Lorn It is
bounded on the louth by the Irifh fea and the Frith of
Clyde j on the eaft, by Perthftiire; on the north-eaft,
by Lochaber ; and on the north-weft, by leveral iftands.
The extent of it from Ibuth to north, between the Mull
of Kintyre and the point of Ardnamurchan where it
joins the fhire of Invernefs, is about 114 miles; and
the breadth in fome places, including the dies, to 70»
This country, like all other parts of the Highlands,
affords a very wild and horrid profpeft of hills, rocks,
and huge mountains, piled upon each other in a ftu-
pendous and dreadful diforder; bare, bleak, and bar¬
ren to the view; or at heft covered with fliagged heath,
which appears black and difmal to the eye, except in
the fummer, when it is variegated with an agreeable
bloom of a purple colour. The coaft of Argyle is
rocky ; yet indented with bays and inlets, that afford
good harbours for fhipping. The country is well wa¬
tered by rivers, brooks, and lakes, abounding with fifti;
the vales and flat parts of it are cultivated for corn ;
the mountains feed an innumerable quantity of black
cattle, which run wild among the hills in winter as
well as fummer; the heath and woods, of which there
is a confiderable number, afford ftielter to deer, roe¬
bucks, and all forts of game in great plenty: the cir¬
cumambient fea, with its locks, bays, and harbours,,
pours forth myriads of fifti; but the innate wealth
of the country is dug from the bowels of the moun¬
tains in iron, copper, lead, and other metalstand mi¬
nerals.
Argyle is the feat of a provincial fynod, confifting
of five prefbyteries and 49 parifhes ; and gives the titles
of duke and earl to the noble family of Campbell, the
moft powerful of all the Scottifli nobility. The Duke
of Argyle is, by hereditary right, great mafter of the
king’s houfehold in Scotland ; admiral of the Weftern
ifles; general of Denoon caftle ; keeper of Dunftaff-
nage and Carrick; and, before the jurifdiflions were
abolifhed, enjoyed other hereditary offices, which ren¬
dered;
A R G [ :
jn Argylefliire dered him too powerful as the fubjeft of a limited mb-
t I! narchy. He ftill poflefles many royalties 5 his valfals,
gArgyripg, even 0f the name of Campbell, are lb numerous, and
I ' his influence extends fo far, that he could, on occafion,
bring 3000 or 4000 fighting men into the field. Ar-
gyleihire is in general peopled by this clan; and affords
a great number of caffles' and feats belonging to gentle¬
men who hold of the duke, and boaft themfelves de-
Icended from his family.
Argyle Proper is bounded by Knapdale and Cowal
on the louth ; Lochaber on the north 5 Lennox and
the Grampian hills on the eaft; and Lome on the weft.
It lies between Lochfyn and Lochlow ; which laft is a
frelh-water lake, about a mile broad, but extending 24
in length, including 12 iflands, on two of which there
are the caftles of Enconel and Glenurquhart. This
lake, which gives the title of vifcount to the duke of Ar¬
gyle, iflues in the river Aw, which, after a courfe of
fix or feven miles, enters Loch Ettiff, and this falls
into the weft fea; oppofite to the ifle of Mull: all thefe
abound with excellent trout and falmon. Argyleftiire
lends one member to parliament.
When the projefted canal fliall be completed, and
fome villages and harbours erebted, the populous coun¬
ty of Argyle (Mr Knox affirms) will become one of the
moft valuable provinces in the Britilh empire. It a-
bounds in black cattle, (heep and filh, though the lat¬
ter are lefs numerous than thofe on the more northern
Ihores. Wafhed on both fides by the fea, deeply in¬
dented by navigable lakes and bays j having an eafy
communication with the filhing grounds on the North
Highlands; with Glalgow, and the trading towns on
the Clyde 5 with Ireland, Wales, Whitehaven, Li¬
verpool, Briftol, and other marts on the weft coaft of
England, we may eafily conceive, that the period is
at no great diftance, when Argylelhire will become a
great commercial county. To. corroborate this opi¬
nion, he obferves, that after a veflel gets under fail
from this coaft, fhe enters at once into the Atlantic,
where flie meets with no interruption till flie makes the
coaft of America or the Weft Indies. The line, there¬
fore, which nature points out for the inhabitants, is
that of fait making, fiftiing,.flnp building, freights or
the carrying trade ; fbap and glafs-making, by means
of the kelp upon their fliores, and land found upon Gia
ifland, which is adapted for the latter.
ARGYRASPIDES, or Argtroaspides, in anti¬
quity, perfons armed with filver bucklers, or bucklers
filvered.
The argyrafpides, according to Quintus Curtius,
made the lecond corps of Alexander’s army y the firft
was the phalanx.—According to Juftin’s account, lib.
xii. cap. 7. Alexander having penetrated into India,
and extended his empire as far as the ocean; for a mo¬
nument of his glory, ordered the armour of his foldiers,
and the houfings of his horfes, to be adorned with fil¬
ver. And hence commanded them to be called ar/j-
rafpides, from the Greek ec^yv^oi,Jilver, and (*v7r<j,
buckler.
By this author it ftiould feem, that Alexander’s
whole army were called argyrafpides.—After that
prince’s death, the argyralpides defpifed all other chiefs
of the army, difdaining to obey any other, having borne
arms under Alexander.
ARGYRIPaE See Argos Hippium.
!77 1 A R I
ARGYRUNTUM, a maritime town of Illyria Argyrun-
(Ptolemy, Pliny). Now Novigrad, a town of Dalma- t“Jn
tia. E. Long. 17. 30. Lat. 44. 30.
ARHUSEN, a diocefe of North Jutland in Den-. ne',
mark, to the fouth of Wilburg about 60 miles in *
length and 30 in breadth. It contains two capital
cities, calledand Randery befides ieveral mar¬
ket-towns of lefs note, and upwards of 300 villages.
Arhufen, one of the capitals, is advantageoufly fitua-
ted on the coaft of the Baltic Sea, at the mouth of the
river Guda, which runs through it j and it is furround-
ed with forefta full of game. E. Long. 10. o. W. Lat.
56. 10.
ARIA, one of the ancient names of Thrace, (Ste-
phanus); that is martial, from the charafter of the
people, whofe country Euripides calls the refidence of
Mars, and Sophocles his place of nativity.
Aria, and Ariana (anc. geog.), whether the fame
or diftinct countries authors are not agreed. Ptolemy
has only Aria, and knows nothing about Ariana. Pliny
mentions only Ariana, and fays nothing about Ariaj
but diftinguithes between the Arii and Ariani : Par-
thia, he fays, has the Arii to the eaft, Carmania and
the Ariani to the fouth 5 from which it is conjectured,
the Ariani extended farther than the Arii, and compri-
fed the Gedrofii and the Drangse. Arrian has only
Aria and Arii, and is filent about Ariana. But Strabo
gives more extenfive bounds to Ariana than to Aria,
without particularly defining them : only in general he
fays, that Ariana begins from India, and quotes Era-
tofthenes 5 according to whom, Ariana is bounded by
the Indus on the eaft ; on the fouth by the Great Sea ;
by Paropamifus on the florth, and by the mountains,
quite to Portae Cafpiai j on the weft by the fame boun¬
daries by which Parthia is feparated from Media, Car-
mania from Parsetacene and Perfia : and thus Ariana
is extremely extenfive.—Aria has its limits thus de-
fcribed by Ptolemy : On the north, fome parts of Mar-
giana and Badriana ; on the eaft, the Paropamifidae $
on the fouth, the Drangiana : and Strabo fays, the A-
rii adjoin to the Paropamifidm on the weft.
Aria, called Ariapolis, (Strabo) : Now Herat, in
Chorafan, fet down in an ancient map as fituated on
the river Arias, which probably gave name to the
country Aria. Arrian calls the river Areios ; Pliny,
Arius ; Ammian, Arias ; now Heri, which runs by A-
lexandria, alfo called Alexandria Arion or Ariorum,
ARIADN^EA, in Grecian antiquity, two feftivals
at Naxos, in honour of two women Ariadne.
One of them being the daughter of king Minos, they
had, in the folemnity dedicated to her, aihew of forrovv
and mourning ; and, in memory of her being left by
Thefous near the time of child-birth, it was uiual for
a young maui to lie down and counterfeit all the ago¬
nies of a woman in.labour. This feftival is laid to be
firft inftituted by Thefous, to atone for his ingratitude
to that princefs.—The other Ariadne was thought to
be of a gay and fprightly temper j and therefore her
feftival was obferved with mufic and other expreflions
of mirth and joy.
ARIADNE, daughter of Minos king of Crete.
Thefous being font to deftroy the Minotaur, Ariadne
was fo taken with him, that, as a teftimony of her
love, ftie gave Thefous a clue of thread to guide him
out of the labyrinth, Thefeus, having killed the Mi¬
notaur,,
A K I [ 278 ] A R I
AriaSnia notaur, carried off the Athenians he had relieved, toge-
|| ther with Ariadne j whom, however, he afterward for-
Arians. f00k.
ARIADNIA, in antiquity. See Ariadn^ea.
ARIANA, (anc. geog.), an extenfive country, com-
prifing Paropamii'us, Arachofia, Drangiana, and Ge-
drofia, if we ffippofe it to reach to the Jea. See Aria.
ARIANNA, a fmall village fix miles N. E. from
the city of Tunis. Here is a beautiful range of the
ancient Carthaginian aqueduft, 74 feet high, fupport-
ed by columns 16 feet fquare, and which Hill increafed
in grandeur the nearer it approached Carthage. The
ftones are all diamond-cut. Near this fpot feveral an¬
cient mattamones, or fubterraneous magazines for corn,
have been difcovered within thefe few years, capable
of containing 100 bufliels, ftrongly arched with large
fquare fiones. The Moors have already begun to de-
moliih them, it being their cuftom to do fo with every
thing beautiful as foon as it comes to light.
ARIANO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, in the Ulterior Principality, with a bilhop’s
fee. Mr Swinburne defcribes it as an ugly city, built
upon the uneven fummit of a mountain, with an ex¬
tenfive look-out on all fides, but expofed to every
blafi: that blows. It does not appear to be fo old as
the time of the Romans} therefore may be fuppofed
to owe its rife to the demolition of fome neighbouring
town, and to the advantages its fituation afforded for
difcovery and defence. It is but a poor place, with¬
out trade or manufaftures ; having declined ever fince
the defolation caufed by an earthquake in 1456. It
reckons about 14,000 inhabitants, and no lefs than 20
parifhes and convents, befides an ill endowed cathedral.
The wine made here is pale, like red Champagne,
which it allb refembles in a certain tartnefs, exceed¬
ingly refrelhing in hot weather. The foil lies upon a
fbft argillaceous done. At a fmall diftance to the eafi:
is a bank confifting of layers of volcanical earths, in-
terfperfed with thick ftrata of oyfter-lhells.
Below the town is a convent of Dominicans, whofe
houfe, within thefe laft hundred years, has been thrice
rebuilt, having been as often thrown to the ground by
earthquakes. The laft and moft deftruftive happened
in 1732, fatal to all the country that lies along the
caftern verge of the Apennine. In order to fecure a
retreat in cafe of future accidents, which from their fi¬
tuation they have every realbn to expedf, thefe fathers
have conftruded a ftnall building of wood, the parts
of which being joined together with ftrong iron chains,
are contrived fo as to have a proper play, and by yield¬
ing to the ofcillatory motion of the earth, return eafi-
ly to their equilibrium. E. Long. 13. 19. N. Lat.
41. 8.
ARIANS, followers of Arius, a prefbyter of the
church of Alexandria about the year 315 ; who main¬
tained, that the Son of God was totally and effentially
diftinft from the Father ; that he was the firft and
noblefl of thofe beings whom God had created, the
inftrument by whofe fubordinate operation he formed
the univerfej and therefore inferior to the Father both
in nature and dignity : alfo, that the Holy Ghofi was
not God, but created by the power of the Son.
The Arians owned that the Son was the Word, but
denied that Word to have been eternal. They held,
that Chrift had nothing of man in him but the flefh,
to which the *oyaj or Word was joined,'which was the AHans.
fame as the foul in us. See Lardner's Credibility, &c. '■
Vol. IX. b. i. c. 69.
The Arians were firft condemned and anathematized
by a council at Alexandria in 320, under Alexander,
bifhop of that city j who accufed Arius of impiety,
and caufed him to be expelled from the communion of
the church : and afterwards by 380 fathers in the ge¬
neral council of Nice, affembled by Conftantine in the
year 325. But, notwithilanding that, it was not ex-
tinguilhed 5 on the contrary, it became the reigning
religion, efpecially in the Eaft, where it obtained much
more than in the Weft. Arius was recalled from ba-
nifhment by the Emperor Conftantine in two or three
years after the council of Nice, and the laws that had
been enaHed againft him were repealed. In the year
335, Athanafius, his zealous opponent, was depofed
and banifhed into Gaul, and Arius and his followers
were reinftated in their privileges, and received into
the communion of the church. In little more than a
year after this, he fell a vi&im to the relentment of
his enemies, and died a tragical death, occafioned pro¬
bably by poifon, or fome other violence. The Arian
party found a proteftor in Conftantius, who fucceeded
his father in the empire of the Eaft} and the zeal with
which he abetted them produced many animofities and
tumults to the time of his death in the year 362. They
underwent various revolutions, perfecuting and oppref-
fed, under fucceeding emperors, according to the
degree of intereft they had in the civil power, till at
length Theodofius the Great exerted every pofiible ef¬
fort to fupprefs and dilperfe them.
The Arians were divided into various lefts, of
which ancient writers give an account under the names
of Semi-Arians, Eufebeans, Aetians, Eunomians, Aca
cians, Pfathyrians, and others. But they have been
commonly diftributed into three claffes, viz. the Ge¬
nuine Arians, Semi-Arians, and Eunomians.
Arianifm was carried in the fifth century into Afri¬
ca under the Vandals} and into Afia under the Goths >
Italy, the Gauls, and Spain, were alfo deeply infefted
with it} and towards the commencement of the fixth
century, it was triumphant in many parts of Afia,
Africa, and Europe. But it funk almoft all at once,
when the Vandals were driven out of Africa, and the
Goths out of Italy, by the arms of Juftinian. How¬
ever, it revived again in Italy under the proteftion of
the Lombards in the feventh century.
Erafmus feems to have aimed in fome meafure to
reftore Arianifm at the beginning of the fixteenth cen¬
tury, in his Commentaries on the New Teftament.
Accordingly, he was reproached by his adverfaries with
Arian interpretations and gloffes, Arian tenets, &c.
To which he made little anlwer, fave that there was
no herefy more thoroughly extinft than that of the
Arians: Nulla herejis magis extindia quam Arianorum.
But the face of things was foon changed. Servetus,
a Spaniard by nation, publilhed in 1531 a little trea-
tife againft the Trinity, which once more revived the
opinions of the Arians in the Weft. Indeed he rather
ftiowed himfelf a Photinian than an Arian } only that
he made ufe of the fame paffages of Scripture, and
the fame arguments againft the divinity of our Savi¬
our, with the proper Arians.
It is true, Servetus had not, properly fpeaking, any
dif-
ARE [ :
Arlans difeiples; but he gave occafion after his death to the
|J forming of a new fyftem of Arianifm in Geneva, much
Ariea more fubtle and artful than his own, and which did
v not a little perplex Calvin. From Geneva the new
Arians removed to Poland, where they gained confi-
derable ground ; but at length became Sociaians.
The appellation Avian has been indifcriminately ap-
- plied in more modern times, to all thole who confider
Jefus Chrift as inferior and fubordinate to the Father j
and whole fehtiments cannot be fuppofed to coincide
exactly with thole of the ancient Arians. Mr Whilton
was one of the firft divines who revived this controver-
fy, in the beginning of the 18th century. He was
followed by Dr Clarke, who pubhlhed his famous
book, intitled The Scripture DoEirine of the Trinity, &c.
In confequence of which, he was reproached with the
title of Semi-Arian. He was alfo threatened by the
convocation, and combated by argument. Dr Water-
land, who has been charged with verging towards Tri-
theifm, was one of his principal adverfaries. The hi-
llory of this controverfy during the prefent century,
may be found in a pamphlet, entitled An account of all
the conjiderable Books and Pamphlets that have been
wrote on either fide, in the Controverfy concerning the
Trinity, from the Tear 1712 in which is alfo contain¬
ed an Account of the Pamphlets written this laf Year,
on each fde, by the Diff'enters, to the end of the Tear
1719. PublifHed at London 1720.
ARICINA, in mythology, a furname of Diana;
under which appellation fhe was honoured in the foreft
Aricine, fo called from Aricia a princefs of the blood-
royal of Athens. Hippolytus, to whom this princefs
was married, is faid to have eredled a temple to Dia¬
na in this foreft, where he was concealed after his
refurre&ion by Efculapius, and to have eftablilhed a
prieft and feltivals.
ARIAS MONTANU3, a learned Spanilh divine,
employed by Philip II. of Spain to publilh another
edition of the Bible, after that of cardinal Ximenes ;
which he finilhed with applaufe, and died at Seville
in 1598.
ARICA, a port town of fouth America, in the
province of Los Charaes, in Peru. It was formerly a
confiderable place : but the earthquakes, which are
frequent here, have almoft entirely ruined it; for
there are no more than 150 families, which are moll
of them blacks, mulattoes, and Indians. Moll of the
houfes are made with canes or reeds, fet upright, and
bound together with cords or thongs; and as it never
rains here, they are covered only with mats, which
makes the place look, at a diftance like a heap of ruins.
The vale of Arica is about a league wide, and fix
leagues long, next the lea, and is all a barren country,
except the Ipot where the old town Hood, w’hich is di¬
vided into little meadows of clover grafs, and plots for
fugar canes, with a few olive and cotton trees inter-
mixt. This vale grows narrower as it runs eaftward :
and a league up there is a village, where they begin
to cultivate pimento or Jamaica pepper, which is
_ planted throughout all the reft of the vale j and there
are feyeral farms, which produce nothing elfe, that
bring in the value of 80,000 crowns yearly. The
Spaniards of Peru are fo ufed to this pepper, that
they drefs no provilions without it. VV. Long. 70. 1 C.
S. Lat.18. 26. J
79 ] A R G
ARICON1UM, a town of the Silurus, (Antonine); Ariconium
now Hereford, (Camden) W. Long. 2. 42. Lat. 52. 6. ||
ARIDAS, a kind of taffety, manufadured in the Arimanms‘,
Eall Indies from a finning thread which is got from ~v""~
certain herbs, whence they arc ftyled aridas of herbs.
AR1DQLLAM, in natural hiftory, a kind of zar-
nich found in the Eaft Indies. See Zarnich.
ARIES, in zoology. See Ovts-
Aries, the battering ram. See Battering-^?i7ot.
Aries, in aftronomy, a conftellation of fixed liars,
drawn on the globe, in the figure of a ram. It is the
firll of the twelve figns of the zodiac, from which a
twelfth part of the ecliptic takes its denomination.
ARlLLUS, an improper term invented by Lin-
naeus* and-defined to be the proper exterior coat or
covering of the feed which falls of fpontaneoully.
All feeds are not furnilhed with an arillus ; in many,
a dry covering, or fcarf Ikin, fupplies its place. In
Jeflamy 5 hound’s tongue, cynoglojfum ; cucumber ;
Iraxinella, diciamnus; ftaff-tree, celafrus j fpindle-
tree, euonymus ; African Ipiraa, diofna ; and the cof¬
fee-tree, coffea ; it is very confpicuous.
In the genus hound’s tongue, four of thefe arilli, or
proper coats, each enfolding a fingle feed, are affix¬
ed to the ftylus; and in this circumllance, fays Lin¬
naeus, does the eflence of the genus confift. In
fraxinella, the arillus is common to two feeds. The
ftaff-tree has its feeds only half involved with this
cover.
1 he arillus is either baccatus, fucculent, and of the
nature of a berry 5 as in the-fpindle-tree, euonymus.
Cartilaginous, cartilaginous, or grillly ; as in the A-
frican fpiraea, diofma. Coloratus, coloured ; as in the
ftaff-tree. E/aficus, endued with elafticity, for dif-
perfing the feeds ; as is remarkable in the African fpi-
raea, diofma, and fraxinella. Scaber, rough and knot¬
ty ; as in hound’s tongue.
Although covered with an arillus or other dry coat,,
feeds are faid to be naked (femina nudd) when they
are not inclofed in any fpecies of pericarpium or fruit-
veffel j as in the graffes, and the labiati lipped flow¬
ers of Tournefort, which correfpond to the didynamia
gymnofpermia of Linnaeus. Seeds are faid to be co¬
vered (femma when they are contained in a fruit-
veflel, .whether caplule, pod, or pulpy pericarpium, of
the apple, berry, or cherry kind : (See Semen). This
exterior coat of the feed is, by fome former writers,
ftyled calyptra. See Calyptra.
The different Ikins or coverings of the feed, are a-
dapted, fay naturalifts, for receiving the nutritive
juices, and tranfmitting them within.
ARIMAN1US, the evil god of the ancient Per-
fians. I he Perfian Magi held two principles : a good
daemon, or god, and an evil one : the firft the author
of all good, and the other of all evil: the former they
fuppoied to be reprefented by light, and the latter by
darknefs, as their trueft fymbols. The good principle
they named Tevsad or Tezdan, and Ormozdor Hortniz-
da, which the Greeks wrote Qromafdes ; and the evil
daemon they called Abriman, and the Greeks Arima-
nius. Some of the Magians held both thefe principles
to have been from all eternity ; but this fe6l was repu¬
ted heterodox : the original dodlrine being, that the
good principle only was eternal, and the other created.
—Plutarch (Z)r Ifde et Of ride, p. 369.) gives the
following
A R I [28
AtinianuiS following account of the Magian traditions in relation
Jl to thefe gods and the introdu&ion of evil into the
, ”n'"t ea; world, viz. The Oromazes confided of moft pure
" v lighr? and Arimanius of darknefs; and that they were
at war with each other : that Oromazes created fix
gods; the firft, the author of benevolence; the fecond,
of truth ; the third, of juftice, riches, and the plea-
fure which attends good adions; and that Arimanius
made as many, who were the authors of the oppofite
evils or vices : that then Oromazes, triplicating him-
felf, removed as far from the fun as the fun is from the
earth, and adorned the heaven wuth ftars, appointing
the dog-ftar for their guardian and leader : that he al-
fo created 24other gods, and inclofed them in an egg;
but Arimanius having alfo made an equal number, thefe
laft perforated the egg, by which means evil and good
became mixed together. However, the fatal time will
come, when Arimanius, the introducer of plagues and
famine, muft be of nece'ffity utterly deftroyed by the
former, and annihilated; then the earth being made
plain and even, mankind (hall live in a happy flate, in
the fame manner, in the fame political fociety, and
tifing one and the fame language. Theopompus writes,
that, according to the Magians, the faid two gods,
during the fpace of 3060 years, alternately conquer,
and are conquered ; that for other 3000 years, they
will wage mutual wrar, fight, and deftroy the works of
each other, till at lafl: Hades (or the evil fpirit) (hall
perifli, and men become perfe&ly happy, their bodies
needing no food, nor carting any fiiadow, i. e. being
perfectly tranfparent.
AR1MASPI, (Pliny), a people of Sarmatia Euro¬
pea, to the fouth of the Montes Riphaei, faid by Me¬
la to have but one eye ; a fable broached by Arifteas
Proconnefius, according to Herodotus.
ARIMATHEA, a town of Judea, (Evangelifts) ;
thought to be the fame with Ramatha, 1 Sam. i. and
thus in the tribe of Ephraim, (Wells).—This place
is now called Ramla ; and is in a very ruinous ftate,
containing nothing but rubbifh within its boundaries.
The Aga of Gaza refides here in a Serai, the floors and
walls of which are tumbling down. He maintains
about one hundred horfemen, and as many Barbary
- foldiers, who (fays Mr Volney) are lodged in an old
Chriftian church, the nave of which is ufed as a liable,
and in an ancient kan, which is difputed with them by
the fcorpions. The adjacent country is planted with
lofty olive trees, difpofed in quincunces. The greateft
part of them are as large as the walnut trees of France ;
but they are daily perilhing through age, the ravages
of contending fusions, and even from fecret mifchief;
for, in thefe countries, when a peafant would revenge
himfelf of his enemy, he comes by night, and faws or
cuts his trees clofe to the ground, and the wound,
which he takes care to cover, draining off the fap like
an iflue, the olive tree languirtres and dies. Amid
thefe plantations, we meet, at every flep, with dry
wells, cifterns fallen in, and vaft vaulted refervoirs,
which prove that, in ancient times, this town muft
have been upwards of a league and a half in circumfe¬
rence. At prefent it Icarcely contains two hundred
families. The little land which is cultivated, by a few
of them, belongs to the Mufti, and two or three per-
fons related to him. The reft content themfelves with
fpinning cotton, which is chiefly purchafed by two
No. 27.
0 ] A R I
French houfes eftablilhed there. The only remarkable Arimatkea^
antiquity at Ramla is the minoret of a ruined mofque ||
on the road to Yafa, which is very lofty ; and by an Ariolto.
Arabic infeription appears to have been built by the
Sultan Saladin.
ARIMINUM, a town of Umbria, or Romagna, at
the mouth of the Ariminus, on the Gulph of Venice.
The feizing on it by Caefar gave rife to the civil war.
Now called Rimini, E. Long. 13. 30. Laf. 44. 8.
ARIOLI, in antiquity, a kind of prophets, or re¬
ligious conjurers, who by abominable prayers, and hor¬
rible facrifices at the altars of idols, procured anfwers
to their queflions concerning future events. IJiJ. Orig,
lib. viii. cap. 9. Thefe are alfo called harioli, and their
operation hariolation. Sometimes they were denomi¬
nated arufpices, or harufpices. The atioli were diftin-
guifhed by a flovenly drefs, diforderly and matted
beards, hair, &c.
ARION, an excellent mufician and poet, inventor
of dithyrambics. Periander entertained him at his
court, where getting an eftate, and returning to Co^
rinth, the failors, for lucre of his money, threw him
into the fea; when, according to the poets, a dolphin,
charmed with his mufic, took him on her back and
carried him fafe to ftiore.
Arion, an admirable horfe, much more famous in
poetic hiflory than Bucephalus in that of Alexander.
Authors fpeak variourty of his origin, tho’ they agree
in giving him a divine one. His produdlion is moft
commonly aferibed to Neptune. This god, according
to fbme, railed him out of the ground by a ftroke of
his trident: according to others, he begot him upon
the body of the fury Erynnys; according to others,
upon that of Ceres, whom he ravilhed in the form of
a horfe, fhe having previoufly aftumed the form of a
mare to elude his purfuit. This horfe was nurfed by
the Nereids; and being fometimes yoked with the fea-
horfes of Neptune to the chariot of this god, he drew
him with incredible fwiftnefs through the lea. He had
this Angularity in him, that his right feet refembjed
thofe of a man. Neptune gavfe him to Capreus king
of Haliartus. Capreus made a prefent of him to Her¬
cules ; who mounted him when he took the city of E-
lis, gained the prize with him in the race againftCyg-
nus the fon of Mars near Traecena, and at fall made a
prefent of him to Adraftus. It is under this laft mafter
that Arion has fignalized himfelf the moft : he won the
prize for racing at the Nemean games, which the
princes who went to befiege Thebes inftituted in the
honour of Archemorus ; and was the caufe that Adra¬
ftus did not perilh in this famous expedition as all the
other chiefs did.
ARIOSTO (Lodovico), the famous Italian poet,
and author of Orlando Furiofo, was born at the caftle
of Reggio in Lombardy in 1474. His father, who
was major-domo to Duke Hercules, lived to the ex¬
tent of his fortune, fo left hut little at his death. A-
riofto, from his childhood, (bowed great marks of ge¬
nius, efpecially in poetry; and wrote a comedy in verfe
on the (lory of Pyramus and Thilbe, which his brothers
and fillers played. His fathet being utterly unlearned,
and rather regarding profit than his fon’s inclination,
compelled him to ftudy the civil law, in which ha¬
ving plodded fome years to no purpole, he quitted it
for more pleafing (Indies; yet often lamented, as Ovid
A R I f 281 1 ART
i^Anofia. ^ anj Petrarch did before him, and our own Milton
I* See his ' ^ince *> t^at ^'s fat^er banifhed him from the mufes.
JjLatin poem, At the age of 24, Ariotlo loft his father, and found
Md Patrem. himTelf perplexed with family affairs. However, in
about fix years he wac, for his good parts, taken into
the fervice of Don Hippolit'o, cardinal of Efte. At
this time^he had written nothing but a few fonnets;
but now he refolved to make a poem, and chole Bay-
ardo’s Orlando Inamorato for a ground work. How-
ever? he was prevented writing for a great many years,
and was chofen as a fit perfon to go on an embaffy to
Pope Julio II. where he gave fuch fatisfadion, that
he was fent again, underwent many dangers and diffi¬
culties, and at his return was highly favoured. Then,
at his leiiure, he again applied himfelf to his poem :
I but, foon after, he incurred the cardinal’s difpleafure
for refufing to accompany him into Hungary j by
which he was fo difcouraged, that he deferred writing
for 14 years, even till the cardinal’s ’death. After that,
he finifhed by degrees,, in great perfe&ion, that which
he began with great expeHation. Duke Aftolfo of¬
fered him great promotions if he would ferve him ; but
preferring liberty to grandeur, he refufed this and
other great offers from princes and cardinals, particu¬
larly from Leo X. from all whom he received not-
withftanding great prefents. The Duke of Ferrara
delighted fo much in his comedies, of which he wrote
five, that he built a ftage on purpofe to hav them
played in his court, and enabled our poet to build him¬
felf a houfe in Ferrara, with a plealant garden, where
he ufed to compofe his poems, which were highly
efteemed by all the princes in Italy, who fent him
many prefents; but he faid, “ he would not fell his
liberty for the beft cardinal’s hat in Rome.” It was
but a fmall,. though convenient houfe : being alked,
why he had not built it in a more magnificent man¬
ner, fince he had given fuch noble defcriptions of fump-
tuous palaces, beautiful porticos, and pleafant foun¬
tains, in his Orlando Furiofo ? he replied. That words
were cheaper laid together than ftones. Upon the
door was the following infcription :
Parva,fed apta mihi,/ed nulli obnoxia, fed non
Sordida, parta meo fed tamen tere, domus.
Which Mr Harrington thus tranflates :
This houfe is fmall, but fit for me, but hurtful unto none ;
But yet not fluttilb, as you fee, yet paid for with mine own.
In his diet he was temperate, and fcxcardefs of dain¬
ties, that he was fit to have lived in the world when
they fed upon acorns. Whether he was ever married,
is uncertain. He kept company with one Alexandria,
to whom, it was reported, he was married privately,
and a lady Genevera, whom he llily mentions in the
24th book of his Orlando, as poets are apt to intermix
with their fiftions fome real amours of their own. He
was urged to go ambaffador to pope Clement, but
would by no means accept this embaffy. He tranf-
lated the Menecmi of Plautus: and all his own come¬
dies Were fo efteemed, that they were frequently afled
by perfons of the firft quality ; and when his Lena was
firft reprefented, Ferdinand of Efte, afterwards Mar¬
quis of Maffa, fo far honoured the piece as to fpeak the
prologue He began one of his comedies in his fa¬
ther’s lifetime, when the following incident ffiows the
remarkable talent he had for poetry. His father one
day rebuked him ffiarply, charging him with fome
Vol. II. Fart I.
great fault; but all the while he returned him no an- Ariofi*.
fwer. Soon after, his brother began on the fame fub- Ar'P0’
jedt; but he eafily refuted him, and, with ftrong ar-"V—
guments, juftified his own behaviour. “ Why then
(faid hisbrother) didyou not fatisfymy father?-” “In
truth (faid Ludovico) 1 was thinking of a part in my
comedy ; and methought.my father’s fpeech to me w’as
fo fuited to the part of an old man’s chiding his Ion,
that I forgot I was concerned in it myfelf, and confi-
dered it only to make it a part of my play.” It is alfo
reported of Ariofto, that coining by a potter’s fhop,
he heard him finging a ftave out of his Orlando, with
fo bad a grace, that, out of all patience, he broke
with his ftick feveral of his pots. The potter, in a pi¬
tiful tone, aiking what he meant by wronging a poor
man that had never injured him ? “You rafcal (be
replied), I have not done thee half the wrong thou
haft done me : for I have broken but two or three pots'
of thine, not worth lb many halfpence ; whereas thou
haft broken and mangled a ftanza of mine worth a
mark of gold.”
Ariofto was tall, of a melancholy complexion, and
fo abforbed in ftudy and meditation, that he often for¬
got himfelf. His pi&ure was drawn by Titian in a
mafterly manner. He was honoured with the laurel
by the hands of the emperor Charles V. He was na¬
turally affable, always affuming lefs than wus his due,
yet never putting up a known injury even from his fu-
periors. He was lb fearful on the water, that, when¬
ever he went out of a (hip, he would fee others go be-
fofe him j and, on land, he would alight from his
horfe on the lead apprehenfion of danger. He was of
an amorous difpofition, and left two natural fons. He
enjoyed the friendftiip of themofteminentmenof learn¬
ing of his time, mod of whom die mentions with great
refpebl in the lad canto of his Orlando Furioffi. His
conftitution was but weakly, fo that he was obliged
to have recourfe to phyficians the greateft part of his
life. He bore his laft ficknefs withgreat refolution and
ferenity j and died at Ferrara the jjth of July IJ33,
according to Sir John Harrington, being then 59
years of age. He was interred in the church of the
Benediddine monks, who, contrary to their cuftom, at¬
tended his funeral. He had a bull erebled to him,
and the following epitaph, written by himfelf, infcri-
bed upon his tomb :
Ludovici Ariofti humantur offa
Sub Hoc marmcre, feu fub hac humo, feu
Sub quidqnid voluit benignus haeres,
Sive haerede benignior comes, feu
Opportunius incidens viatdr:
Nam fcire baud potuit futura ; fed nec
Tanti erat, vacuam fibi cadaver
Ut urnam cuperet parare.
Vivens ifta tamen fibi paravit,
Quae fcribi voluit fuo fepulchro,
Olim fi quod haberet id fepulchrum :
Ne cum fpiritus hoc brevi peradlo
Prefcripto fpatio mifellos artus,
Quos aegre ante reliquerat, repofcet,
Hac et hac cinerem hue et hue revellem
Dum nofeat proprium, diu vagetur.
ARIPO, a ftrong town of Afia, on the weftern
coaft of the illand of Ceylon, at the mouth of the ri¬
ver Sarunda. It belongs to the Dutch; and to the eaft
N n of
A R I [ 282 ] A R I
of it is a bank, where they fifli for pearls. E. Long.
80. 25. N. Lat. 8. 42.
ARISBA (anc. geog.), a town of the ifland of
Leibos (Herodot.)—Another of Troas on the conti¬
nent, in the territory and to the Ibuth-eaft of Abydos
(Polyb.) : the rendezvous of Alexander’s army after
the paflage of the Hellefpont (Arrian) ; a colony of
the Mitylenians (Stephanas) ; taken and plundered by
Achilles (Virgil). The refidence of Axylus, cele¬
brated by Homer for his hofpitality, which gained him
the character of Friend of mankind.
AR1SH, a Perfian long meafure, containing about
38 Englifh inches.
ARISI, the Indian name for the plant which pro¬
duces the rice. See Oryza.
ARISTA, or awn, among botanifts, a long needle¬
like beard, which flands out from the hulk of a grain
of corn, grafs, &c.
ARiSTALUS, fon of Apollo and Cyrene, whom,
for the many fervices he had rendered to mankind by
his knowledge of all profitable arts, the gods placed
amongft the fiars; fo that he is the Aquarius in the
zodiac. The refemblance of his hiftory to that of
Mofes has been curioufly difcufled by Huetius.
ARISTANDER, a famous foothfayer under A-
lexander the Great, over whom he gained a wonder¬
ful influence by the good fuccefs of his art. He had
already had the fame employment at the court of king
Philip ; and it was he who explained better than his
brethren the dream that this prince had after having
married Olympias.
ARISTARCHUS, a Grecian philofbpher of Sa¬
mos, one of the firft that maintained that the earth
turns upon its own centre. We are not fure of the age
in which he lived j and have none of his works but a
Treat ife of the greatnef and difance of the Sun and
Moon, tranflated into Latin by Frederic Commandine,
and publifhed with Pappus’s explanations in 1572.
Aristarchus, a celebrated grammarian, much e-
fteemed by Ptolemy Philometor, who committed to
him the education of his fon. He applied himfelf
chiefly to criticifm, and made a revifal of Homer’s
poems, but in too magi Aerial a way ; for fuch verfes
as he did not like he treated as fpurious. He com¬
mented on other poets, Cicero and Horace made ufe
of his name to exprefs a very rigid critic.
ARIST1DA, in botany : A genus of the triandria
digynia clafs ; and, in the natural method, ranking un¬
der the 4th order, Gratnina. The calyx has a double
valve ; the corolla has one valve, and three awns at the
points. There are three fpecies of ariilida, viz. the
adfcenfionis, a native of the ifland of Afcenfion ; the
Americana, a native of Jamaica ; and the plumofa, a
native of America.
ARISTIDES, furnamed the Juf, flouriflied at A-
thens at the fame time with Themiflocles, who trium
phed over him by his boifterous eloquence, and got
him banilhed, 483 years before Chrilt, (See Ostra¬
cism): but Ariflides being recalled a fliort time after,
would never join with the enemies of Themiftocles to
get him baniflied ; for nothing could make him deviate
from the firitfeft rules of moderation and juftice. A-
riftides brought the Greeks to unite againft the Per-
fians ; diflinguiflied himfelf at the famous battle of
Marathon, and that of Salamine and Platea j and efla-
bliflied an annual income of 460 talents for a fund to Ariflides, i
fupply the expences of war. Phis great man died fo Ariftippus. !
poor, though he had the management of the revenues ' v '
of Greece, that the ftate was obliged (to pay his fune¬
ral expences, to give fortunes to his daughters in mar¬
riage, and a maintenance to his fon Lyfimachus.
Aristides of Miletus, a famous Greek author,
often cited by the ancients.
Aristides, a very eloquent Athenian orator, who
became a convert to the Chriftian religion, and about
the year 124 prefented to the emperor Adrian an apo¬
logy for the Chriftians.
Aristides (iElius), a celebrated orator, born in
Myfia, about 129 years before the Chriftian aera. The
beft edition of his works is that of Oxford, printed in
Greek and Latin, in two volumes quarto.
Aristides, a painter cotemporary with Apelles,
flouriflhed at Thebes about the I22d Olympiad. He
was the firft, according to Pliny, who exprefled cha-
rafter and paflion, the human mind, and its feveral
emotions; but he was not remarkable for fbftnefs of
colouring. “ His mofl; celebrated picture was of an
infant (on the taking of a town) at the mother’s breaft,
who is wounded and expiring. The fenfations of the
mother were clearly marked, and her fear left the
child, upon failure of the milk, ftiould fuck her blood.”-
“ Alexander the Great (continues the fame author)
took this picture w ith him to Pella.”
Junius (in his Treatife de Piciurd Veterum) conjec¬
tures that the following beautiful epigram of uEmili-
anus was written on this exquifite piflure :
EAx.5, raAaev, msspas posrpa; av sx et<
EXxvrov vcrrasTiev vctua. k-oitci tpSi/Air/is.
H yap fytptim Xittottvoos cO-tKa ra priTpos
<J>iATpos Kelt stv ot'-frii ifAxSo'.
Elegantly tranflated thus :
Suck, little wretch, while yet thy mother lives,
Suck the laft drop her fainting bofom gives!
She dies ! her tendernefs furvives her breath,
And her fond love is provident in death.
Webb’s Inquiry, dial. vii. p. 161.
ARISTIPPUS, the founder of the Cyrenaic feH of
phijofophy, was the fbn of Aretades, and born at Cy¬
rene in Lybia. He flouriflied about the 96th Olym¬
piad. The great reputation of Socrates induced him
to leave his own country, and remove to Athens, that
he might have the latisfaifHon of hearing his difcourfes.
He was chiefly delighted with thofe difcourfes of So¬
crates that related the moft to pleafure ; which he af¬
fected to be the ultimate end in which all happinefs
confifts. His manner of life was agreeable to his opi¬
nion ; for he indulged himfelf extremely in all the luxu¬
ries of drefs, wine and women. Though he had a
good eftate, and three country-feats, yet he was the
only one of the difciples of Socrates who took money
for teaching ; which being obferved by the philofopher,
he a Iked Ariftippus, How he came to have fo much ?
Who in reply alked him, How he came to have fo lit¬
tle ? Upon his leaving Socrates, he went to iEgina,
as Athenaeus informs us, where he lived with more free¬
dom and luxury than before. Socrates fent frequent
exhortations to him, in order to reclaim him ; but all
in vain ; and with the fame view he publiflied that dif-
courlib
A R I t ^83 ] A R I
AriftippHS. courfe which we find in Xenophon. Here Ariftippus
became acquainted with Lais, the famous courtezan
of Corinth ; for whofe fake he took a voyage to that
city. He continued at ^Egina till the death of So¬
crates, as appears from Plato’s Phcedo, and the epiftle
which he wrote upon that occafion. He returned at
laft into his own country Cyrene, where he profefled
philofophy, and inflituted a left which, as we oblerved
above, was called the Cyrenaic, from the place, and by
fome writers the Hedonic or voluptuous, from its doc¬
trines. During the height of the grandeur of Diony-
fius the Sicilian tyrant, a great many philofophers re-
forted to him ; and among the reft Ariftippus, who
was tempted thither by the magnificence of that court.
Dionyfius alking him the reafon of his coming, he re¬
plied, “ That it was in order to give what he had,
and to receive what he had not or, as others repre-
fent it, “ That when he wanted wifdom, he went to
Socrates ; but now as he wanted money, he was come
to him.” He very foon infinuated himfelf into the
favour of Dionyfius ; for being a man of a foft eafy
temper* he conformed himfelf exaftly to every place,
time, and perfon, and was a complete mafter of the
moft refined complaifance.
We have feveral remarkable palfages concerning him
during his rtfidence at that court mentioned by Dio¬
genes Laertius. Dionyfius, at a feaft, commanded that
all Ihould put on womens purple habits, and dance in
them. But Plato refufed, repeating thefe lines :
I cannot in this gay effeminate drefs
Dilgrace my manhood, or my fex betray.
But Ariftippus readily fubmitted to the command, and
made this reply immediately :
 At feafts, where mirth is free,
A fobft mind can never be corrupted.
At another time, interceding with Dionyfius in behalf
of a friend, but not prevailing, he caft himlelf at his
feet: being reproved by one for that excefs of humility,
he replied, “ That it was not he who was the caule of
that fubmiffion ; but Dionyfius, whofe ears were in his
feet.” Dionyfius fliowed him three beautiful courte¬
zans, and ordered him to take his choice. Upon which
he took them all three away with him, alleging that
Paris was punifhed for preferring one to the other two :
but when he had brought them to his door, he difmif-
fed them, in order to (how that he could either enjoy
or rejeft with the fame indifference. Having defired
money of Dionyfius, the latter obferved to him, that
he had affured him a wile man wanted nothing. “ Give
me (fays he) what I afk, and we will talk of that af¬
terwards.” When Dionyfius had given it him, “ Now
(fays he), you lee I do not want.” By this complai¬
fance he gained lb much upon Dionyfius, that he had a
greater regard for him than for all the reft of the philo¬
fophers, though he fometimes fpoke withfuch freedom
to that king, that he incurred his difpleafure. When
Dionyfius alked, Why philofophers haunted the gates
of rich men, but not rich men thofe of philolbphers ?
he replied, “ Becaule the latter know what they
want, and the others not.” Another time, Dionyfius
repeating (out of Sophocles, as Plutarch affirms, who
alcribes this to Zeno) tkele verles,
He that with tyrants feeks for bare fupport, Ariftippus.
Enflaves himfelf, though free he came to court j v—
he immediately anfwered,
He is no Have, if he be free to come.
Diodes, as Laertius informs us, related this in his
Lives of the Philofophers ; though others afcribe this
faying to Plato. Ariftippus had a conteft with An-
tifthenes the Cynic philolbpher 5 notwithftanding
which, he was very ready to employ his intereft at
court for fome friends of Antifthenes, topreferve them
from death, as we find by a letter of his to that phi-
lofopher. Diogenes followed the example of his ma¬
fter Antifthenes in ridiculing Ariftippus, and called
him the court-fpaniel.
We have many apophthegms of his preferved. Suidas
obferves, that he furpalled all the philofophers in the
acutenefs of his apophthegms. Being once railed at,
he left the room ; and the perfon who abufed him, fol¬
lowing him, and afking him why he went away, he an¬
fwered, “ Becaule it is in your power to rail, but it is
not in my power not to hear you.” A perfon oblerving,
that the philofophers frequented the houles of rich
men 5 “ Why (fays he), the phyficians frequent the
chambers of the fick, yet that is no reafon why a man
(hould rather choole to lie fick than be cured. To one
who boafted of his great reading, he faid, “ That as
they who feed and exercile moft are not always more
healthy than they who only eat and exercife to latisfy
nature j fo neither they who read much, but they who
read no more than is ul’eful, are truly learned.” Among
other inftruftions which he gave to his daughter Are¬
te, he advifed her particularly to defpife fuperfluity.
To one who alked him what his Ion would be the bet¬
ter for being a fcholar ? ” If for nothing elfe (faid he),
yet for this alone, that when he comes into the theatre,
one ftone will not fit upon another.” When a certain
perfon recommended his fon to him, he demanded 500
drachmas; and upon the father’s replying, that he
could buy a Have for that fum, “ Do fo (faid he), and
then you’ll be mafter of a couple.” Being reproach¬
ed, becaule, having a luit of law depending, hefee’d a
lawyer to plead for him, “ Juft fo (faid he), when I
have a great fupper to make, I always hire a cook.”
Being alked what was the difference between a wile
man and a fool, he replied, “ Send both of them toge¬
ther naked to thofe who are acquainted with neither of
them, and then you’ll know.” Beir.g’reproved by a cer¬
tain perfon (who, according to Mr*Stanley, was Plato)
for his coftly and voluptubus feaft, “ I warrant you
(faid he), that you would not have bellowed three far¬
things-upon fuch a dinner which the other confef-
fing, “ Why, then (faid he), I find myfelf lels indul¬
gent to my palate than you are to your covetous hu¬
mour or, as it is otherwife reptelented, “ I find, that
1 love my belly, and you love your money.” When
Simus, treafurer to Dionyfius, Ihowed him his houfe
magnificently fufnilhed, and paved with coflly marble,
(for he was a Phrygian, and confequently profufe) ; A-
riftippus fpit in his face : upon which the other grow¬
ing angry, ” Why, truly (faid he), I could not find a
fitter place.” His fervant carrying after him a great
weight of money, and being ready to fink upon the
N n 2 road
A R I [ 284 ] A R I
Ariftippus. roacj under his burden, he bid him throw away all that
' v ' was too much for him to carry. Horace mentions this
faff in his third fatire of the fecond book :
 Quid fimile ifti
Graecus Ariftippus ? qui lervos projicere aurum
In media juffit Libya, quia tardius irent
Propter onus legnes.
Being afked, what things were moft proper for children
to be inftrudfed in ? he anfwered, Thofe which might
prove of the greateft advantage to them when they
came to be men.” Being reproached for going from
Socrates to Dionyfius, he replied, “ That he went to
Socrates when he wanted ferious inftruflion, and to
Dionyfius for diverfion.” Having received money of
Dionyfius at the fame time that Plato accepted a book
only, and being reproached for it, “ The reafon is
plain (fays he) I want money, and Plato wants books.”
Having loft a confiderable farm, he laid to one who
feemed exceflively to compaffionate his lofs, “ You
have but one fieldI have three left : why (hould not
1 rather grieve for you ?” Plutarch, who relates this in
his book De Tranquillitate Anitni, obferves upon it,
that it is very abfurd to lament for what is loft, and
not to rejoice for what is left. When a perfon told
him, “ That the land for his fake was loft,” he replied,
^ That it was better fo, than that he flaould be loft for
the land.” Being call by Ihipwreck aftiore on the
ifland ofRhodes, and perceiving mathematical fchemes
and diagrams drawn upon the ground, he faid, “ Cou-
r^ge, friends 5 for I fee the footfteps of men.”
After he had lived a long time with Dionyfius, his
daughter Arete fent to him, to delire his prefence at
Cyrene, in order to take care of her affairs, fince Ihe
was in danger of being ouprefted by the magiftrates.
But he fell fick in his return home,, and died at Lipa-
ra, an JEolian Hand. With regard to his principal opi¬
nions ; like Socrates, he rejedled the fciences as they
were then taught, and pretended that logic alone was
fufficient to teach truth and fix its bounds. He affert-
ed, that pleafure and pain were the criterions by which
we were to be determined ; that thefe alone made up
all our paflions ; that the firlt produced all the foft
emotions, and the latter all the violent ones. The af
femblage of all pleafure, he afferted, made true happi-
nefs, and that the beft way to attain this was to enjoy
the prefent moments. He wrote a great many books :
particularly the Hiftory of Libya, dedicated to Diony¬
fius ; leveral Dialogues j and four books of the Lux¬
ury of the Ancients. There are four epiftles of his
extant in the Socratic Colledtion publifhed by Leo
Allatius.
Befides Arete his daughter, whom he educated in
philofophy, Ariftippus had alfo a fon, whom he dif-
inherited for his ftupidity. Arete had a fon, who
was named Arifippus from his grandfather, and had
the furname of from his mother’s in-
ftru6ting him in philofophy,. Among his auditors,
befides his daughter Arete, we have an account of
ALthiops of Ptolemais, and Antipater of Cyrene. A
rete communicated the philofophy which (he received
from her father to her fon Ariftippus, who tranfmitted
it to Theodorus /6e Atheijl, who inftitufed the lefl
called Thecdirean. Antipater communicated the phi¬
lofophy of Ariftippus to Epitimedes his difciple; £-
pitimedes to Panebates > Panebates to Hegefias and Arifto
Anniceris ; and thefe two lall improving it by fome jj
additions of their own, obtained the honour each of Anftn-
them of gi ving a name to the Hege/iac and Annie rian , iochia-
left. ^
Laertius mentions two other perfons of the name of
Ariftippus ; one, who wrote the Hiftory of Arcadia}
the other a philofopher of the New Academy.
ARI'iTO, a Stoic philofopher, the difciple of Zeno
the chief of the Stoics, flouriftied about 290 years be¬
fore the Chriftian aera. He differed but little from his
mafter Zeno. He rejedled logic as of no ufe, and na¬
tural philofbphy as being above the reach of the hu¬
man underftanding. It is faid, that being bald, the
fun burnt his head ; and that this cauled his death.—
There is a faying of his recorded, which might render
the dodlrine of Ariftippus lefs odious than it ordinarily
is } (lee Aristippus). He ufed to lay, “ That a
philolbpher might do thofe of his hearers a prejudice
who put a wrong interjpretation upon good meanings ;
as for example, that the fchool of Ariftippus might
lend out debauchees, and that of Zeno, Cynics
which feems to imply, that the doftrine of this philo-
fopher never produced this effeH but when it was mif-
underftood. He Ihould alfo have added, that every
teacher is therefore obliged to forbear laying down
ambiguous maxims, or to prevent falfe gloffes being,
put upon them.
Aristo (Titus), a Roman lawyer,perfedl mafter of
the public and civil law, of hiftory and antiquity. The
Pandedls mention feme books of his, as does Aulus
Gellius. He was cotemporary with Pliny the younger,
who gives him a noble charadler, and had a moft ten¬
der friendfhip for him. See Plinii Epi/l. lib. i. ep. 22.
ARISTOCRACY, a form of government where the
fepreme power is veiled in the principal perfens of
the ftate. The word is derived from aspyTot, optimus,
and kp'xt'u, impero, “ 1 govern.” The ancient writers
of politics prefer the ariftocratical iorm of government
to all others. The republic of Venice is an ariftocracy.
Anftocracy leems to coincide with oligarchy j which,
however, is more ordinarily ufed to fignify a corruption
of an ariftocratical ftate, where the adminiftration is in.
the hands of too few, or where feme one or two ulurp
the whole power.
ARISTOGITON, a famous Athenian, who, with
Armodius, killed Hipparchus tyrant of Athens, about
513 years before the Chriftian sera. The Athenians
erefled a ftatue to him.
ARISTOLOCHIA, birthwort : A genus of the
hexandria order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
nth order, Sdrmentacece. it has no calyx ; the corolla
confifts of one entire petal j and the capfule, which is
below the flower, has fix cells. The fpecies are 21 }
but only the five following merit delcription. 1. The
rotunda, is a native of the feuth of* France, of Spain,
and Italy, from whence the roots are brought for me¬
dicinal ufe. The roots are roundifli, grow to the fize
of fmall turnips, being in Ihape and colour like the
roots of cyclamens, which are frequently foid'initead
of them.. This fort hath three or four weak trailing,
branches, which lie on the ground when they are not
fupported, and extend two feet in length 5 the leaves
are heart-ihaped and rounded at their extremity } the
flowers
r
A R I [ 285 ] A R I
AriHo- flowers come out fingly at every leaf, toward the up- goofe-quill : it iivftaatly fills the mouth with an aro-
lochia' per part of the ftalk. They are of a purplifh black matic bitternefs, which is not ungrateful. Their me-
colour j and are frequently fucceeded by oval feed-vef- dical virtues are, to heat, ftimulate, attenuate vifcid
fels having fix ceils full of flat feeds. 2. The longa, is a phlegm, and promote the fluid fecretions in general :
native of the fame countries. This fpecies hath long they are principally celebrated in fuppreflions of fe-
tap-roots like carrots; the brances are weak and trail-, male evacuations. The dofe in fubflance is from a
ing, extending little more than a foot; the flowers fcruple to two drams. The long fort is recommended
come out from the wings of the leaves like the other.
e of a pale purple colour, and are frequently fucceed¬
ed by feed-veflels like the other. 3. The fer pent aria,
is a native of Virginia and Carolina, from whence the
radix ferpentaria, or fnake-root, fo much ufed in me¬
dicine, is brought over. The plant rifes out of the
ground in one, two, and fometimes three pliant ftalks,
which at every little diftance are crooked or undulated.
The leaves fland alternately, and are about three inches
long, in form fomewhat like the fmilax afpera. The
leaves grow dole to the ground on footflalks an inch
long, of a Angular fhape, and of a dark purple colour.
A round canulated capfule fucceeds the flower. It is
filled with feeds, which are ripe in May. The ufual
price of the root when dried is 6d. per pound, both in
Virginia and Carolina, which is money hardly earned ;
yet the negro flaves employ great part of the time al¬
lowed them by their mafters in fearch of it, which is
the reafon that there are feldom found any but very
externally for deanfing and drying wounds and ul¬
cers, and in cutaneous difeafes.
The root of the ferpentaria is fmall, light, bufliy,
and confifts of a number of firings or fibres, matted to¬
gether, ifluing from one common head ; of a brownilh
colour on the outfide, and paler or yellowifli within.
It has an aromatic fmell, like that of valerian, but
more agreeable j and a wrarm, bitterifh, pungent tafte.
This root is a warm diaphoretic and diuretic ; it has
been greatly.eelebrated as an alexipharmac, and efteem-
ed one of the principal remedies in malignant fevers
and epidemic difeales. In thefe intentions, it is given
in fuhftance from 10 to 30 grains ; and in infufion, to
a dram or two. Both watery and fpirituous menftrua
extrad its virtue by infufion, and elevate fome fliare
of its flavour in diftillation ; along with the water a
fmall portion of eflential oil arifes.
None of thefe articles, however, are now in fo much
efteem as formerly ; and while all of them are banifli-
fmall plants of this fpecies. When they are planted ed from the Pharmacopoeia of the London college,
in gardens in thole countries where they are natives,
the plants increafe fo much in two years time, that the
hand can fcarce grafp the ftalks of a Angle one. This
Ipecies delights in woods, and is ufually found near the
the clematitis is alone retained in that of Edinburgh.
ARISTOMENES, a general of the Meflenians, re¬
nowned for his valour and virtue. See Messenia.
ARISTOPHANES, a celebrated comic poet of
roots of great trees. 4. The indica, or contrayerva of Athens. He was cotemporary with Plato, Socrates,
Jamaica, is a native of that ifland, where its roots s
ufed inftead of the true contrayerva. It hath long,
trailing branches, which climb upon the neighbouring
plants, and fometimes rife to a confiderable height.
The flowers are produced in fmall elufters towards the
upper part of the ftalks, which are of a dark purple
colour. 5. The clematitis, with heart-lhaped leaves,
an upright Item, with the flowers crowded in the ax¬
illae. The root is long and (lender.
Culture. The firft, fecond, and third forts are pro¬
pagated from feeds, which fliould be fown in the au¬
tumn, in pots filled with light frelh earth, and placed
under a frame to preferve them from the froft. If they
are plunged into a gentle hot-bed in the month of
March, the plants will come up the fooner. In fum-
mer, and in autumn when the ftalks begin to decay,
they mull be watered. In winter they muft be again
flickered ; and in March before the roots begin to Ihoot,
they muft be tranfplanted into fmall feparate pots fil¬
led with light earth, when they may. be removed into
the open air, and treated as before. The next fpring
they may be planted in the open air in % warm border j
where, in the autumn, when their ftalks decay, if the
border is covered with old tanner’s bark to keep out
the froft, the roots will be fecured; but where this care
is not taken, they will frequently be killed by the froft.
The fourth is tender; and therefore muft be kept in a
ftove during the winter, or it will not live in England.
Medicinal ufes. The roots of the long and round
forts, on being firft chewed, fcarce difcover any tafte,.
but in a little time prove naufeoufly bitterilh j the long
fomewhat the leaft fo. The root of the clematitis is
long and (lender, jarely exceeding the thicknefs of a
and Eur.ipides; and mpft of his plays were written
during the Feloponnefian war. His imagination was
warm and lively, and his genius particularly turned to
raillery. He had alfo great fpirit and refolution ; and
was a declared enemy to flavery, and to all thofe who
wanted to opprefs their country. The Athenians fuf-
fered tliemfelves in his time to be governed .by men
who had no other views than to make themfelves ma¬
fters of the commonwealth. Ariftophanes expofed the
defigns of thefe men, with great wit and feverity, upon
the ftage. Cleo was the firft whom he attacked, in
his comedy of the Equites ; and as there was not one
of the comedians who would venture to perfonate a
man of his great authority, Ariftophanes played the
charader himfelf, and with ib much fuccefs, that the
Athenians obliged Cleo to pay a fine of five talents,
which were given to the poet. He defcribed the af-
fairs of the Athenians in fo exad a manner, that his
comedies are a faithful hiftory of that people. For
this reafon, when Dionyfius king of Syracule defired
to learn the date and language of Athens, Plato fent
him the comedies of Ariftophanes, telling him, thefe
were the beftreprelentation thereof. He wrote above
50 comedies 5 but there are only 11 extant which are
perfedf : thefe are, Plutus, the Clouds, the Frogs, E-
quites, the Acharnenfes, theWafps, Peace, the Birds,
the Ecclefiazufae or Female Orators, the Thefmopho-
fiazufse or Prieftefles of Ceres, and Lyfiftrata. The
Clouds, which he wrote in ridicule of Socrates*, is
the mod celebratednf all his comedies. Madam Dacier
tells us, (lie was (b much charmed with this perform¬
ance, that after (he had tranflated it, and read it over
200 times, it. did not become the leaft tedious to her,
which.
* Sec .the
article So¬
crates-
A R I [ 286 ] A R I
Arirtopha- which ihe could not fay of any other piece ; and that
the pleafure which (he received from it was fo exqui-
Arittote ^te’ t'iat ^ie forSot t^le contempt and indignation
i;a° ' which Ariftophanes deferved for employing his wit to
_/ ruin a man, who was wifdom itfelf, and the greatefl:
ornament of the city of Athens. Ariftophanes having
conceived fome averfion to the poet Euripides, fatirizes
him in feveral of his plays, particularly in his frogs
and his Thefmophofiazufas. He wrote his Peace in the
. JOth year of the Peloponnefian war, when a treaty for
50 years was concluded between the Athenians and the
Lacedaemonians, though it continued but feven years.
The A charnenfes was written after the death of Pericles,
and the lofs of the battle in Sicily, in order to difluade
the people from intrufting the fafety of the common¬
wealth to fuch imprudent generals as Lamachus. Soon
after, he reprefented his aves or birds 5 by which he
admonilhed the Athenians to fortify Decelaea, which
he calls by a fictitious name Nepbe/ococcygia. The
Vefpae, or Wafps, was written after another lofs in
Sicily, which the Athenians fuftered from the mifcon-
duft of Chares. He wrote the Lyfiftrata when all
Greece was involved in a war 5 in which comedy the
women are introduced debating upon the affairs of the
commonwealth ; when they come to a refolution, not
to go to bed with their hufbands till a peace ftiould be
concluded. His Plutus, and other comedies of that
kind, were written after the magiftrates had given or¬
ders that no perfon fhould be expofed by name upon the
ftage. He invented a peculiar kind of verfe, which
was called by his name, and is mentioned by Cicero in
his Brutus 5 and Suidas fays, that he alfo was the in¬
ventor of the tetrameter and odlameter verfe.
Ariftophanes was greatly admired among the an¬
cients, efpecially for the true Attic elegance of his
ftyle. The time of his death is unknown ; but it is
certain he was living after the expulfion of the tyrants
by Thralybulus, whom he mentions in his Plutus and
other comedies. There have been feveral editions and
tranflations of this poet. Nicodemus Frifchin, a Ger¬
man, famous for his claflical knowledge, in the 16th
century, tranflated Plutus, the Clouds, the Frogs, the
Equites, and the Acharnenfes-, into Latin verfe. Quin¬
tus Septimus Florens, rendered into Latin verfe the
Wafps, the Peace, and Lyfiftrata ; but his tranflation
is full of obfolete words and phrafes. Madam Dacier
publifhed at Paris in 1692, a French verfion of Plu¬
tus and the Clouds, with critical notes, and an exa¬
mination of them ac5ording to the rules of the'theatre.
Mr Lewis Theobald likewile tranflated thefe two co¬
medies into Englifti, and publiftied them with remarks.
The moft noble edition of this author is that publiftied
by Ludolphus Kufter, at Amfterdam, in folio, in 1710,
and dedicated to Charles Montague Earl of Halifax.
ARISTOTELIA, in antiquity, annual feafts cele¬
brated by the citizens of Stagiris, in honour of Ari-
ftotle, who was born there ; and in gratitude for his
having procured from Alexander the rebuilding and
repeopling of that city, which had.been demoliflied
by king Philip.
ARISTOTELIAN, fomething that relates to the
philofopher Ariftotle.
Aristotelian Pbilofophy, the philofophy taught by
Ariftotle, and maintained by his followers. The A-
riftotelian is otherwife called the Peripatetic Philofophy. Arlfhrte.,
See Peripatetics. hans.
ARISTOTELIANS, a fed of Philofophers, other- ,Ariftotl*
wife called Peripatetics. ¥" " '
The Ariftotelians and their dogmata prevailed for a
long while in the fchools and univerfities; even in fpite
of all the efforts of the Cartefians, Newtonians, and
other corpufcularians. But the fyftems of the latter
have at length gained the pre-eminence; and the New¬
tonian philofophy imparticular is now very generally
received. The principles of Ariftotle’s philofophy, the
learned agree, are chiefly laid down in the four books
de Casio ; the eight books of Phyfcal Aufcultation,
tpvo-Hcns etK^oxiriuf, belonging rather to logics, of meta-
phyfics, than to phyfics. Inftead of the mote ancient
fyftems, he introduced matter, form, and privation, as
the principles of all things; but he does not feem to
have derived much benefit from them in natural phi¬
lofophy. His dodrines are, for the moft part, fo ob-
fcurely exp refled, that it has not yet been fatisfadorily
afcertained what were his fentiments on fome of the
moft important fubjeds. He attempted to refute the
Pvthagoraean dodrine concerning the twofold motion
of the earth 5 and pretended to demonftrate, that the
matter of the heavens is ungenerated, incorruptible,
and fubjed to no alteration : and he fuppofed that the
ftars were carried round the earth in folid orbs. The
reader will find a diftind account of the logical part
of his philofophy, by Dr Reid profeflbr of moral phi¬
lofophy in the univerfity of Glafgow, in the fecond
volume of Lord Karnes’s Sketches of the Hiftory of
Man j and Mr Harris has publiftied a fenfible com¬
mentary on his Categories, under the title of Pbilofo-
phical Arrangements.
ARISTOTLE, the chief of the Peripatetic philo-
fophers, born at Stagyra, a fmall city in Macedon, in
the 99th Olympiad, about 384 years before the birth
of Chrift. He was the fon of Nicomachus, phyfician
to Amyntas the grandfather of Alexander the Great.
He loft his parents in his infancy ; and Proxenes, a
friend of his father’s, who had the care of his educa¬
tion, taking but little notice of him, he quitted his
ftudies, and gave himfelf up to the follies of youth.
After he had fpent moft of his patrimony, he entered
into the army: but not fucceeding in this profeflion, he
went to Delphos to corifult the oracle what courfe of
life he fliould follow ; when he was advifed to go to
Athens and ftudy philofophy. He accordingly went
thither about 18 years of age, and ftudied under Plato
till he was 37. By this time he had fpent his whole
fortune ; and we are told that he got his living by fell¬
ing powders, and fome receipts in pharmacy. He fol¬
lowed his ftudies with moft extraordinary diligence, fb
that he foon furpafled all in Plato’s fchool. He eat
little, and flept lefs; and, that he might not over-fleep
himfelf, Diogenes Laertius tells us, that he lay always
with one hand out of the bed, having a ball of brafs in
it, which, by its falling into a bafon of the fame me¬
tal, awaked him. We are told, that Ariftotle had fe¬
veral conferences with a learned Jew at Athens, and
that by this means he inftrqdled himfelf in the fciences
and religion of the Egyptians, and thereby faved
himfelf the trouble of travelling into Egypt. When
he had ftudied about 15 years under Plato, he began
to
A R I [ 287 ] A R I
MAriftotle. to form different tenets from thole of his mailer, who
  * 1 became highly piqued at his behaviour. Upon the
death of Plato, he quitted Athens; and retired to A-
tarnya, a little city of Myfia, where his old friend Her-
mias reigned. Here he married Pythias, the filler of
this prince, whom he is faid to have loved lb paffion-
ately, that he offered facrifice to her. Some time after,
Hermias having been taken prifoner by Meranon the
king of Perfia’s general, Ariftotle went to Mitylene
the capitp.l of Lelbos, where he remained till Philip
king of Macedon having heard of his great reputation,
fent for him -to be tutor to his fon Alexander, then
about 14 years of age: Arillotle accepted the offer j
and in eight years taught him rhetoric, natural philo-
fophy, ethics, politics, and a certain fort of philofo-
phy, according to Plutarcfe, which he taught nobody
die.' Philip erefted ftatues in honour of Arillotle j
and for his lake rebuilt Stagyra, which had been al-
moft ruined by the wars.
The lall fourteen years of his life he fpent moltly at
Athens, furrounded with every affiflance which men
and books could afford him for profecuting his phtlo-
fophical inquiries. The glory of Alexander’s name,
I which then filled the world, infured tranquillity and
refpedl to the man whom he diliinguilhed as his friend:
but after the premature death of that illuilrious pro-
te&or, the invidious jealoufy of priefts and fopliills in¬
flamed the malignant and fuperititious fury of the A-
thenian populace ; and the fame odious paflions which
proved fatal to the offenfive virtue of Socrates, fierce¬
ly affailed the fame and merit of Ariftotle. To avoid
the cruelty of perfecution, he fecretly withdrew himfelf
to Chalcis in Euboea. This meafure was fufficiently ju-
llified by a prudent regard to his perfonai fafety ; but
left his conduct ftiould appear unmanly, when contraft-
ed with the firmnefs of Socrates in a fimilar fitualion,
he condefcended to apologize for his flight, by faying,
that he was unwilling to afford the Athenians a fecond
opportunity “ to fin againft philofophy.” He feems to
have furvived his retreat from Athens only a few
months j vexation and regret probably ended his days.
Befides his treatifes on philofophy, he wrote alfo on
poetry, rhetoric, law, &c. to the number of 400 trea-
lifes, according to Diogenes Laertius $ or more, ac¬
cording to Francis Patricius of Venice. An account
of fuch as are extant, and of thofe faid to be loft, may
be feen in Fabricius’s Bibliotheca Grceca. He left his
writings with Theophraftus, his beloved difciple and
fucceffor in the Lycamm ; and forbad that they fliould
ever be publiflied. Theophraftus, at his death, trufted
them to Neleus, his good friend and difciple ; whole
heirs buried them in the ground at Scepfis, a town of
Troas, to fecure them from the king of Pergamus,
who made great fearch every where for books to adorn
bis library. Here they lay concealed 160 years, until,
being almoft fpoiled, they were fold to one Apellicon,
a rich citizen of Athens. Sylla found them at this
man’s houfc, and ordered them to be carried to Rome.
They were fome time after purchafed by Tyrannion
a grammarian : and Andronicus of Rhodes having
bought them of his heirs, was in a manner the firft re-
ftorer of the works of this great philofopher $ for he
not only repaired what t'ad been decayed by time and
ill-keeping, but alfo put them in a better order, and
got them copied. There were many who-followed the
do&rine of Ariftotle in the reigns of the 12 Caefars, Ariflotle,
and their numbers increafed much under Adrian and Ari ioxe-
Antoninus : Alexander Aphrodinus was the firft pro- , nus‘
feffor of the Peripatetic philofophy at Rome, being
appointed by the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lu¬
cius Verus; asd in fucceeding ages the doctrine of
Ariftotle prevailed among almoft all men of letters,,
and many commentaries were written upon his works.
The firft dotftors of the church difapproved of the
dodlrine of Ariftutle, as allowing too much to reafon
and fenfe; but Anatolius bilhop of Laodicea, Didy-
mus of Alexandria, St Jerome, St Auguftin, and feve-
ral others, at length wrote and fpoke in favour of it.
In the fixth age, Boethius made him known in the
weft, and tranflated fbme of his pieces into Latin. But
from the time of Boethius to the eighth age, Joannes
Damafcenus was the only man who made an abridg¬
ment of 4iis philofophy, or wrote any thing concerning
him. The Grecians, who took great pains to reftore
learning in the nth and following ages, applied much
to the works of this philofopher, and many learned -
men wrote commentaries on his writings : amongft
thefe were Alfarabius, AlgazeJ, Avicenna, and Aver-
roes. They taught his dodtrine in Africa, and after¬
wards at Cordova in Spain. The Spaniards introduced
his do&rine into France, with the commentaries of A-
verroes and Avicenna; and it was taught in the uni-
verfity of Paris, until Amauri haviqg lupported fbme
particular tenets on the principles of this philofopher,
w7as coiitlemned of herefy, in a council held there in
1210, when all the works of Ariftotle that could be
found were burnt, and the reading of them forbidden
under pain of excommunication. This prohibition was
confirmed, as to phyfics and metaphyfics, in 1215,
by the pope’s legate ; though at the fame time he gave
leave for his logic to be read, inftead of St Auguftin’s
ufed at that time in the univerfity. In the year 1265,
Simon, cardinal of St Cecil, and legate from the holy
fee, prohibited the reading of the phyfics and meta¬
phyfics of Ariftotle. All thefe prohibitions, however,.
were taken off in 1366 ; for the cardinals of St Mark
and St Martin, who were deputed by Pope Urban V.
to reform the Univerfity of Paris, permitted the read¬
ing of thofe books which had been prohibited : and in
the year 1448, Pope Stephen approved of all his
works, and took care to have a new tranflation of
them into Latin.
ARISTOXENUS, the moft ancient mufical wri¬
ter, of whole works any tradts are come down to us.-
He was born at Tarentum, a city in that part of Italy
called Magna Gracia, now Calabria. He was the fon
of a mufician, whom fome call Mnejias, others Spin-
tharus. He had his firft education at Mantinaea, a city
of Arcadia, under his father, and Lampyrus of Ery-
thrae ; he next ftudied under Xenophilus, the Pythago-
raean; and laftly under Atiftotle, in company with.
Theophraftus. Suidas, from whom thefe particulars are
tranferibed, adds, that Ariftoxenus, enraged at Ari¬
ftotle having bequeathed his fchool to Theophraftus,
traduced him ever after. But Arirtocles the Peripate¬
tic in Eufebius, exculpates Ariftoxenus in this parti¬
cular, and affures us that he always fpoke with great
refpedl of his mafter Ariftotle. From the preceding-
account it appears that Ariftoxenus lived under Alex¬
ander the Great and his firft fucceffors. His Harmo¬
nics.
A R I r 288 1 A R I
Anftoxe- nics in three books, all that are come down to us, to-
, mis' , gether with Ptolemy’s Harmonics, were firft publilhed
v by Gogavinus.but not very correftly, at Venice, 1562,
in 410, with a Latin verfion. John Meurfius next tranf-
lated the three books of Ariftoxenus into Latin, from
the MS. of Jof. Scaliger ; but according to Meibo-
mius, very negligently. With thefe he printed at Ley¬
den, 1616, 4to, Nicomachus and Alypius, two other
Greek writers on mufic. After this, Meibomius col¬
lected thefe mufical writers together ; to w'hich he ad¬
ded Euclid, Bacchius fenior, Ariftides Quintilianus ;
and publilhed the whole, with a Latin verfion and
notes, from the elegant prefs of Elzevir, Amit. 1652.
A R I T H
IS a fcience which explains the properties of num¬
bers, and fhows the method or art of computing
by them.
‘HiJIory of Arithmetic.
At what time this fcience was firft introduced into
the world, we can by ho means determine. That
fome part of it, however, was coeval with the human
race is ablblutely certain. We cannot conceive how
any man endowed with reafon can be without fome
knowledge of numbers. We are indeed told of na¬
tions in America who have no word in their language
to exprefs a greater number than three ; and this they
call pcetarrardrincouroac : but that fuch nations ftiould
have no idea of a greater number than this, is abfo-
lutely incredible. Perhaps they may compute by
threes, as we compute by tens ; and this may have oc-
cafioned the notion that they have no greater number
than three.
But though we cannot fuppofe any nation, or indeed
any Angle perfon, ever to have been without fome
knowledge of the difference between greater and
fmaller numbers, it is poflible that mankind may have
fubfifted for a confiderable time without bringing this
fcience to any perfection, or computing by any regu¬
lar fcale, as 10, 60, &c. That this, however, was
very early introduced into the world, even before the
flood, we may gather from the following expreflion in
Enoch’s prophecy, as mentioned by the apoftle Jude :
“ Behold, the Lord Cometh with ten thoufands of his
faints.” This fhows, that even at that time men had
ideas of numbers as high as we have at this day, and
computed them alfo in the fame manner, namely by
tens. The dire&ions alfo give'n to Noah concerning
the dimenfions of the ark, leave us no room to doubt
that he had a knowledge of numbers', and of meafures
likewife. When Rebekah was fent away to Ifaac,
Abraham’s fon, her relations wifhed fhe might be the
mother of thoufands of-millions ; and if they were to¬
tally unacquainted with the rule of multiplication, it
is difficult to fee how fuch a wifti could have been
formed.
It is probable, therefore, that the four fundamental
rules of Arithmetic have always been known to fome
nation or other. No doubt, as fome nations, like the
Europeans formerly, and the Africans and Americans
N° 28.
The learned editor dedicates thefe ancient mufical Arifloxe-
treatifes to Chriftina queen of Sweden. Ariftoxenus is nus-
faid by Suidas to have written 452 different works, a-' v
mong which thofe on mufic were the moft efteemed j
yet his vyritings on other fubjeCts are very frequently
quoted by ancient authors, notwithftanding Cicero and
fome others fay that he was a bad philofopher, and had
nothing in his head but mufic. The titles of feveral
of the loft works of Ariftoxenus, quoted by Athenaeus
and others, have been collefted by Meurfius in his'
notes upon this author, by Tonfius and Menage, all
which Fabricius has digefted into alphabetical order.
M E T I C
now, have been immerfed in the moft abjedl and de¬
plorable ftate of ignorance, they might remain for
fome time unacquainted with numbers, except fuch as
they had immediate occafionfor 5 and, when they came
afterwards to improve, either from their own induftry,
or hints given by others, might fancy that they them-
felves, or thofe from whom they got the hints, had
invented wThat was known long before. The Greeks
were the firft European nation among whom arithme¬
tic arrived at any degree of perfection. M. Goguet
is of opinion, that they firft ufed pebbles in their cal¬
culations : a proof of which he imagines is, that the
word which comes from-^£f)o?) a little ftone, or
flint, among other things, fignifies to calculate. The
fame, he thinks, is probable of the Romans; and de¬
rives the word calculation from the ufe of little ftones
(calculi} in their firft arithmetical operations.
If this method, however, was at ail made ule of, it
muft have been but for a Ihort time, fince we find the
Greeks very early made ufe of the letters of the alpha¬
bet to reprefent their numbers. The 24 letters of their
alphabet taken according to their order, at firft denot¬
ed the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40,
50, 60, 70, 80, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700,
and 800; to which they added the three follow¬
ing) « b) 0) to reprefent 6, 90, and 900. The diffi¬
culty of performing arithmetical operations by fuch
marks as thele may eafily be imagined, and is very
confpicuous from Archimedes’s treatife concerning the
dimenfions of a circle.
The Romans followed a like method } and befides
charaClers for each rank of clafles, they introduced
others for five, fifty, and five hundred. Their method
is ftill ufed for1 diftinguifhing the chapters of books,
and fome other purpoles. Their numeral letters and
values are the following :
r V X L C D M
One, five, ten, fifty, one hundred, five hundred, one thoufand.
Any number, however great, may be reprelented
by repeating and combining thefe according to the fol¬
lowing rules :
iff, When the fame letter is repeated twice, or of-
tencr, its value is reprefented as often. Thus II fig¬
nifies two ; XXX thirty, CC two hundred.
2d, When a numeral letter of lefler value is placed
after one of greater, their values are added : thus XI
fignifies
Hiftory. A R I T H
fignifies eleven, LXV fixty -five, MDCXXVIII one
thoufand fix hundred and twenty-eight.
3d, When a numeral letter of lefler value is placed
before one of greater, the value of the lefler is taken
from that of the greater : thus IV fignifies four, XL
forty, XC ninety, CD four hundred.
Sometimes 13 is ufed inftead of D for 500, and the
value is increafed ten times by annexing 3 to the
right hand.
Thus 13 fignifies 500. Alfo C13 is ufed for 1000
100 5000 CCj33 for 10009
1000 50000 CCCJ333 for 100000
Sometimes thoufands are reprefented by drawing a
line over the top of the numeral, V being ufed for
five thoufand, L for fifty thoufand, CC two hundred
4 thoufand.
Sexagefimal About the year of Chrifl: 200, a new kind of arith-
Arithmetic. metiC) called fexagejimal, was invented, as is fuppofed,
by Claudius Ptolomseus. The defign of it was to re¬
medy the difficulties of the common method, efpecial-
ly with regard to fra&ions. In this kind of arithme¬
tic, every unit was fuppofed to be divided into 60
parts, and each of thefe into 60 others, and fo on :
hence any number of fuch parts were called fexageji-
malfraEhons ; and to make the computation in whole
numbers more eafy, he made the progreffion in thefe
alfo fexagefimal. Thus from one to 59 were marked
in the common way : then 60 was called a fexagefima
pnma, or firft fexagefimal integer, and had one Angle
daffi over it; fo 60 was exprefled thus I'; and fo on
to 59 times 60, or 3540, which was thus expreflfed
LIX'. He now proceeded to 60 times 60, which he
called a fexagejima fectinda, and was thus exprefled l".
In like manner, twice 60 times 60, or 7200, was ex¬
prefled by 1I//; and fo on till he came to 60 times
3600, which was a third fexagefimal, and exprefled
thus, I'". If any number lefs than 60 was joined with
thefe fexagefimals, it was added in its proper charac¬
ters without any daffi ; thus I'XV reprefented 60 and
I5> or 75 5 I'VXXV is four times 60 and 25, or 265 ;
X^II^XV, is ten times 3600, twice 60 and 15, or
36>r35> ^c- Sexagefimal fractions were marked by
putting the daffi at the foot, or qp the left hand of the
letter : thus I„ or I, denoted ^; I,,, or "I, 7^5-,
5 &c‘
Indian Cha- The mofl: perfeft method of notation, which we
raderswlien now ufe, came into Europe from the Arabians, by
t m* the way of Spain. The Arabs, however, do not pre¬
tend to be the inventors of them, but acknowledge
that they received them from the Indians. Some
there are indeed, who contend that neither the Arabs
nor the Indians were the inventors, but that they
were found out by the Greeks. But this is by no means
probable ; as Maximus Planudes, who lived towards
the clofe of the 13th century, is the firft Greek who
makes ufe of them : and he is plainly not the inventor j
for Dr Wallis mentions an infcription on a chimney
in the Parfonage-houfe of Helendon in Northampton-
ffiire, where the date is exprefled by M° 133, inftead
°f II33* Mr Luflfkin furniflies a ftill earlier inftance
of their ufe, in the window of a houfe, part of which
is a Roman wall, near the market-place in Colchefter ;
where between two carved lions ftands an efcutcheon
with the figures 1090. Dr Wallis is of opinion that
Vol. II. Part I.
M E T I C. 289
thefe chara&ers muft have been ufed in England at
leaft as long ago as the year 1050, if not in ordinary
affairs, at leaft in mathematical ones, and in aftrono-
mical tables. How thefe charafters came to be ori¬
ginally invented by the Indians we are entirely igno¬
rant.
The introduflion of the Arabian chara£lers in no¬
tation did not immediately put an end to the fexage¬
fimal arithmetic. As this had been ufed in all the
aftronomical tables, it was for their fakes retained for
a confiderable time. The fexagefimal integers went
firft out, but the fra&ions continued till the invention
of decimals. * 6
The oldeft treatifes extant upon the theory of arith- Treatifes on
meticare the feventh,eighth, and ninth books of Euclid’s Arithmetic,
elements, whe,re he treats of proportion and of prime
and compofite numbers; both of which have received
improvements fince his time, efpecially the former.
The next of whom we know any thing is Nicomachus
the Pythagorean, who wrote a treatife of the theory
of arithmetic, confifting chiefly of the diftimftions and
divifions of numbers into clafles, as plain, folid, trian¬
gular, quadrangular, and the reft of the figurate
numbers as they are called, numbers odd and even,
&c. with fome of the more general properties of the
feveral kinds. This author is, by fome, faid to have
lived before the time of Euclid ; by others, not long
after. His arithmetic was publilhed at Paris in T538.
The next remarkable writer on this fubjedl is Boethi¬
us, who lived at Rome in the time of Theodoric the
Goth. He is fuppofed to have copied moft of his
work from Nicomachus.
From this time no remarkable writer on arithme¬
tic appeared till about the year r200, when Jordanus
of Namur wrote a treatife on this fubjeft, which was
publiflied and demonftrated by Joannes Faber Stapu-
lenfis in the 15th century, foon after the invention of
printing. The fame author alfo wrote upon the new
art of computation by the Arabic figures, and called
this book Algorifmus Demonjlratus. Dr Wallis fays
this manufcript is in the Savillian library at Oxford,
but it hath never yet been printed. As learning ad¬
vanced in Europe, fo did the knowledge of numbers ;
and the writers on arithmetic fbon became innumer¬
able. About the year 1464, Regiomentanus, in his
triangular tables, divided the Radius into 10,000
parts inftead of 60,000 ; and thus tacitly expelled the
fexagefimal arithmetic. Part of it, however, ftill re¬
mains in the divifion of time, as of an hour into 60
minutes, a minute into 60 feconds, &c. Ramus in
his arithmetic, written about the year 1550, and pu-
bliffied by Lazarus Schonerus in 1586, ufes decimal
periods in carrying on the fquare and cube roots to
fraftions. The fame had been done before by our
countrymen Buckley and Record ; but the firft who
publiflied an exprefs treatife on decimals was Simon
Stevinius, about the year 1582. As to the circulating
decimals, Dr W allis is the firft who took much no¬
tice of them. He is alfo the author of the arithmetic
of infinites, which has been very ufefully applied to
geometry. The greateft improvement, however,
which the art of computation ever received, is the
invention of logarithms. The honour of this inven¬
tion is unqueftionably due to Lord Napier, baron of
Mcrchifton in Scotland, about the end of the 16th or
O o beginning
290 A R I T H
Notation beginning of the 17th century. By thefe means
and . arithmetic has advanced to a degree of perfeftion
. urn‘ratl0n which the ancients could never have imagined poffi-
ble, much lefs hoped to attain 5 and we believe it
may now be reckoned one of thofe few fciences which
have arrived at their utmoft height, and which is in
its nature capable of little further improvement.
7 Chap. I. NOTATION and NUMERATION.
The firft elements of arithmetic are acquired du¬
ring our infancy. The idea of one, though the fim-
pleft of any, and fuggefted by every fingle objedl, is
perhaps rather of the negative kind, and confifts part¬
ly in the exclufion of plurality, and is not attended to
till that of number be acquired. Two is formed by
placing one object near another 5 three, four, and
every higher number, by adding one continually to
the former collection. As we thus advance from
lower numbers to higher, we foon perceive that there
is no limit to this increafing operation ; and that,
whatever number of objedts be colledted together,
more may be added, at leaft, in imagination; fo that
we can never reach the higheft poffible number, nor
approach near it. As we are led to underftand and
add numbers by colledting objedts, fo we learn to di-
minifti them by removing the objedts colledted; and
if we remove them one by one, the number decreafes
through all the fteps by which it advanced, till, only
one remain, or none at all. When a child gathers as
many ftones together as fuits his fancy, and then throws
them away, he acquires the firft elements of the two
capital operations in arithmetic. The idea of num¬
bers, which is firft acquired by the obfervation of
fenfible objedts, is afterwards extended to meafures
of fpace and time, affedtions of the mind, and other
immaterial qualities.
Small numbers are molt eafily apprehended : a
child foon knows what two and what three is; but has
not any diftindt notion of foventeen. Experience re¬
moves this difficulty in fome degree ; as we become
accuflomed to handle larger colledtions, we apprehend
clearly the number of a dozen or a fcore ; but per¬
haps could hardly advance to an hundred without the
aid of claffical arrangement, which is the art of form¬
ing fo many units into a clafs, and fo many of thefe
clafles into one of a higher kind, and thus advancing
through as many ranks of clafles as occafion requires.
If a boy arrange hundred ftones in one row, he
would be tired before he could reckon them ; but if
he place them in ten rows of ten ftones each, he will
reckon an hundred with eafe; and if he colled! ten
Inch parcels, he will reckon a thoufand. In this cafe,
ten is the loweft clafs, an hundred is a clafs of the fe-
cond rank, and a thoufand is a clafs of the third
rank.
There does not foem to be any number naturally
adapted for conftituting a clafs of the loweft, or any
higher rank to the exclufion of others. However, as
ten has been univerfally ufed for this purpofe by the
Hebrews, Greeks, Romans, and Arabians, and by all
nations who have cultivated this fcience, it is proba¬
bly the moft convenient for general ufe. Other feales,
however, may be aflumed, perhaps on fome occa-
M E T I C. Chap. I.
fions, with fuperior advantage ; and the principles of Numeration
arithmetic will appear in their full extent, if the ftu-
dent can adapt them to any fcale whatever : thus, if
eight were the fcale, 6 times 3 would be two claflfes
and two units, and the number 18 would then be re-
prefented by 22. If 12 were the fcale, 5 times 9
would be three clafles and nine units, and 45 w'ould be
reprefented.by 39, &c.
It is proper, whatever number of units conftitutes
a clafs of the lower rank, that the fame number of
each clafs ffiould make one of the next higher. This
is obforved in our arithmetic, ten being the univerfal
fcale : but is not regarded in the various kinds of
monies, weights, and the like, which do not advance
by any univerfal meafure 5 and much of the difficulty
in the practice of arithmetic arifes from that irregu¬
larity.
As higher numbers are fomewhat difficult to ap¬
prehend, we naturally fall on contrivances to fix them
in our minds, and render them familiar : butnotwith-
Handing all the expedients we can fall upon, our
ideas of high numbers are ftill imperfe£I, and gene¬
rally far ffiort of the reality } and'though we can per¬
form any computation with exactnefs, the anfwer we
obtain is often incompletely apprehended.
It may not be amifis to illuftrate, by a few exam¬
ples, the extent of numbers which are frequently
named without being attended to. If a perfon em¬
ployed in telling money reckon an hundred pieces in
a minute, and continue at work ten hours each day,
he will take feventeen days to reckon a million 5 a
thoufand men would take 45 years to reckon a bil¬
lion. If we fuppofe the whole earth to be as well
peopled as Britain, and to have been fo from the
creation, and that the whole race of mankind had
conftantly fpent their time in telling from a heap
confifting of a quadrillion of pieces, they would hard¬
ly have yet reckoned the thoufandth part of that
quantity.
All numbers are reprefented by the ten following
chara&ers.
123 45678 9 o
One,two,three,four, five, fix, feven, eight, nine, cypher.
The nine firft are called Jignificant figures, or digits;
and fometimes reprefent units, fometimes tens, hun¬
dreds, or higher clafles. When placed fingly, they
denote the Ample numbers fubjoined to the charac¬
ters. When feyeral are placed together, the firft or
right-hand figure only is to be taken for its Ample
value : the fecond fignifies fo many tens, the third fo
many hundreds, and the others fo many higher
clafles, according to the order they Hand in. And
as it may fometimes be required to exprefs a num¬
ber confifting of tens, hundreds, or higher clafles,
without any units or clafles of a lower rank annexed y
and as this can only be done by figures Handing in
the fecond, third, or higher place, while there are
none to fill up the lower ones 3 therefore an additional
character or cypher (o) is neceflary, which has no fig-
nification when placed by itfelf, but ferves to fupply the
vacant places, and bring the figures to their proper
ftation.
The following table ftiews the names and divifions
of the clafles.
8.
'Chap. II. A R I T H
bii; Addition. 8. 4 3 7, 9 8 2. 5 6,4, 7 3 8. 9 7 2, 6 4 5
. * escecc ccacc •ri -ri c £
00000 00000 cccoo'“
=
GEESE^ooo^
in XI ^3
z 'o 'o "E
0 -o -o t« 4= ^ 0
" 5 5 => o
►4 43 g 3 „
g
H -o H -o
o-o-.3 ud o-o
i- E sp "E '
The firfl; fix figures from the right hand are called
the unit period, the next fix the trillion period, after
which the trillion, quadrillion, quintillion, fextillion,
feptillion, oSlillion and nonillion periods follow in their
order.
It is proper to divide any number, before wc reckon
it into periods and half periods, by different marks.
We then begin at the left hand, and read the figures
in their order, with the names of their places, from
the table. In writing any number, we muft be care¬
ful to mark the figures in their proper places, and
fupply the vacant places with cyphers.
As there are no poffible ways of changing num¬
bers, except by enlarging or diminifhing them ac¬
cording to fiome given rule, it follows, that the whole
art of arithmetic is comprehended in two operations,
Addition and Subtra&ion. Howrever, as it is fre¬
quently required to add feveral equal numbers toge¬
ther, or to fubtraft feveral equal ones from a great¬
er, till it be exhaufted, proper methods have been in¬
vented for facilitating the operation in thefe cafes,
and diftinguifhed by the names of Multiplication and
Divifion ; and thefe four rules are the foundation of
all arithmetical operations whatever.
As the idea of number is acquired by obferving fe¬
veral obje&s colledted, fo is that of fra&ions by ob¬
ferving an objedl divided into feveral parts. As we
fometimes meet with objects broken into two, three,
or more parts, we may confider any or all of thele
divifions promifcuoufly, which is done in the doftrine
of vulgar fraftions, for which a chapter will be allot¬
ted. However, fince, the practice of collefting
units into parcels of tens has prevailed univerfally, it
has been found convenient to follow a like method in
the confideration of fradlions, by dividing each unit
into ten equal parts, and each of thefe into ten fmal-
ler parts 3 and fb on. Numbers divided in this man¬
ner are called Decimal Fradlions.
8 Chap. II. ADDITION.
Addition is that operation by which wre find the
amount of two or more numbers. The method of do¬
ing this in fimple cafes is obvious, as foon as the mean¬
ing of number is known, and admits of no illuftra-
tion. A young learner will begin at one of the num¬
bers, and reckon up as many units feparately as there
are in the other, and pra&ice will enable him to do it
at once. It is impoffible ftriffly fpeaking, to add
more than two numbers at a time. We mufl firft
find the fum of the firft and fecond 3 then we add the
third to that number 3 and fo on. However, as the
M .E T 1 C.
291
feveral fums obtained are eafily retained in the memo- Additibn.
ry, it is neither neceffary nor ufual to mark them 1 r*—*
down. When the numbers confift of more'‘figures,
than one, wre add the units together, the tens toge¬
ther, and fo onl But if the fum of the units exceed
ten, or contain ten feveral times, we add the number
of tens it contains to the next column, and only let
down the number of units that are over. In like ‘
manner we carry the tens of every column to the
next higher. And the reafbn of this is obvious from
the value of the places ; fince an unit, in any higher
place, fignifies the fame thing as ten in the place im¬
mediately lower.
Example,
Rule. “ Write the numbers diftinftly, 346863
“ units under units, tens under tens 5 and 876734
“ fo on. Then reckon the amount of the 123467
“ right-hand column. If it be under ten, 31421?
“ mark it down. If it exceed ten, mark 712316
“ the units only, and carry the tens to the 438987
“ next place. In like manner, cany the 279654
“ tens of each column to the next, and mark 
“ down the full fum of the left hand co- 3092234
“ lumn.’* *44 ) j
As it is of great confequence in bufinefs to perform
addition readily and exaffly, the learner ought to
praclife it till it become quite familiar. If the learn¬
er can readily add any two digits, he will foon add a
digit to a higher number with equal eafe. It is only
to add the unit place of that number to the digit 3
and, if it exceed ten, it raifes the amount accordingly.
Thus, becaufe 8 and 6 is 14, 48 and 6 is 54. It will
be proper to mark down under the fums of each co¬
lumn, in a fmall.hand, the figure that is carried to the
next column. This prevents the trouble of going
over the whole operation again, in cale of interrup¬
tion or miftake. If you want to keep the account
clean, mark down the fum and figure you carry on a
feparate paper, and, after revifing them, tranfcribe
the fum only. After fome praftice, we ought to ac¬
quire the habit of adding two or more figures at one
glance. This is particularly ufeful when two figures
which amount to 10, as 6 and 4, or 7 and 3, ftand
together in the column.
Every operation in arithmetic ought to be reviled,
to prevent miftakes 3 and as one is apt to fall into the
fame miftake, if he revife it in the fame manner he
performed it, it is proper either to alter the order, or
tile to trace back the fteps by which the operation
advanced, which wrill lead us at laft to the number we
began with. Every method of proving accounts
may be referred to one or other of thefe heads.
ift, Addition may be proven by any of the follow¬
ing methods : repeat the operation, beginning at the
top of the column, if you began at the foot when you
wrought it.
2d,' Divide. the account into leveral parts 5 add
thefe feparately, and then add the films together. If
their amount correfpond with the film of the account,
when added at once, it may be prefumed right. This
method is particularly proper when you want to know
the fums of the parts, as well as that of the whole.
3d, Subtract the numbers fucceflively from the
fum 3 if the account be right, you will exhauft it ex-
aftly, and find no remainder.
G o 2
When
A R I T H M
l* When the given number eonfifts of articles of dif-
^ ferent value, as pounds, Ihillings, and pence, or the
like, which are called different denominations, the ope¬
rations in arithmetic mull be regulated by the value
of the articles. We lhall give here a few of the moll
ufeful tables for the learners information.
I. Sterling Money. II. Averdupoife Weight.
4 Farthingsm penny, 16 Dramsm ounce, oz.
marked d. 16 Ounces=i pound, lb.
12 Pencem Shilling, s. 28 Pound=:i quarter, qr.
20 Shillingsr:i Pound, L. 4 Quart=i hun. wgh‘, C.
Alfo, 6 s. 8d.=:i noble 20 Hun. weight=i ton, T.
10 s.—i angel
13 s. 4 d. or two thirds
of a pound~i merk.
Scots money is divided in the fame manner as Ster¬
ling, and has one twelfth of its value. A pound Scots
is equal to is. 8 d. Sterling, a Hulling Scots to a pen¬
ny Sterling, and a penny Scots to a twelfth part of a
penny Sterling; a mark Scots is two thirds of a
pound Scots, or 13-f d. Sterling.
III. Troy Weight. IV. Apothecaries Weight.
20 Mites^i grain, gr. 20 Grains=x fcruple, '3
24 Grainsni pen. w1, dw*. 3 Scruples^! dram, 3
20 Penny wJs~i ounce, oz. 8 Drams:: 1 ounce, §
12 Ounces”! pound, lb. 12 Ounces::! pound, lb
V. Englijh Dry Meafure. VI. Scots Dry Meafure.
2 Pints::! quart 4 Lippiesm peck
4 Quarts::! gallon 4 Pecks=i firlot
2 Gallons—1 peck 4 Firlots—1 boll
4 Pecks”1 bufliel 16 Bolls=i chalder
8 Bulhels^i quarter
VII. Englijh Land Mea- VIII. Scots Land Mea¬
fure. fire.
30^ Square yards—1 pole 36 Square ellss:i fall
or perch 40 Falls—1 rood
40 Poles—1 rood 4 Roods::! acre
4 Roods—1 acre
IX. Long Meafure. X. Time.
12 Inches—1 foot 60 Seconds—! minute
3 Feet“1 yard 60 Minutes—1 hour
jf yards::! pole 24 Hours^i day
40 Poles—1 furlong 7 Days=i Week
8 Furlongs—1 mile 365 Days—1 year
3 Miles::! league. 52 Weeks& 1 day=i year.
Rule for compound Addition. 11 Arrange like
“ quantities under like, and carry according to the
“ value of the higher place.”
Note 1. When you add a denomination, which con¬
tains more columns than one, and from which you car¬
ry to the higher by 20, 30, or any even number of tens,
firfl: add the units of that column, and mark down their
fum, carrying the tens to the next column j then add
the tens, and carry to the higher denomination, by the
number of tens that it contains of the lower. For ex¬
ample, in adding (hillings, carry by 10 from the units
to the tens, and by 2 from the tens to the pounds.
Note 2. If you do not carry by an even number of
tens, firfl: find the complete m of the lower denomi¬
nation, then enqui 1 6w ■ of the higher that fum
contains, and carry .: ordingly, and mark the remain¬
der, if any, under e column. For example, if the
E T I C. Chap. IL
fum of a column of pence be 43, which is three (hil- Addition,
lings-and feven pence, mark 7 under the pence-co-
lumn, and carry 3 to that of the (hillings.
Note 3. Some add the lower denominations after
the following method : when they have reckoned as
many as amounts to one of the higher denomination,
or upwards, they mark a dot, and begih again with
the excefs of the number reckoned above the value
of the denomination. The number of dots (hows how
many are carried, and the laft reckoned number is
placed under the column.
Examples in Sterling Money.
L. 145 6
-215 3
172 18
645 7
737 2
35 3
a9 ~
1764 12
780 — —
99 9 9
150 10 —
844 8 7
L.
16 9
169 16
36 12
54 7
30 —
7 19
707 19
14 14
84 18
I25 3
16 16
62 5
T. C.
1 19
— J4
2 18
In Averdupoife Weight.
qr. lb.
3 26
1 16
1 16
2 27
— 10
2 24
3 18
— 5
3 9
— 4
— 5
qr. lb.
When one page will not contain the whole account,
we add the articles it contains, and write againft their
fum, Carried forward; and we begin the next page
with the fum of the foregoing, writing againft it,
Brought forward.
When the articles fill feveral pages, and their whole
(um is known, which is the cafe in tranlcribing ac¬
counts, it- is bed to proceed in the following manner :
Add the pages, placing the fums on a feparate paper j
then add the fums, and if the amount of the whole be
right, it only remains to find what numbers (hould
be placed at the foot and top of the pages. For this
purpofe, repeat the fum of the firft page on the fame
line j add the fums of the firft and (econd, placing
the amount in a line with the fecond $ to this add
the fum of the third, placing the amount in a line
with the third.. Proceed in like manner with the
others; and if the laft (um correfponds with the amount
of the pages, it is right. Thefe fums are tranfcribed
at the foot of the relpeftive pages, and tops of the
following ones.
Ex.
iChap. HI
ijubtraftion.
L. L. L. L.
Ist Page,. L 778 16 — L. 778 16 —
2d, 445 14 5 I224 10 5
3d, 151 19 9, 1376 10 2
4,h, 43 6 11 I4I9 I7 1
L.1419 17 1
Then we tranfcribe L. 778, 16s. at the foot of the
firft and top of the fecond pages, L.1224 : IO-: C at the
foot of the fecond and top of the third ; and fo on.
Chap. III. SUBTRACTION.
Subtraction is the operation by which we take a
letter number from a greater, and find their differences.
It is exactly oppofite to addition, and is performed by
learners in a like manner, beginning at the greater,
and reckoning downwards the units of the letter. The
greater is called the minuend, and the letter the fubira-
hend.
If any figure of the fubtrahend be greater than the
correfponding figure of the minuend, we add ten to
that of the minuend, and having found and marked
the difference, we add one to the next place of the fub¬
trahend. This is called borrowing ten. The reafon
will appear, if we confider that, when two numbers
are equally increafed by adding the fame to both, their
difference will not be altered. When we proceed as
direfted above, we add ten to the minuend, and we
likewife add one to the higher place of the fubtra-
hend, which is equal to ten of the lower place.
Rule. “ Subtract units from units, tens from tens,
u and fb on. If any figure of the fubtrahend be
“ greater than the correfponding one of the minuend,
“ borrow ten.”
Example. Minuend 173694 738641
Subtrahend 21453 379235
Remainder 152241 3594°6
To prove fubtraftion, add the fubtrahend and re¬
mainder together ; if their film be equal to the mi¬
nuend, the account is right.
Or fubtraft the remainder from the minuend. If
the difference be equal to the fubtrahend, the account
is right.
Rule/or compoundfubtraBion. “ Place like deno-
“ minations under like, and borrow, when neceflary,
“ according to the value of the higher place.”
Examples.
C. qr. lb. A. R. F. E.
L-I46 3 3 12 3 19 15 2 24 18
58 7 6 4 3 24 12 2 36 7
L. 87 15 9 7 3 23 23 28 11
Note 1. The reafon for borrowing is the fame as
in Ample fubtra&ion. Thus, in fubtraffing pence, we
M E T I C. 293
add 12 pence when neceflary to the minuend, and at Subtradion.
the next ftep, we add one fhilling to the fubtrahend.  
Note 2. When there are two places in the fame
denomination, if the next higher contain exaftly fo
many tens, it is bell to fubtraft the units firft, borrow¬
ing ten when neceffary 5 and then fubtraft the tens,
borrowing, if there is occafion, according to> the num¬
ber of tens in the higher denomination.
Note 3. If the value of the higher denomination be
not an even number of tens, fubtracl the units and
tens at once, borrowing according to the value of the
higher denomination.
Note 4. Some chufe to fubtraft the place in the
fubtrahend, when it exceeds that of the minuend, from
the value of the higher denomination, and add the mi¬
nuend to the difference. This is only a different or¬
der of proceeding, and gives the fame anfwer.
Note 5. As cuftom has eftablifhed the method of
placing the fubtrahend under the minuend, we follow
it when there is no reafon for doing otherwife $ but
the minuend may be placed under the fubtrahend
with equal propriety ; and the learner ftiould be able
to work it either way, with equal readinefs, as this
laft is fometimes more convenient 5 of which inftances
will occur afterwards.
Note 6. The learner fhould alfo acquire the habit
when two numbers are marked down, of placing fuch
a number under the letter, that, when added together,
the fum may be equal to the greater. The operation
is the fame as fubtracl ion, though conceived in a dif¬
ferent manner, and is ufeful in balancing accounts,
and on other occafions.
It is often neceflary to place the fums in different co¬
lumns, in order to exhibit a clear view of what is re¬
quired. For inftance, if the values of feveral parcels'
of goods are to be added, and each parcel confifts of
feveral articles, the particular articles fhould be placed
in an inner column, and the fum of each parcel extend¬
ed to the outer column, and the total added there.
If any perfon be owing an account, and has made
fome partial payments, the payments mull be placed in
an inner column, and their fum extended under that of
the account in the outer column, and fubtracted there.
An example or two will make this plain,
lit.] 30 yards linen at 2 s. L. 3
45 ditto at 1 s. 6 d. 3 7 6
 L. 676
120 lb thread at 4 s. L. 24
40 ditto at 3 s. 6
30 ditto at2s. 6d. 3 15
 33 *5
L.40 2 6
2d.] 1773..
Jan. 15. Lent James Smith L. 50
22. Lent him further 70
 L. 120
Feb. 3. Received in part L. 62
5. Received further
In gold L. 10 10
In filver 12
 23 10
 85 10
Balance due me L>34 10
ARITHMETIC,
Chap. IV. MULTIPLICATION.
In Multiplication, two numbers are given, and it is
required to find how much the firft amounts to, when
reckoned as many times as there are units in the
fecond. Thus, 8 multiplied by 5, or 5 times 8, is
40. The given numbers (8 and 5) are called faflors ;
the firft (8) the multiplicand the 1'econd (5) mul¬
tiplier ; and the amount (40) the produB.
This operation is nothing elfe than addition of the
fame number feveral times repeated. If we mark 8
five times under each other, and add them, the lutn
is 40 : But, as this kind of addition is of frequent and
extenfive ufe, in order to ftiorten the operation, we
mark down the number only once, and conceive it to
be repeated as often as there are units in the multiplier.
For this purpofe, the learner muft be thoroughly
acquainted with the following multiplication-table,
which is compofed by adding each digit twelve times.
'Six times Seven times
is 7
Twice
1 is 2
Thrice (Fourtimes
4
Five times
J
16
12 24
Eight times
;4
27
3°
33I11
36112
Nine times
40
44
48
Ten times
3
4
5
24 6
28 7
22 8
36 9
S6
45
54
63
72
81
90
99
108
3°
40
5°
60
70
80
90
100
110
132
Chap. IV.
and annex an equal number of cyphers to the produft. Multipli-
Thus, if it be required to multiply by 50, we firft , cati&n-
multiply by 5, and then annex a cypher. It is the i
fame thing as to add the multiplicand fifty times j and
this might be done by writing the account at large, di¬
viding the column into 10 parts of 5 lines, finding the
fum of each part, and adding thefe ten fums together.
If the multiplier confift of feveral fignificant figures,
we multiply feparately by each, and add the pro-
duds. It is the fame as if we divided a long account
of addition into parts correfponding to the figures of
the multiplier.
Example. To multiply 7329 by 365.
?329 7329 7329 36645 = 5 times‘
5 60 300 439740= 60 times.
36645 43974° 2198700 9- —
2675085 =r 365 times.
It is obvious that 5 times the multiplicand added to
60 times, and to 300 times, the fame muft amount to
the produdl required. In pradice, we place the pro-
duds at once under each other ; and, as the cyphers
arifing from the higher places of the multiplier, are
loft in the addition, we omit them. Hence may be
inferred the following
Rule. “ Place the multiplier under the multipli-
“ cand, and multiply the latter fucceffively by the
“ fignificant figures of the former j placing the right-
“ hand figure of each produd under the figure of the
“ multiplier from which it arifes} then add the pro-
“ dud.”
77
84
Twelve times
Ex.
7329
365
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
2675085
3893435
8893810 817793024
If both fadors be under 12, the table exhibits the
pfodud at once. If the multiplier only be under 12,
we" begin at the unit-place, and multiply the figures
in their order, carrying the tens to the higher plape,
as in addition.
Ex. 76859 multiplied by 4, or 76859 added 4 times.
4 76859
   76859
307436 76859
3°7436
If the multiplier be 10, we annex a cypher to the
multiplicand. If the multiplier be 100, we annex two
cyphers $ and fo on. The reafon is obvious, from
the ufe of cyphers in notation.
If the multiplier be any digit, with one or more
cyphers on the right hand, we multiply by the figure,
A number which cannot be produced by the mul¬
tiplication of twTo others is called a prime number 5 as
3, 5, 7, 11, and many others.
A number which may be produced by the multi¬
plication of two or more fmallerones, is called a cam-
pajite number. For example, 27, which arifes from
the multiplication of 9 by 3 5 and thefe numbers (9
and 3) are called the component parts of 27.
ContraEiions and Varieties in Multiplication.
Firft, If the multiplier be a compofite number, we
may multiply fucceffively by the component parts.
£.v. 7638 by 45 or 5 times 9 7638 ift, 5492 by 72
45 9 2d. I3759fay 56
    3d> 56417 by 144
38190 68742 4th, 73048 by 84
30552 5 5th, 166549 by 125
    6th, 378914 by 54
343710 343710 7th;52°8i3by 63
Becaufe the fecond produd is equal to five times the
firft, and the firft is equal to nine times the multi¬
plicand,
A R I T H M
E T I C. 295
plicand, it is obvious that the fecond product muft be It is a matter of indifference which of the factors Multipli-
five times nine, or forty-five times as great as the be ufed as the multiplier; for 4 multiplied by 3 gives , catlon- i
multiplicand. the fame produft as 3 multiplied by 4 j and the like v "
Secondly, If the multiplier be 5, which is the half holds univeri'ally true. To illuftrate this, we may
of 10, we may annex a cypher and divide by 2. If mark three row’s of points, four in each ....
it be 25, which is the fourth part of an 100, we may row, placing the rows under each other 5 . . . .
annex two cyphers, and divide by 4. Other contrac- and we fliall alfo have four rows, con 
tions of the like kind will readily occur to the learn- taining three points each, if we reckon the rows
er. downwards.
Thirdly, To multiply by 9, which is one lefs than Multiplication is proven by repeating the opera-
10, we may annex a cypher j and fubtradf the multi- tion, ufing the multiplier for the multiplicand, and
plicand from the number it compofes. To multiply the multiplicand for the multiplier^ It may alfo be
by 99,999, or any number of 9’s, annex as many cy- proven by divifion, or by calling out the 9’s 5 of which
phers, and fubtradl the multiplicand. The reafon is afterwards; and an account, wrought by any con-
obvious; and a like rule may be found, though the tradlion, may be proven by performing the operation
unit place be different from 9. ' ’ ' /T’
Fourthly, Sometimes a line of the product is more
eafily obtained from a former line of the fame than
2d.]
1348
36
from the multiplicand.
Ex. ill.] 1372
84
5488
10976
115248
In the firft example, inftead of multiplying by 5,
we may multiply 5488 by 2 : and, in the fecond, in¬
ftead of multiplying by 3, we may divide 8088 by 2.
Fifthly, Sometimes the produdl of two or more fi¬
gures may be obtained at once, from the produdl of
a figure already found.
t large, or by a different contradlion..
Compound Multiplication.
8088
4044
48528
Rule I. “ If the multiplier do not exceed 12, the
“ operation is performed at once, beginning at the
“ lowed place, and carrying according to the value
“ of the higher place.”
\JLxamples.~\ Cwt. qr. lb.
L. 13 6 7 12 2 8
9 5
M. R. P.
I3 3 18
z. dwt.
5 9
Ex. 1 ft.]
I4356
64S
114848
918784
9302688
2d.] 3462321
96484
13849284
166191408
332382816
L. 119 19 3 ^2 3 12 83 — 28 89 5 8
Rule II. “ If the multiplier be a compofite num^
“ ber, whofe component parts do not exceed 12, mul-
“ tiply firft: by one of thefe parts, then multiply the
“ product by the other. Proceed in the fame man-
“ ner if there be more than two.”
Ex. ift.] L. 15 3 8 by 32 =8x4
9 4 =
4
33495^579364 ‘
In the fecond example, we multiply firft by 4 ;
then, becaufe 12 times 4 is 48, we multiply the firft
line of the produdt by 12, inftead of multiplying fepa*
rately by 8 and 4; laftly, becaufe twice 48 is 96, we
multiply the fecond line of the product by 2, inftead
of multiplying feparately by 6 and 9.
When we follow this method, we muft be careful
to place the right-hand figure of each product under
the right-hand figure of that part of the multiplier
which it is derived from.
It would anfwer equally well in all pafes, to begin
the work at the higheft place of the multiplier ; and
contraftions are fometimes obtained by following
that order.
L. 485 17 4 2: 32 times.
2d.] L. 17
3 8 by 75=5x5x3;
3
51 11 — = 3 times.
5
L- 257 IS — =IS times*
5
L. 1288 15 — = 75 times..
Ex. ift.] 3125
642
18750
12500
6250
2006250
3l25
642
18750
131250
2006250
Note 1. Although the component parts will an¬
fwer in any order, it is beft, when it can be done, to
take them in fuch order as may clear off fome of the
lower places at the firft multiplication, as is done in
Ex. 2d.
Note 2. The operation may be proved, by taking
the component parts in a different order, or dividing
the multiplier in a different manner.
Rule III. “ If the multiplier be a prime number,
“ multiply firft by the compofite number next lower,
1706163900 “ then by the difference, and add the products.”
2d.] 32452
52575
162260
811300
24339°°
296
A R I T H M
Multiplica-L. 35 17 9 by 67=64+3 Here becaufe 8 times 8
tion. 8 64= 8x8 is 64, we multiply twice
—-\r—-J     by 8, which gives L.2296,
L. 287 2 — = 8 times. 16 s. equal to 64 times the
8 multiplicandjthea we find
  the amount of 3 times the
L. 2296 16— = 64 times, multiplicand, which is
107 13 3 = 3 times. L. 107 : 13 : 3 5 and it is
 — evident that theie added,
L. 2404 9 3 = 67 times, amount to 67, the multi¬
plicand.
Rule IV. “ If there be a compofite number a lit-
“ tie above the multiplier, we may multiply by that
“ number, and by the difference, and lubtra£l the
“ fecond produtt from the firil.”
L. 17 4 5 by 106=108-—2 Here we multiply
12 108= 9xi2byx2and9, thecom-
    ponent parts of 108,
L. 206 13 —
9
L. 1859 17 — =108 times.
34 8 10 = 2 times.
L. 1S25 8 2=io6times7
and obtain a produfl:
of L. i860, 6 s. equal
to 108 times the mul¬
tiplicand j and, as this
is twice oftener than
was required, we fub-
tradt the multiplicand
doubled, and the re¬
mainder is the num¬
ber fought.
Example. L. 34 : 8 : 2-i- by 3465.
Rule V. “ If the multiplier be large, multiply by
‘ 10, and multiply the produdt again by 10 j by
1 which means you obtain an hundred times the gi-
‘ ven number. If the multiplier exceed 1000, mul-
‘ tiply by 10 again j and continue it farther if the
‘ multiplier require it $ then multiply the given
‘ number by the unit-place of the multiplier; the
£ firft produdt by the ten-place, the fecond product
‘ by the hundred-place ; and lb on. Add the pro-
£ dudts thus obtained together.”
L. 34 8 by 5=1- 17* 1 4= 5 times
lOtimesL. 344 a 1 by 6~ 3064 12 6“ 6otimes
) times L. 3441 — 10 by 4= 13764 3 4— 400 times
E T I C. Chap. IV.
This computation, for changing any fum of money, , -Dlvlti(>n-i
weight, or meafure, into a different kind, is called * ^
Reduction. When the quantity given is expreffed
in different denominations, we reduce the higheft to
the next lower, and add thereto the given number of
that denomination ; and proceed in like manner till
we have reduced it totheloweft denomination.
Example. To reduce L. 46 : 13 : 8| to farthings.
L. 46
20 Or thus :
920 {hillings in L. 46 L. 46 13
13 20
933 {hillings in L. 46 13 933
12 12
11196 pence in L. 46 13 11204
11204 pence in L. 46 13 8 44819
4
44816 farthings in L. 46 13 8
3
44819 farthings in L. 46 13 8^
It is eafy to take in or add the higher denomina¬
tion at the fame time we multiply the lower.
Chap. V. DIVISION.
In divifion, two numbers are given ; and it is re¬
quired to find how often the former contains the lat¬
ter. Thus, it may be alked how often 21 contains
7, and the anfwer is exadtly 3 times. The former
given number (21) is called the Dividend; the lat¬
ter (7) the and the number required (3)
the Quotient. It frequently happens that the divifion
cannot be completed exaftly without fraftions. Thus
it may be alked, how often 8 is contained in 19 ? the
anfwer is twice, and a remainder of 3.
This operation confifts in fubtra&ing the divifor
from the dividend, and again from the remainder, as
often as it can be done, and reckoning the number
of fubtratffions : as,
1000 times L. 34410 8 4 by 3=: 103231 5 —=13000 times
1,. 119232 1 10^=3465 times
The ufe of multiplication is to compute the amount
of any number of equal articles, either in relpedt of
meafure, weight, value, or any other confideration.
The multiplicand expreffes how much is to be reck¬
oned for each article 5 and the multiplier expreffes
how many times that is to be reckoned. As the
multiplier points out the number of articles to be
added, it is always an abftrafl: number, and has no
reference to any value or meafure whatever. It is
therefore quite improper to attempt the multiplica¬
tion of {hillings by {hillings, or to confider the multi¬
plier as expreffive of any denomination. 1 he moft
common inllances in which the pra&ice of this ope¬
ration is required, are, to find the amount of any
number of parcels, to find the value of any number
of articles, to find the weight or meafure of a num¬
ber of articles, &c.
N5 28.
7 firft fubtradtion
7 fecond fubtradlion
7 third fubtradtion.
8 fecond fubtradlion
3 remainder.
As this operation, performed at large, would be
very tedious, when the quotient is a high number, it
is proper to Ihorten it by every convenient method 5
and, for this purpofe, we may multiply the divifor
by any number whoff produdl is not greater than
the dividend, and fo fubtradl it twice or thrice, or
oftener, at the fame time. The beft way is to mul¬
tiply it by the greateft number, that does not raifc
the produdt too high, and that number is alfo the
quotient. For example, to divide 45 by 7, we en¬
quire what is the greateft multiplier for 7, that does
not
I. Chap. V. A R I T H
hvj Divifion. not give a produfl above 45 ; and we (hall find that
— ' y—' it is 6 j and 6 times 7 is 42, which, fubtra&ed from
45, leaves a remainder of 3. Therefore 7 may be
fubtra&ed 6 times from 45 ; or, which is the fame
thing, 45, divided by 7, gives a quotient of 6, and a
remainder of 3.
If the divifor do not exceed 12, we readily find
the higheft multiplier that can be ufed from the mul¬
tiplication table. If it exceed 12, we may try any
multiplier that we think will anfwer. If the product
be greater than the dividend, the multiplier is too
great j and, if the remainder, after the produCt is
fubtra&ed from the dividend, be greater than the di¬
vifor, the multiplier is too final!. In either of thefe
cafes, we muft try another. But the attentive learn¬
er, after fome pra&ice, will generally hit on the right
multiplier at firft.
If the divifor be contained oftener than ten times in
the dividend, the operation requires as many fteps as
there are figures in the quotient. For inftance, if the
quotient be greater than 100, but lefs than 1000, it
requires 3 fteps. We firft inquire how many hun¬
dred times the divilbr is contained in the dividend,
and fubtraft the amount of thele hundreds. Then
we inquire how often it is contained ten times in
the remainder, and fubtraft the amount of thefe tens.
Laftly, we inquire how many fingle times it is con¬
tained in the remainder. The method of proceed¬
ing will appear from the following example :
To divide 5936 by 8.'
From 5936
I Take 5600 =: 700 times 8
Rem. 336
From which take 320 z: 40 times 8
Rem. 16
From which take 16 ~ 2 times 8
o 742 times 8 in all.
It is obvious, that as often as 8 is contained in 59,
fo many hundred times it will be contained in 5900,
or in 5936 5 and, as often as it is contained in 33, fo
I many ten times it will be contained in 330, or in
336 ; and thus the higher places of the quotient will
be obtained with equal eafe as the lower. The ope¬
ration might be performed by fubtradling 8 conti¬
nually from the dividend, which will lead to the
fame conclufion by a very tedious procefs. After
700 fubtraCtions, the remainder would be 336; after
40 more, it would be 16} and-after 2 more, the di¬
vidend would be entirely exhaufted. In praClice, we
omit the cyphers, and proceed by the following
Rules, ill, “ Afiume as many figures on the left
“ hand of the multiplier as contain the divifor once
“ or oftener : find how many times they contain it,
“ and place the anfwer as the higheft figure of the
“ quotient.
2d, “ Multiply the divifor by the figure you have
“ found, and place the product under the part of
“ the dividend from which it is obtained.
3d, “Subtraft the produCl from the figures above it.
4th, “ Bring down the next figure of the dividend
“ t0 ^ remainder, and divide the number it makes
“ up, as before.,>
Vgl. II. Part I.
M E T I C.-
Examples.] ill. 8)5936(742
56 ‘ ’
33
32
16
16
297
2d. 63)36114(478 | Divifion. ^
491
441
5°4
5°4
o o
3d. 365)974932(2671 TVr
73°• : •
2449
2190
2593
255J
Remainder 17
The numbers which we divide, as 59, 33, and 16,
in the firft example, are called dividuals.
It is ufual to mark a point under the figures of the
dividend, as they are brought down, to prevent mi-
ftakes.
If there be a remainder, the divifion is completed
by a vulgar fraCtion, whole numerator is the remain-
derj and its denominator the divifor. 'J,^us> ’n Ex. 3.
the quotient is 2671, and remainder 17 $ and the quo¬
tient completed is 2671
A number which divides another W'ithout a remain-
der is faid to meafure it $ and the fevetal numbers
which meafure another, are called its aliquot parts.
Thus, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 12, are aliquot parts of 24.
As it is often ufeful to difcover numbers which mea-
.fure others, we may obferve,
ill, Every number ending with an even figure,
that is, with 2, 4, 6, 8, or o, is meafured by 2.
2d, Every number ending with 5, or o, is mea¬
fured by 5.
3d, Every number, whofe figures, when added, a-
mount to an even number of ^'s or 9’s, is meafured
by 3 or 9, refpeClively.
Contrattions and Varieties in Divi/ion.
Firft, When the divifor does not exceed 12, the
whole computation may be performed without fel¬
ting down any figures except the quotient.
Ex. 7)35868(5124 or 7)35868
5I24
Secondly, When the divifor is a compofite num¬
ber, and one of the component parts alfo meafures
the dividend, we may divide fucceffively by the com¬
ponent parts.
Ex. ill.] 30114 by 63. 2d,] 975 by 105=5x7X3
9)3°“4 5)975
7) 3346 3)195
Quotient 478 7) 65
Quotient 9^
This method might be alfo ufed, although the com¬
ponent parts of the divifor do not meafure the divi¬
dend ; but the learner will not underftand how to
P p manage
298
Divifion.
ARITHMETIC.
manage the remainder till he be acquainted with the
doftrine of vulgar fractions.
Thirdly, When there are cyphers annexed to the
Chap. V.
figures which remain on the left hand compofe the Divifion.
quotient, and thofe cut off the remainder.
If there be any carriage to the unit-place of the quo-
divifor, cut them off, and cut off an equal number of tient, add the number carried likewife to the remain-
figures from the dividend ; annex thefe figures to the
remainder. Ex. To divide 378643 by 5200.
52loo)3786|43(72£f#£ .
364‘
146
104
4243
The reafon will appear by performing the opera¬
tion at large, and comparing the fteps.
To divide by 10, 100, 1000, or the like. Cut off
as many figures on the right hand of the dividend as
therje are cyphers in the divifor. The figures which
remain on the left hand compofe the quotient, and
the figures cut off compofe the remainder.
Fourthly, When the divifor confifts of feveral fi¬
gures we may try them feparately, by inquiring how
often the firfl figure of the divifor is contained in the
firft figure of the dividend, and then confidering whe¬
ther the fecond and following figures of the divifor be
contained as often in the correfponding ones of the di¬
vidend with the remainder (if any) prefixed. If not,
we muft begin again, and make trial of a lower num¬
ber. When the remainder is nine, or upwards, we
may be fure the divifion will hold through the lower
places ; and if is unnecef^ary to continue the trial
farther.
Fifthly, We may make a table of the products of
the divifbr, multiplied by the nine digits, in order to
difcover more readily how often it is contained in
each dividual. This is convenient when the divi¬
dend is very long, or when it is required to divide
frequently by the lame divifor.
73 by 2
3
146
219
4 = 292
5 = 3^
6 = 4^8
7 = 511
s = 584
2 = 657'
73)53872%4(737982
511 
der, as in Ex. 2.; and if the figures cut off be all 9’s,
add 1 to the quotient, and there is no remainder.
Examples, ift.] 99)324123
3241
3 2
2d-l 99)5478251
‘ 5478
54
3273l9b
Quotient 3273 and r
. 96.
5533157
3d.] 999)47652.
47<
Quotient 5333.58 rein-
4761999
Rem. 8
Sixthly, To divide by 9, 99, 999, or any number
©f 9,s, tranfcribe under the dividend part of the
fame, fhifting the bigheft figure as many places to
the right hand as there are 9’s in the diviibr. Tran¬
fcribe it again, with the like change of place, as often
as the length of the dividend admits; add thefe to¬
gether, and cut off as many figures from the right
hand of the fum as there are 9’s in the divifor. The
Quotient 477
To explain the reafon of this, we muft recoiled!:,
that whatever number of hundreds any dividend con¬
tains, it contains an equal number of 99’s, together
with an equal number of units. In Ex. 1. the divi¬
dend contains 3241 hundreds, and a remainder of
23. It therefore contains 3241 times 99, and alfo
3241, befides the remainder already mentioned.—
Again, 3241 contains 32 hundreds, and a remainder
of 51 : it therefore contains 32 99’s, and alfo 32,
befides the remainder of 41.. Confequently the divi¬
dend contains 99, altogether, 3241 times, and 32
times, that is 3273 times, and the remainder confifls
of 23, 41, and 32, added, which makes 96.
As multiplication fupplies the place of frequent
additions, and divifion of frequent fubtraflions, they
are only repetitions and contradfions of the fimple
rules, and when compared together, their tendency
is exactly oppofite. As numbers, increafed by addi¬
tion, are* diminifhed and brought back to their origi¬
nal quantity by fubtradlion ; in like manner, num¬
bers compounded by multiplication are reduced by
divifion to the parts from which they were com¬
pounded. The multiplier fhows how many addi¬
tions are neceffary to produce the number; aud the
quotient fhows how many fubtradfions are neceffary
to exhauft it. It follows, that the produdt, divided
by the multiplicand, will quote the multiplier; and,
becaufe either fadlor may be affumed for the multi¬
plicand, therefore the produdl divided by either fac¬
tor, quotes the other. It follows, alfb, that the divi¬
dend is equal to the produdl of the divifor and quo¬
tient multiplied together ; and hence thefe opera¬
tions mutually prove each other.
To prove multiplication. Divide the produdl by
either fadlor. If the operation be right, the quotient
is the other fadlor,. and there is no remainder.
To prove divifion. Multiply the divifbr and quo¬
tient together ; to the produdl. add the remainder, if
any ; and, if the operation be right, it makes up the
dividend. Otherwife divide the dividend (after fub-
tradling the remainder, if any) by the quotient. If
the operation be right, it will quote the divifor.
The reafon of all thefe rules may be colledted from
the lafl paragraph.
Compound.
A R I T H
Compound Divifion.
Rule I. “ When the dividend only confifts of
“ different denominations, divide the higher deno-
“ mination, and reduce the remainder to the next
“ lower, taking in (p. 296. Rule V.) the given num-
“ her of that denomination, and continue the divi-
“ fion.”
Examples.
Divide L.465 : 12 : 8 Divide 345 cwt. 1 q. 8 lb.
by 72.
L. s. d. L. s. d.
72)465 12 8 (694
432
by 22.
Cvot. q. lb. Cwt. q. lb.
22) 345 18 05 2 22
Or we might divide by 22)484
the component parts of 44
72, (as explained under  
Thirdly, p. 298). 44
44
M E T I C. 299
when the other faftor is given ; and therefore is of Divifion.
two kinds, fmce either the multiplier or the multipli- ' -'v
cand may be given. If the former be given, it dif-
covers what that number is which is contained fb
many times in another. If the latter be given, it dif-
covers how many times one number is contained in ano¬
ther. Thus, it anfwers the queftions of an oppofite
kind to thofe mentioned under Rule IV. p. 296. as.
To find the quantity of a fingle parcel or fliare; to
find the value, weight, or meafure, of a fingle article ;
to find how much work is done, provifions confumed,
interefl incurred, or the like, in a fingle day, &c.
The laft ufe of divifion is a kind of redu&ion ex-
a£Hy oppofite to that defcribed under Rule V. 296.
The manner of conducing and arranging it, when
there are feveral denominations in the queftion, will
appear from the following examples.
l. To reduce 15783 pence 2. To reduce 174865 grs. to
to pounds, fh. and pence. lbs. oz. and dwt. Troy.
20 20 12
12) 15783(1315 (65
12•*" 120 •
24) 174865(7286(364(30
16860•* 36*
36
II5
100
63
60
Anfwer, L. 65 : 15 : 3. Anf. 30 lb. 4 oz. 6 dwt. 1 gr.
o
Rule II. “ When the divifor is in different de-
“ nominations, reduce both divifor and dividend to
“ the loweft denomination, and proceed as in fimple
“ divifion. The quotient is an abflraft number.”
To divide L. 28 : 13 s.
by L. 3 : 4 : 5.
L. 3 4 5 L.38 13
20 20
64 773
12 12
773 )9276(i2 quote
773
1546
!546
To divide 96 Cwt. 1 q. 20 lb.
by 3 cwt. 2 q. 8 lb.
Cwt. q. lb. Cwt. q. lb.
328) 96 I 20
4 4
120 3100
28 770
4|oo) io8|oo(27 quote.
0
It is beft not to reduce the terms lower than is ne-
ceffary to render them equal. For inftance, if each
of them confifts of an even number of fixpences, four-
pences, or the like, we reduce them to fixpences, or
fourpences, but not to pence.
The ufe of divifion is to find either of the fadfors
by whole multiplication a given number is produced,
In the firft example, we reduce 15783 pence to
{hillings, by dividing by 12, and obtain 1315 fhillings,
and a remainder of 3 pence. Then /we reduce 1315
fhillings to pounds, by dividing by 20, and obtain 65
pounds and a remainder of 15 fhillings. The divi-
fions might have been contracted.
In the pradtice of arithmetic, queftions often occur
which require both multiplication and divifion to re-
folve. This happens in reduction, when the higher
denomination does not contain an exaCt number of
the lower.
Rule for mixed reduction. “ Reduce the given de-
u nomination by multiplication to fbme lower one,
“ which is an aliquot part of both ; then reduce that
“ by divifion to the denomination required.”
Ex. Reduce L. 31742 to guineas.
31742 Here we multiply by
20 20, which reduces the
  pounds to fhillings j. and
21)634840(30230 divide the produCf by 21,
63 *' • • which reduces the fhillings
  • to guineas.
048
42
10 Anfwer, 30230 guineas and 10 Hull.
P p 2 A*
A R I T H
• As Portugueze money frequently paffes here in
.payments, we fliall give a table of the pieces, and
their value. A moidore izL.i 7 —
A half moidore =z — 13 6
A quarter moidore — — f* 9
A double Joannes ~ 3 12 —
A Joannes z: x 16 —
A half ditto — — 18 —
A quarter ditto — — 9 —
An eighth ditto ~ — 46
Note 1. Guineas may be reduced to pounds, by
adding one twentieth part of the number.
2. Pounds may be reduced to merks by adding one
half.
3. Merks may be reduced to pounds by fubtraft-
ing one third.
4. Fourmoidores are equal to three Joannes: where¬
fore moidores may be reduced to Joannes, by lub-
tra&ing one fourth j and Joannes to moidores, by ad¬
ding one third.
5. Five Joannes are equal to L. 9. Hence it is eafy
to reduce Portugueze money to Sterling.
Another cafe, which requires both multiplication
and divifion, is, when the value, weight, meafure, or
duration of any quantity is given, and the value, &c.
of a different quantity required, we firftfind the value,
Sec. of a Angle article by divifion, and then the value,
£ec. of the quantity required, by multiplication.
Ex. If 3 yards coft ij.s. 9 d. what will 7 yards
cofl, at the fame rate ?
s. d.
3) xj 9 Price of'3 yards.
5 3 Price of 1 yard by Rule IV. p. 296.
'7
M E T I C. Chap. V.
the multipliers into one product, and the divifors into _ Divifion
one another ; or, we colledf them into parcels, or ufe
them fingly, andnhat.in any order. Still we {hall obtain
the proper anfwer, if none of the terms be negledled.
When both multiplication and divifion are neceffary
to obtain the anfwer of a queftion, it is generally beft
to begin with the multiplication,as this order keeps the
account as clear as poffible from fraction. The exam¬
ple laft given may be wrought accordingly as follows;
s. d.
*5 9
7
3)5 10
16
L. x 16 9 Price of 7 yards (by par. ult. p-299.
col. 1.)
Many other inftances might be adduced, where the
operation, and the reafon of it are equally obvious.
Thefe are generally, though unneceffarily, referred to
the rule of proportion.
We {hall now offer a general obfer vat ion on all the
operations in Arithmetic. When a computation re-
Some accountants prove the operations of arithme¬
tic by a method which they call calling out the 9’s,.
depending on the following principles :
Fir ft, if feveral numbers be divided by any divifor :
(the remainders being always added to the next num.-
ber), the fum of the quotients, and the laft remainder
will be the fame as thofe obtained when the fum of
the numbers is divided by the fame divifor. Thus,
19, 15, and 23, contain, together, as many 5’s, as ma¬
ny 7’s, &c. as their fum 57 does, and the remainders
are the fame ; and,-in this way, addition may be pro¬
ven by divifion. It is from the correfpondence of the
remainders, that the proof, by calling out the 9’s, is
deduced.
Secondly, If any figure with cyphers annexed, be
divided by 9, the quotient confifts entirely of that fi¬
gure ; and the remainder is alfo the fame. Thus,
40, divided by 9, quotes 4, remainder 4 ; and 400 di¬
vided by 9, quotes 4, remainder 44. The fame holds
with all the digits; and the reafon will be eafily un-
derllood 5 every digit, with a cypher annexed, con¬
tains exadlly fo many tens ; it muft therefore contain
an equal number of 9’s, befides a-remainder of an e-
qual number of units.
Thirdly, If any number be divided by 9, the re¬
mainder is equal to the fum of the figures of the num¬
ber, or to the remainder obtained, when that fum is
divided by 9. For inftance, 3765, divided by 9,
quires foveral fteps, we obtain a juft anfwer, whatever leave a remainder of 3, and the fum of 3, 7, 6, anti
order we follow. Some arrangements may be prefera¬
ble to others in point of eafe, but all of them lead to
the fame conclufion. In addition, or fubtraftion, we
may take the articles in any order, as is evident from
the idea of number ; or, we may colledl them into fe¬
veral fums, and add or fubtradl thefo, either feparately
or together. When both the fimple operations are re¬
quired to be repeated, we may either complete one of
them firft, or may introduce them promifcuouftyj and
the compound operations’admit of the fame variety.
When feveral numbers are to be multiplied together,
we may take the fadlors in any order, or we may ar¬
range them into feveral claffes, find theprodudlof each
clafs, and then multiply the products together. When
a number is to be divided by feveral others, we may
take the divifors in any order,or we may multiplythem
into each other, and divide by the produdt; or yve may
multiply them into feveral parcels, and divide by the
produdls fucceffively. Laftly, when multiplication and
divifion are both required, we may begin with either;
and when both are repeatedly neceffary, we maycolledl
5, is 21 ; which divided by 9, leaves a remainder of
3. The reafon. of this will appear from the following
illuftration :
3000 divided by 9 quotes 333 ;
quotes
quotes
quotes
remainder 3
remainder 7
remainder 6
remainder 5
3765
Again :
4i6SumofRem. 21
2i divided by 9 quotes 2 ; remainder 3
therefore, 3765 divid.by 9 quotes 4x8 ; remainder 3 yt
for the reafon given. Hence we may colled the fol¬
lowing rules for pradlice.
To caft the 9’s out of any number, or to find what
remainder will be left when any number is divided by
9 : Add the figures; and, when the film exceeds 9,
add the figures which would exprefs it. Pafs by the
9’s; and, when the fum comes exadly to 9, negled
it, and begin anew. For example, if it be required
to caft the 9’s out of 3573294, we reckon thus : 3 and
5 is
I
| Chap. VI. A R I T H
id Divifion. j is 8, and 7 is ij!; i and 5 is 6, and 3 is 9, which
*1 —v—^ we negledl ; 2 and (paffing by 9) 4 is 6 j which is the
remainder or Result. If the article out of w hich the
9’s are to be call contains more denominations than
one, we call the 9?s out of the higher, and multiply
the refult by the value of the lower, and carry on the
produdf (calling out the 9’s, if neceflary), to the
lower.
To prove addition, call the 9’s out of the feveral
articles, carrying therefults to the following arrcles;
call them alfo out of the fum. If the operation be
right, the refults will agree.
To prove fubtradlion, call the 9’s out of the minu¬
end ; call them alfo out of the fubtrahend and remain¬
der together ; and if you obtain the lame refult, the
operation is prefumed right.
To prove multiplication, call the 9’s out of the mul¬
tiplicand, and alfo out of the multiplier, if above 9.
Multiply the refults together, and call the 9’s, if ne-
ceflary, out of their prodmfl. Then cad the 9’s out of
the produdl, and obferve if this refult cot refpond with
the former.
ill.] 9276 ref. 6x8=148 red 3.
8
74208 ref. 3.
2d.] 7898 ref. 5x3=15 ref. 6.
48 ref. 3.
63184
3>592
379104 ref. 6.
The reafon of this will be evident, if w'e confider
multiplication under the view of repeated addition.
In the firlt example it is obvioully the fame. In the
fecond, we may fuppofe the multiplicand repeated 48
times. If this be done, and the 9’s call out, the re-
fult, at the end of the 9th line, will be o ; for aify
number, repeated 9 times, and divided by 9, leaves
no remainder. The fame mull happen at the end of
the 18th, 27th, 36th, and 45th lines ; and the lall re¬
fult will be the fame as if the multiplicand had only
been repeated 3 times. This is the realbn for calling
out the 9’s from the multiplier as well as the multi¬
plicand.
To prove divifion, call the 9’s out of the divilbr,
and alio out of the quotient; multiply the refults, and
call the 9’s out of the produdl. If there be any re¬
mainder, add to it the refult, calling out the 9’s, if
necelfary. If the account be right, the laft refult will
agree with that obtained from the dividend.
Ex. 42 ) 2490 ( 59 ref. 5x6=30 ref. 3.
ref. 6 210
39°
378
Rem. 12 - - ref 3.
And the refult of the dividend is 6
This depends on the fame realbn as the lall; for the
dividend is equal to the product of the divifor and
M E T I C. 30
quotient added to the remainder. Proportion.
We cannot recommend this method, as it lies under '   ’
the following difadvantages :
Firll, If an error of 9, or any of its multiples, be
committed, the refults will neverthelefs agree 5 and fo
the error will remain undifcovered. And this will al¬
ways be the cale, when a figure is placed or reckoned
in a wrong column which is one of the moll frequent
caules of error.
Secondly, When it appears by the difagreement of
the refults, that an error has been committed, the par¬
ticular figure or figures in which the error lies are not
pointed out; and, conlequently, it is not eafily cor-
redled.
Chap. VI. RULE of PROPORTION. I3.
Sefl. i. Simple Proportion.
Quantities aie reckoned proportional to each o-
ther, when they are connedled in fuch a manner, that
if one of them be increafed or diminilhed, the other
increafes or diminilhes at the fame time $ and the de¬
gree of the alteration on each is a like part of its ori¬
ginal meafure; thus four number* are in the fame
proportion, the firft to the fecond as the third to the
fourth, when the firll contains the fecond, or any part
of it, as often as the third contains the fourth, or the
like part of it. In either of thele cafes, the quotient
of the firll, divided by the fecond, is equal to that of
the third divided by the fourth ; and this quotient may
be called the meafure of the proportion.
Proportionals are marked down in the following
manner: 6: 3 :: 8 : 4
12: 36 :: 9: 27
9 : 6 :: 24 : 18
16 : 24 :: 10 : 15
The rule of proportion diredls us, when three num¬
bers are given, how to find a fourth, to which the third
may have the lame proportion that the firfi. has to the
fecond. It is Ibmetimes called the ofEhree. from
the three numbers given ; and fometimes the Golden
Rule, from its various and extenfive utility.
Rule. “ Multiply the fecond and third terms to-
“ gether, and divide the producl by the firll.”
Ex. To find a fourth proportional to 18, 27, and 34..
18 : 27 :: 34 : 51
 34
108.
81
18)918(51.
9°
18
18
o
To explain the realbn of this, we mull oblerve;
that if two or more numbers be multiplied or divided
alike, the produdls or quotients will have the fame
proportion. 18 : 27
Multiplied by 34, 612 : 918
Divided by 18, 34 : 51
The
302
Proportion. The produ&s 612, 918, and the quotients 34, 51,
' v ■ have therefore the fame proportion to each other that
18 has to 27. In the courfe of this operation, the
produ&s of the firft and third term is divided by the
firft; therefore the quotient is equal to the third.
The firft and fecond terms muft always be of the
fame kind ; that is, either both monies, weights, mea-
fures, both abftra&.numbers, or the like. The four#i,
or number fought, is of the fame kind as the third.
When any of the terms is in more denominations
than one, we may reduce them all to the loweft. But
this is not always neceflary. The firft and fecond
fhouldnotbe reduced lower than dire&ed p. 299, col.r.
par. penult.; and, when either the fecond or third is a
fimple number, the other, though in different deno¬
minations, may be multiplied without reduction.
L. s. <L
Ex. s ■ 1 25 11 3
 li. „
5)178 18 9(35 19 9
The accountant muft confider the nature of every
queftion, and obferve the circumfiance which the pro¬
portion depends on ; and common fenfe will diredl him
to this if the terms of the queftion be underftood. It
is evident that the value, weight and meafure of any
commodity is proportioned to its quantity ; that the
amount of work or confumption is proportioned to the
time ; that gain, lofs, or interell, when the rate and
time are fixed, is proportioned to the capital fum from
which it arifes ; and that the effedl produced by any
caufe is proportioned to the extent of the caufe. In
thefe, and many other cafes, the proportion is diredt,
and the number fought increafes or diminifhes along
with the term from which it is derived.
In fbme queftiont, the number fought becomes lefs,
when the circumftances from which it is derived be¬
come greater. Thus, when the price of goods in¬
creafes, the quantity which may be bought for a given
fum is fmaller. When the number of men employed
at work is increafed, the time in which they may com¬
plete it becomes fliorter; and, when theadliviry of any
.caufe is increafed, the quantity neceffary to produce a
given effedl is diminifhed. In thefe, and the like, the
proportion is faid to be inverie.
General R.VI.V. forJIating all quejlions, whether di-
re& or inverfe. “ Place that number for the third
“ term which fignifies the fame kind of thing with
“ what is fought, and confider whether the number
“ fought will be greater or lefs. If greater, place the
“ leaft of the other terms for the firft} but, if lefs,
“ place the greateft for the firft.”
Ex. ill.] If 30 horfes plough 12 acres, how many
will 42 plough in the fame time ?
H. H. A.
30 : 42 :: 12
Here, becaule the thing fought is a number of acres,
we place 12, the given number of acres, for the third
term ; and, becaufe 42 horfes will plough more than 12,
we make the lefler number 30, the firft term, and the
greater number, 42, the fecond term.
Ex. 2d.] If 40 horfes be maintained for a certain
D fum on hay, at ^d. per ftone, how many will be
maintained on the fame fum when the price of hay ri-
Chap. VI.
fes to 8 d. Proportion.
d. d. H. ' v '
8:5:: 40
Here, becaufe a number of horfes is fought, we
make the given number of horfes, 40, the third
term ; and, becaufe fewer will be maintained for the
fame money, when the price of hay is dearer, we
make the greater price, 8 d. the firft terjp $ and the
lefler price 5d. the fecond term.
The firft of thefe examples is direct, the fecond in¬
verfe. Every queftion confifts of a fuppofition and de¬
mand. In the firft, the fuppofition is, that 30 horfes
plough 12 acres, and the demand, how many 42 will
plough ? and the firft term of the proportion, 30, is
found in the fuppofition, in this, and every other di-
redl queftion. In the fecond, the fuppofition is, that
40 horfes are maintained on hay at 5 d. and the demand,
how many will be maintained on hay at % d.l and the
firft term of the proportion, 8, is found in the demand,
in this and every other inverfe queftion.
When an account is Hated, if the firft and lecond
term, or firft andthird, be meafured by the fame num¬
ber, we may divide them by that meafure, and ufe the
quotients in their Head.
Ex. If 36 yards coft 42 (hillings, what will 27 coft ?
Y. Y. fli.
36 : 27 :: 42 Here 36 and 27 are both
4 : 3 :: 42 meafured by 9, and we work
3 with the quotients 4 and 3.
4)126(31 6
Se£t. ii. Compound Proportion.
Sometimes the proportion depends upon leveral cir¬
cumftances. Thus, it may be afked, if 18 men con-
fume 6 bolls corn in 28 days, how much will 24 men
confume in 56 days ? Here the quantity required
depends partly on the number of men, partly on the
time, and the queftion may be refolved into the two
following ones:
ift. If 18 men confume 6 bolls in a certain time,
how many will 24 men confume in the fame time ?
M. M. B. B.
18 : 24 :: 6:8 Anfwer. 24 men will confume
6 8 bolls in the fame time.
18)144(8
2d. If a certain number of men confume &bolls in
28 days, how many will they confume in 56 days ?
D. D. B.B.
28 : 56 :: 8 : 16 Anf. The fame number of men
8 will confume 16 bolls in 56 days.
•28)448(16
In the courfe of this operation, the original number
of bolls, 6, is firft multiplied into 24, then divided by
18, then multiplied into 8, then divided by 28. It
would anfwer the fame purpofe to colledl the multipli¬
ers into one produ£I, and the divifors into another j
and then to multiply the given number of bolls by the
former, and divide the produft by the latter, p. 300.
col. t. par. ult.
The above queftiofi may therefore be ftated and
wrought as follows:
A R I T H M- E T I C.
Men
5°5
Proportion-
lilhap. VI. A R I T H
proportion. Men 18 : 24 :: 6 bolls Here we multiply 18 into
—v—' Days 28 : 56 28 for a divifor, and 6 into
   the produtt of 24 by 56, for
144 144 a dividend.
56 120
5°4 1344
504)8064(16
“ In general, ftate the feveral particulars on which
“ the qneftion depends, as fo many Ample proportions,
“ attending to the i’enfe of the queilion to difcover
“ whether the proportions thouid be dated diredtly or
“ inveriely; then multiply all the terms in the firil
“ rank together, and all thofe in the fecond rank to-
“ gethtr ; and work wdth the products as directed in
“ the Ample rule (Se£t. i. p. 30X.),,
Example. If 100 men make 3 miles of road in 27
days, in how many days will 150 men make 5 miles?
Men 150 : 100 :: 27 days Here the Arft Ha¬
ting is inverfe, becaufe
more tnen will do it in
fewer days; but the fe-
cond is dired, becaufe
more miles will re-
450)I3500(3° days, anf. quire more days. y
The following contradion is often uieful. Afterda¬
ting the proportion, if the fame number occurs in both
ranks, dadi it out from both; or, if any term in the
Ard rank, and another in the fecond rank are meafu-
red by the fame numbers, dadi out the original terms,
and ufe the quotients in their dead.
Ex. If 18 men confume L- 30 value of corn in 9
months, when the price is 16 s. per boll, how many
will confume L. 54 value in 6 months, when the price
is 12 s. per boll ? In this quedion, the proportion de¬
pends upon three particulars, the value of corn, the time
and the price. The Ard of which is dired, becaufe the
more the value of proviAons is, the more time is requi¬
red to confume them ; but the fecond and third are
inverfe, for the greater the time and price is, fewer
men will confume an equal value.
Value 2'?! : /dt :: 18 men.
Here we obferve that 6 in the
Ard rank meafures 54 in the fe¬
cond : fo we dadi them out, and
place the quotient 9 in the fecond
rank. Next, becaufe 30 and 9 are
both meafuredby 3, wedadi them
out, and place down the quotients
10 and 3; then, becaufe 12 and 16
are both meafured by 4, we dadi
them out, and place down the quo¬
tients 3 and 4. Ladly, becaufe
there is now 3 in both columns,
io)648(64iTrwe dadi them out, and work with
the remaining terms, according
to the rule.
The monies, weights and meafures, of different
countries, may be reduced from the proportion which
they bear to each other.
Ex. If 112 lb. averdupois make 1041b. of Holland,
and zoo lb. of Holland make 89 of Geneva, and 110
of Geneva make 117 of Seville, how many lbs. of Se-
Months 6
Price ii
9
to- 9
? Z
4
288
36
Miles 3 5
450 500
2?
M E T I C.
vide will make zoo lb. averdupois.
X X2 : 104 :: IOO
100 : 89
IIO : 117
If it be required, how many lb. averdupois will
make 100 of Seville, the terms would have been pla¬
ced in the different columns thus :
104 : 112 :: IOO
89 : 100
117 : HO
t Se6I. iii. Distributive Proportion. xy
If it be required to divide a number into parts,
which have the fame proportion to each other, that
feveral other given numbers have, we add thefe num¬
bers together, and date the following proportion : As
the fum is to the particular numbers, fo is the num¬
ber required to be divided to the feveral parts fought.
Ex. id.] Four partners engage to trade in compa¬
ny; A’s dock is L. 150, B’s L. 320, C’s L. 350, D’s
L. 500, and they gain L. 730 ; Required how much
belongs to each, if the gain be divided among them in
proportion to their docks ?
Rem.
AVftockL. 150 1310 : 15c :: 730 : L. 8x 19 1 —120
B's 320 1320 : 320 730 : 176 19 4 — 960
C’s 3J° i32o = 350 :: 73° : 193 11 2 —720
D's 500 1320 : 500 :: 730 : 276 xo 3 — 840
Whole Pocki320 Proof L. 730
This account is proved by adding the gains of the
partners ; the fum of which will be equal to the whole
gain, if the operation be right; but, if there be re¬
mainders, they mud be added, their fum divided by
the common divilbr, and the quotient carried to the
lowed place.
Ex. 2d.] A bankrupt owes A L. 146, B L.170,
C L.45, D L.480, and E L.72 ; his whole effedls are
only L,. 342 : 7 : 6. How much fliould each have ?
A’s debt L. 146 913 : 146 :: L. 342 7 6 : L. 54 15 A’s fhare.
il’s 179 913: 170:: 342 76 63 is B’s
C’s 45 ^: 45 342 7 6 17 dC’s
D’s 480 913 : 480 •: 342 7 6 i8o D’s
E’s 72 9*3 : 72 ' 34* 7 6 17 E’s
yI3 n. 342 7 6
This might alfo be calculated, by Ancling what com-
pofition the bankrupt was able to pay per pound ;
which.is obtained by dividing the amount of his ef-
fefts by the amount of his debts; and comes to
7 s. 6 d. and then Anding by the rules of pradice,
how much each debt came to at that rate.
Chap. VII. RULES for PRACTICE. 16
The operations explained in the foregoing chapters
comprehend the whole fydem of arithmetic, and are
fufficient for every computation. In many cafes, how¬
ever, the work may be contraded, by adverting to
the particular circumdances of the quedion. We fhall
explain, in this chapter, the mod ufeful methods
which pra&ice has fuggeded for rendering mercantile
computations eafy ; in- which, the four elementary
rules of arithmetic are fometimes jointly, fometimes
feparately employed.
Sed. i. Computation o/-Prices. iy
The value of any number of articles,.at a pound, a
diilling,
A R I T H
Tice, (hilling, or a penny, is an equal number of pounds,
  ' (hillings or pence ; and thefe two laft are eafily redu¬
ced to pounds. The value, at any other rate, may be
calculated by eafy methods, depending on feme con-
tradtion already explained, or on one or more of the
following principles.
tft, If the rate be an aliquot part of a pound, a
(lulling, or a penny, then an exadl number of articles
may be bought for a pound, a (lulling, or a penny ;
and the value is found by dividing the given number
accordingly. Thus, to find the price of lb many yards
at 2 s. 6 d. which is the eighth part of a pound, we
divide the quantity by eight, becaufe every eight
yards cod L. i.
2d, If the rate be equal to the fum of two other
rates which are eafily calculated, the value may be
found bv computing thefe feparately, and adding the
(urns obtained. Thus, the price of fo many yards, at
9 d. is found, by adding their prices, at 6 d. and 3 d.
together.
3d, If the rate be equal to the difference of two
ealy rates, they may be calculated feparately, and the
lefler fubtrafled from the greater. Thus, the value of
fo many articles at 11 d. is found, by fubtrafting
their value at a penny from their value at a (lulling.
We may fuppofe that a (hilling was paid for each
article, and then a penny returned on each*
4th, If the rate be a compofite number, the value
may be found by calculating what it comes to at one
of the component parts, and multiplying the fame by
the other.
Case I. “ When the rate is an aliquot part of a
“ pound, divide the quantity by the number which
w may be bought for a pound.”
Table of the aliquot parts ofL,. r.
10 finllingsrr -r of L. 1. 1 (hilling 4 d. := A of L. 1.
6 s. 8 d. = f
5s.
4s- =r
Ss.qd. =£
2 s. 6 d. =r -f-
3d. ^
8 d. = ^
6 d. ^
4 d. =3
3d. n-s
2 d. == T
1 s. 8 d. = A
Ex. iff.] What is the value 2d.] What is the value
of 7463 yards, at 4 ? of 1773 yards, at 3 d. ?
5)7463 8|o)i77|3
L. 1492 12 s. L. 22 3 3
In the firft example we divide by 5, bepaufe 4 s. is
■f of a pound j the quotient 1492 (hows how many
pounds they amount to $ befides which there remains
three yards at 4 s. and thefe come to 12 s. In the fe-
cond example, we divide by 80, as direfted, and the
quotient gives L. 22, and the remainder 13 yards,
which at 3 d. comes to 3 s. and 3 d.
This method can only be ufed in calculating for
the particular prices fpecified in the table. The fol¬
lowing 6 cafes comprehend all poflible rates, and will
therefore exhibit different methods of folving the
foregoing queftions.
Case II. “ When the rate confifts of (hillings only,
“ multiply the quantity by the number of (hillings,
“ and divide the produft by 20 : Or, if the number
<( of (hillings be even, multiply by half the number,
“ and divide the produft by 16.
No. 28.
M E T I C.
Ex. iff.] 4573 at 13 s.
13
Chap. VI
2d-] 7543 at *4 s- Practice
13719
4573
10)52801
L. 5280 2 s.
20)59449
L. 2972 9 s.
The learner will eafily perceive, that the method in
which the (econd example is wrought, muft give the
fame anfwer as if the quantity had been multiplied by
14, and divided by 20 5 and, as the divifion by 10
doubles the laft figure for (hillings, and continues all
the reft unchanged for pounds, we may obtain the an¬
fwer at once, by doubling the right-hand figure of the
produft before we (et it down.
If the rate be the fum of two or more aliquot parts of
a pound, we may calculate thefo as direfted in Cafe L
and add them, if it be any od’d number of (hil¬
lings, we may calculate for the even number next
lower, and add thereto the value at a (hilling. If it
be 19 s. we may fubtraft the value at a (hilling, from
the value at a pound.
Case III. “ When the rate confifts of pence only.”
Method x. If the rate be an aliquot part of a (hil¬
ling, divide the quantity accordingly, which gives the
anlwer in (hillings 5 if not, it may be divided into two
or more aliquot parts: calculate thefe feparately, and
add the values $ reduce the anlwer to pounds.
1 penny is XV of a (hilling.
2d. y of ditto.
3d. £ of ditto.
4 d. of ditto.
6 d. 4- of ditto.
5 d. is the fum of 4 d. and 1 d. or of 2 d. and 3 d.
7 d. is the fum of 4 d. and 3 d. or of 6 d. and x d.
8 d. is the fum of 6 d. and 2 d. or the double of 4 d.
9 d. is the fum of 6 d. and 3 d.
10 d. is the fum of 6 d. and 4 d.
11 d. is the fum of 6 d. 3 d. and 2 d.
Ex. 1 ft.] 7423 at 4 d. Here, becaufe 4d. is one
   third of a (lulling, we di-
3)7423 vide by 3, which gives the
20)2474 4 price in (lulls, and reduce
L. 123 14 4 thefe by divifion to pounds.
2d.J 9786 at 9 d. Here we fuppofe, that
  firft 6 d. and then 3 d. is
At6d.=4-ofi s»4893 paid for each article 5 half
At3d.z:iof 6d.2446 6 the quantity is the num-
  ‘ ber of (hillings which they
At 9 d. 7339 6 would coft at 6 d. each.
L. 366 19 6Half of that is the coft at
3d.]4856 at 11 d. 3 d. and thefe added and re-
   duced give the anfwer.
Atfid.n-rofis. 2428 Here we calculate what
At3d.=4-of6d.i2i4 the articles would coft at
At2d.=yof6d. 809 4 6 d. at 3 d. and at 2 d. and
  -add the values.
1 id. 4451 4
L. 222 11 4
It is fometimeseafier to calculate at tworates, whole
difference is the rate required, and fubtraft: the leffer
value from the greater. Thus, the laft example may
be wrought by fubtrafting the value at a penny from
the value at a (hilling. The remainder muft be the
value
Chap. VII.
lue at i id.
■'At is. 48565.
At 1 d.=TV 4°4 8
At
A R I T
10 d. may be wrought as
the difference of 1 s. and
2 d. ; and feveral other
rates in like manner.
id. 4451 4
L. 222 11 4
Meth. 2. Multiply the quantity by the number of pence,
the produB is the anfwer in pence. Reduce it to pounds.
Meth. 3. Find the value at a penny by divifion, and
multiply the fame by the number of pence.
Case IV. “ When the rate confifts of farthings on-
“ ]y, find the value in pence, and reduce it by divi¬
fion to pounds.”
Ex. ill. 37*843 at 1 farthing.
4)37843 farth.
12) 9460^ pence
788 4i
L. 39 8 4|-
3d. 72564 at £d.
3
4)217692 farth.
1) 54423Peilce
4535 3
L. 226 15 3
2d. 23754 at i d.
2)227 C4 halfpence
12)11877 pence
989 9
L- 49 9 9
Or, 72564
At 4-d. 3682 d.
At ^d. 18141 d.
At5T I438 i
L.71 18 i
2d.] 4573 at 2t d.
At 2 d.tTy of 1 s. 762 2
At id.=£ of 2 d. 190 6-s-
At ^d.ztx of i d. 85 3^
1037 n|
L.51 17 n|
3d.] 2842 at 3|d.
H M E T I C.
the value at 6d. and at 3 halfpence, which makes 7! d.
If the rate be i| d. which is an eighth part of a Hul¬
ling, the Value is found in (hillings, by dividing the
quantity by 8.
Case VI. “ When the rate confifts of (hillings and
“ lower denominations ”
Method 1. Multiply the quantity by the Jhillings, and
find the value of the pence and farthings, if any, from the
proportion which they bear to thefhillings. Addandreduce.
Ex. ift.J 4258 at 17 s. 3 d.
'1
3 d.=| of 1
17 s. 3 d.
T <7345° t
L.3672 10 6
2d.] 5482 at 12 s. 4|d.
12)54423 d.
r l535 3
L. 226 15 3
We may alfo find the amount in twopences, three¬
pences, fourpences, or fixpences, by one divifion, and
reduce thefe as directed in Cafe I.
Case V. “ When the rate confifts of pence and
“ farthings, find the value of the pence, as diredled
“ in Cafe III. and that of the farthings from the pro-
“ portion which they bear to the pounds. Add thefe
“ together, and reduce.”
Ex. ift.] 3287 at 5|d.
At 4 d.=:f of 1 s. 1095 8
At 1 d.=! of 4 d. 273 11
At 1 f.z:| of 1 d. 68 5!
65784
*37°
685
12 s. 4! d. 67839 9
L-339.1 W .9
Method 2. Divide the rate into aliquot parts of a
pound j calculate the values correfponding to thefe, as
dir efted in Cafe 1. and add them.
s. d. s. d.
Ex. id.] 389431 17 6 2d.] 1765319 a
1 os. =| L. 1947
5 973 1°
2 6d.~| 486 15
17 s. 6 d. L. 3407 5
Sometimes part of the value is more readily obtained
from apart already found and (bmetimes it is eafiefl:
to calculate at a higher rate, and fubtraft the value at
the difference. s. d. s. d.
3d.] 63790 at 5 4 4th.] 3664 at 14 9
4 s. =| L. 12758 10 s. =| L. 1832
is.4d.r:|of4s 4252 13 4 5 s. =1 of 10s 916
5s. 4d.
L. 17010 13 4 15s. 2748
3d.=A°f5s-45 16
At 3d.r:| of 1 s. 710 6
At 3 f.=i of 3 d. 177 7!
At 3|d. 888 i|
L. 44 8 i|
4th.] 2772 at 7|d.
At 6 d.—| of 1 s. 1386
At i|d.=| of 6 d. 346 6
At 7-Jd 17*32 6
L. 86 12 6
It is (bmetimes bed to join feme of the pence with the
farthings in the calculation. Thus, in Ex. 4. we reckon
Vol. II. Part I.
14s. 9d. L. 2702 4
Method 3. If the price contain a compojite number
of pence, we may multiply the value at a penny by the
component parts.
Ex. 5628 at 2 s. 1 id. or 35 d.
12)5628
20) 469
L. 23 9
 5
L.117 5
7
L.820 15
<^.q Cam
3>04
A R I T H M
Case Vll. u When the rate confifts of pounds and
lower denominations.”
Method i. Multiply by the pounds, andfind the va¬
lue of the other denominations from the proportion
which they bear to the pounds.
Ex. ill.] 3592 at L. 3 : 12 : 8.
3
L. 3 10776 '
12s. =fofL. 3 2155 4
Sd-z:^ of 12 s. 119 14 8
L. 3 12 8 L. 13050 18 8
2d.] ‘543 at L. 2 : 5 : io4>
2
L. 2
5 s. =i of L. 1.
jod. zi-j- of 5 s.
4-d. —of 10 d.
1086
135 15 ,
22 12 6
L. 1245 10 14-
Method 2. Reduce the pounds to Jhillings, and pro¬
ceed as in Cafe VI.
-HamA:.] 3592atL.3 : 12 : 8 2d.] 3683atL.2 :4 : 11
72 20 45
7184 72 18415
25144 14732
2C8624 At4fs. 165735
4d.=yS. 1197 4 At 1 d.zz-rys. 307 11
4d.=-fs. ii97 4  —7 
— 44s. 1 id. 165427 1
8d. 261018 8 L.8271 7 1
L. 13050 18 8
The learner Ihould at firft try every calculation
more ways than one ; which will not only ferve the
purpole of proving the operation, but will render him
expert at dilcovering the beft method for folving each
queftion, and will lead him to invent other methods;
for we have not exhaufted the fubject.
Thus, if the number of articles be 20, each (hilling
of the rate makes a pound of the amount. If it be 12,
each penny of the rate makes a (hilling of the amount.
If 24c, each penny of the rate makes a pound of the
amount. If 480, each half-penny makes a pound.
If 960, each farthing makes a pound. If the number
of articles be a multiple, or an aliquot part of any of
thefe, the amount is eafily calculated. And if it be
near to any (iich number, we may calculate for that
number, and add or fubtraft for the difference.
We have hitherto explained the various methods of
computation, when the quantity is a whole number,
and in one denomination. It remains to give the pro¬
per directions when the quantity contains a fraftioh,
or is exprefled in (everal denominations.
When the quantity contains a fra&ion, work for the
integers by the preceding rules, andfor the fraft ion take
proportional parts.
When the quantity is exprejfed in feveral denominations
and the rate given for the higher $ calculate the higher,
confider the lower ones as fraftions, and work by the lajl
rule.
When the rate is given for the lower denomination,
reduce the higher denomination to the lower, and calcu¬
late accordingly.
E T I C. Chap. VII.
Note ift, 7 lb. 14 lb. and 21 lb. are aliquot parts Praftice.
of 1 qr. : and 16 lb. is 4- of 1 cwt. j and are therefore '---v—■ ‘
eafily calculated.
2d, If the price of a dozen be fo many (hillings,
that of an article is as many pence ; and if the price
of a grofs be fo many {hillings, that of a dozen is as
many pence.
3d, If the price of a ton or fcpre be fo many pounds,
that of 1 cwt. or a Angle article, is as many (hillings.
4th, Though a fraction lefs than a farthing is of
no confequence, and may be rejeCted, the learner mult
be careful left he lofe more than a farthing, by reject¬
ing feveral remainders in the fame calculation.
SeCt. ii. Deductions on Weights, &c. 18
The full weight of any merchandile, together with
that of the ca(k, box, or other package, in which it is
contained, is called the grofs weight. From this we
mult make proper deductions, in order to difcover the
quantity, for which price or duty fliould be charged,
which is called the nett weight.
Tare is the allowance for the weight of the package •,
and this (hould be afcertained by Weighing it before
the goods are packed. Sometimes, however, parti¬
cularly in payment of duty, it is cuftomary to allowN
fo much per C. or (b much per 100 lb. in place of tare.
Tret is an allowance of 4 lb. on 104 granted on cur¬
rants, and other goods on which there is wafte, in order
that the weight may anfwer when the goods are retailed.
Cloft', or Draught, is a further allowance granted
on fome goods in London, of 2 lb. on every 3 C. to
turn the fcale in favour of the purchafer. The me¬
thod of calculating thefe and the like will appear from
the following examples.
Ex. ift, What is the nett weight of 17 C. 2 q. 141b.
tare 18 lb. per cwt.
C. q. lb. C. q. lb.
17 2 14 grofs. or, 172 14
  6
i6Ib.:=4-C. 222  
2lb.=-jof 161b. 17 105 3 —
18 lb. .23 9^ tare.
14 3 44: nett. 28)31741b. C.q. lb.
4) ii 9iO 3 9i^re
In the firft method, we add the tare at 16 lb. which
is 4- of the grofs weight to the tare, at 2 lb. which is -|-
of the former. In the fecond, we multiply the grois
weight by 18; the tare is 1 lb. for each cwt. of the
produCt, and is reduced by divifion to higher denomi¬
nations.
2d.] What is Tret of 158 G. 2q. 24 lb. ?
C. q. lb. C. q. lb.
26) 158 2 26 ( 6 — II Tret.
JJ6
2
4 Becaufe tret is alw-ays 4 lb. in 104, or
— 1 lb. in 26, it is obtained by dividing
10 by 26.
28
286
.280
Chap, VII. A R I
Praftice. ^d.J What is the doff on 28 C. 2 q. ?
C. q.
28 2
3) 57 (W'k-
This allowance being 2 lb. on every 3 C. might be
found by taking | of the number of C’s and’multiply-
ing it by 2. It is better to begin with multiplication,
for the realbn given p. 300. col. 2. par. i;
Seft. iii. Commission, &c.
It is frequently required to calculate allowances on
fums of money, at the rate of fo many per L. 100.
Of this kind is Commission, or the allowance due to
a factor for buying or felling goods, or tranfafting any
other bufinefs j Premium of Insurance, or allow¬
ance given for engaging to repay one’s Ioffes at fea, or
otherwife ; Exchange, or the allowance neceffary to
be added or fubtradted for reducing the money of one
place to that of another; Premiums on Stocks, or
the allowance given for any fhare of a public flock
above the original value. All thefe and others of a
like kind arc calculated by the following
Rule. “ Multiply the fum by the rate, and di-
“ vide the produdt by 100. If the rate contain a
“ fradion, take proportional parts.”
Ex. What is the commiffion on L. 728, at 2^ per
cent. 728
1456
364
182
l|00)20|02
II M E T I C. 3o?
The intereft of any fum for a year, at any rate, is Praftice.
found by the method explained in the lalt fedtion. ^ ~ ‘
The intereft of any number of pounds for a year,
at 5 per cent, is one twentieth part, or an equal num¬
ber of Ihillings. Thus, the intereft of L. 34675 for a
year is 34675 {hillings.
The intereft for a day is obtained by dividing the in¬
tereft for a year, by the number of days in a year. Thus,
the intereft of L. 34675 for a day is found by dividing
34675 {hillings by 365, and comes to 95 {hillings.
The intereft for any number of days is obtained by
multiplying the daily intereft by the number of days.
Thus, the intereft of L. 34675 for 17 days, is 17 times
95 {hillings, or 1615 {hillings; and this divided by
20, in order to reduce it, comes to L. 80 : 15 s.
It would have ferved the fame purpofe, and been
eafier to multiply at firft by 17, the number of days;
and, inftead of dividing feparately by 365, and by 20,
to divide at once by 7300, thg produff of 365 multi¬
plied by 20 ; and this divifion may be facilitated by
the table inlerted p. 298. col. 1.
The following practical rules may be inferred from
the foregoing obfervations.
I. To calculate interejl at 5 per cent. “ Multiply
“ the principal by the number of days, and divide
“ the produdt by 7300.”
II. To calculate interejl at any other rate. “ Find
“ what it comes to at 5 per cent, and take a proper
“ proportion of the fame for the rate required.”
Ex. ift, Intereft on L. 34675 for 17 days, at 5 per
cent. 34675
1?
242725
34675 l
73|oo)5894|75(8° 15
584
4|8o
4 Anfw. L. 20-
When the rate is given in guineas, which is com¬
mon in cafes of infurance, you may add a twentieth
part to the fum before you calculate. Or you may
calculate at an equal number of pounds, and add a
twentieth part to the anfwer.
When the given fum is an exadf number of 10
pounds, the calculation may be done without letting
down any figures. Every L. 10, at 4 per cent, is a {hil¬
ling ; and at other rates in proportion. Thus, L, 170,
at -J- per cent, is 17s.; and, at £ per cent. 8 s. 6 d.
5475
20
^ 1095(00
73
365
365
o
Ex. 2d, Intereft on L.304: 3 : 4 for 8 days, at4per cent.
L-3°4 3 4
8
 j. d.
73l00)2433 6 8 (6 8
Sefl. iv. Interest.
Intereft is the allowance given for the ufe of money
by the borrower to the lender. This is computed at
fo many pounds for each hundred lent for a year, and
a like proportion for a greater or a lefs time. The
higheft rate is limited by our laws to 5 per cent, which
is called the legal interejl; and is due on all debts
conftituted by bond or bill, which are not paid at the
proper term, and is always underltood when no other
rate is mentioned.
486(66
43S
4866
12
584I00
584.
Int.
3°B
A R I T H M
Praftice. Int. at 5 per cent. L 6 8
Deduce j- — 14
Int. at 4 per cent. L. — 5 4
When partial payments are made, we proceed in the
following manner : Let us fuppofe a bill of L. 170
was due 12th Auguft, thatL. 54 was paid on the 18th
September, L. 56 on the 17th Odlober, and the ba¬
lance on the 14th November ; and let it be required
to find how much intereft is due.
Days.
37 119°
510
6290
Aug. 12. L. 170
Sept. 18. pd. j4
Sept. 24. To cafh
Oft. 9. To cafh
116 29
Oft. 17. pd. 56 232
    3364
60 28 1680
Nov. 14. pd. 60  
— 73°o)ii334(L. 1 : 11 :
o
Here we fubtraft the feveral payments from the ori¬
ginal fum in their order, placing the dates in the mar¬
gin ; and from this it appears that there is intereft due
on L. 170 from 12th Auguft to 18th September, or
L. 110 from 18th September to 17th Oftober, and on
L. 60 from 17th Oftober to 14th November. We
next compute the number of days in each of thefe pe¬
riods, and mark it againft the refpeftive fum. Then 1775*
we multiply each fum by the number of days ; refer- Dec. 31.
ving a column, when neceftary, for the produfts of 1776.
the feveral figures in the multiplier. Laftly, we add Mar. 12.
thefe produfts, and divide their fum by 7300.
Intereft on current accounts is calculated nearly in
the fame manner. For example, let the intereft due
on the following account be required to 31ft July, at
4 per cent ?
Dr.Mr A. Baird, his account current with W.Neil, Cr.
177S- 1775-
Tan. 15. To cafli L. 160 Mar. 22. By cafh L. 50
Mar. 12. To ditto 36 May 16. By ditto 37
Tune 23. To ditto 13 4 6 June 15. By ditto 25 12 6
July 19. To ditto 26 13 4 28. By ditto 32 5 4
d. JDays
56I 960I
E T I C. Chap. VII.
Here the fums on either fide of the account are in- Pratfice.
troduced according to the order of their dates. Thofe —v—
on the Dr. fide are added to the former balance, and
thofe on the Cr. fide fubtrafted. Before we calculate
the days, we try if the laft fum L. 91, be equal to
the balance of the account, which proves the additions
and fubtraftions; and, before multiplying, we try if
the film of the column of days be equal to the num¬
ber of days, from 15th January to 31ft of July.
In the 5th and 6th multiplications, we begin at the
pence-column, and take in the carriage. In the 7th,
inftead of multiplying the 6s. 8d. by 21, we add the
third part 21 to the produft, becaufe 6 s. 8 d. is the
third of a pound. This is done by marking down the
fecond line 1287, inftead of 1280. As the computa¬
tion on the odd (hillings and pence is troublefome, and
makes a very fmall increale of the intereft, fome negleft
them altogether; others add one to the pound, when the-
fliillings exceed 10, and negleft them when below it.
2d.] Required intereft on the following account to-
31ft December, allowing 5 per cent, when the balance
is due to J. T. and 4 per cent, when due to N. W.
Dr. Mr J. T. his account current with N. W. Cr.
Dec. 31. To balance L. 150 April 9. By cafli L. 70
Mar. 12. Tocafti 120 May 12. By cafti 300
June 17. To calh 165 June 3. By calh 240
242 Aug. 2. By cafti 10
1775-
Mar.' !
July 19.
8960
i960
8030
3i7o
Tan. 16
.Feb. 28
Mar. 31
Apr. 30
May 31
June 30
July 31
Days 197
667
April 9.
May 12.
June 3.
17-
Aug. 2.
Sept. 24.
Oft. 9.
Dec. 31.
Days!
7l\ 15°
105a
2160
540
1260
34°
ICJO
700
555
925
285
57
1065c
756°
855
19505
4760
8050
9805.
i97 73°o|2s8i3 (L. 3 i
Deduce part
H at
if
Intereft at 4 per cent. L. 2 16 7
73001 45*7° 248 *5
Intereft due to N. W. at 5 per cent. L. 6 8 9
Deduce f - - 1 5 5
Due to N. W. at 4 per cent. L. 5 3 4
Due to J. T. at 5 per cent.. 3 y i\i
Balance due to N. W.
L. z 15 4v
In
alhap. VIII. A R I T H
ftiPraiftice. In this account, the balance is fometimes due to the
^ one party, lometimes to the other. At the beginning,
there is a balance due to N. W. j and, on the 9th of
April, there is L. zoo due him. On the 12th of May,
J. T. pays him L. 300, which dilcharges what he
owed, and leaves a balance of L. too due him. The
balance continues in J. T.’s favour till the 24th of Sep¬
tember, when N. W. pays L. 242. Thefe changes
are diftinguilhed by the marks Dr. and Cr. The pro-
dudls are extended in different columns, and divided
feparately.
When payments are made on conftituted debts, at
confiderable diftances of time, it is ufual to calculate
the. interetl to the date of each payment, and add it
to the principal, and then fubtraft the payment from
the amount.
Ex. A bond for L.540 was due the 18th Aug. 1772 ;
and there was paid 19th March 1773 k* 5° 5 and
19th December 1773 L. 25 ; and 23d September 1774.
L. 25 ; and 18th Auguft 1775 L. no. Required the
I . intereft and balance due on the 11 th November 1775?
A bond due 13th Auguft 1774
Intereft to 19th March 1773, ii8 days L. 16 4
Paid 19th March 1773
Balance due 19th March 1773
Intereft to 19th December 1773, 475 days 19 1
Paid 19th December 1773
Balance due 19th. December 1773
Intereft to 43d September 1774, days 19 o
Paid 43d September 1774
Balance due 23d September 1774
Intereft to 18th Auguft 1775, 349 days 44' 5
Paid 18th Auguft 1775
Balance due 18th Augnft 1775,
Intereft to nth November 1775, 85 days 4 14
Balance due nth November 1775 L. 411 4 4
Amount of the intereft L. 81 4 4
Chap. VIII. VULGAR FRACTIONS.
In order to underfland the nature of vulgar fractions,
we muft fuppofe unity (or the number 1) divided into
feveral equal parts. One or more of thefe parts is cal¬
led a fraBion, and is reprefented by placing one num¬
ber in a fmall charadler above a line, and another un¬
der it: For example, two fifth parts is written thus,
The number under the line (5) (hows how many parts
unity is divided into, and is called the denominator. The
number above the line (2) fhows how many of thefe
parts are reprefented, and is called the numerator.
It follows from the manner of reprefenting fra (Tons,
that, when the numerator is increaled, the value of the
fraftion becomes greater ; but, when the denominator
is increafed, the value becomes lefs. Hence we may
infer, that, if the numerator and denominator be both
increafed, or both diminifhed, in the fame proportion,
the value is not altered 3 and therefore, if we multiply
L. 406 9 8
M E T 1 C. 509
both by any number whatever, or divide them by any Vulgar
number which meafures both, we fhall obtain other prachons.
fractions of equal value. Thus, every fradlion may be ' ' v
expreffed in a variety of forms, which have all the
fame fignification.
A fraction annexed to an integer, or whole number,
makes a mixed number. For example, five and two
third-parts, or 5y. A fraction whole numerator is
greater than its denominator is called an improper frac¬
tion. For example, leventeen third-parts, or *y. Frac¬
tions of this kind are greater than unity. Mixed num¬
bers may be reprelented in the form of improper frac¬
tions, and improper fractions may be reduced to mix¬
ed numbers, and fometimes to integers. As fradtions
whether proper or improper, may be reprefented in dif¬
ferent forms, we mult explain the method of reducing
them from one form to another, before we confider the
other operations.
Problem I. “ To reduce mixed numbers to impro-
“ per fractions 5 Multiply the integer by the denomi-
“ nator of the fradtion, and to the produdt add the nu-
“ merator. The fum is the numerator of the impro-
“ per fradtion fought, and is placed above the given
“denominator. Ex. (f-J-— 'T7
5 integer.
3 denominator;.
15 produdt.
2 numerator given.
17 numerator fought.
Becaufe one is equal to two halves, or 3 third parts,
or 4 quarters, and every integer is equal to twice as
many halves, or four times as many quarters, and fo on j
therefore, every integer may be expreffed in the form
of an improper fradtion, having any affigned denomina¬
tor : The numerator is obtained by multiplying the in¬
teger into the denominator. Hence the reafoft of the
foregoing rule is evident. 5, reduced to an improper
fradtion, whofe denominator is 3, makes ‘T5, and this
added to y. amounts to y.
Problem II. “ To reduce improper fradtions to
“ whole or mixed numbers : Divide the numerator by-
“ the denominator.”
Ex. Yt —f-TT
I7)ll2(644 3T5-8 S’ Vt*
102 2. W 6. ’44*
  3. ’44s 7- 8UX
x° 4. '-f-rr4 Vnr
This problem is the converfe of the former, and the
reafon may be illultrated in the fame manner.
Problem III. “ To reduce fradtions to lower terms.
“ Divide both numerator and denominator by any num-
“ ber which meafures both, and place the quotients in
“ the form of a fradtion.”
Example. ys4 = tt = 4
Here we oblerve that 135 and 360 are both mea-
fured by 5, and the quotients form 4?> which is a frac¬
tion of the fame value as yJ4 in lower terms. Again,
27 and 72 are both meafured by 9, and the quotients
form 4, which is Hill of equal value, and in lower terms.
It is generally fufficient, inpradtice, to divide by fuch
meafures as are found to anfwer on inlpedtion, or by the
rules given p. 396. col. 2. But, if it be required to re¬
duce a fradtion to the loweit poffible terms, we muft di-
vids-
310
ARITHMETIC.
Vulgar vide the numerator and denominator by the greateih
.Fraiftions, ^ number which meafures both. What number this is
v may not be obvious, but will always be found by the
following rule.
To find the greateft common meafure of two num¬
bers, divide the greater by the Idler, and the divilbr
by the remainder continually; till nothing remain ; the
laft divilbr is the greateft common meafure.
Example. Required the greateft number which
meafures 475 and 589 '
475)589(i
475
”4)475(4
456
19)1r4(6
114
Here we divide 589 by 475,
and the remander is 1x45 then
we divide 475 by 1x4, and
the Remainder is 19 ; then we
divide 1x4 by 19, and there is
no remainder : from which we
infer, that 19 the laft divifor,
is the greateft common mea¬
fure.
to explain the realbn of this, we muft obferve; that
any number which meafures two others, will alfo mea¬
fure their fum, and their difference, and will mealure
any multiple of either. In the foregoing example; any
number which mealures 589, and 475, will meafure
their difference 114, and will meafure 456, which is a
multiple of 114; and any number which meafures 475,
and 456, will alfo meafure their difference 19. Con-
fequently, no number greater than 19 can meafure 589
and 475. Again, 19 will meafure them both, for it
meafures 114, and therefore meafures 456, which is a
multiple of 114, and 475, which is juft 19 more than
456; and, becaufe it meafures 475 and 114, it will
meafure their fum 589. To reduce to the loweft
poflible terms, we divide both by numbers 19, and it
comes to y-f*
If there he. no common meafure greater than 1, the
fraction is already in the loweft terms.
If the greateft common meafure of 3 numbers be re¬
quired, we find the greateft meafure of the two firft,
and then the greateft meafure of that number; and the
third. If there be more numbers, we proceed in the
fame manner.
Problem IV. “ To reduce fraiftions to others of
‘ equal value that have the fame denominator : xft,
‘ Multiply the numerator of each fraiftiori by all the
‘ denominators except its own. The produifts are nu-
' merators to the reipeftive fractions fought.” 2d,
Multiply all the denominators into each other j the
product is the common denominator.”
Ex. f and £ and 4- = and and -ffg;
4 X 9 X 8 r: 288 firlt numerator.
7x5x8=: 280 fecond numerator.
3x5x9 = 135 third numerator.
5x9x8=: 360 common denominator:
Here we multiply 4, the numerator of the firft frac¬
tion, by 9 and 3 the denominators of the two others ;
and the produift 288 is the numerator of the fraiftion
fought, equivalent to the firft. The other numerators
are found in like manner, and the common denomina¬
tor 360, is obtained by multiplying the given denomi¬
nators 5, 9, 8, into each other. In the courfe of the
whole operation, the numerators and denominators of
each fraiftion are multiplied by the fame number, and
therefore their value is not altered.
Chap. vnt.
The fraiftions thus obtained may be reduced to lower Vulgar
terms, if the feveral numerators and denominators have Ffaftions.
a common meafure greater than unity. Or, after ar- U“"~V'“WJ
ranging the number for multiplication, as is done a-
bove, if the fame number occur in each rank, we may
dafti them out and negleift them ; and, if numbers
which have a common mealure occur in each, we may
dalli them out and ufe the quotients in their ftead ; or
any number which is a multiple of all the given deno¬
minators, may be ufed as a common denominator.
Sometimes a number of this kind will occur on infpec-
tion, and the new numerators are found by multiply¬
ing the given ones by the common denominator, and
dividing the produifts by the relpe&ive given denomi¬
nators.
If the articles given for any operation be mixed num¬
bers, they are reduced to improper fraiftions by pro¬
blem I. If the anfwer obtained be an improper frac¬
tion, it is reduced to a mixed number by problem II.
And, it is convenient to reduce fraiftions to lower
terms, when it can be done, by problem III. which
makes their value better apprehended, and facilitates
any following operation. The reduiftion of fraiftions to
the fame denominator by problem IV. is neceffary to
prepare them for addition or fubtraiftion, but not for
multiplication or divifion.
i. Addition o/’Vuloar Fractions.
Rule. “ Reduce them, if neceflary, to a common
“ denominator ; add the numerators, and place the
“ fum above the denominator.”
Ex. ill.] 4-+4-=g-f+4£ by problem IV.=-
2d.] T+|-+Tfe —•5T^+7T’§-+4t5'::::,4t3- j|o
by problem II. zz 34-fg- tttt
The numerators of fractions that have the fame de¬
nominator fignify like parts j and the realbn for add¬
ing them is equally obvious, as that for adding Ihil-
lings or any other inferior denomination.
Mixed numbers may be added, by annexing the fum
of the fraiftions to the fum of the integers. If the
former be a mixed number; its integer is added to the
other integers.
4. Subtraction o/’Vulgar Fractions. ^
Rule. “ Reduce the fractions to a common deno-
“ minator 5 fubtraift the numerator of the fubtrahend
“ from the numerator of the minuend, and place the
“ remainder above the denominator.”
Ex. Subtract g from -rr remainder -jt*
s —3 r P from 35
’TZH f by Prob. IV. take 24
T—S? N  
rem. xi
To fubtraift a fraiftion from an integer : fubtraift the
numerator from the denominator, and place the Re¬
mainder above the denominator 5 prefix to this the in¬
teger diminilhed by unity.
Ex. Subtraift -f fr0111 12 remainder nf-.
To fubtraift mixed numbers, proceed with the frac¬
tions by the foregoing rule, and with the integers in
the common method. If the numerator of the frac¬
tion in the fubtrahend exceed that in the minuend,
borrow the value of the denominator, and repay it by
adding 1 to the unit-place of the fubtrahend.
Ex.
Chap. VIII. A R I T H
Vu'gar Ex. Subtract from 248f
fraftions- . 1 248^ Vs
   TZfF > by Prob. IV. 145^ T?
T—tT S  TT
I02If
Here, becaufe 27 the numerator of the fra&ion in
the minuend is lefs than 35, the numerator of the
lubtrahend, we borrow 45 the denominator j 27 and
45 make 72, from which we fubtraft 35, and obtain
37 for the numerator of the fraction in the remain¬
der, and we repay what was borrowed, by adding
1 to 5 in the unit-place of the fubtrahend.
The reafon of the operations in adding or fubtraft-
ing fraftions will be fully underftood, if we place the
numerators of the fra&ions in a column like a lower
denomination, and add or fubtraft them as integers,
carrying or borrowing according to the value of the
higher denomination.
*4 3. Multiplication of Vulgar Fractions.
Rule. “ Multiply the numerators of the fa&ors
u together for the numerator of the produd, and the
“ denominators together for the denominator of the
“ produd.”
Ex. iftj tXt=4t 2(1*]8tX71=,t^-1—65-i*^-
2x5=10 num. 8by prob. I.
3x7=21 den. by ditto.
42x31=1302
5X 4= 20
To multiply 4- by y is the fame, as to find what two
third parts of 4 comes to ; if one third part only had
been required, it would have been obtained by mul¬
tiplying the denominator 7 by 3, becaufe the value
of fractions is leflened when their denominators are
increaied 5 and this comes to -y-rj and, becaufe two
thirds were required, we muft double that fraftion,
which is done by multiplying the numerator by 2,
and comes to 44- Hence we infer, that fradions of
fradions, or compound fradions, fuch as 4 of -f are
reduced to Ample ones by multiplication. The fame
method is followed when the compound fradion is
exprefled in three parts or more.
If a number be multiplied by any integer, its va¬
lue is increafed : If it be multiplied by 1, or taken
one time, it undergoes no alteration. If it be multi¬
plied by a proper fradion, or taken for one half, two
thirds, or the like, its value is diminifhed, and the
produd is lefs than the number multiplied.
The foregoing rule extends to every cafe,when there
are fradions in either fador. For mixed numbers may
be reduced to improper fradions, as is done in Ex. 2d. 5
and integers may be written, or underftood to be writ¬
ten in the form of fradions whofe numerator is 1. It
will be convenient, however, to give fome further di-
redions for proceeding, when one of the fadors is an
integer, or when one or both are mixed numbers.
1 ft. To multiply an integer by a fradion, multiply
it by the numerator, and divide the produd by the
denominator. Ex. 3756x4=22534
3
5)11268(22534
2d, To multiply an integer by a mixed number,
we multiply it firft by the integer, and then by the
fradion, and add the produds.
M E T I C. 311
Ex- '38x^1=7931 ;3*X5=69« f5&,.
3 ' * '
4)4I4( i°3-i .
7934 .
3d, To multiply a mixed number by a fradion,
we may multiply the integer by the fradion, and the
two fradions together, and add the produds.
Ex. 154x4=3 A
I5 x£—3 f —3fV
4x4= A — TT
4th, When both fadors are mixed numbers, we
may multiply each part of the multiplicand firft by
the integer of the multiplier, and then by the frac¬
tion, and add the four produds.
Ex. 8f by 74
8x7= 56
8 X 4—V— 6 by prob. II.
r x 7 24= 24-4
t x 4— A
produd 65A as before.
4. Division o/" Vulgar Fractions. 25
Rule I. “ Multiply the numerator of the divi-
“ dend by the denominator of the divifor. Thepro-
“ dud is the numerator of the quotient.”
II. “ Multiply the denominator of the dividend by
“ the numerator of the divifor. The produd is the
” denominator of the quotient.”
Ex. Divide 4 by 4 Quotient -ff
2 X 9 = 18
5X7=35
To explain the reafon of this operation, let us fup-
pofe it required to divide 4 by 7, or to take one fe-
venth part of that fradion. This is obtained by
multiplying the denominator by 7 ; for the value of
fradions is diminiftied by increafing their denomina¬
tors, and comes to A* -A-gain, becaufe 4 >s nine
times lefs than feven, the quotient of any number di¬
vided by 4 will be nine times greater than the quo¬
tient of the fame number divided by 7. Therefore
we multiply yr by 9, and obtain j-y-.
If the divifor and dividend have the fame denomi¬
nator, it is fufficient to divide the numerators.
Ex. 44 divided by A quotes 4.
The quotient of any number divided by a proper
fradion is greater than the dividend. It is obvious,
that any integer contains more halves, more third'
parts, and the like, than it contains units j and, if an
integer and fradion be divided alike, the quotients
will have the fame proportion to the numbers divi¬
ded ; but the value of an integer is increafed when
the divifbr is a proper fradion ; therefore, the value
of a fradion in the like cafe is increafed alio.
The foregoing rule may be extended to every cafe,
by reducing integers and mixed numbers to the form
of improper fradions. We fliall add fome diredions
for Ihortening the operation when integers and mix¬
ed numbers are concerned.
ift, When the dividend is an integer, multiply it
by
312 A R I T H
Vulgar by the denominator of the divifor, and divide the
Fractions-, produfl; by/he numerator.
^ 1 v 1 Ex. Divide 368 by 4
7
M E T I C.
(jljf quotient.
2d, When the diviior is an integer, and the divi¬
dend a fraction, multiply the denominator by the di-
vilbrj and place the product under the numerator.
Ex. Divide by 5 quotient ^
8 X 5 — 40
3d, When the divifor is an integer, and the divi¬
dend a mixed number, divide the integer, and annex
the fraction to the remainder; then reduce the mixed
number, thus formed, to an improper fradtion, and
multiply its denominator by the divifor.
Ex. To divide 576VV by 7 quotient 82
7) 576 (82
56
16
14
1 x 7 = 77
Here we divide 576 by 7,
the quotient is 82, and the
remainder 2, to which we an¬
nex the fra&ion -rT ; and re¬
duce 24V to an improper
fracTion 4r, and multiply its
denominator by 7, which
g'ves TT-
■Hitherto we have confidered the frablions as abftract
numbers, and laid down the neceffary rules according¬
ly. We now proceed to apply thefe to practice.
Shillings and pence may be confidered as fractions of
pounds, and lower denominations of any kind as frac¬
tions of higher 5 and any operation, where different
denominations occur, may be wrought by exprefling
the lower ones in the form of vulgar fractions, and
proceeding by the foregoing rules. For this purpofe,
the two following problems are neceflary.
Problem V. “ To reduce lower denominations to
e< fractions of higher, place the given number for the
“ numerator, and the value of the higher for the de-
nominator.” Examples.
1. Reduce 7 d. to the fraction of a fhilling. Anf.
2. Reduce 7 d. to a fraftion of a pound. Anf. tts’
3. Reduce 15 s. 7 d. to a fradtion of a pound. Anf.
Problem VI. “ To value fractions of higher deno-
“ minations, multiply the numerator by the value of
“ the given denomination, and divide the product by
u the denominator j if there be a remainder, multi-
“ ply it by the value of the next denomination, and
“ continue the divifion.”
Ex. ift.] Required the value
of 44 of L 1.
Chap.IX.
In the firft example, we multiply the numerator 17 Decimal .
by 20, the number of {hillings in a pound, and divide iFra^ionS,i ?
the produdl 340 by 60, the denominator of the frac- v ' '
tion, and obtain a quotient of 5 (hillings $ then we
multiply the remainder 40 by 12, the number of
pence in a fhilling, which produces 480, which divi¬
ded by 60 quotes 8 d. without a remainder. In the
fecond example we proceed in the fame manner 5 but
as there is a remainder, the quotient is completed by
a fr aft ion.
Sometimes the value of the fraftion does not a-
mount to a unit of the loweft denomination j but it
may be reduced to a fraftion of that or any other
denomination, by multiplying the numerator accord¬
ing to the value of the places. Thus -rrVy °f a pound
is equal to °f a (hilling, or TTrgj a penny,
AtV of a farthing.
Cuap. IX. DECIMAL FRACTIONS.
Seft. i. Notation and Reduction.
2d.] Required the value
of |- of 1 Cwt.
4.7 fignifies Four, and feventh tenth-parts.
•47
9)32(
27
■ qrs. lb.
3 lS?
.047
.407
5
28
4.07
4.007
60)480
480
9)140
9
50
45
The arithmetic of vulgar fraftions is tedious, and
even intricate to beginners. The difficulty arifes
chiefly from the variety of denominators; for when
numbers are divided into different kinds of parts,
they cannot be eafily compared. This confideration
gave rife to the invention of decimal fraftions, where
die units are divided into like parts, and the divi-
fions and fubdivifions are regulated by the fame fcale
which is ufed in the Arithmetic of Integers. The
firft figure of a decimal fraction fignifies tenth parts,
the next hundredth parts, the next thoufandth parts,
and fo on : and the columns may be titled according¬
ly. Decimals are diftinguifhed by a point, which fe-
parates them from integers, if any be prefixed.
The ufe of cyphers in decimals, as well as in inte¬
gers, is to bring the fignificant figures to their pro¬
per places, on which their value depends. As cy¬
phers, when placed on the left hand of an integer,
have no fignification, but when placed on the right
hand, increafe the value ten times each ; fb cyphers,
when placed on the right hand of a decimal, have no
fignification ; but when placed on the left hand di-
miniffi the value ten times each.
The notation and numeration of decimals will
be obvious from the following examples:
Four tenth-parts, and feven hundredth-
parts, or 47 hundredth-parts.
Four hundredth-parts, and feven thou-
fandth-parts, or 47 thoufandth-
parts.
Four tenth-parts,and feven thoufandth-
parts, or 407 thoufandth-parts.
Four, and feven hundredth-parts.
Four, and feven thoufandth-parts.
The column next the decimal point is fometimes
called decimal primes, tire next decimal feconds ; and
fo on.
To reduce vulgar fraBions to decimal ones : “ An-
“ nex a cypher to the numerator, and divide it by
“ the denominator, annexing a cypher continually
“ to the remainder.”
E«.
iChap. IX.
(j Decimal Ex. lft.]T-f=.l6
*Fraftions. 75)120(16
V ' 75
45°
45°
A R
2d.]*V=-°78i25
64)5oo(°78i25
448
520
512
80
64
160
128
I T H
3d.] |-=.666.
3)20(666
18
* 20
18
20
18
320
320
4th.]^-=.833
6)50(83
48
5th.]TV=-259
27)79(259
54
160
!35
250
243
6th.]^T=.3, 18,
22)70(31818
66
180
176
M E T I C. 313
as Ex. 3d and 5th. If otherwile, as Ex. 4th and
6th, they are mixed repeaters or circulates, and the . ^
figures prefixed to thofe in regular fucceffion are called
the finite part. Repeating figures are generally diftin-
guilhed by a dafh, and circulates by a comma, or other
mark, at the beginning and end of the circle; and the
beginning of a repeater or circulate is pointed out in
the divifion by an afterilk.
Lower denominations maybe confidered as fractions
of higher ones, and reduced to decimals accordingly.
We may proceed by the following rule, which is the
fame, in effeft, as the former.
To reduce lower denominations to decimals of higher:
“ Annex a cypher to the lower denomination, and
“ divide it by the value of the higher. When there
“ are feveral denominations, begin at the loweft, and
“ reduce them in their order.”
Ex. To reduce 5 cwt. 2 qr. 21 lb. to a decimal of a
ton ?
28)2io(.75 4)2.75).6875 2o)5.6874(.284375
196 24 40
140
140
35
32
168
160
87
80
180
The reafon of this operation will be evident, if we
confider that the numerator of a vulgar fraftion is
underftood to be divided by the denominator ; and
this divifion is adhially performed when it is reduced
tt,
15°
140
to a decimal^
In like manner, when there is a remainder left in
divifion, we may extend the quotient to a decimal,
inftead of completing it by a vulgar fra&ion, as in
the following example.
25)646(25^ or 25.84.
5°
146
I25
Rem. 21.O
200
100
100
o
From the foregoing examples, we may diftinguifh
thejperal kinds of decimals. Some vulgar fradlions
may be reduced exaftly to decimals, as Ex. ift and
2d, and are called terminate or finite decimals. O-
thers cannot be exadlly reduced, becaufe the divifion
always leaves a remainder ; but, by continuing the di¬
vifion, we will perceive how the decimal may be ex¬
tended to any length whatever. Thefe are called infi¬
nite decimals. If the fame figure continually returns,
as in Ex. 3d and 4th, they are called repeaters. If two
or more figures return in their order, they are called
circulates. If this regular fuccelfion go on from the
beginning, they are called pare repeaters, ox circulates.
Vol. II. Parti.
109
IOO
Here, in order to reduce 21 lb. to a decimal of x qr.
we annex a cypher, and divide by 28, the value of
1 qr. This gives .75. Then we reduce 2.75 qrs. to
a decimal of 1 cwt. by dividing by 4, the value of
1 cwt. and it comes to .6875. Laftly, 5.6875 cwt. is
reduced to a decimal of a ton by dividing by 20, and
comes to .284375.
To value a decimalfra&ion : “ Multiply it by the
“ value of the denomination, and cut off as many de-
“ cimal places from the produft as there are in the
“ multiplicand. The reft are integers of the lower
“ denomination.”
Example. What is the value of .425 of L. 1 ?
•425
20
ftl. 8.5OO
d. 3.000
Se<ft. ii. Arithmetic o/-Terminate Decimals.
The value of decimal places decreafe like that of in¬
tegers, ten of the lower place in either being equal to
one of the next higher ; and the fame holds in palling
from decimals to integers. Therefore, all the opera¬
tions are performed in the fame way yvith decimals,
R r whether
ARITHMETIC. Chap. IX.
whether placed by themfelves or annexed to Integers, fwer as when we divide by 2, and every integer has a Decimal
as with pure integers. The only peculiarity lies in correfpondent decimal, which may be called its red- Fiaftioas.
the arrangement and pointing of the decimals. procal. Multiplication by that decimal fupplies the '—v—J
In addition and fubtrafhon, “ Arrange units under place of divifion by the integer, and divifion fupplies
‘ units, tenth-parts under tenth-parts, and proceed the place of multiplication.
To find the reciprocal of any number, divide i with
cyphers annexed by that number.
Ex. Required the reciprocal of 625.
625)i.ooo(.ooi6
62 c
as m integers. '
32.035 from 13.348
X 16.374 take 9.2993
160.63 
12.3645 4.0487
and 12.248
10.6752
1.5728
321.4035
In multiplication, “ Allow as many decimal places
" in the product as there are in both fa&ors. If the
product has not fo many places, fupply them by
“ prefixing cyphers on the left hand.”
Ex. xft.] 1.37 2d.] 43.75 3d.] .1572
35000
17500
.01864
The produ£t of any number multiplied by .0016 is
the fame as the quotient divided by 625. Example.
625)9375(15 9375
625 .00x6
2.466
21.0000
The reafon of this rule may be explained, by obfer-
ving, that the value of the product depends on the
value of the fadlors ; and fince each decimal place in
either factor diminifhes its value ten times, it muft e-
qually diminifh the value of the produtd.
To multiply decimals by 10, move the decimal
point one place to the right ; to multiply by 100,
xooo, or the like, move it as many places to the right
as there are cyphers in the multiplier.
In div'ijion, “ Point the quotient fo that there may
“ be an equal number of decimal places in the divi-
“■ dend as in the divifor and quotient together.”
Therefore, if there be the fame of decimal places in
the divilbr and dividend, there will be none in the
quotient.
If there be more in the dividend, the quotient will
have as many as the dividend has more than the di¬
vifor.
If there be more in the divifor, we muft annex (or
fuppofe annexed) as many cyphers to the dividend as
may complete the number in the divifor, and all the
figures of the quotient are integers.
3I25
3i25
Stef3
9375
516
O X5.00DO
Becaufe .0016 is ■34T of unity, any number multi¬
plied by that fraction will be diminifhed 625 times.
For a like reafon, the quotient of any number divided
by.0016, will be equal to the produdt of the fame
multiplied by 625. Example.
.00x6)516.0000(322500
48 
36
32
40
3 3
80
80.
Se<ft. iii. Approximate Decimals.
It has been fliown that fome decimals, though ex-
If the divifion leave a remainder, the quotient may tended to any length, are never complete ; and others.
be extended to more decimal places; but thele are
not regarded in fixing the decimal point.
The reafon for fixing the decimal point, as direfted,
may be inferred from the rule followed in multiplica¬
tion. The quotient multiplied by the divifor produ¬
ces the dividend ; and therefore the number of deci¬
mal places in the dividend is equal to thofe in the di¬
vifor and quotient together.
hich terminate at laft, fometimes confift of fo many
places, that it would be difficult in pra&ice to extend
them fully. In thefe cafes, we may extend the decimal
to three, four, or more places, according to the nature
of the articles, and the degree of accuracy required,
and rejedt the reft of it asinconfiderable. In this man¬
ner we may perform any operation with eafe by the
common rules,and the anfwers weobtain are fufficient-
The firft figure of the quotient is always at the fame ly exad for any purpofe in bufinefs. Decimals thus
diftance from the decimal point, and on the fame fide rellridled are called approximates.
as the figure of the dividend, which ftands above the Shillings, pence, and farthings, may be eafily redu-
unit place of the firft produdf. This alfo takes place ced to decimals of three places, by the following rule,
in integers} and the reafon is the fame in both. Take half the (hillings for the firft decimal place, and
It was formerly obferved, that numbers were dimi- the number of farthings increafed by one, if it amount
niffied when multiplied by proper fradlions, and increa- to 24 or upwards} by two, if it amount to 48 or up-
fed when divided by the fame. Thus, multiplication by wards} and by three, if it amount to 72 or upwards,
fradlions correfponds wiih divifion by integers } and for the two next places.
divifiou by fradfions with multiplication by integers } The reafon of this is, that 20 {hillings make a pound,
when we multiply by i or .5, weobtain the fagne an- two (hillings is the tenth part of a pound } and there¬
fore
[Chap.
IX. A R I T H
fore half the number of fhillings make the firft de¬
cimal place. If there were 50 farthings in a fliilling,
or 1000 in a pound, the units of the farthings in the
remainder would -be thoufandtb-parts, and the tens
would be hundredth parts, and fo would give the two
next decimal places; but becaufe there are only 48
farthings in a ihiliing, or 9^0 in a pound, every far¬
thing is a little more than the thoufandth-part of a
pound ; and fince 24 farthings make 25 thoufancf-
parts, allowance is made for that excefs by adding 1
for every 24 farthings, as cHre&ed.
If rhe number of farthings be 24, 48 or 72, and
confequemly the fecond and third decimal places 25,
50 and 75, they are exactly right; otherwiie they are
not quite complete, fince there fhould be an allowance
of-iTT, not only for 24, 48 and 72 farthings, but for
every other fingle farthing. They may be comple¬
ted by the following rule : Multiply the fecond and
third decimal places, or their excels above 25, 50,^75,
by 4. If the produd amount to 24 or upwards,
add 1 ; if 48, add 2 ; if 72, add 35. By this ope¬
ration we obtain two decimal places more ; and by
continuing the fame operation, we may extend the
decimal till it terminate in 25, 50, 75, or in a re¬
peater.
Decimals of fterling money of three places mayea-
fily be reduced to Ihillings, pence and farthings, by
the following rule : Double the firfl: decimal place, and
if the fecond be 5 or upwards, add 1 thereto for {hil¬
lings. Then divide the fecond and third decimal pla¬
ces, or their excefs above 50, by 4, firft deducing 1,
if it amount to 25, or upwards; the quotient is pence,
and the remainder farthings.
As this rule is the converfe of the former one, the
reafon of the one may be inferred from that of the
other. The value obtained by it, unlefs the decimal
terminate in 25, jo or 75, is a little more than the
true value; for there ftiould be a dedu&iob, not only
of 1 for 25, but a like dedudlion of on the remain¬
ing figures of thefe places.
We proceed to give fome examples of the arithme¬
tic of approximates, and fubjoin any neceflary obfer-
vations.
M E T I C.
Multiplication.
8278+ Metb. 2d] 8278
2153+ 2153
315
Decimal
Metb. 3d] 8278 Fractions.
3512
24834
4I390
8278
16556
i6556I
.82713
413(90
24I834
16556
827
4i3
24
1782I2534 1782I2534 1782
Here the four lafi places are quite uncertain. The
right-hand figure of each particular product is obtained
by multiplying 8 into the figures of the multiplier ;
but if the multiplicand had been extended, the carriage
from the right-hand place would have been taken in ;
conlequently the right-hand place of each particular
produdl, and the four plafces of the total produdt, which
depend on thefe, are quite uncertain. Since part of the
operation therefore is ufelefs, we may omit it; and, for
this purpofe, it will be convenient to begin (as inp. 296.
col. 1 .^4/^ variety )at the higheft place of the multiplier.
We may perceive that all the figures on the right hand
of the line in Meth. 2. ferve no purpofe, and may be
left out, if we only multiply the figures of the multi¬
plicand, whofe produtfts are placed on the right hand
of the line. This is readily done by inverting the mul¬
tiplier in Meth. 3. and beginning each product with
the multiplication of that figure which ftands above
the figure of the multiplier that produces it, and in¬
cluding the carriage from the right-hand place.
If both fa&ors be approximates, there are as many
uncertain places, at leaf! in theproduff, as in the long-
eft fadlor. If only one be an approximate, there are
as many uncertain places as there are figures in that
factor, and fometimes a place or two more, which
might be affedled by the carriage. Hence we may in
fet, how far it is neceflary to extend the approxi¬
mates, in order to obtain the requifite number of
certain places in the produft.
Division.
•3724—)798l2 * * * 64327+(2i44 or 3^4)79864327(2144
Addition.
Cwt. qrs. lb.
3 2 I4 = 3.625
2 3 22 — 2.94642
3 3 19 = 3.91964
4 I 25 = 447321
Subtraction.
Cwt. qrs. lb.
3 2 2 = 3.51785
1 1 19 = 1.41964
2 — 9 2.09821
14 3 24 14.96427
If we value the fum of the approximates, it will fall
a little (hort of the ftim of the articles, becaufe the de¬
cimals are not complete.
Some add 1 to the laft decimal place of the approxi¬
mate, when the following figure would have been 5,
or upwards. Thus the full decimal of 3 qrs. 22 lb. is
.946,428571, and therefore .94643 is nearer to it than
.94642. Approximates, thus regulated, will in gene¬
ral give exader anfwers, and fometimes above the true
one, fometimes below it.
The mark + fignifies that the approximate is lefs
than the exa£t decimal, or requires fomething to be
added. The mark — fignifies that it is greater, or
requires fomething to be fubtradled.
7448
538
372
166
148
744)8
53|84
37)24
16)602
14)896
1)7063 18
1)4892 14
2171 4
Here all the figures on the right hand of the line
are uncertain ; for the right hand figure of the firft
produ6t 7448 might be altered by the carriage, if the
divifor were extended; and all the remainders and
dividuals that follow are thereby rendered uncertain.
We may omit thefe ufelefs figures; for which purpofe,
we dalh a figure on the right hand of the divifor at
each ftep, and neglect it when we multiply by the fi¬
gure of the quotient next obtained ; but we include
the carriage. The operation, and the reafbn of it,
will appear clear, by comparing the operation at
large, and contracted, in the above example.
R r 2
Chap.
A R I T H
Chap. X. INTERMINATE DECIMALS.
M E T I C. Chap. X.
' Ex. TV=.03i25, a decimal of 5 places, and 32=25.Inte;'niinatc
32)l.OOOOO(.C>3l25 Decimals. ^
96... 1 “
a? Sed. i. Reduction of Interminate Decimals.
As the arithmetic of interminate decimals, other-
wife called the arithmetic of infinites, is facilitated by
comparing them with vulgar fradtions, it will be pro¬
per to inquire what vulgar fradtions produce the feve-
ral kinds of decimals, terminate or interminate, re¬
peaters or circulates, pureormixed. And, firit, we may
obferve, that vulgar fradtions, which have the fame
denominator, produce decimals of the fame kind. If
the decimals correfpondiug to the numerator 1 be
known,all others areobtained by multiplying thefe into
any given numerator, and always retain the lame form,
providing the vulgar fradtion be in its lowed terms.
Thus, the decimal equal to 4 is .142837,
which multiplied by 3
produces the decimal equal to y. .428371,
Secondly, If there be cyphers annexed to the figni-
ficant figures of the denominator, there will be an e-
qual number of additional cyphers prefixed to the de¬
cimal. Thereafon of this will be evident, if we reduce
thefe vulgar fradlions to decimals, or if we confiderthat
each cypher annexed to the denominator diminifhes the
value of the vulgar fradf ion ten times, and each cypher
prefixed has a like effedt on the value of the decimal.
Thus, 4:3.142837, tt—.0,45)
0,142857, Tyy5-r:.ooo,43,
We may therefore confine our attention to vulgar frac¬
tions, whofe numerator is 1, and which have no cy¬
phers annexed fo the fignificant figures of the deno¬
minator.
Thirdly, Vulgar fradlions, whofe denominators are
2 or 3, or any of their powers, produce terminate de¬
cimals 5 for if any power of 2 be multiplied by the
fame power of 3, the produdt is an equal power of 10,
as appears from the following table :
2 X 3 = 10
2:l or 4 x 5* or 25 " 100 or io1
2} or 8 x 33 or 123 = 1000 or ioJ
24 or 16 X 34 or 625 ~ 10000 or 104
2s or 32 X 3s or 3123 — xooooo or 105
And the reafon is eafily pointed out; for 23 X53=2X2
X2X3X3X3 ; or, becaufe the factors may be taken in
any order, =2x5 X2X$X2X5 ; and this, if we mul¬
tiply the fadtors by pairs, becomes 10x10x10, or 10s.
The like may be fhown of any other power. And we
may infer, that if any power of 10 be divided by a
like power of 2 or 3, the quotient will be an equal
power of 3 or 2 refpedtively, and will come out exadt,
without a remainder ; and, fince the vulgar fradlions
above mentioned are reduced to decimals by fome
fuch divifion, it follows that the equivalent decimals
are terminate.
The number of places in the decimal is pointed out
by the exponent of the power ; for the dividend mull
be a like power of 10, or mull have an equal number
of cyphers annexed to 1, and each cypher of the di¬
vidend gives a place of the quotient.
40
32
80
64
16 b
160
Again, no denominators except 2, 5, or the ir powers,
produce terminate decimals. It is obvious from p. 298.
col. 2. par.4. that,if any denominator which produces a
terminate decimal be multiplied thereby , the produdt
will conliftofi, with cyphers annexed; and confequent-
ly the lowed places of the fadtors, multiplied into each
other, muft amount to 10, 20, or the like, in order to
fupply a cypher for the lowed place of the produdt;
but none of the digits give a produdt of this kind, ex¬
cept 3 multiplied by the even numbers ; therefore one
of the fadtors mud terminate in 3, and the other in an
even number. The former is meafured by 5, and the
latter by 2, as was obferved p. 297. col. 2. par. 7. Let
them be divided accordingly, and let the quotients be
multiplied. This lad produft will be exadtly one tenth-
part of the former ; and therefore will confid of 1, with
cyphers annexed, and the fadtors which produce it are
mealured by 5 and 2, as was diown before. This ope¬
ration may be repeated; and one of the fadtors may
be divided by 3, and the other by 2, till they be ex-
hauded ; confequently they are powers of 3 and 2.
Fourthly, Vulgar fradtions, whofe denominators are
3 or 9, produce pure repeating decimals.
Thus, f = .11/ 7 = •55/
4 — .222 -f- or ■f' — .660
f or £ = ‘33? i — *77^
4 = -44# I- =
The repeating figure is always the fame as the nu¬
merator. Hence we infer, that repeating figures fig-
nify ninth-parts; a repeating 3 fignifits -f j a repeat¬
ing 6 fignifies y ; and a repeating 9 fignifies £, or 1.
The value of repeating decimals may alfo be illu-
drated by colledting the values of the different places :
for example, let the value of 11/ be required ; the fird
decimal place fignifies 7%-, the next -r4y, the next ,
The fum of the two fird places is °f tf*6 three
places tq J0- ; and fo on. If we fubtradt thefe values
fuccedively from the fird remainder is the fecond
■5^, the third-jVyy. Thus, when the value of the
fiicceilive figures is reckoned, the amount of them ap¬
proaches nearer and nearer to and the difference be¬
comes 10 times lefs for each figure affumed ; and,
fince the decimal may be extended to any length, the
difference will at lad become fo fmall, that it need not
be regarded. This may give a notion of a decreafing
feries, whofe fum may be exadtly afeertained, though
the number of terms be unlimited.
Fifthly, Vulgar fradtions, whofe denominators are
a produdt of 3 or 9 multiplied by 2, 3, or any of their
powers, produce mixed repeaters. The reafon of this
will be evident, if, in forming the decimal, we divide
the numerator fuccedively by the component parts of
the denominator, as diredted p. 297. col. 1. par.
hap.
A R I T H M E
“terminate &c. The fir ft: ftivifbr is 2, c, or fome of their powers,
Decimals ancj coafeqUeotly gives a finite quotient by p. 3x6. col.
1. par. 3, &c. The fecond divifor is 3 or 9 5 and there¬
fore, when the figures of the dividend are exhaufted,
and figures annexed to the remainder, the quotient
will repeat, by p. 316. col. 2. par. 2.
Ex. -r^r 144=16x9.
2
144)1.000(0069^.
864
In order to illuftrate this fubje<9: further, we lhall ex¬
T I c. 317
If the denominator be a produft of an even powerlntermirate
of 2 or 5, multiplied by 3, the repeating figure of the Decima s-
correfponding decimal is ^ j but, if it be the product
of an odd power, the repeating figure is 6. For, in
forming the decimal, we may divide by the component
parts of the denominator, and the firft divifor is a
power of 2 or 5 ; therefore the firft quotient is a like
power of 4 or 2 (p. 316. col. 1. par. 3. &c.) and this
power is again divided by 3. If it be an even power, the
remainder or refult is 1, as was demonftrated above ;
and if cyphers be annexed-to the remainder, and the di-
vifion continued, it quotes a repeating 3 ; but if it be
an odd power, the remainder is 2, and the quotient
continued by annexing cyphers is a repeating 6.
If the denominator be 9, multiplied by 2, or any of
its powers, the repeating figure may be found by call¬
ing out the 9’s from the correfponding power of 5 ;
and if it be multiplied by 5, or any of its powers, by
calling out the 9’s from the correfponding power of 2.
plain the operation of calling out the threes which re- For if the decimal be formed by two divifionS) the firft
femblesthatforcaftingoutthenineSjformerlylaiddown,   r—  —- —1 r 1
p. 300. col. 2. par. 4 p. 301.C0I.2. par.3. and depends
on the fame principles, Ijeing a method of finding the re¬
mainder of a number divided by 3. If the fame number
be divided by 3 and by 9, the remainders will either a-
gree, or the fecond remainder will exceed the firft by3or
by 6. The reafon of this will be obvious, if we fuppofe
quotes the correlponding power 5 and the fecond, be-
caufe the divilbr is 9, repeats the refulting figure after
the dividend is exhaufted.
If any mixed repeater be multiplied by 9, the pro¬
duct is a terminate decimal, and may be reduced
(p. 316. col. 1. par.3. &c0 to a vulgar fraftion,
whole denominator is 2, 5, or fome of their powers j
a collection of articles allbrted into parcels of 3, and therefore all mixed repeaters are derived from vulgar
afterwards into parcels of 9, by joining three of the
former together. If the leffer parcels be all taken up
in compofing the greater ones, the remainder will be
the fame at the end of the fecond aflbrtment as before ;
but if one of thefe lefler parcels be left over, the re¬
mainder will be more, and if two of them be left o-
ver, the remainder will be 6 more. Therefore, when
the nines are call out from any number, and the refult
divided by 3, the remainder is the fame as when the
number is divided by 3 : Thus, the refults on calling
out the 3’s may be derived from thofe obtained by call¬
ing out the 9’s; and the fame correfpondence which was
pointed out with refpeft to the latter, for proving the
operations of arithmetic, applies alfo to the former.
To call out the 3’s from any number, add the fi¬
gures, negledling 3, 6, and 9 ; and when the fum a-
mounts to 3, 6, or 9, rejeft them and carry on the
computation with the exceTs only. For example, take
286754 : in calling out the 3’s we compute, thus, 2
and 8 is 10, which is three times 3, and 1 over; 1 and
(paffing by 6) 7 is 8, which is twice 3 and 2 over ; 2 and
5 is 7, which is twice 3 and 1' over; /a/f/y, 1 and 4 is
5, which contains 3 once, and 2 over, fo the refult is 2.
If the 3’s be call out from 21 or 4, the refult is 1 ;
from 25 or 8, the refult is 2 ; from 24 or 16, the refult
is 1 ; and univerfally the odd powers of 2 give a refult
of 2, and the even powers give a refult of 1/ As e-
very higher power is produced by multiplying the
next lower by 2, the refuit of the product may be
found by multiplying the refult of the lower power
by 2, and calling out the 3’s if neceflary. There-
fradlions, whofe denominators are products of 2, 5, or
their powers, multiplied by 3 or 9.
Sixthly, All denominators, except 2, 5, 3, 9, the
powers of 2 and 5, and the produfts of thefe powers,
multiplied by 3 or 9, produce circulating decimals.
We have already ftiown, that all terminate decimals are
derived from 2, 5, or their powers ; all pure repeaters,
from 3 or 9; and all mixed repeaters, from the pro¬
ducts of the former multiplied by the latter. The num¬
ber of places in the circle is never greater than the de¬
nominator diminilhed by unity. Thus -ij- prodyces
.142857, a decimal of 6 places; and-fV produces
.0588235294117647, a decimal of 16 places. The
reafon of this limit may be inferred from the divifion;
for whenever a remainder which has recurred before,
returns again, the decimal muft circulate,and the great-
eft number of poffible remainders is one lefs than the di¬
vifor : But frequently the circle is much ftiorter. Thus
•jIt=.09, a circle of 2 places.
When a vulgar fraCtion, whofe numerator is 1, pro¬
duces a pure circulate, the produCl of the circle multi¬
plied by the denominator will confift of as many 9’s
as there are places in the circle. Thus 4—-142857,
which multiplied by 7 produces 999999. The like
holds in every decimal of the fame kind; for they are
formed by dividing 10, or 100, or icoo, or feme like
number, by the denominator, and the remainder is 1,
when the decimal begins to circulate ; for the divifion
mull be then exactly in the fame flate as at the begin¬
ning : Therefore, if the dividend had been lefs by 1, or
had confifted entirely of 9’s, the divifion would have
fore, if the refult of any power be 1, that of the next come out without a remainder ; and fince the quotient
higher is 2, and that of the next higher (4 with the
3’s call out or) 1. Thus the refults of the powers of
2 are 1 and 2 by turns; alfo, becaufe the refult of 5,
when the 3’s are call out, is 2, its powers will have
the fame refults as the correfponding powers of 2.
multiplied by the divifer, produces the dividend, a
was ftiown p. 298. col. 2. par. 3. it follows, that the
circulating figures, multiplied by the denominator, pro¬
duce an equal number of 9’s.
Every vulgar fradion, which produces a pure circu¬
late.
SI 8 A R I T H M
1 nterminatclate, is equal to one whole numerator is the circulating
Decimals. f5gures> anc} ;ts denominator a like number of 9’s. If
“ the numerator be 1, the vulgar fraftion is reduced to
that form by multiplying both terms into the circle of
the decimal ; and if the numerator be more than 1,
the equivalent decimal is found by multiplying that
which correlponds to the numerator 1 into any other
numerator.
Thus if ~ .1428 57, — l l and TV “.327. — -gW
4—.285714, TT=-054-—rA
•f — •42i^57t> —'aSaiw TV—216.
Hence we may infer, that pure circulates are equal in
value to vulgar fraftions whofe numerators confiil of
the circulating figures, and denominators of as many
9’s as there are places in the circle. To place this in
another point of view, we {hall reduce a vulgar fraction,
whofe numerator confifts entirely of 9’s, to a decimal.
firs' 999)375000(-375>
2997 • •
753°
6993
5370
4995
*375
The remainder is now the fame as the dividend, and
therefore the quotient muft circulate, and, in general,
fince any number with 3 cyphers annexed, may be di¬
vided by 1000, without a remainder, and quotes the
fignificant figures j therefore, when divided by 999, it
muft quote the fame figures, and leave unequal remain¬
der. This alfo applies to every divifor which confifts
entirely of 9’s. Circles of two places, therefore, fignify
ninety ninth-parts; circles of 3 places fignify nine hun¬
dred and ninety ninth-parts ; and fo on.
The value of circulating decimals may allb be illu-
ftrated by adding the values of the places. Thus, if
two figures circulate, the firft circle fignifieth hun¬
dredth-parts, and every following circle fignifies one
hundred-times lefs than the preceding ; and their va¬
lues added, as in p. 316. col. 2. par. 3. will approach
nearer to ninety ninth-parts than any afligned diffe¬
rence, but will never exactly complete it.
All denominators which are powers of 3, except 9,
produce pure circulates ; and the number of places in
the circle is equal to the quotient of the denominator
divided by 9.
Thus, tit~.037, a circle of 3 places, and 27 divided
by 9=3
-g-Vzr.ox2345679, a circle of 9 places, and 81
divided by 9—9.
Thefe decimals may be formed, by dividing the nu¬
merator by the component parts of the denominator.
In the firft example, the component parts of the nume¬
rator are 9 and 3. The divifion by 9 quotes a pure
circulate, and the circulating figure is not 3, 6, or 9,
if the vulgar fraftion be in its loweft terms. And any
other repeating figure divided by 3, quotes a pure cir¬
culate of 3 places $ for the firft dividual muft leave a
E T I C Chap. X.
remainder of 1 or 2. If the firft remainder be 1, the Interminate:
fecond remainder is 2, (becaufe, if i be prefixed to , ^lecimals- t!
the repeating figure, and the 3’s be call out, the refult ' J
is 2 ;) and, for a like reafon, the third dividual clears
off without a remainder. If the firft remainder be 2,
the fecond is (twice 2 or 4, with the 3’s caft out, or)
1, and the third o $ fo the circle is always complete
at 3 places, and the divifion begins anew. The film
of fuch a circle cannot be a multiple of 3 ; for fince
the repeating figure is not 3, nor any of its multiples,
the fum of 3 places is not a multiple of 9, and there¬
fore cannot be divided by 9, nor twice by 3, without
a remainder.
Again, if the decimal equal io jV be divided by 3,
we (hall obtain the decimal equal to TV- The dividend,
as we have fliown already, is a pure circulate of 3
places, whofe fum is not a multiple of 3. Therefore,
when divided by 3, the firft circle leaves a remainder
of 1 or 2, which being prefixed to the fecond, and the
divifion continued, the remainder, at the end of the
fecond circle is 2 or 1, and, at the end of the third
circle, there is no remainder 5 all which may be illu-
ftrated by calling out the 3’s. The divifion being com¬
pleted at 9 places, finifties the circle j and it may be
{hown, as before, that the fum of thefe places is not a
multiple of 3. The learner will apprehend all this if
he reduce thefe, or the like vulgar fractions, to deci¬
mals, by fucceffive divifions.
27 n 9X3, and 9)i.o( .111/, and 3).nijt'( .037,
81 =27 x 3, and 3)°37,°37>°37(-°i2345679'
For the fame realbn, if any circulating decimal, not
a multiple of 3, be divided by 3, the quotient will cir¬
culate thrice as many places as the dividend j and if
any circulate obtained by fuch divifion be multiplied
by 3, the circle of the produft will be reftrifted to one
third of the places in the multiplicand.
All vulgar fradtions, whofe denominators are mul¬
tiples of 2, 5, or their powers, except thofe already
confidered, produce mixed circulates ; for they may be
reduced by dividing by the component parts of the de¬
nominator. The firft divifor is 2, 5, or fome of their
powers, and therefore gives a finite quotient. The fe¬
cond divifor is none of the numbers enumerated p. 317.
col. 2. par. 2. and therefore gives a circulating quotient
when the fignificant figures of the dividend are ex-
haufted, and cyphers annexed to the remainder.
Ex- -rrff-
216)1.ooo(.oo4,629,
864
* 1360
1296
216=27x8,
or 8)1.000
27) .i25(.004,629,
108
* 170
162
640
432
2080
1944
•* 1360
All mixed circulates are derived from vulgar frac¬
tions
;hap. X.
A R I T H M E
Hi terminate tions of this kind, whofe denominators are multiples
ftJecimals. Qf 2, $, or their powers; and therefore all other de-
r nominators, except 3 and 9, produce pure circulates.
The reader will eafily perceivt |that when a decimal is
formed from a vulgar fraction, whofe numerator is 1,
when the remainder 1 occurs in the divifion, the deci¬
mal is a pure circulate ; but if any other remainder
occurs twice, the decimal is a mixed circulate. We
are to fhow that this laft will never happen, unlefs the
divifor be a multiple of 2, 5, or their powers. If two
numbers be prime to each other, their produd will be
prime to both ; and if tw'o numbers be propofed,
whereof the firft does not meafure the fecond, it will
not meafure any produft of the fecohd, if the multiplier
be prime to the firft. Thus, becaufe 7 ‘does not mea¬
fure 12, it will not meafure any product of 12 by a
multiplier prime to 7. For inftance, it will not mea¬
fure 12x3, or 36. Otherwife, the quotient of 12 di¬
vided by 7, or 14 multiplied by 3, would be a whole
number, and 5x3 would be meafured by 7, which it
cannot be, fince 5 and 3 are both prime to 7.
Now, if we infpeft the foregoing operation, we (hall
perceive that the product of 136, the remainder where
the decimal begins to circulate, multiplied by 999, is
meafured by the denominator 216. But 999 is not
meafured by the denominator, otherwife the decimal
would have been a pure circulate } therefore x 26 and
136 are not prime to each other, but have a common
meafure, and that meafure muft apply to 864, a mul¬
tiple of 126, and to 1000, the fum of 136 and 864;
fee p. 309, col. 2. par. u/t. &c. But it was proven,
p. 316. col. 1. par. 1. that no numbers, except the
T~5
t=-333'-
*=.25
T—2
4—. 1660
4—142857,
4—125
4—i i*
i'5—1
-^—09,09,
TT—08333
tt—•°79^23,
A—o,714285
y'j-—o660
T I C.
T-V—0625
tV=.o588235294i i 7647,
A—055/
•nr—052631578947368421,
•nr—05
tx—047619,
TT—0,45,45,
A-—•0434782608695652173913,
•A—041660
^=•04
TV—0,384615,
TT—-037,
03.571428
i-'-j-z: °344S2: .536206896551724137931,
tV~?33?
Rules for reducing interminate decimals to vulgar
fraftions.
I. “ If the decimal be a pure repeater, place the
“ repeating figure for the numerator, and 9 for the
“ denominator.”
II. “ If the decimal be au recirculate, place the
“ circulating figures forthenumerator, and asmany9’s
“ as there are places inthe circle for thedenominator.”
III. “ If there be cyphers prefixed to the repeating
“ or circulating figures, annex a like number to the
“ 9’s in the denominator.”
IV. “ If the decimal be mixed, fubtraft the finite
“ part from the whole decimal. The remainder is the
‘‘ numerator ; and the denominator confifts of as
“ many 9’s as there are places in the circle, together
“ with as many cyphers as there are finite places be-
“ fore the circle.”
Thus, i35>^2>—
par.
powers of 5 and 2, meafure a number confifting of 1
with cyphers annexed } confequently the denominator From the whole decimal 23562
muft.be meafured by a power of 2 or 5. The reader will We fubtradl the finite part 235
perceive, that the exponent of the power muft be the
fame as the number of cyphers annexed to x, or as the
number of figures in the finite part of the decimal.
We ft)all now recapitulate the fubftanceof what has
and the remainder 23327 is the numerator^
The reafon may be illuftrated by dividing the deci¬
mal into two parts, whereof one is finite, and the
been faid wi'th refpedl to the formation of decimals. 2, other a pure repeater or circulate, with cyphers pre-
5, and their powers, produce finite decimals, by p.3i6.
col. 1. par. 3. &c. and the number of places is mea¬
fured by the exponent of the power. 3 and 9 produce
pure repeaters (p. 3x6. col. 2. par. 2.) The produdts
of 2, 5, and their powers, by 3 or 9, produce mixed re¬
peaters by p. 316. col. 2. par. ult.-, their produdts by
other multipliers, produce mixed circulates by p. 316.
col.2.par. ultc, and all numbers of which 2 and 5 are not
aliquot parts, except 3 and 9, produce pure circulates.
To find the form of a decimal correfponding to any de¬
nominator, divide by 2, 5, and 10, as .often as can be
done without a remainder $ the number of divifions
ft lows how many finite places there are in the decimal,
by p. 318. col. 2. par.3. If the dividend be not exhaufted
by thefe divifions, divide a competent number of 9’s by
the laft quotient, till the divifion be completed with-
fixed. The fum of the vulgar fractions correfponding
to thefe will be the value of the decimal fought.
.235,62,may be divided into .235 by rule I.
and .000,62=-^^^ by rules If. III.
In order to add thefe vulgar fractions, we reduce
them to a common denominator 3 and, for that pur-
pofe, we multiply both terms of the former by 99,
which gives > then we add the numerators.
235 or by method explained p. 295. col. 1. par. 3.-
99
23265
The value of c
235°°
235
3265
Sum of numerators.
23265 or 23562
62 235
23327
23327
culating decimals is not altered.
out a remainder : the number of 9’s required fhow though one or more places be feparated from the cir-
how many places there are in the circle ; and the Xrea-
fon may be inferred from p. 317. col. 2. par. 5.
We fhall conclude this fubje£I by marking down the
decimals produced by vulgar fradfions, whofe nume¬
rator is 1, and denominafors 30 ; and under that the
reader may obferve their connection with the deno¬
minators.
cle, and confidered as a finite part, providing the c
cle be completed. For example, .27 may be writ¬
ten .2,72, which is reduced by the laft of the foregoing
rules to -J-fg-, or which is alfo the value of .27.
And if two or more circles be joined, the value of the
decimal is ftill the fame. Thus,2727, z: which
is reduced by dividing the terms by 101 to
All
320
A R I T H M
Interminate ^]] circulating decimals may be reduced to a fimilar
, Decimals., form) having a like number both of finite and circu-
v ~ lating places. For this purpofe, we extend the finite
part of each as far as the longell, and then extend all
the circles to fo many places as may be a multiple of
the number of places in each.
Ex. .34,725, extended, .34,725725725725,
1,4562, 14,562456245624,
Here the finite part of both is extended to two places,
and the circle to 12 places, which is the leaft multiple
for circles of 3 and 4 places.
E T I C. Chap. X.
To fubtraB circulating decimals. “ Extend them till Interminate
‘ they become fimilar; and when you fubtraft the tDeilmab.
right-hand figure, confider whether 1 would have
“ been borrowed if the circles had been extended fur-
“ ther, and make allowance accordingly.
‘5>72> ♦974, or .974974, .8,135, or
.4,86, .86, .868686, .452907 or .4,529074,
.106288,
.3,606060,
or 3,60
3°
Sedl. ii. Addition and Subtraction o/'IntermI-
nate Decimals.
Se£l. iii. Multiplication 0/ Interminate Deci- 3,
To add repeating decimals, “ Extend the repeating
“ figures one place beyond the longeft finite ones, and
“ when you add the right-hand column, carry to the
“ next by 9.”
Ex. .37524 or 37524 .2f .290 tV
.8 8888$ *3^? -42
.643 643 .469/ .7548 3-1
♦73 73333 -3# -B* TT
Case I. “ When the multiplier is finite, and the
( multiplicand rupeats, carry by 9 when you multiply
‘ the repeating figure : The right-hand figure of each
c line of the produdl is a repeater; and they muft be
‘ extended and added accordingly.”
Ex. .13494
•367
264046
To fubtraB repeating decimals, “ Extend them as
: directed for addition, and borrow at the right-hand
' place, if necefiary, by 9.”
.93566 .646 .735$ .738^ .469
♦8473$ .5342/ .62563 .6$ .3/
9446/
809660
4048333
.0872^ .11172
The reaibn of thele rules will be obvious, if t
coll eft that repeating figures fignify ninth-parts. If
the right-hand figure of the fum or remainder be o, the
decimal obtained is finite ; otherwife it is a repeater.
To add circulating decimals, “ Extend them till they
“ become fimilar (p. 319. col. 1. par. ult. &c.) ; and
“ when you add the right hand column, include thefi-
“ gure which would have been carried if the circle had
'' been extended further.”
Ex. ill.]
•574,
.2,698,
.428
•37,983,
Extended.
•574,574,
.269,869,
.428
•379,839,
Ex. 2d.]
•874,
•1463'
•1,58,
•32,
Extended. -
.874,874874,
•H6,333333,
•158,585858,
•323,232323,
.04952462'
If the film of the right-hand column be an even
number of 9’s, the produft is finite; otherwife, it is a
repeater.
Case II. “ Wben the multiplier is finite, and the
“ multiplicand circulates, add to each produft of the
“ right-hand figure the carriage which would have
“ been brought to it if the circle had been extended.
“ Each line of the produft is a circle fimilar to the
“ multiplicand, and therefore they mull be extended
“ and added accordingly.”
The produft is commonly a circulate fimilar to the
multiplicand; firaietimes it circulates fewer places,
repeats, or becomes finite ; it never circulates more
places.
Ex. .37,46,x.235
235,
1.652,284, 1.503,026390,
Note 1. Repeaters mixed with circulates are ex¬
tended and added as circulates.
Note 2. Sometimes it is neceflary to inlpeft two or
more columns for afcertaining the carriage ; becaufe
the carriage from a lower column will fometimes raife
the fum of the higher, fo as to alter the carriage from
it to a new circle. This occurs in Ex. 2.
Note 3. The film of the circles mull be confidered as
a fimilar circle. If it confift entirely of cyphers, the
amount is terminate. If all the figures be the fame,
the amount is a repeater. If they can be divided into
parts exaftly alike, the amount is a circle of fewer pla¬
ces ; but, for the moft part, the circle of the fum is fi¬
milar to the extended circles.
.3,868, .0842, 4 -368 .003094,
•4,375, •°8,42 -f -57, -765, A
.853492, .0,842 A .895 .76, A
,62, .0842 .742 .765 A
187,32,
1123,93,
7492,92,
.674, X.78
.37, x.86
.625, x.42
•4793, x4 8
•3,75, XI-24
.2,963,x.36
.08804,19,
Case III. “ When the multiplier repeats or cir¬
culates, find the produft as in finite multipliers, and
‘ place under it the produfts which would have arifen
‘ from the repeating or circulating figures, if extend-
‘ ed.”
Ex. ill.] .958X.8 2d.] .784X.36,
8 36
7664
?66|4
76)64
7)664
17664
47°4
2352
-%SlZ
28224)
282)24
2)8224
.284,09,
3d-]
[fiphap. X.
I T H M E T I C.
32i
The multiplication of intermediate decimals may be Tnterminate
often facilitated, by reducing the multiplier to a vul- ,Dfclnials-
gar fraftion, and proceeding as directed p- 311. col.i. """ v
par. 6. *
Thus,
4th.]
.3824x^=9-
7
9)2.6768
•914*
jth.] .384x.2^=
23 2
1/52 2;
768
90)8.832
.09813-
Therefore, in order to multiply by 3, we .take one
third part of the multiplier 5 and, to multiply by
we take two thirds of the fame. Thus,
38.961038,961038,961038,
6th.] .784—-JX-r
3)-784
.2613
7th.] .876ix.j?=y
As the denominator of the vulgar fraftions always
confifls of 9’s, or of 9’s with cyphers annexed, we may
ufe the ^ontracl^on explained p. 298. col. 1. par. ult,
&c.; and this will lead us exa&ly to the fame opera¬
tion which was explained p. 320. col. 2. par. ult. &ci
on the principles of decimal arithmetic.
.278x365,
365
It is evident, that if a repeating multiplier be ex¬
tended to any length, the product arifing from each 6-
gure will be the fame as the firfl, and each will ftand
one place to the right hand of the former. In like
manner, if a circulating multiplier be extended, the
product arifing from each circle will be alike, and will
ftand as many places to the right hand of the former
as there are figures in the circle. In the foregoing
examples, there are as many of thefe products re¬
peated as is neceflary for finding the total prodtuft. 8th.] .735X.3,26,:z-f54 9th.]
If we place down more, or extend them further, it
will only give a continuation of the repeaters or cir¬
culates.
This is obvious in Ex. ift and 2d. As the learner
may not apprehend it fo readily in Ex. 3d, when the
multiplicand is a circulate, and conlequently each line
of the produft is alfo a circulate, we have divided it in¬
to columns, whole fums exhibit the liicceffive circles.
The fum of the firft column is 38,961037, and there
is a carriage bf 1 from the right hand column, which
completes 38,961038. This one is fupplied from the
three firft lines of the fecond column, the fum of which
is 999999, and being increafed by 1, in confequence
3)I>7522
.5840^
3%3
220 (
1470
2205
323
99l0)2374°5
2374.’°5
23.74
.23
.239803,
1390
1668
834
999)101470,
101,
.101,571,
When the multiplier is a mixed repeater or drcu*
'Y . r • " , VT, r " late, we may proceed as in Ex. cth and 8th s or we
1,000000, and therefore carries i to the firlt column, .• • , u- r ■ . ^ .
and does not affeft the fum of the remaining lines ™> the 'T tW° PartS’ wh.chthe
which are the fame as thofe of the firft column. The lS ^ ^ the " fureurePearter or c!rc^
third column contains two lets of thefe lines, which a- .f W' jC^Jj Pre anC mU *P ^ eParate
, r 1 ’ r . thele, and add the products,
mount to 000000, behdes the line which compole the
r by .2 =.0768 or thus, .384
and by .05 =: .02x33'
.09813
mount to 999999,
circle. Each of thelq fets would be completed into Thus, •384X.2Jg'
1,000000 by the carriage from the 4th column, if ex¬
tended, and each would carry 1 to the lecond column.
One of thefe would complete the lum of the three firft
lines, and the other would complete the fum of the
circle. In like manner, if the circles be extended ever
fo far, the increafing carriages will exadtly anfwer for
the increafing deficiencies, and the fum will be always
a continuation of the circle : but the product could
not circulate, unlefs the fum of the lines marked off in
the fecond column hadconfilted entirely of 9,s; or had In the following examples, the multiplicand is a re-
been fome multiple of a number of 9*5 j and the circles peater j and therefore the multiplication by the nume-
muft be extended till this take place, in order to find rator of the vulgar fraftion is performed as dire&ed
the complete produft. p. 320. col. 2. par. 2.
Vol. II. Fart 1. S f
.2/
9)1920
2133
768
098
1 oth.]
322
Jnterminate
Decimals.
ARITHMETIC. Chap. X.
ioth.] .68zx.#j-
S
9)3-4*0(-37,962>
27
63
* 86
81
S6
54
26
x8
nth.] .6?x.2,39,=|^
.237 2
In the following examples the multiplicand is a cir¬
culate, and therefore the multiplication by the nume¬
rator is performed as directed p. 320. col. 2. par. 4.
In Ex. 13th, we have omitted the products of the interminate
divifor, and only marked down the remainders. Thefe Decimals,
are found, by adding the left hand figure of the divi-
dual to the remaining figures of the fame. Thus, 363
is the firft dividual, and 3 the left-hand figure, added
to 63, the remaining figures gives 66 for the firlt re¬
mainder ; and the fecond dividual, 666, is.completed
by annexing the circulating figure 6. The reaion of
which may be explained as follows. The highell place
of each dividual fhows. in this example, how many
hundreds it contains} and as it muft contain an equal
number of ninety-nines, and alfo an equal number of
units, it follows, that thele units, added to the lower
places, mull (how how far the dividual exceeds that
number of ninety-nines. The figure of the quotient is
generally the fame as the firft place of the dividual,
fometimes one more. This happens in the laft ftep of
the foregoing example, and is difcovered when the re¬
mainder found, as here directed, would amount to 99,
or upwards ; and the excefs above 99 only, muft in:
that cafe be taken to complete the next dividual.
14th.] .01, x.o 1, —Trgr
12th.]
-3>8i>xSZ=U
48 5
3°54 48
15272
9|o)i83,'27,(.203,63,
' 032
27
57
54
13th.] .12,X03,=7V
3
99)3^36(-03673©94582i8549i2764,
666
936
%
,83
846
543
486
9°3
126
273
756
633
396
* 036
99).01 ,(00010*0304050607080910111*13x41516171819*0
(212**32425*627282930313*3334353637383940
(4i4243444J46474849505I5*53S4$S5<S5758596o
(61626364656667686970717*7374757677787980
(818*8384858687888990919293949596979899
The number of places in the circle of the produift
is fometimes very great, though there be few places in
the fa&ors : but it never exceeds the produdt of the
denominator of the multiplier, multiplied by the num¬
ber of places in the circle of the multiplicand. There¬
fore, if the multiplier be 3 or 6, the product may cir¬
culate three times as many places as the multiplicand ;
if the multiplier be any other repeater, nine times as
many ; if the multiplier be a circulate of two places,
ninety nine times as many 3 thus, in the laft example,
.01, a circulate of two places, multiplied by .01, a cir¬
culate of two places, produces a circulate of twice 99,
or 198 places. And the reafon of this limit may be in¬
ferred from the nature of the operation; for the greateft
pofiible number of remainders, including o, is equal to
the divifor 99 j and each remainder may afford two
dividuals, if both the circulating figures, 3 and 6, oc¬
cur to be annexed to it. If the multiplier circulate
three places, the circle of the product, for a like rea¬
fon, may extend nine hundred and ninety-nine times
as far as that of the multiplicand. But the number of
places is often much lefs.
The multiplication of interminate decimals may be
proven, by altering the order of the factors, (p. 295.
col. 2. par. 2.) or by reducing them both to vulgar
ffaftions in their loweft terms, multiplying thefe as di-
re&ed p. 310. col. 2. par. 3. and reducing the product
to a decimal.
Sefl. iv. Division o/Tnterminate Decimals. 32
Case I. “ When the dividend only is interminate,
“ proceed as in common _ arithmetic ; but, when the
“ figures of the dividend are exhaufted, annex the re-
“ peating figure, or the circulating figures in their or-
u der, inftead of cyphers, to the remainder.’,
Decimals.^
1 v ' 49
42
42
* 066
63
36
35
16
26
21
A R I T H
2d.] Divide .84J by 5.
•5)843'(*i68^
5
34
30
43
40
* 33
3°
33
3d.] Divide -6532$ by 8.
$).6532$(.o8i66/'.
Chap. X.
Interminate Ex. ift*] Divide .537^7 7»
* 0.66
In thefe accounts the quotient is never finite. It
may repeat if the dividend repeat ; or, if the dividend
circulate, it may circulate an equal number of places,
often more, and never fewer. The greateft poffible
extent of the circle is found by multiplying the divifor
into the number of places in the circle of the dividend.
Thus, a circulate of 3 places, divided by 3, quotes a
circulate of 3 times 3, or 9 places.
Case II. “ When the divifor is interminate, the
“ multiplications and fubtraftions muft be performed,
“ according to the directions given for repeating and
4t circulating decimals.”
Ex. ill.] Divide .37845 by g.
#)-37845(-68121
333333’
45II0
44444
672
55/
iijS
111
8
i
o
ad.] Divide .245892 by 2,18,
.2,i8,).245892(i.i27oo<5
218181,81,
27710,18,
2tbi8,i8,
5892,00,
4363^3>
1528,36,
1527,27,
*1090,90
1090,90
M E T I C. 323
The foregoing method is the only one which pro* Extradion
perly depends on the principles of decimal arithmetic j ,of Roots-
but it is generally thorter to proceed by the following y
rule.
“ Reduce the divifor to a vulgar fraCHon, multiply
“ the dividend by the denominator, and divide the
“ produCl by the numerator.”
Ex. ill.] Divide .37845 by
_ 9
5)3-4°6o5(.68i2i
2d.] Divide .3784/ by fi—y
3
2)i.i3550O56768?
Note 1. Divifion by g triples the dividend, and di-
vifion by 0 increafes the dividend one-half.
Note 2. When the divifor circulates, the denomina¬
tor of the vulgar fradion confills of 9’s, and the mul¬
tiplication is iooner performed by the contradlion ex¬
plained p. 295. col. 1. par. r It may be wrought in
the fame way, when the divifor repeats, and the deno¬
minator, of conlequence, is 9.
Note 3. If a repeating dividend be divided by a re¬
peating or circulating divifor ; or, if a circulating di¬
vidend be divided by a fimilar circulating dividend ;
or; if the number of places in the circle of the divifor
be a multiple of the number in the dividend j then the
produd of the dividend multiplied by the denominator
of the divifor will be terminate, fince like figures are
fubtraCed from like in the contracted multiplication,
and confequently no remainder left. The form of the
quotient depends on the divilbr, as explained at large,
p. 316. col. 1. par. 1.—p. 318. col. 2. par 3.
Note 4. In other cafes, the original and multiplied
dividend are fimilar, and the form of the quotient is
the fame as in the cafe of a finite divifor. Seep. 322.
col. 2. par. ?///. &c.
Note 5. If the terms be fimilar, or extended till
they become fo, the quotient is the fame as if they
were finite, and the operation may be conduced ac¬
cordingly ; for the quotient of vulgar fraClions that
have the fame denominator is equal to the quotient of
their numerators.
Chap. XI. Of the EXTRACTION of ROOTS. 33
The origin of powers by involution has already
been explained under the article Algebra. There
now remains therefore only to give the moft expedi¬
tious methods of extracting the fquarc and cube roots }
the reafbns of which will readily appear from what is
faid under that article. As for all powers above the
cube, unlefs fuch as are multiples of either the fquare
and cube, the extra&ion of their roots admits of no de¬
viation from the algebraic canon which muft be always
conftrufted on purpofe for them.
If the root of any power not exceeding the feventh
power, be a Angle digit, it may be obtained by infpec-
tion, from the following table of powers.
S f 2
ift
A R I T H
l6 j 64! 2)6
25 j 125! 625
36 ! 2161296
7 49 3432451
8 64 5124096
9 81 729 '
9 65615;
1024
312?
7776
16807
32768
;9°49
64
729
409'
15625
46656
128
2187
16384
78125
279936
M E T I C.
2 div. 725) 3625 refolvend-
Chap. XI.
   Extradlion I
3625 product. 133225 proof, of Roots. ]
2d.] Required the fquare root of 72, to eight de-
cimal places.
72.00000000(8.48528137 root.
64
n 7649 823543'
262144 2097152
53i44i4782969
Sedf. i. Extraction 0/the Square Root.
Rule I. “ Divide the given number into periods
of two figures, beginning at the right hand in inte¬
gers, and pointing toward the left. But in deci¬
mals, begin at the place of hundreds, and point to¬
ward the right. Every period will give one figure
in the root.”
II. “ Find by the table of powers, or by trial, the
neareft leffer rpot of the left hand period, place the
figure fb found in the quot, fubtrail its fquare from,
the faid period, and to the remainder bring down
the next period for a dividual or refolvend.”
III. “ Double the quot for the firft part of the di-
vilbr ; inquire how often this firlt part is contained
in the whole rdblvend, excluding the units place ;
and place the figure denoting the anfiwer both in
the quot and on the right of the firft partand you
have the divifor complete.”
IV. “ Multiply the divifor thus completed by the
figure put in the quot, fubtratfi the produd from
the refolvend, and to the remainder bring down the
following period for a new refolvend, and then pro¬
ceed as before.”
Note lit. If the firft part of the divifor, with unity
fuppofod to be annexed to it, happen to begreater than
the refolvend, in this cafe place o in the quot, and alfo
on the right of the partial divifor ; to the refolvend
bring down another period ; and proceed to divide as
before.
Note 2. If the produd of the quotient-figure into
the divifor happen to be greater than the refolvend,
you muft go back, and give a lefter figure to the quot.
Note 3. If, after every period of the given number
k brought down, there happen at laft to be a remain^
der. you may continue the operation, by annexing pe¬
riods or pairs of cyphers, till there be no remainder,
or till the decimal oart of the quot repeat or circulate,
or till you think proper to limit it.
JLx. 1 ft. Required the fquare root of 133225..
After getting half the de¬
cimal places, work by con-
traded divifion for the other
half; and obtain them with
the fame accuracy as if the.
work had been at large.
3d.] Required the f juare root of .2916-.
• 29r6(.54 root.
25
104) 416
416
If the Square root of a vulgar fradion be required,
find the root of the given numerator for a new numera¬
tor, and find the root of thegiven denominator for a new
denominator. Thus, the fquare root of £ is -j-, and the
root of -£f- is •£; and thus the root of y(~6^) is £=2^.
But if the root of either the numerator or denomi¬
nator cannot be ex traded without a remainder, reduce
the vulgar fradion to a decimal, and then ex trad the
root, as in Ex. 3d. above.
Square number 133225(365 root
9
S div. 66) 432 refolvend.
396 produd.
Sed. ii. Extraction of the Cube Root.
Rule I. “ Divide the given number into periods
“ of three figures, beginning at the right hand in in-
“ tegers, and pointing toward the left. But in deci-
“ mals, begin at the place of thousands, and point to-
“ ward the right. The number of periods Ihows the
“ number of figures in the root.”
II. “ Find by the table of powers, or by trial, the
t4 neareft lefler root of the Jefi hand period > place the
“ figure fo found in the quot ; fubtrad its cube from
“ the faid period; and to the remainder bring down
“ the next period for a dividual or refolvend.”
The divifor conlifts of three parts, which may be
found as follows..
UL
|4phap. XI. A R I T H
III. “ The firft part of the diviibr is found thus :
“ Multiply the fquare of the quot by 3, and to the pro-
’ “ dubf annex two cypher^ j then enquire how ofien this
“ firh part of the diviibr is containeti in the refoivend,
“ and pl.acethe.tigure denoting the anfwer in the quot.”
IV. “ Multiply the former quot by 3, and the pro-
“ dubl by the figure now put in the quot ; to this laft
<< produbf annex a cypher; and you have the fcond
“ part of the divifor. Again, fquare the figure now
“ put in the quot for the third part of the divifbr ;
“ place thele three parts under one another, as in ad-
“ dition ; and their fum will be the divifor complete.”
V. “ Multiply the diviibr, thus completed, by the
“ figure laft put in the quot, lubtract the produbl from
“ the refoivend, and to the remainder bring down the
“ following period for a new refoivend, and then pro-
“ ceed as before.”
Note 1. If the firft part of the divifor happen to be
equal to or greater than the relblvend, in this cafe,
place o in the quot, annex two cyphers to the laid firft
part of the divifor, to the refoivend bring down an¬
other period, and proceed to divide as before.
Note 2. If the produbl of the quotient figure into
the divifor happen to be greater than the refelvend, yeu
muft go back, and give a lefler figure to the quot.
Note 3. If, after every period of the given number
is brought down, there happen at lafi to be a remainder,
you may continue the operation by annexing periods
of three cyphers till there be no remainder, or till you
have as many decimal places in the root as you judge
neceffary.
Ex. ift. Required the cube root of 12812904.
ME T I C,
234
234
936
702
468
Square 54756
2d.] Required
270000 1
5400}-
36 3
Proof.
Square 54756
234
219024
164268
ic9512
Cube x 2812904
the cube root of 28^.
28.750000(3.06 root.
27
>1750000 refolv.
Dir. 275436 X 6 1652616 prod.
3.06
3.06
1836
?!!_*
Sq. 9.3636
97384 rem.
Proof.
Sq. 9-3636
3.06
561816
280908
28.652616
97384n
Cube number 128x2904(234 root.
8 
ift part 1200 > )4812 refoivend.
2d part 180 a
3d part 9 ;
1 divifor 1389x3=4167 produft.
ift part 158700 > )S45904 refoivend.
2d part 2760 >
3d part 16 )
2 divifor 161476x4=645904 produff.
28.750000 cube.
If the cube root of a vulgar fraflion be required,
find the cube root of the given numerator for a new
numerator, and the cube root of the given denomina¬
tor for a new denominator. Thus, the cube root of
T%r is x> and tlie cufie root of > and tl:ius tfic
cube root of '-I* ( = 1 s-0 is 24.
But if the root of either the numerator or denomina¬
tor cannot be extracted without a remainder, reduce
the vulgar fradHon to a decimal, and then extradl the
root.
A R I
ARIUS, a divine of the fourth century, the head
and founder of the Arians, a feft which denied the e-
ternal divinity and fubftantiality of the Word. He
was born in Lybia, near Egypt. Eufebius, bifhop of
Nicomedia,. a great favourite of Conllantia, filler of the
emperor Gonftantine, and wife of Licinius, became a
zealous promoter of Arianifni. He took Arius under
his proteflron, and introduced him to Conftantia ; lb
that the lefl increased, and feveral bilhops embraced it
openly. There arofe, however, fuch difputes in the
cities, that the emperor, in order to remedy thefe dif
orders., was obliged to aflemble the council of Nice,
where, in the year 325, the doflrine of Arius was
condemned. Arius was banifhed by the emperor, all
his books were ordered to be burnt, and capital pu
nilhment was denounced againft whoever dared to keep
them. After five years baniftmient, he was recalled to
A R I
Conftantinopie, where he prefented the emperor with
a confeffion of his faith, drawn up fo artfully, that.it
fully fatisfied him. Notwithftanding which, Athan^-
fius, now advanced to the fee of Alexandria, refufed to
admit him and his followers to communion. rI his fo
enraged them, that, by their intereft at court, they
procured that prelate to be depofed and banilhed. But
the church of Alexandria ftill refufing to admit Arius
into thtir communion, the emperor fent for him to
Conftantinopie ; where, upon delivering in a freffi con¬
feffion of hh faith in terms lers offenfive, the emperor
commanded Alexander, the bifhop of that church, to
receive him the next day into his comm inion : but that
very evening Arius died. The manner of his death
was very extraordinary : as his friends were conducting
him in triumph to the great church of Conftantinopie,
Arius, prefled by a natural neceffity,ftepped afide toeafe
him-
ARK [ 326 ] ARK
ArJc- himftlf; but expired on the fpot, his bowels gulhing
' out.
But the herely did not die with the herefiarch : his
party continued Itillin great credit at court. Athanafius,
indeed, was Toon recalled from banilhment, and as foon
removed again ; the Arians being countenanced by the
government, and making and depofing biihops as it
beft lerved their purposes. In Ihort, this leCt conti¬
nued with great lulire above 300 years : it was the
reigning religion of Spain for above two centuries ; it
was on the throne both in the eaft and weft ; it prevailed
in Italy, France, Pannonia, and Africa ; and was not
extirpated till about the end of the 8th century.
This herefy was again fet on foot in the weft by
Servetus, who, in 1531, wrote a little treatiie againft
the myftery of the Trinity. After his death Arianiltn
got footing in Geneva ; from whence at removed into
Poland ; but, at length, degenerated, in a great mca-
fure, into Socininnifm. Eratmus leems to have aimed at
reviving Arianifm, in his commentaries on the New
Teftament; and the learned Grotius feems to lean a
little that way.
With regard to the ftate of Arianifm in England, it
may be liifficient to obferve, that from the numerous
publications of that call which are daily making their
appearance, it feems to be rather a growing, than ex¬
ploded, doctrine there.
Plate LIU. ARK, or Noah’s Ark, a floating veflel built by
fig. 1. Noah, for the prefervation of his family, and the leve-
ral fpecies of animals during the deluge.
The ark has afforded leveral points of curious inqui¬
ry among the critics and naturalifts, relating to its
form, capacity, materials, &c.
The wood whereof the ark was built is called in
the Hebrew Gopher-wood, and in the Septuagint fquare
timbers. Some tranflate the original cedar, others pine,
others box, &c. Pelletier prefers cedar on account of
its incorruptibility, and the great plenty of it in Afia ;
whence Herodotus and Theophraftus relate, that the
Kings of Egypt and Syria built whole fleets thereof,
inftead of deal.
The learned Mr Fuller, in his Mifcellanies, has ob-
ferved, that the wood whereof the ark was built was
nothing but that which the Greeks call Kvica^cro-o^, or
the cyprefs-tree ; for, taking away the termination, ku-
par and gopher differ very little in found. This ob-
fervation the great Bochart has confirmed, and fliown
very plainly that no country abounds fomuch with this
wood as that part of Affyria which lies about Baby-
lon.
In what place Noah built and finilhed his ark is no
lefs made a matter of difputation. But the moll pro¬
bable opinion is, that it was budt in Chaldea, in the
territories of Babylon, where there was fo great a quan¬
tity of cyprefs in the groves and gardens in Alexander’s
time, that that prince built a whole fleet out of it for
want of timber. And this conjefture is confirmed by
. the Chaldean tradition, which makes Xithurus (ano¬
ther name for Noah) fet fail from that country.
The dimenfions of the ark, as given by Mofes, are
3CO cubits in length, 50 in breadth, and 30 in height;
which feme have thought too fcanty, confidering the
number of things it was to contain ; and hence an ar¬
gument has been drawn againft the authority of the
relation. To fblve this difficulty many of the ancient
fathers and the modern critics, have been put to very Ark.
milerable ftufts : But Buteo and Kircher have proved 1 —v 1
geometrically, that taking the common cubit of a
foot and a half, the ark was abundantly fufficient for
all the animals fuppofed to be lodged in it. Snellius
computes the ark to have been above half an acre in
area. Father Lamy ffiows, that it was no feet longer
than the church of St Mary at Paris, and 64 feet nar¬
rower : and if fo, it mull have been longer than St
Paul’s church in London, from weft to eaft, and broad¬
er than that church is high in the infide, and 54 feet
of our mealure in height; and Dr Arbuthnot computes
it to have been'81062 tons.
The things contained in it were, befides eight per-
fons of Noah’s family, one pair of every fpecies of un¬
clean animals, and leven pair of every fpecies of clean
animals, with provifions for them all during the whole
year. The former appears, at firft view, almoft infi¬
nite ; but if we come to a calculation, the number of
fpecies of animals will be found much lefs than is ge¬
nerally imagined ; out of which, in this cafe, are ex¬
cepted fuch animals as can live in the water 5 and bi-
fliop Wilkins fhows that only 72 of the quadruped kind
needed a place in the ark.
By the defcription Mofes gives of the ark, it ap¬
pears to have been divided into three ftories, each ten
cubits or 15 feet high ; and it is agreed on, as moft
probable, that the loweft ftory was for the beafts, the
middle for the food, and the upper for the birds, with
Noah and his family ; each ftory being fubdivided in¬
to different apartments, ftalls, &c. though Jofephus,
Philo, and other commentators, add a kind of fourth
ftory under all the reft; being, as it were, the hold of
the veffel, to contain the ballaft and receive the filth
and feces of fo many animals : but F. Calmet thinks,
that what is here reckoned a ftory, was no more than
what is called the keel of (hips, and ferved only for a
confervatory of freffi water. Drexelius makes 300 a-
partments ; F. Fournier, 333 ; the anonymous author
of the queftions on Genefis, 400; Buteo, Tempora-
rius, Arias Montanus, Hoftus, Wilkins, Lamy, and
others, fuppofe as many partitions as there were diffe¬
rent lorts of animals. Pelletier makes only 72, viz.
36 for the birds, and as many for the beafts. His rea-
ion is, that if we fuppofe a greater number, as 333 or
460, each of the eight perlons in the ark muft have
had 37, 41, or 50 ftalls to attend and cleanfe daily,
which he thinks impoffible to have been done. ' But
it is oblerved, that there is not much in this : to di-
miniffi the number of ftalls without a diminution of a-
nimals is vain; it being perhaps more difficult to take
care of 300 animals in 72 ftalls than in 300. As to
the number of animals contained in the ark, Buteo
computes that it could not be equal to 500 horfes; he
even reduces the whole to the dimenfions of 56 pair of
oxen. F. Lamy enlarges it to 64 pair of oxen, or
128 oxen ; lb that, fuppofing one ox equal to two hor¬
fes, if the ark had room for 256 horfes, there muft
have been room for all the animals. But the fame au¬
thor demonftrates, that one floor of it would fuffice for
500 horfes, allowing nine fquare feet to a horfe.
As to the food in the fecond ftory, it is obferved by
Buteo from Columella, that 30 or 40 pounds of hay
ordinarily fuffices for an ox a-day ; and that a Iblid
cubit of hay, as ufually preffed down in our hay ricks,
weighs
Plate Mil.
Noah’s Ark.
•v.
ARK [ 3*7 ] ARK
weighs about 40 pounds ; fo that a fquare cubit of- In the fecond temple there was alfo an ark, made
hay is more than enough for one ox in one day. Now, of the fame fliape and dtmenfions with the firft, and
it appears, that the lecond ftory contained 150,000 put in the lame place, but without any of its contents
folid cubits ; which divided between 206 oxen, will af- and peculiar honours. It was ufed as a reprelentative
ford each more hay, by two-thirds, than he can eat in of the former on the day of expiation, and a repofitory
a year. Bilhop Wilkins computes all the carnivorous of the original copy of the holy Scriptures, colle&ed
animals equivalent, as to the bulk of their bodies, and by Ezra and the men of the great fynagogue, after the
their food, to 27 wolves, and all the reft to 280 beeves, captivity. And in imitation of this, the Jews to this
For the former, he allows 1825 ftieep ; and for the day have a kind of ark in their fynagogues, wherein
latter, 109,500 cubits of hay: ail which will be eafi- their facred books are repofited. This they call-«ro».
ly contained in the two firft ftories, and a deal of room Leo of Modena gives a defeription thereof in his Ac-
to fpare. As to the third ftory, nobody doubts of its count of the Cuftoms and Ceremonies of thofe of his
being fufficient for the fowls ; with Noah, his ions, Nation. “ The Jews (fays he), in the eaftern fide of
and daughters. Upon die whole, the learned biihop their fynagogues, have an ark, or armory, called aro#,
remarks, that of the two, it appears much more diffi- in memory ot the ark of the covenant. In this are
cult to aflign a number and bulk of neceffary things to preferved the five books of Moles, written on vellum,-
anfwer the capacity of the ark, than to find fufficient with ink made on purpole,” &c. Some have fuppofed
room for the ieveral fpecies of animals already known that the figure of this ark is ftill remaining on the
to have been there. This he attributes to the imper- triumphal arch of Titus at Rome ; though Villalpandus
fe&ion of our lift of animals, efpecially thofe of the and others, with greater reaibn, are of opinion, that
unknown parts of the earth ; adding, that the moll it is the table of ffiew-breadr Prideanx’s Con. Vol. i.
expert mathematician at this day could not- affign the p.209. Tertullian calls this ark Armarium Judaicum j
proportion of a veflel better accommodated to the pur- whence the phrafe, to be in the armory of the fynagogue ^
pofe than is here done : and hence he finally concludes, q. d. in the number of canonical writings,
that the capacity of the ark, which had been made an A cheft or coffer, very nearly relembling the Jewiffi
obje£lion againft feripture, ought to be efteemeda con- ark, and called ththoufe of the God, was found in Hua-
firmation of its divine authority ; fince, in thofe ruder heine, one of the illands in the fouthern fea. Mr
ages, men, being lefs verlcd in arts and philolbphy, Banks could obtain no other information concerning
were more obnoxious to vulgar prejudices than now ) it than what the name imports. Hawkefworth’s Ac-
fo that, had it been an human invention, it would have count, &c. Vol. ii. p. 252.
been contrived according to thofe wild apprehenfions ARKLOW, a fea-port town of Ireland, in the
which arife from-a confufed and general viewr of things county of Wicklow, and province of Leinften W.
as much too big as it had been reprefented too little. Long. 6. 15. N. Lat. 52. 55.
But it muft be oblerved, that, befides the places re- ARLES; a city of Provence in France, feated on-
quifite for the beafts and birds, and their provifions, the eaft fide of the Rhone, on a hill, whofe declivity is
there was room required for Noah to lock up houfe- towards the north. It is an archbiffiop’s fee ; and is
hold utenfils, the inftruments of hulbandry, grains and celebrated for its antiquities both within and without
feeds to fow the earth with after the deluge; for which the city. Thofe of which any remains are now to be
purpofe it is thought that he might ipare room in the feen are the amphitheatre, the obelifk, the Elyfian_
third ftory for 36 cabbins, befides a kitchen, a hall, Fields, the fepulchres, columns with their capitals,bufts,
four chambers, and a fpace about 48 cubits in length pedeftals, aquedudls, with fome remains of the Capitol,
to walk in. and the temples of their gods. The other ancient mo-
UII. -A-ak of the Covenant, a fmall cheft or coffer, three numents are entirely deftroyed. Under the amphithe-
feet nine inches in length, two feet three inches in atre, in 1651, they found the ftatue of Venus, which
breadth, and two feet three inches in height, in wlvch was worfliipped by this city ; and has been fince car-
were contained the golden pot that had manna, and ried to the caftle of Verfailles. It is a mafterpiece
Aaron’s rod, and the tables of the covenant. This which will always be admired by connoiffeurs.
coffer was made of fliittim-wood, and covered with Theamphitheatreisoneof themoft remarkable pieces
a lid, which was made of folid gold. The ark w as of antiquity. It was built by the Romans, but the time
repofited in the holieft place of the tabernacle. It is unknown, though fbme lay by Julius Csefar. It is
was taken by the Philiftines, and detained 20, fome of an oval form, and about 400 yards in circumfe-
fay 40 years, at Kirjath-jearim ; but the people be- rence, and the front is 34 yards in height. The raid¬
ing afflidled with emerods on account of it, returned die, called the Arena, is 142 yards wide and 104
it with divers prefents. It was afterwards placed in broad. The porticos or piazzas are three ftories, built
the temple. with ftone of a prodigious fize. Each of them confifts
The lid or covering of the ark was called the propi- 0f 60 arches, which ftill remain ; and the walls are of
Uatory or mercy feat-, over which were two figures a furprifing thicknefs, but gone to decay,
placed caWe&Cherubims, with expanded wings of a pe- The obelilk is the only one of this kind to be feen in
culiar form. Here the Schechinah relied both in the France. It feems to be one of'the forty brought from
tabernacle and temple in a vifible cloud : hence were Egypt to Rome, becaufe it is of the lame oriental gra-
iffuedtlie Divine oracles by an audible voice ; and.the nite with them. They are generally full of hierogly-
lugh prieft appeared before this mercy-feat once every phic chara&ers; but this is quite fmooth. In 1675,-
year on the great day of expiation ; and the Jews, it was found in a private garden near the walls of the
wherever they worlhipped, turned their faces towards city, not far from the Rhone. It confifts of one piece j-
the place where the ark Hood. and is 52 feet high, and 7 in diameter at the bafe. It
ARM E 328 ] ARM
Arleux, ^ now fupported with four lions made of bronze ; and
II on the top a blue ball is placed, with the arms of
Aimacales. prance) and over that a fun.
'r The Pagans burning place called the Elyjian Fields,
is without the city, upon an agreeable hill, divided into
two part-. The firft, called Mouiaires, has very few
tombs, they having been broken to build the walls of
gardens, which are made in that place. The fecond,
called Elifcamp, contains a great number. Thofe of
the Pagans have the letters D. M. which fignifies Diis
Manibus. Thofe pf the Chriltians have a crofs. Pieces
of coin of gold, filver, and bronze, are found here J
as alfo urns, lamps, and cups, without number.
Here is a royal academy of Iciences, con filling of
thirty members, who mull be natives, gentlemen, and
inhabitants of the city- If enjoys the lame privileges
as that at Paris. Arles is lurrounded with nlarlhy land,
which renders the air full of vapours, and makes it not
very wholefome. Long. 4. 4S. E. Lat. 43 40.
ARLEUX, an ancient town of the Netherlands,
in Cambrelis, with a caftle. It was taken by the French
in 1645,'and retaken by the allies in 1711 ; but the
French got pofleffion again the lame month. E. Long.
3. 16. N. Lat. 59. 17.
ARLON, an ancient town of the Netherlands, for¬
merly a ilrong place, but now di mantled. It belongs
to the houie of Auftria. E. Long. 15. 50. Lat. 49. 4.
ARM, a part of the human body, terminating at
one end in the (houldir, and at the other in the hand.
See Anatomy, No. 48.
Arm, among fp rtimen, is applied to a horfe, when,
by prefiing down his head, he endeavours to defend
himfelf againft the bit, to prevent his being cliecked by
it. The rented) is, to have a wooden ball covered
with velvet, or other matter, put on his chaul, which
will fo prefs him between the jaw bones as to prevent
his bringing his head fo. near his breaft.
Arm, in geography, is ufed for the branch-of a fea
or river. Italy and Sicily are only parted by an arm
of the fea. St George’s arm in the Mediterranean is
the Thracian Boiphorus.
Arm "is alfo uled figuratively for power. The fecu*
lar arm is the lay or temporal authority of a iecular
judge j to which recourfe is had for the execution of
the fentences palled by ecclefiallical judges.
The church Iheds no blood : even the judges of in-
quifition, after they have found the perfon guilty,
furrender him to the lecular arm. The council of
Antioch, held in 341, decrees, that recourfe be had
to the fecular arm to reprefs thofe who refufe obedi¬
ence to the church : for lecular arm, they here ufe
exterior power.
Arm, in refpecfl of the magnet. A loadftone is faid
to be armed, when it is capped, cafed, or let in iron
or Heel, in order to make it take up the greater
weight, and alio to diltinguilh readily its poles. See
Magnetism.
ARMACALES, a river of Babylon (Abydenus) 5
called Fojfa Regia, the Royal Trench or Cut (Polybius) ;
the Royal River (Ptolemy); Almarchur (Pliny);
Uaarmalcha (Ammiau) ; a factitious channel or cut,
made by Nabuchadonotor, and a horn or branch of the
Euphrates, (Abydenus). The Euphrates naturally di¬
vides into two channels, one palling through Babylon,
the other through Selucia, and then falls into the Ti-
No. 29.
gris : the faftitious channel between thele two is the Armada.
Royal River ; which mixes with the Tigris, a great ‘“"'"v 
deal lower down than Selucia at Apamea, (Ptolemy).
AkMADA, a Spanifhv term, tignifying a fleet of
men of war. T he armada which attempted to invade
England in the time of Queen Elizabeth, is famous in
hiftory.
This armada, to which the Spaniards, in confidence '
of fuccefs, gave the name of Invincible, confiflingof 150
Ihips, moll of which were greatly tuperior in flrength
and fize to any that had been feen before. It had on
board near 20,000 foldiers and 8000 failors, beltdes
2000 volunteers of the moft diftinguifhed families in
Spain. It carried 2650 great guns, was victualled for
halt a year, and contained fuch a quantity of military
ftores, as only the Spanifh monarch, enriched by the
treafures of the Indies and America, could fupply.
The troops on board were to be joined by 34,000 more
which the Duke of Parma had aflembled in the neigh¬
bourhood of Nieuport and Dunkirk. For traniport-
ing thefe, he had, with incredible labour, provided a
great number of flat-bottomed veflels, andhad brought
failors to navigate them from the towns in the Baltic.
Molt of thefe velfels had been bui’t at Antwerp ; and
as he durft not venture to bring them from thence by
fea to Nieuport, left they Ihould have been intercepted
by the Dutch, he was obliged to lend them along the
Scheld to Ghent, from Ghent to Bruges by the canal
which joins thefe towns, and from Bruges to Nieuport
by a new canal which he dug on the prefent occafion.
This laborious undertaking, in which leveral thoufand
workmen had been employed, was already finilhed,
and the Duke now waited for the arrival of the Spanilh
fleet ; hoping, that as Lon as it Ihould approach, the
Dutch and EngMh Ihips which cruiied upon the coall
would retire into their harbours.
When the news reached England that this mighty
fleet was preparing to fail, terror and ^onfternation
univerfally feized the inhabitants. A fleet of not above
30 lliip-' of war, and thofe very fmall in comparifon,
was all that was to oppofe it by fea. All the com¬
mercial towns of England, however, were required to
furnilh Ihips for reinforcing this fmall navy. The citi¬
zens of London, inftead of fifteen veflels, which they
were commanded to equip, voluntarily fitted out dou¬
ble the number ; and the gentry and nobility equipped
43 Ihips at their ow n charge. Lord Howard of Ef¬
fingham was admiral ; and under him lerved Drake,
Hawkins, and Frobilher, all of them renowned as Tea¬
men of courage and capacity.' The principal fleet
was ftationed at Plymouth. A fmaller fquadron, con-
filling of 40 veflels, F.nglifh and Flemtlh, was com¬
manded by Lord Seymour fecond fon of protestor So-
inerfet, and lay off Dunkirk in order to intercept the
Duke of Parma.
The land-forces of England were more numerous
than thofe of the enemy, but inferior in difeipline and
experience. An army of 20,000 men was dilpofed in
different bodies along the fouth coaft, with orders to
retire backwards and wafte the country, if they could
iiqt prevent the Spaniards from landing ; 22,000 foot
and 1000 horfe, under the command of the Earl of
Lekefter, were ftationed at Tilbury, in order to de¬
fend. the capital; and the principal army, confining of
34,000 foot and 2000 horfe, commanded by Lord
Hunfdon,
A R M [ 329 ] ARM
Armada. Hunfdon, was referved for guarding the Queen’s per-
f011) ancl appointed to march whitherfoever the enemy
Ihould appear. Thefe armies, though all the Spanifh
forces had been able to land, would poffibly have been
fufficient to protect the liberties of their country. But
as the fate of England, in that event, muft depend on
the ifliie of a fingle battle, all men of ferious reflecfion
entertained the moft awful apprehenfions of the fhock
of at lead 50,000 veterans, commanded by experien¬
ced officers, under fo confummate a general as the
Duke of Parma. The Queen alone was undaunted.
She iffued all her orders with tranquillity, animated
her people to a fteady refillance, and employed every
refource which either her domeftic lituation or her fo¬
reign alliances could afford her. She even appeared
on horieback in the camp at Tilburry ; and riding
through the lines, dilcovered a cheerful and animated
countenance, exhorted the foldiers to remember their
duty to their country and their religion, and profeffed
her intention, tho’ a woman, to lead them herlelt into
the field againft the enemy, and rather periffi in battle
than furvive the ruin and flavery of her people. “ 1
know (faid fhe, intrepidly) I have but the weak and
feeble arm of a woman 5 but I have the heart of a
king, and of a king of England too !” The heroic fpirit
of Elizabeth communicated iti'elf to the army, and
every man refolved to die rather than defert his ftation.
The Spaniffi armada was ready in the beginning of
May } but its failing was retarded by the death of the
Marquis of Santa Croce the admiral, and that alfo of
the vice-admiral the Duke of Paliano. The command
of the expedition was therefore given to the Duke of
Medina Sidonia, a man entirely unexperienced in lea
affairs. Phis promotion, in Pome meafure, ferved to
fruflrate the defign, which was alfo rendered Ids fuc-
cefsful by fome other accidents. Upon leaving the
port of Lifbon, the armada next day met with a vio¬
lent tempeft, which funk fome of the finalleft of their
Shipping, and obliged the fleet to put back into the
harbour. After fome time fpent in refitting, they put
again to fea. Being deferied by Fleming, a Scottifh
pirate, who was roving in thofe leas, he immediately
failed-towrards the Englifn fleet, and informed the ad¬
miral of their approach. Effingham had juft time to
get out of port when he faw the Spanifli armada co¬
ming full (ad fowards him, difpofed in the form of a
crefcent, and ftretching the diftance of feven miles
from the extremity of one divifion to that ot the other.
The Englilh admiral, conlidering that the Spaniards
■would probably be much fuperior to him in dole fight,
by realon of the fize ot their (hips and the number of
their troops, wifely rdolved to content himfelf with
haraffing them in their voyage, and with watching
attentively all the advantages which might be derived
from ftorms, crofs winds, and iuch like fortuitous ac¬
cidents. It was not long before he dtl'cerned a favour¬
able opportunity of attacking the vice-admiral Recal-
do. This he did in perfon ; and on that occafion dif-
pldyed fo much dexterity in working his fhip, and in
loading and firing his guns, as greatly alarmed the
Spaniards for the fate of the vice-admiral. From that
time they kept much clofer to one another j notwith-
ftanding which, the Englifli on the fame day attacked
on of the largeft.galeaffes. Other Spanifli ftiips came
up in time to her relief ; but in their hurry one of the At
principal galleons, which had a great part of the trea-
fure on board, ran foul of another ffiip, and had one
of her mafts broken. In confequence of this misfor¬
tune (lie fell behind, and was taken by Sir Francis
Drake; who on the fame day took another capital
fliip, which had been accidentally fet on fire.
Several other rencounters happened, and in all of
them the Englifh proved viftorious, through the great
advantage which they derived from the lightnefs of
their ftiips, and the dexterity of the Tailors. The Spa¬
niards in that age did not fufficiently underftand nau¬
tical mechanics, to be able to avail themlelves of the
unufual magnitude of their fliips. The Engliffi failed
round them, approached or retired, with a velocity
that filled them with amazement, and did infinitely
greater execution with their cannon : for while every
ftiot of theirs proved effe&ual, their ftiips fuffered
very little damage from the enemy, whole guns were
planted too high, and generally fpent their force in air.
The Spaniard-, however, ftill continued to advance
till they came oppofite to Calais; there the Duke de
Medina having ordered them to call anchor, he lent
information to the Duke of Parma of his arrival, and
intreated him to haften the embarkation of his forces.
Farnefe accordingly began to put his troops on board*
But at the lame time he informed Medina, that agree¬
ably to the King’s inftrudtions, the veffels which he
had prepared were proper only for tranfporting the
troops, but were utterly unfit for fighting ; and for
this reafon, till the armada were brought ftill nearer,
and the coaft cleared of the Dutch ftiips which ha<i
blocked up the harbours of Nieuport and Dunkirk, he
could not ftir from his prefent ftation, without expo-
ling his army to certain ruin, the conlequence of
Which would probably be the entire lofs of the Nether¬
lands.
In compliance with this requeft, the armada was
ordered to advance ; and it had arrived within fight of
Dunkirk, between the Englilh fleet on the one hand,
and the Dutch on the other, when a fudden calm put
a flop to all its motions. In this fituation the three
fleets remained for one whole day. About the middle
of the night a breeze fprung up ; and Lord Howard
had recourfe to an expedient which had been happily
deviled on the day before. Having filled eight ftiips
with pitch, fulphur, and other combuftible materials,
he let fire to them, and fent them before the wind
againft the different divifions of the Spanilh fleet.
When the Spaniards beheld thefe fliips in flames ap¬
proaching towards them, it brought to their remem¬
brance the havock which had been made by the fire-
fhips employed againft the Duke of Parma’s bridge at
the liege of Antwerp. The darknefs of the night in-
creafed the terror with which their imaginations were
overwhelmed, and the panic flew from one end of the
fleet to the other. Each crew, anxious only for their
own prefervafion, thought ot nothing but howT to efcape
from the prefent danger. Some of them took time to
weigh their anchors, but others cut their cables, and
fuffered their ftiips to drive with blind precipitation,
without confidering whether they did not thereby ex-
pofe themfelves to a greater danger than that which
they were fo felicitous to avoid. In this confufion the
T t fliips
Armada,
Armadilla
ARM [
(hips ran foul of one another : the (hock was dreadful,
and feveral of them received fo much damage as to be
rendered unfit for future ufe.
When day-light returned, Lord Howard had the
fatisfaflion to perceive that his ftratagem had fully
produced the defired eflfeft. The enemy were (till in
extreme diforder, and their (hips widely feparated and
difperfed. His fleet had lately received a great aug¬
mentation by the (hips fitted out by the nobility and
gentry, and by thofe under Lord Seymour, who had
left Judin de Naflau as alone fufficient to guard the
coaft of Flanders. Being bravely feconded by Sir
Francis Drake and all the other officers, he made hade
to improve the advantage which was now prefented to
him, and attacked the enemy in different quarters at
the fame time with the utmod impetuofity and ardour.
The engagement began at four in the morning, and
laded till fix at night. The Spaniards difplayed in
every rencounter the mod intrepid bravery ; but, from
the caufes already mentioned, they did very little exe¬
cution againfl the Englifh, while many of their own
(hips were greatly damaged, and twelve of the larged
were either run aground, or funk, or compelled to
furrende.r.
It was now evident that the purpofe of the armada
was utterly fruflrated. The Spanifli admiral, after
many unfuccefsful rencounters, prepared therefore to
make his way home ; but as the winds were contrary
to his return through the Channel, he refolved to take
the circuit of the ifland. The Englifli fleet followed
him for fome time ; and had not their ammunition
fallen fliort, through the negligence of the public offi¬
ces in fupplying them, they had obliged the armada to
furrender at difcretion. Such a conclufion of that
vain-glorious enterprize would have been truly illuflri-
ous to the Englifh, but the event was fcarce lefs fatal
to the Spaniards. The armada was attacked by a
violent dorm in pafling the Orkneys; and the (hips,
having already lofl their anchors, were obliged to keep
at fea, while the mariners, unaccudomed to hardfliips,
and unable to manage fuch unwieldy veflels, allowed
them to drive on the weflern ides of Scotland, or on
the coaff of Ireland, where they were miferably wreck¬
ed. Not one half of the fleet returned to Spain, and
a dill fmaller proportion of the foldiers and ieamen;
yet, Philip, whofe command of temper w as equal to his
ambition, received with an air of tranquillity the news
of fo humbling a difader. “ I fent my fleet (faid he)
to combat the Englifli, not the elements. God be
praifed that the calamity is not greater!” This ca¬
lamity, however, was fenfibly felt all over Spain, and
there was fcarcely a fingle family of rank in the king¬
dom that did not go into mournings for the death of
fome near relation ; infomuch that Philip, dreading the
effedl which this univerfal face of forrow might pro¬
duce upon the minds of the people, imitated the con-
du£l of the Roman fenate after the battle of Cannae,
and publiflied an edidt to abridge the time of public
mourning.
ARMADILLA, in the Spanifli America, denotes
a fquadron of men of war, to the number of fix or
eight, from twenty-four to fifty pieces of cannon,
which the king maintains, to prevent foreigners from
trading with the Spaniards and the Indians, both in
time of war and peace.
33° 1 ARM
The veflels of this armadilla are thofe that have been Armadillo,
fo much talked of, under the name of guarda cojlas. Armagh.
They have even power to take all Spanifli merchant-
(hips they meet with on the coafts that have not licen¬
ces from the king.
The South fea has its armadilla as well as the North
fea. The ordinary abode of the former are at Calao,
a port of Lima j that of the latter at Carthagena.
ARMADILLO, in zoology, a fynonime of the da-
fypus. See Dasypus.
ARMAGEDDON, a place fpoken of in the Re¬
velations (xvi. 16.), which literally fignifies the moun¬
tain of Mageddon or Megiddo, a city fituated in the
great plain at the foot of mount Carmel, where king
Jofiah received his mortal w'ound in the battle agaiuft
Necho king ot Egypt. At Armageddon, the three
unclean fpirits, coming out of the dragon’s mouth,
(hall gather together the kings of the earth to the
battle of the great day of God Almighty (Rev. xvi.
13, 14). The word armageddon, according to Mr
Pool, does not fignify any particular place, but is here
an allufion, as fome think, to that of Megiddo, menti¬
oned Judges v. ty. where Barak overcame Silera with
his great army, and where Jofiah was (lain (zKings xxiii.
30). Others tranflate this word, the mountain of the
gofpel, and others, the mountain of apples or fruits.
ARMAGH, a county of Ireland, bounded by
Louth on the fouth ; Lough neagh, on the north ;
Tyrone and Monaghan, on the weft ; and Down, in
part, on the eaft, from w’hich it is feparated by the
river Newry. It is in length 32 miles, in breadth 17 ;
and is divided into five baronies, containing about
170,620 acres. Both the air and foil are good, e-
fpecially the latter, which is faid to be the richeft in
Ireland $ only there is a certain trail in it called the
Fewes, that is, hilly and barren. The members it (ends
to parliament are fix, viz. two for the city of Armagh,
two for the county, and two for the borough of Charle-
mont.
Armagh, (landing near the river Kalin, gives name
to the country, and is the fee of the primate of all Ire¬
land. It is laid to have been founded by St Patrick
in the fifth century ; and in 1142, it was conftituted
an archbiftioprick, together with Dublin, Caftvel, and
Tuam, by cardinal Papyreo, with the confent of the
king, dukes, bifhops, abbots, and dates of Ireland.
This Papyreo was fent into Ireland by Pope Eugenius,
to reform the abufes that had crept into the church-
difcipline of that country. Here was anciently a fa¬
mous monaftery built by St Columbo, or Columbanus,
about the year 610. The cathedral was often burnt,
but as often rebuilt and enlarged, and particularly by
Patrick Scanlain, about 1262. His fucceflbr Nicho¬
las, fon of Molifla, befide books, rich ecclefiaftical veft-
ments, and other things, bellowed on it an annual pen-
fion of twenty marks. He appropriated al(o to his fee
the manor of Dromyfltin. He died the 10th of May,
1303. This town was firft fubje6ted to the Englifh
by John de Courcy ; but afterwards entirely deftroyed
by Tir Oen, or O’Neal, in Queen Elizabeth’s time.
However, it was afterwards recovered, rebuilt, and
garrifoned by the Englifli.
The fcfee of Armagh is valued in the king’s books,
by an extent taken anno 30th Henry VIII. at L. 183,
jy: 5t Irifli money/>er annum, which amounts to
L.137
ARM [ 33! ] ARM
Armignac L. 137 : 18 : (the difference between Irifh and Ster-
|| ling money being at that time one fourth). But by
Armed. an extent returned in the.iyth of James 1. it is valued
1 ~ * 1" ' at L. 400 Sterling per annum, and pays fo much firft
fruits to this day. It is reputed to be worth annually
L. 8000. T he chapter of Armagh is compoled of five
dignitaries and four prebendaries, who have voices in
every capitular adh The dignitaries are thus ranked,
viz. a dean, chanter, chancellor, treafurer, and arch¬
deacon. There are alfo eight vicars choral, and an or-
ganift, attendant on the fervice of the cathedral. The
vicars choral were anciently fewer ; and of live number
only one prieft. Primate Marfh added another prieft,
but without increafing the number of vicars. In the
year 1720, Primate Lindfay obtained a new charter
for enlarging the number of the faid vicars to eight,
and laid out upwards of L. 4000 on a purchafe, in
augmentation of the eftate of the choir.
ARMAGNAC, a province of Guienne in France,
55 miles in lertgth and 40 in breadth ; bounded on
the eaft by the river Garonne, on the fouth by Bigorre
and Bearn, on the weft by Gafcony, and on the
north by Condomois and Agenois: Auch is the capi
tal towp. It is fertile in corn and wine, and carries
on a confiderable trade in brandy, wool, and bon-
chretien pears, which are excellent.
ARMAMAXI, in antiquity, a kind of Scythian
chariots or carriages, compofed of two wheels, vari-
oufly adorned with crowns, fhields, breaft-plates, and
other fpoils, carried in proceflion after the images of
the gods and great men.
ARMAMENT, a large body of forces, raifed and
provided with the furniture of war, either for land or
fea-lervice.
ARMATURA, in a general fenfe, is the fame
with what we otherwile call armour.
Armatura is more particularly ufed in the ancient
military art, for a kind of exercife, performed with
miflive weapons, as darts, fipears, arrow's, and the like.
In this fenfe, armatura ftands contradiftinguifhed from
palaria; the latter being the exercife of the heavy¬
armed, the former of the light-armed.
The armatura was pradlifed with great diligence a
mong the Romans; they had their campiduBores, on
Eurpofe to inftruft the tyrones or young foldiers in it.
hider it were included the throwing of the fpear or
javelin, (hooting with bows and arrows, &c.
Armatura is alfo an appellation given to the fol¬
diers who were light-armed.
Armatura is al(b a denomination given to the fol¬
diers in the emperor’s retinue. Of thele we find two
fchools, mentioned in the Notitia imperii, called the
armatures feniores and armature juniores. Their com¬
mander was infilled tribunus armatiirarum.
ARMED, in the fea-language. A crofs-bar (hot
is (aid to be armed, when fome rope-yarn or the like
is rolled about the end of the iron bar, which runs
through the (hot.
Armed, in heraldry, is ufed when the horns, feet,
beak, or talons, of any bead or bird of prey, are of a
different colour from the reft o( their body.
Armed-SA?)), a veflel occafionally taken into the
fervice of the government in time of war, and em¬
ployed to guard fome particular coaft, or attend on a
fleet. She is therefore armed'and equipped in all re-
fpedls like a (hip of war, and commanded by an offi- Armene,
cer of the navy, who has the rank of mafter and com Armenia.^
mander. All (hips of this fort are upon the eftablifh- ' ^ ~
ment of the king’s (loops, having a lieutenant, ma¬
fter, purfer, furgeon, &c.
ARMENE, or Armina, anciently a hamlet of Pa-
phlagonia, (Ptolemy). The inhabitants encompafled it
with a wall, becaftfe of the coldnefs of the place, ima¬
gining by that means to render it warmer. But this
proving ineffedlual, gave rife to the proverb Armenen
muro (inhere, ufed to exprcts fome egregious folly.
ARMENIA, a country of Afia, anciently divided
into Armenia Major and Minor. Armenia Major, ac¬
cording to Strabo, was bounded on the fouth by mount
Taurus, which feparated it from Me(bpotamia } on the
eaft, by the two Medias; on the north, by Iberia and
Albania, or rather that part of mount Caucalus which
furrounds them both ; and on the weft, by Armenia
Minor, or the mountains Paryadres, fome Pontic na¬
tions, and the Euphrates. The moft confiderable ci¬
ties were Artaxata, Tigranocerta, and Thedofiopolis.
—Armenia Minor was bounded on the eaft by the
Euphrates ; on the fouth by mount Taurus, w'hich
feparattd it from Cilicia j on the weft and north, by
a long chain of mountains called in different places
Mons Scordifcus, Amanus, and Antitaurus, by which it
was ieparated from Cappadocia.
Whence this traft received the name of Arme.nia 'xs
not determined. The Greeks fuppofe it to be fo called
from one Armenus, who attended Jafon in the Argo-
nautic expedition, and afterwards fettled in this coun¬
try. Others, transforming Armenia into Aramia, de¬
rive its name from Aram the fon of Shem, or from one
of the kings of Armenia bearing that name. Bochart
imagines it to be a contraftion or compound of Aar,
a Hebrew word fignifying a “ mountain,” and Mini
fignifying “ metal,” and which was the name of a pro¬
vince of Armenia mentioned by the prophet Jeremiah*
Herodotus derives the ancient Armenians from the
Phrygians, by reafon that feveral Phrygian words were
crept into the ancient Armenian language. But Strabo
reckons them to have been originally Syrians, which
Bochart looks upon to be the moft probable opinion.
Armenia is laid to have been very early advanced to
the honour of a kingdom. Berofus makes one Sytha
the firft founder of this monarchy, whofe fucceflbr Bar-
danes, he fays, was driven out by Ninus king of Afi-
fyria. Plutarch mentions one Araxes king of Armenia*
who in a war with the Perfians, being aflured of fuc-
cefs by an oracle, provided he facrificed his two daugh¬
ters, caufed the two daughters of one Mielalcus, a no¬
bleman of his court, to be facrificed in their (lead,
flattering himfelf that he thereby complied with the
oracle. But Miefalcus did not fail to revenge the death
of his own daughters by putting the king’s two
daughters to death, and purfued himfelf fo clofely,
that he was drowned in attempting to fwim acrofs the
Araxes, which was then called Helmut.
The Armenians were in procefs of time fubdued by
the Medes, to whom Aftyages made them tributaries,
but allowed them to be governed by their own kings $
but on the diflblution of the Median empire by Cyrus,
the kingdom was reduced to the form of a province,
and they were governed by Perfian prefefls or lieute¬
nants. On the deftruCtion of the Perfian Empire by
T t 2 Alex-
ARM [ 332 ] ARM
Armenia. Alexander the Great, Armenia fell into the hands of
“ - ‘ the Macedonians $ to whom it continued fubje£t till the
beginning of the reign of Antiochus the Great. This
prince having appointed two prefects called Zadriades
and Artaxiis to govern Armenia, they excited the
people to a.revolt, and caufed themfelves to be pro¬
claimed kings of the provinces over which they pre-
fided. Antiochus being then very young, they were
attended with fuccefs beyond their expectation ; which
encouraged them to attempt the enlargement of their
territories. Accordingly, invading the neighbouring
countries, they took from the Medes the provinces of
Cafpiana, Phaunitis, and Baforopida 5 from the Ibe¬
rians, Chorzena and Gogorena on the other fide of
the Cyrus; from the Cbalybes and Mofiynaeci, the
provinces of Pareneta and Herexena, which bordered
on Armenia Minor.
On this occafion, the above mentioned divifipn of
the kingdom into Armenia Major and Minor firft took
place. Artaxias became king of Armenia Major, and
Zadriades of Armenia Minor ; and this diftinCIion fub-
{fls even at this day.
By whom Artaxias was fucceeded is not known ;
reither have we any account of the tranfaCIions of his
reign, farther than that Antiochus led a powerful ar-
my againft him and Zadriades, but without being able
to recover a fingle province. Upon this he concluded
a peace, defigning' to fall upon them at a proper
opportunity ; but they having entered into alliance
with the Romans, by that means fecured themfelves in
the pofleffion of their kingdom. After this, Artaxias
was defeated and taken prifoner by Antiochus Epi-
phanes; but fome how or other, feems to have been
reftored to his kingdom.
From this time we meet with a chafm in the Arme¬
nian hiftory for 70 years ; during which all we know
is, that Tigranes, the king’s fon, was delivered up as
an hoftage to the Parthians; from whence it is plain,
that the Armenians had been carrying on an unfuccefs-
ful war with that nation. On the news of his father’s
death, however, the Parthians fet the young king at
liberty, having firlt obliged him to give up a confi-
derable part of his kingdom by way of ranfom.
Tigranes, being thus reftored to his father’s king¬
dom, was prevailed upon in the beginning of his reign
to enter into an alliance with Mithridates Eupator
againft the Romans, whole power began to give jea-
loufy to all the princes of Afia. One of the articles of
this treaty was, that MithriJates (hould have the cities
and conquered countries, and Tigranes the captives
and plunder. In confequence of this, Tigranes was
to invade Cappadocia, which he had lately been obli¬
ged, by a decree of the fenate of Rome, to give up to
Ariobarzane1. But before either of the princes took
the field, a marriage was folemnized with all poflible
magnificence between Tigranes and Cleopatra the
daughter of Mithridates.
Immediately after the nuptials, Tigranes fet out on
his intended expedition; and Ariobarzanes, on the firft
news of his march, abandoned his kingdom and fled to
Rome. Thus Tigranes, without fighting a ftroke, en¬
riched himfelf with the booty, and then proclaimed
Ariarathes, Mithridates’s fon, king of Cappadocia, to
the univerfal fatisfa&ion of the people.
In the mean time the Syrians, being harafled with
a long and inteftine war of the Seleucidte, invited Ti- Armenia.
granes to come and take pofleffion of their country ; 1 v 1
which he accordingly did, and kept it for 18 years,
till he was driven out by Pompey, and Syria reduced
to the form of a Roman province. Encouraged by
this fuccefs, he next invaded Armenia Minor; defeat¬
ed and killed king Artanes, who oppofed him with a
confiderable army ; and in one campaign made himfelf
‘maftcr of the whole kingdom. From Armenia Minor
he marched againft the Afiatic Greeks, the Adiabe-
nians, the Aflyrians, and the Gordians, carrying all be¬
fore him, and obliging the people wherever lie came
to acknowledge him ibvereign. From this fecond ex¬
pedition he returned home loaded with booty, which
he foon after increafed by the fpoils of Cappadocia, in¬
vading that kingdom a iecond time at the inftance of
Mithridates, who bad been obhged by the Romans to
withdraw his forces from thence. From Cappadocia
Tigranes, befides other booty, brought back into Ar¬
menia no fewer than 300,000 captives, having fur-
rounded the country with his numerous forces in fnch
a manner that none could efcape. Theft, together
with the priibners he had taken in his two firft expe¬
ditions, he employed.in building the city of Tigrano-
certa, which they afterwards peopled.
In the mean time Mithridates, who had concluded a
peace with the Romans tor no other end than to gain
time, ftnt a ftolemn embaffy to Tigranes, inviting him
to enter into a ftcond alliance againft the common ene¬
my. This he at firft declined ; but in the end was
prevailed upon by his wife Cleopatra to fend him con-
fiderable fupplies, though he never came heartily into
the war, not caring to provoke the Romans, who on
their part kept fair with him, taking no notice for the
prefent of the fupplies he had ftnt Mithridates. That
unfortunate prince being foon after defeated by Lu-
cullus, was forced to fly for fhelter into Armenia,
where he met with a very cold reception from his fon-
in-law, who would neither fee him, treat with him,
nor own him as his relation; however, he promifed to
protect his ptrfon, and allowed him in one of his
caftles a princely retinue, and a table fuitable to his
former condition.
Though this total overthrow of Mlthridates might
have opened the eyes of Tigranes, and made him op-
pole with all his might the growing power of the Ro¬
mans, he foolifldy left them to finilh their conqueft of
Pontus, while he marched at the head of a very nume¬
rous army againft the Parthians, with a defign to re¬
cover from them the dominions they had formerly ex¬
torted from him before they ftt him at liberty. Theft
he eafily retook ; and, not fatisfied with what formerly
belonged to him, he added to them all Mefopotamia,
the countries that lay about Ninus and Arbela, and
the fruitful province of Migdonia ; the Parthians, tho’
at that time a mighty people, flying every where be¬
fore him. From Mefopotamia Tigranes marched into
Syria to quell a rebellion which had been raifed by Cle¬
opatra furnamed who, after the death of her
hufband Antiochus Pius, reigned jointly with her fons
in that part of Syria which Tigranes had not feized
on. The malcontents were quickly reduced ; and the
queen herfelf was taken prifoner, and confined to the
caftle of Seleucia, where file was foon after put to
death by the king’s orders. From,Syria Tigranes paf-
ARM L 333 1 ARM
fed into Phoenice, which he fubdued either entirely or
in great part, fpreading far and wide the terror of his
arms, infomuch that all the princes of Afia, except
thofe who were in alliance with the Romans, either in
perfon, or by their deputies, fubmitted and paid ho¬
mage to the conqueror.
The king, having now fubdued all Syria to the bor¬
ders of Egypt, and being elated with a long courfe of
vidfories and profperous events, began to look upon
himfelf as far above the level of other crowned heads
He affumedthe title of King of. kings, and had many
kings waiting upon him as menial fervants. He never
appeared on horfeback without the attendance of four
kings drefled in livery, who run by his horle; and
when he gave anfwers to the nations that applied to
him, the ambafladors flood on either fide the throne
with their hands clafped together, that attitude being
of all others then accounted among the orientals the
greateft acknowledgment of vafialage and iervi.tude.
In the midffi of all this haughtinels, however, he was
unexpectedly vifited by an ambaflador from Lucullus
the Roman general, who without any ceremony told
him, that he came to demand Mithridates king of
Pontus, who had taken refuge in his dominions, and,
in cafe of his re'ufal, to declare war againft him. Not-
withftanding his high opinion of himfelf, 'Pigranes re¬
turned a mild anfwer to this meflage : in which, how¬
ever, he refufed to deliver up his father-in-law 5 and
being highly provoked at Lucullus for not giving him
the title of King of kings in his letter, he did not fo
much as beftow upon him the title of general in his
anfwer. In the mean time, being informed that Zar-
bienus king of the Gordians had entered into a private
alliance with the Romans, he put him, his wife, and
children to death ; and then, returning into Armenia,
received with the greateft pomp imaginable his father-
in-law Mithridates, whom to that time he had not ad
mitted into his prefence, though he had refided a year
and eight months in his dominions. They had feveral
private'conferences; and at laft Mithridates was fent
back to Pontus with 10,000 horfe, to raife there what
difturbances he could.
Lucullus, on the other hand, hearing the king’s re-
folution to proteCI Mithridat.es, immediately began his
march for Armenia, at the head of only two legions
of foot and 3000 horfe, having left 6000 men in Pon¬
tus to keep that country quiet. Having palled the Eu¬
phrates without oppofition, he detached two parties ;
one to befiege a city where he heard that Tigranes’s
treafure and concubines were kept ; and the other un¬
der Sextilius, to block up Tigranocerta, in order to
draw the king to a battle. But Tigranes, after having
put to death the feout that brought him the firft intel¬
ligence of the approach of the Romans, made towards
Mount Taurus, which he had appointed for the place
of the general rendezvous. The Roman general then
difpatched Muraena in purfuit of the king ; who having
overtaken him in a narrow pafs, defeated him, and, be-
fides all the baggage, carried off a great many prifon-
ers, the king himfelf having fled in the beginning of
the Ikirmilh. After this, he fent out feveral parties to
fcour the country, in order to prevent the innumerable
forces of Tigranes from joining into one body. This,
however, he was not able to effeft : Tigranes was join¬
ed by fuch numbersyff Gordians, Medes, Adiabenians,
Albanians, Iberians, &c. that, before he left Mount
Taurus, his army confifted, according to Plutarch, of A
150,000 foot armed cap-a-pee, 35,000 pioneers, 20,000
archers and {lingers, and 55,000 horfe.
Lucullus was fo far from being difmayed at this
formidable army, that the only fear he had was left
the king fhould follow the advice of Mithridates, which
was not to engage the Romans, but, by ravaging the
country, diftrefs them for want of provifions. In or¬
der to draw him to a battle, therefore, he formed the
fiege of Pigranocerta, imagining that Tigranes would
never fuffer that fine city to be taken without making
any attempt to relieve it. The event fully anfwered his
expe&ations : Tigranes having called a council of war,
it was unanimomly refolved to attack the Romans j and
Taxilis, whom Mithridates lent to diffuade the king
from venturing a battle, was in danger of lofing his
head on account of the advice he gave. The Roman
general, finding 'i igranes difpofed to come to an en¬
gagement, left Muraena with*6ooo men to carry on
the fiege, while he himfelf marched againft the king’s
vaft army with only 10,000 men, according to feme,
and the higheft computations make them no more than
18,000. The Romans were at firft greatly difheart-
ened ; but being encouraged by Lucullus, they imme¬
diately broke the Armenian army, who betook them-
felves to flight almoft at the firft onfet. The Romans
purfued them til! night, making a moft terrible (laugh¬
ter. Plutarch informs us, that of the Armenians
100,000 foot were killed, and that very few of the ca¬
valry efcaped ; whereas of the Romans only five men
were killed and 100 wounded. Antiochus the phi-
lofopher mentioning this battle, fays, that the fen
never beheld the like ; and Livy, that the Ro¬
mans never fought at fuch a difadvantage ; the con¬
querors not amounting to a twentieth part of the con¬
quered. Tigranes in his flight having met with his
fen in as forlorn a condition as himfelf, refigned to him
his royal robes and diadem, defirfng him to fliift for*
himfelf and fave thofe royal enfigns. The young
prince delivered them to a trufty friend, who, being-
taken by the Romans, configned them to Lucullus.
While the king was making his efcape after this ter¬
rible overthrow, he was met by Mithridates, who was
marching to his affiftance at the head of a confiderable
army. The king of Pontus cheered up his fen-in-law
as well as he could, and encouraged him to continue
the war: advifing him, inftead of fruitlelsly bewailing
the prelent difafter, to rally his troops, raife new fup-
plies, and renew the war, not queftioning but that in
another campaign he might repair all the Ioffes he had
fuftained ; but while the two kings were confelting up¬
on thefe matters, Lucullus made himfelf mafter of Ti¬
granocerta. From this city he marched into the fmall
kingdom of Gordyene, where he celebrated, with the
utmoftpomp, the obfequies of king Zabienus, whom
Tigranes had put to death, lighting the funeral pile
with his own hands. In this kingdom, befides im-
menfe fumsofgold and filver, he met with fuch ftore
of provifions as enabled him to carry on the war with¬
out putting the republic to any charge.
The two kings, having levied new forces, appointed
their troops to rendezvous in the fpacious plains on the
other fide of Mount Taurus; whereupon Lucullus,
leaving Gordyene, and paffing by Mount Taurus, en¬
camped clofe by the enemy. Several fkirmifhes hap¬
pened for feme time between the two armies without
any-
ARM t 334 ] ARM
Armenia, any confiderable advantage $ but Lucullus could by
A no means draw them to a general engagement. Up¬
on this he decamped, as if he defigned to march to
Artaxata and lay fiege to that place, where Tigranes
had left his wife and children, with great part of his
treafures. He had fcarce formed his camp when the
enemy appeared, and fat down clofe by him. Lu-
cullus did not allow them to fortify their camp, but
immediately attacked them, and having put them to
flight after a faint refiifance, purfued them all night
with great flaughter, took moft of the chief offi¬
cers prifoners, and returned the next day loaded with
booty.
The Roman fbldiers now, finding the cold very fe-
vere, though it was no later in the year than the au¬
tumnal equinox, requefted their general to allow them
to retire into winter-quarters. This requelt he rejec¬
ted with indignation ; upon which they mutinied. Lu¬
cullus did all he could to perfuade them to continue in
their duty ; and prevailed lb far that they conlented to
lay fiege to Nifibis in hopes of booty. This place
they took; and Lucullus, to the great fatisfaclion of
his troops, took up his winter-quarters there. The
next year, however, his forces again mutinied, accu-
fing him of amafling immenfe wealth for himfelf; and
throwing their empty purfes at his feet, told him, that
as he enriched himfelf alone, he might carry on the
war by himfelf. He endeavoured to appeafe them as
much as poffible ; but the fedition being fomented by
a party who favoured Pompey the great, at that time
afpiringto the command of Lucullus’s army, the latter
found himfelf obliged to fit ftill and fee Mithridates
and Tigranes over run Cappadocia, and recover all Ar¬
menia and great part of Pontus. They would have
gained much greater advantages, had not a fon of Ti¬
granes taken arms again!! his father, and obliged him
to divide his troops. The father and Ion coming to a
pitched battle, the latter was defeated, and forced to
lave hirnfelf in Parthia, where he perfuaded Phrahates,
king of that country, to affill him with a numerous ar
my again!! his father. Phrahates having laid fiege to
Artaxata, Tigranes the elder was obliged to hide him¬
felf in the mountainous parts of his kingdom ; up¬
on which the king of Parthia returned home. Of this
Tigranes the father being apprifed, he immediately
abandoned the fallnelfes of the mountains ; and, fall¬
ing upon his fon at Artaxata, difperfed the rebels
with great llaughter ; and entered his metropolis in
triumph. Tigranes the fon firft fled to Mithridates j but
finding him reduced to great llraits, having been over¬
come a few days before, with the lofs of 40,000 men,
by Pompey, he went over to the Romans, and led
them into Armenia again!! his father as an ally of Mi¬
thridates.
Tigranes, being now quite difpirited, and unable to
make head again,'* the Romans, refolved at once to
fubmit. Accordingly he waited on Pompey in his
camp, and having delivered his fword to two lifters,
proilrated himfelf before him, and laid his diadem at
his feet. Pompey, however, gave him a gracious re¬
ception, reftored him the kingdom of Armenia, but
fined him of 6000 talents for making war on the Ro¬
man people without caule. As the king had appealed
to the Roman general for juftice again!! his !bn, Pom¬
pey heard both parties the next day, and made the fon
governor of Gordyene and Sophene j but the treafures
that were kept in the latter he adjudged to the father,
becaule without them he could not pay the fine. The
fon, being thus difappointed, endeavoured fir!! to make
his efcape, and afterwards, by private meflcngers, foli-
cited the inhabitants not to deliver up the treafures to
his father. This being taken very much amifs by
Pompey, he cauled him to be kept in irons j and even
then he found means to ftir up Phrahates king of Par¬
thia, whofe daughter he had married, again!! the Ro¬
mans, and to form a confpiracy again!! his father’s life ;
whereupon Pompey fenthim in chains to Rome, where
he was kept prifoner in the houfe of L. Flavius a fena-
tor, till the tribunefliip of P. Ciodius, who, being bri¬
bed with a large fum of money, fet him at liberty in
fpite of Pompey and the !enate.
Tigranes being now thoroughly humbled, willingly
yielded to the Romans Cappadocia, Syria, Cilicia, and
that part of Phenice which he poflefled, contenting
himfelf with his paternal kingdom ; and not only paid
the fine laid upon him, but made large prefents t#
Pompey, and all the officers of his army, which pro¬
cured him the title of the friend and ally of the Roman
people. He afterwards entered into a war with Phra¬
hates king of Parthia, by whom he was overcome, and
would have been driven out of his kingdom, had not a
peace been brought about by the mediation of Pom¬
pey. He ever after cultivated a ftrift friendfliip with
the Romans ; infomuch that he not only refilled to re¬
ceive Mithridates, who fled to him after he had been
routed by Pompey near Mount Stella, but even offered
a reward of 100 talents to any one that would put him
to death. His lecond ion al!b, by name Sariafter,
took up arms again!! him j but, by the a Alliance of the
Romans, that rebellion was !bon quelled. He died in
the 85th year of his age ; and was fucceeded by his
fon Artuafdes, called by Jofephus jdrtabazes, by Oro-
fius Artabanes, and by others Artoadifles.
From this time to the time of Trajan, Armenia was
governed by its own kings ; but as they were plainly
vaffals to the Romans, though they did not take that ti¬
tle till the reign of the emperor Nero, their hillory falls
to be confidered under that of the Romans.
By Trajan the Kingdom of Armenia Major was re¬
duced to the form of a Roman province ; but it !bon
recovered its liberty, and was again governed by its
own kings in the reigns of Conftantine the Great, and
his fucceffor, to whom the kings of Armenia were feu¬
datories. In the reign of Juflin II. the Saracens fub-
dued and held it till the irruption of the Turks, who
poffeffed themfelves of this kingdom, and gave it the
name of 'Turcomania. The Turks, after the reduftion
of Armenia, invaded Perfia, and other countries fub-
jeft to the emperors of the eaft ; which gave the Ar¬
menians an opportunity of lhaking off the Turkiffi
yoke, and letting up kings of their own, by whom
they were governed till the country wras again fubdued
by Occadan, or, as !bme llyle him Heccata, the fon
of Cingis, the fir!! cham of the Tartars. Neither was
the conqueft of Armenia by the Tartars fo abfolute as
to extirpate the race of their kings; feeing we read of
Haithon, furnamed the Armenian, reigning feme time
after, and going in perfon to treat with Mungo, the
great cham of Tartary, of the concerns of- his king¬
dom : and in our chronicles we find mention made of
Leo
Armenia.
ARM L 335 ] ARM
Armenia. Leo king of Armenia, who, in the reign of Richard
’ v 1II. came into England to fue for aid againft the Turks,
by whom he had been driven from his kingdom. In the
year 1472 of the Chriftian sera, Uffan Caflanes king of
Armenia fucceeding to the crown of Perfia, made Ar¬
menia a province of that empire ; in which ftate it con¬
tinued till the year 1522, when it was fubdued by Se¬
lim II. and made a province of the Turkilh empire.
Some fay that Selim I. reduced it on his return from
Perfia, where he had gained a complete vi&ory over
the great Sophi Il'mael. But Sanfovin aflures us, that
in the reign of Selim I. who died in 1520, both the
Lefler and Greater Armenia had their own kings; and
adds, that Selim caufed the head of the king of the
Lefler Armenia to be cut off and fent to Venice as a
mark of his vidtory. We read no where elle of any
kings of Armenia after it became a province of Perfia.
Be that as it will, the Turkifh annals cited by Calvi-
fius inform us, that Selim II. conquered Armenia in
1522, fince which time it has ever continued fubjeft to
the Turks, except the eaftern part, which the Perfians
are mailers of to this day.
Concerning Armenia Minor we find very little re¬
corded, except what has been already mentioned, and
what falls under the Roman hillory. ft was made a
Roman province by Vefpafian, continued lb till the
divifion of the empire, when it was fubjeded to the
emperors of the call; and, on the decline of their
power, was fubdued firit by the Perfians, and after¬
wards by the Turks, who gave it the name of Geneck,
and have kept it ever fince.
This country is Hill divided into the Great and Small.
Great Armenia comprehends what is now called T«r-
comania. It has Georgia on the north, from which it
is leparated by high mountains; the river Euphrates
on the well; Diarbeker, Curdiilan, and Aderbijan,
on the fouth ; and Shirvan on the call. The chief
towns in that part of Armenia belonging to Turky are,
Arzum the capital, near the fprings of the Euphrates,
a large city and a great thoroughfare for the caravans
between Turky and Perfia ; Kara, a llrong city, he'ad
of the government of the fame name ; Bayazid, a re¬
public of Hurds, near mount Ararat: Baha, another
republic of the fame ; and Van or Wan, on the lake
Van, the head of a government of the fame name ;
with other towns of lefs note. That part of Armenia
lubjed to Perfia is chiefly contained in the province of
Aran, in which are feveral fine towns; as, Erivan or
Rivan, the capital of the whole ; Ganjals, one of the
fineft cities in Perfia, in the north of the province,
near the Kur ; Kapan, on the fouth fide, near the A-
ras ; befides Nakchivan, Altabad Julia, Ordabad, Bay-
lakan or Pilkan, on the Aras; Berdah and Shilkah on
the Kur.
The country in general is full of mountains and val¬
leys, lakes, and rivers ; particularly the country about
the three churches, near Erivan, is admirably fine,
being full of rivulets, which render it extremely fruitful.
Befides great quantities of all forts of grain, here are
fields of a prodigious extent covered with tobacco :
but it is not a native of the place, though fuppofed
by fome to be the terreftrial paradife ; for it all came
originally from America. The reft of the country pro¬
duces rice, cotton, flax, melons, and grapes : in fhort,
there is nothing wanting but olives ; which is by fome
thought to prove that the ark could not reft on mount
Ararat, becaufe the dove brought an olive branch in
her mouth, and this tree never leaves a place where it
once grew. It feems, however, to have been otherwife
anciently; for Strabo tells us, that the olive grew in
Gogarene, a province of Arnnenia. They get oil to
burn from the ricinus, and ufe lin(eed-oil in the kit¬
chen. The water-melons are as cool as ice in the hot¬
ted day, and melt in the mouth : the beft are produ¬
ced in the fait lands, near the three churches and the
river Aras. After rain, the fea-falt lies in cryftals up¬
on the fields, and even crackles under the feet. About
ten miles from the three churches, in the road to Tef-
lis, there are pits or quarries of fofiile fait, which yield
enough to fupply all Perfia, without being exhaufted :
they cut it into large pieces, like ftone, and each buf¬
falo carries two of them ; the mountain from whence
it is dug is nothing but a mafs of fait, which appears
like a rock of filver, when the fun ftiines, on the places
not covered with earth.
This country has been remarkable for its extreme
cold from the remoteft antiquity ; Sir John Chardin
tells us, that he found ice in the rivulets in the morn¬
ing even of the month of July. In many places, allb,
if they had not the convenience of watering their
grounds, they would be almoft entirely barren.
The Armenians are amhoneft, civil, polite people,
fcarce troubling themfelves about any thing elfe but
trade, which they carry on in moll parts of the world,
by which means they have fpread themfelves over the
eaft, and alfo a great part of Europe ; and wherever
they come, commerce is carried on with fpirit and ad¬
vantage.
The religion of the Armenians is the Chriftian, of
the Eutychian fedl: that is, they own but one nature
in Jefus Chrift; and when they fpeak of the hypoftati-
cal union, that he is perfect God and perfedl man with¬
out mixture. They have a high efteem for a book they
call the Little Gofpel, which treats of the infancy of
Jefus, and fays that the Virgin Mary being pregnant,
her fifler Salome accufed her of having proftituted her-
felf; to which the Virgin anfwered, that (lie needed
only to lay her hand on her belly, and fire would know
how flie came to be with child : this Salome accord¬
ingly did, and fire came out of her belly, which con-
fumed the half of her arm ; upon which Ihe acknow¬
ledged her fault, and drew it back : after which it was
healed by putting it to the fame place.
The Armenian clergy confift of patriarchs, arch-
bifhops, dodors, fecular priefts, and monks. The
fecular priefts are not allowed to marry a fecond time
and therefore they take care to choole young heal¬
thy wives : they maintain themfelves and families by
following fome occupation, infomuch that they have
hardly time to perform their ecclefiaftical fundions :
they lie in the churches on the vigils of thole days they
are obliged to officiate.
The Armenian monks are of the order of St Bafil ;
and every VVednefday and Friday they eat neither filh,
nor eggs, nor oil, nor any thing made of milk, and
during Lent they live upon nothing but roots : they
are allowed wine only on the Saturday in the Holy
Week, and meat on the Eafttr Sunday. Befides the
great Lent they have four others of eight days each,
which are inllituted to prepare for the four great fefti--
vals
ARM t 336 1 ARM
Armenia Vals of the Nativity, the Afcenfion, the Annunciation,
II and of St. George 5 in which times they muit not fo
Armenns. ^ much as fpeak of eggs, fiih, oil, or butter.
v The Armenians have feven facraments; baptifm,
confirmation, penance, the eucharift,’extreme undlion,
orders, and matrimony. In baptifm, the child is plun¬
ged three times into the water, and the fame form of
words that is ufed with us is repeated every time ; the
pritft then puts a fmall cord made with filk and cotton
on the neck of the infant, and anoints his forehead,
chin, Ilomach, arm-pits, hands, and feet, making the
fign of the crofs on each part. When the child is
baptized, he is carried home by the godfather with the
found of drums and trumpets. The women do not
go to church till forty days after their delivery j and
they obferve many Jewifh cuftoms.
At the communion, to which infants of two or three
months old are admitted, the priefts give a piece of the
confecrated hoil foaked in the confecrated wine. The
elements are covered with a great veil, and placed in a
cup-board near the altar, on the fide of the gofpels.
When the pnefl: takes the chalice and pattin, he is fol¬
lowed by his deacons and fubdeacons, with flambeaux
and plates of copper furmlhed with bells : in this man¬
ner, with a cenl'er before him, he goes in proceflion
round the fanftuary , he then fets them on the altar,
pronounces the words of confecration, and turns him-
felf to the people, who fall down, kifs the earth, and
beat their breads : then, after taking it himfelf, he
diftributes the hoft foaked in wine to the people.
The Armenians feem to place the chief part of their
religion in fallings and abflinences : and among the
clergy, the higher the degree the lower they mud
live ; infomuch that it is faid the archbifliops live on
nothing but pulfe. They confecrate holy water but
once a-year ; at which time every one fills a pot and
carries it home, which brings in a confiderable revenue
to the church.
ARMENIACA See Prunus.
ARMENIAN, Something belonging to or produ¬
ced in Armenia : thus we fay, Armenian bole, Arme¬
nian Jlone, &c. See Bole, and Armenus Lapis.
ARMENTIERS, a fmall handfome town of the
Netherlands, in the county of Flanders, and didritd
ofYpres. It was taken by Lewis XIV. in 1667, who
difmantled it ; and it now belongs to the French. It
is feated on the river Lis. E. Long. 3.3. N. Lat.
5°. 40.
ARMENUS Lapis, Armenian Jlone, in natural hi-
ftory, a mineral fubdance, which is but improperly call¬
ed a Jlone; being no other than an ocherbus earth, and
properly called blue ochre. It is a very valuable tub-
dance in painting, being a bright and lively blue. It
was in fo high edeem as a paint among the ancients, that
counterfeits were continually attempted to ferve in its
place. Theophradus has recorded it as a thing judged
worthy a place in the Egyptian annals, which of their
kings had the honour of inventing the factitious kind 5
and he tells us the. genuine native fubdance was a thing
of that value, that prefents were made of it to great
perfons, and that the Phoenicians paid their tribute in
„ it.—It is a very beautiful earth, of an even and regu¬
lar texture.; and of a fine blue, fometimes deeper, fome-
times paler, and frequently mixed with green. It is
foft, tender, and light > of an even, but fomewhat dudy
No. 29.
furface ; it adheres firmly to the tongue, and is dry, Amlers
but not harlh to the touch. It eafily breaks between j|
the fingers, and does not flain the hands. It is of a Armenians,
brackilh difagreeable tafie, and does not ferment with
acids. It is a very fcarce foflil ; but is found very pure,
though in but fmall quantities, in the mines at Gofle-
laer in Saxony. It is frequently found fpotted with
green, and foroetimes with black; and very often is
mixed among the green ochre, called berggruen by the
Germans, which has thence been erroneoufly called by
its name. See further the article Bice.
AMIERS, a town of Hainhault, in the French Ne¬
therlands, feated on the river Samber. E. Long. 3. 45*
N. Lat. 50. 15.
ARM1GER, a title of dignity, belonging to fuch
gentlemen as bear arms : and thefe are either by cur-
tefy, as fons of noblemen, elded fons of knights, &c.)
or by creation, fuch as the king’s fervants, &c. See
Esquire.
A.RMILLARY, in a general fenfe, fomething con'
fiding of rings or circles.
Armiliary Sphere, an artificial fphere compofed of
a number of circles of the mundane fphere, put toge¬
ther in their natural order, to eale and aflid the ima¬
gination in conceiving the conditution of the heavens,
and the motions of the celeflial bodies. The armillary
fphere revolves upon its axis within a filvered horizon,
which is divided into degrees, and moveable every way
upon a brafs fupporter. The other parts are the equi¬
noctial, zodiac, meridian, the two tropics, and the two
polar circles. See Geography.
ARMILUSTRIUM, in Roman antiquity, a fead
held among the Romans, in which they facrificed, arm¬
ed, to the found of trumpets.
ARMIN1ANS, a religious fed; or party, which a-
rofe in Holland, by a feparation from the Calvinids.
They followed the doCIrine of Arminius (lee the next
article) j who, thinking the doCtrine of Calvin, with
regard to free-will, prededination, and grace, too Ce¬
ntre, began to exprefs his doubts concerning them in
the year 1591 ; and upon farther enquiry adopted fen-
timents more nearly refembling thole of the Lutherans
than of the Calvinids. After his appointment to the
theological chair at Leyden, he thought it his duty to
avow and vindicate the principles which he had em¬
braced 5 and the freedom with which he publilhed and
defended them expofed him to the refentment of thofe
that adhered to the theological fydem of Geneva, which
then prevailed in Holland ; but his principal opponent
was Gomar, his colleague. The controverfy which
was thus begun, became more general after the death
of Arminius, in ihe year 1609, and threatened to in¬
volve the United Provinces in civil difeord. The Ar-
minian tenets gained ground under the mild and fa¬
vourable treatment of the magiftrates of Holland, and
were adopted by feveral perfons of merit and diftinflion.
The Calvinifts, or Gomariits, as they were now called,
appealed to a national fynod s accordingly the fynod
of Dort was convened ,by order of the States General,
in 1618, and was compofed of ecclefiaflical deputies
from the United Provinces, as well as from the reform¬
ed churches of England, Heflia, Bremen, Switzerland,
and the Palatinate. The principal advocate in favour
of the Arminians was Epifcopius, who, at that time,
was profelfor of divinity at Leyden. It was firft pro-
ARM L 337 ] ARM
rminians. p0fed to difcufs the principal fubjefls in difpute, and
that the Arminians (hould be allowed to Hate and vin¬
dicate the grounds on which their opinions were found¬
ed : but fome difference arifing as to the proper mode
of conducing-the debate, the Arminians were exclu¬
ded from the affembly; their cafe was tried in their
abfence; and they were pronounced guilty of peftilen-
tial errors, and condemned as corrupters of the true
religion. In confequeace of this decifiou, they were
treated with great feverity ; they were deprived of all
their pods and employments; their miniffers were fi-
lenced, and their congregations were fuppreffed. How
ever, after the death of Prince Maurice, who had been
a violent partizan in favour of the Gomariils, in the
year 1625, the Arminian exiles were reftored to their
former reputation and tranquillity ; and under' the to¬
leration of the date, they erected churches and found¬
ed a college at Amderdam, appointing Epifcopius to
be the fird theological profeffor. The Arminian fydem
has very much prevailed in England dnee the time of
archbilhop Laud, and its votaries in other countries
are very numerous.
The didinguilhing tenets of the Arminians may be
comprifed in the following five articles ; relating to
predeflination, univerfal redemption, the corruption of
man, converfion, and perfeverance.
1. With refpedt to the firft, they maintained, “ That
God, from all eternitv, determined to bedow falvation
on thofe who he foreiaw would perfevere unto the end
in their faith in Chrid Jefus ; and to inflift everlading
punidiments on thofe who fhould continue in their un¬
belief, and refid unto the end his divine fuccours : fo
that ele&ion was conditional, and reprobation in like
manner the refult offorefeen infidelity and perfevering
wickedneis.”
2. On the fecond point the Arminians taught, “That
Jefus Chrid, by his fufferings and death, made an a-
tonement ’for the fins of all mankind in general, and
of every individual in particular $ that, however, none
but thofe who believe in him can be partakers of their
divine benefit.”
3. On the third article, they held, “ That true faith
cannot proceed from the exercile of our natural facul¬
ties and powers, nor from the force and operation of
free will j fince man, in confequence of his natural
corruption, is incapable either of thinking or doing
any good thing ; and that therefore it is neceffary, in
order to his converfion and falvation, that he be rege¬
nerated and renewed by the operation of the Holy
Ghod, which is the gift of God through Jefus Chrid.”
4. “ That this divine grace, or energy of the Holy
Ghod, begins and perfefh every thing that can be call¬
ed good in man, and confequently all good works are
to be attributed to God alone ; that, neverthelefs, this
grace is offered to all, and does not force men to aft
againd their inclination, but may be refided and ren¬
dered ineffectual by the perverle will of the impenitent
finner.” Some modern Arminians interpret this and
the lad article with a greater latitude.
5. “ That God gives to the truly faithful, who are
regenerated by his grace, the means of prererving
themfelves in this date j” and though the fird Armi¬
nians made fome doubt with refpeft to the clofing part
of this article, their followers uniformly maintain,
Vol. II. Part I.
“ that the regenerate may lofe true judifying faith, Arniinius.
forfeit their date of grace, and die in their fins.” —v—j
The modern {ydem of Arminianifm likewife, found¬
ed on a comprehenfive plan projected by Arminius htm-
felf, as appears from a padage in his lull wijl, extends
the limits of the Chridian church, and relaxes the bonds
of fraternal Communion in fuch a manner, that Chri-
dians of all feds and denominations, whatever their
fentiments and opinions maybe, papids excepted, may
be formed into one religious body, and live together
in brotherly love and concord. But, in order to avoid
the reproach of being altogether unconnected by any
common principles, Epilcopius drew up a-confeffion
of faith, expreded for the mod part in words and
phrafes of Holy Scripture, which the Arniinians have
generally adopted, though not injoined upon them by
any authoritative obligation. The Arminians are alfo
called Remonjirants, from an humble petition entitled
their Remonflrance, which, in the year 1610, they ad-
dreffed to the S*ates of Holland. Their principal
writers are Arminius, Epilcopius, Vordius, Grotius,
Curcellaeus, Limborch, Le Gere, and Wetllein; not
to mention many others of more modern date.
ARMINIUS (James), whole real name in Low
Dutch was James Harmanni, a famous Protedant di¬
vine, from whom the modern feCt of Arminians (fee
the preceding article) take their name, was born at
Oude-water, in Holland, in 1560. He was ordained
minider at Amderdam on the nth of Augud 1588 ;
when he foon didinguifhed himfelf by his fermons,
which were remarkable for their folklity and learning,
and gained him univerfal applaufe: but Martin Lydias,
profellbr of divinity at Franker, judging him a fit per-
fon to refute a writing in which Beta’s doftrine of
prededination had been attacked by fome miniders of
Delft, Arminius at his intreaties undertook the talk ;
but upon thoroughly examining the reafons on both
fides, he came into the opinions he propofed to dedroy,
and afterwards went dill farther than the miniders of
Delft had done. In i6ooi he oppoled thofe who main¬
tained that miniders Ihould fubferibe the confeffion and
catechifm every year. In 1602, a pedilential difeafe
raged at Amderdam, during which he aCIed with the
greated refolution and courage, in affiding the poor,
and comforting the fick ; and Lucas Trelcatius and
Francis Junius dying of that difeafe at Leyden, the cu¬
rators of that univerfity chofe Arminius profeffor of
divinity there, and he was afterwards made doClor of
divinity. Difputes upon grace were foon after kindled
in that univerfity : and he was at length engaged in a
new conted, occafioned by a deputation of his con¬
cerning the divinity of the Son. Theft: conteds, his
continual labour, and the concern of feeing his reputa¬
tion bladed by a multitude of danders in relation to
his opinions, impaired his health, and threw him into
a fit of ficknefs, of which he died on the 19th of Oc¬
tober 1609. Arminius was edeemed an excellent prea¬
cher : his voice was low, but very agreeable ; and his
pronunciation admirable : he was ealy and affable to-
perfons of all rank«, and facetious in his converfation
amongd his friends. His great defire was, that Chri-
dians would bear with one another in all controverfies
which did not affedl: the fundamentals of their religion ;
and when they perfecuted each other for points of in-
U u difference,
ARM C 338 ] ARM
Armir» difference, it gave him the utmoft diffatisfa&ion. The
|| curators of the univerfny of Leyden had fo great a
Armour. regar[j for j1jmj tiiat thCy fettled a penfion upon his
’ wife and children. He left feveral works, viz. 1. “ Dif-
putationes de diverfis Chrillianae religionis capitibus.
2. Orationes, itemque tradfatus infigniores aliquot.
3. Examen modefti libelli Gulielmi Perkinfi de praede-
ftinationis modo et ordine, itemque de amplitudine
gratiae divinae. 4. Analyfis capitis noni ad Romanos.
5. Difft rtatio de vero et genuine fenfu capitis feptimi
epiftolse ad Romanos. 6. Arnica collatio cum D. Kran-
feifeo Junto de praedeftinatioae per literas habita. 7. E-
piflola ad Hippolytum a collibuS.”
ARMIRO, a town of Macedonia, in European Tur-
ky, feated on the Gulph de Velo. E. Long. 23. 40.
N. Lat. 38. 34.
ARMISTICE, in military affairs, a temporary truce
or ceffation of arms for a very fhort fpace of time.
The word is Latin, anni/litium; and compounded of
anna, “ arms,” anti Jlo “ to Hand, or (top.”
ARMOISIN, a filk Huff, or kind of taffety, manu-
fadlured in the Eall Indies, at Lyons in France, and
at Lucca in Italy. That of the Indies is flighter than
thofe made in Europe.
ARMONIAC. See Ammoniac.
ARMONICA. See Harmonica.
ARMORIAL, fomething relating to arms or coats
of arms. See Arms and Heraldry.
ARMORIC, or Aremoric, fomething that belongs
to the province of Bretagne, or Britany, in France.
T he name-tt/rwor/cfl was anciently given to all the nor¬
thern and weftern coaft of Gaul, from the Pyreneans
to the Rhine j under which name it was known even in
Ceefar’s time. The word is of Bas Breton origin, and
denotes as much as maritime i compounded, according
to M. Menage, of ar, “ upon,” and rnare, “ fea.”
ARMOR1ST, a perfon {killed in the knowledge of
armory.
ARMORUM concussio, the clafhing of armour
pra&ifed by the Roman armies previous to an engage¬
ment, and intended to ftrike a panic into their enemies:
It always followed the Clafficum and the Barritus.
See Classicum and Barritus.
ARMOUR, a defenfive habit, wherewith to cover
and fecure the body from the attacks of an enemy.
In ancient ftatutes this is frequently called harnefs.—
Parts of armour are, the buckler, cuirafs, helmet, coat
of mail, gantlet, &c.
A complete armour anciently confided of a cafque
or helm, a gorget, cuirafs, gantlets, tafles, braffets,
cuilhes, and covers for the legs, to which the fpurs
were faftened. This they called armour cap-a pie;
and was the wear of the cavaliers and men at arms.—
T he infantry had only part of it $ viz. a pot or head-
piece, a cuirafs, and taffts ; but all light. Laftly, the
horfes themfelves had their armour, wherewith to co¬
ver the head and neck.—Of all this furniture of war,
fcarce any thing is now retained except the cuirafs;
the gorget or neck-piece, worn by officers, being at
prefent only a badge of honour, and of no defence.
The gallantry of going to the battle naked, without
any defenfive armour, prevailed fo far, that the French,
during the reign of Louis XIV. were obliged to be
continually iffuing ordonnances to reftrain it; in con-
iequence of which the general officers, and thofe of the
cavalry, wpre obliged to refume the cuirafs, which yet Armour
has been blit ill obferved. [|
Armour, Coat, is the efeutheon of any perfon, or Arm>-'
family, with its feveral charges, and other furniture •,
as mantling, creft, fupporters, motto, &c.—Thus we
fay, a gentleman of coat-armour j meaning one who
bears arm'.
ARMOURER, a maker of arms, or armour,—
The Roman armourers were difpefed iu certain places
in the empire, it being forbid either to fell, or buy, or
make arms elfewhere. They were exempt from all
offices and taxes, and received a falary from the public.
When once they had taken the employment on
themfelves, neither they, nor their children, were al¬
lowed to quit it. To prevent this, they had a kind of
note, or ftigtna, impreffed on the arm, whereby they
might be known. If any of them- fled, or fecreted
their ware, the reft were obliged to anfwer for him ;
on account of which, the eflefts of fuch as died with¬
out a legal heir wept to the college.—There were 15
armamentaries, or repofitories of arms, in the Eaftern
empire,placed near the frontiers, and I9inthe Weftern.
Armourer of a foip, a perfon whoe office is to take
care that the arms be in a condition fit for fervice.
ARMOURY, a ftore-houfe of arms, or a place
wherein military habiliments are kept, to be ready for
ufe. There are armouries in the Tower, and in all
arfenals, citadels, caftles, &c.
Armoury is alfo ufed for a branch of heraldry j
being the knowledge of coat-armours, as to their bla¬
zons, and various intendments.
ARMOZA, or Harmozia, a town in Carmania,
at the mouth of the Anamis, which falls into the Per-
fian gulf, (Arrian) j Armuza, (Ptolemy) ; and from
this the neighbouring ifland, and a fmall kingdom,
take the modern name of Ormus, E. Long. 36. ij.
N. Lat. 27. 20.
ARMS, arma, in a general fenfe, includes all kinds
of weapons, whether for defence or offence. Nicod de¬
rives the word from the Latin phrafe quod ope riant ar-
mos, becaufe they cover the fhoulders or fides; but
Varro derives arma, ab arcendo, eo quodarceant hojles.
It is fuppofed that the firft artificial arms were of wood,
and were only employed againft bead-- j and that Be¬
tas, the Ion of Nimrod, was the firft that waged war :
whence, according to fome, came the appellation hel¬
ium. Diodorus Siculus takes Betas to be the fame
with Mars, who firft trained foldiers up to battle.—
Arms of (tone, and even of brafs, appear to have been
ufed before they came to iron and fteel. Jofephus af-
fures us, that the patriarch Jofeph firft taught the ufe
of iron arms in Egypt, arming the troops of Pharaoh
with a cafque and buckler.
What contributed moft to render the Romans ma¬
ilers of the world, was, that having fucceffively war-
red againft all nations, they conftantly renounced
their own methods, arms, &c. whenever they met
with better. Thus Romulus during his war with
the Sabins, a bold and war’ike nation, adopted their
broad buckler in lieu of the finall Argian buckler,.
which he had ufed till that time.
The principal arms of the ancient Britons were hat¬
chets, feythes, lances, fwords, and bucklers: the Sax¬
ons, &c. brought in the halbard, bow, arrows, arba-
lets, &c. By the ancient laws of England, every man
was
A It M [ 339 1 A R M
Aitiis. was obliged to bear arms, except the judges and clergy.
J Under Henry VIII. it was exprefsly enjoined on all
perfbns to be regularly indrucled, even from their
tender years, in the exercife of the arms then in ule;
viz. the long bow and arrows; and to be provided
with a certain number of them. 33 H. VIII.
Arms, Arma, in law, are extended to any thing
which a man takes in his hand in his wrath, to call at,
or ftrike another.
By the common law, it is an offence for perfons to
go or ride armed with dangerous weapons: but gentle¬
men may wear common armour^ according to their
quality, &c. 3d Inft. The king may prohibit force of
arms, andpunifh offenders according to law } and here¬
in every fubjeft is bound to be aiding. Stat. 7. Edw. I.
None fliall come with force and arms before the king’s
juftices,' nor ride armed in affray of the peace, on pain
to forfeit their armour, and to fuffer imprifonment,
&:c. 2d Ed. HI. c. 3.
The importation of arms and ammunition are pro¬
hibited by 1 Jac. II. c. 8. and by 1 VV. andM. ftat. 2.
c. 2. Proteftant fubjecfls may have arms for their de¬
fence. So likewife arms, &c. (hipped after prohibi¬
tion, are forfeited, by 29 Geo. I. c. 16. fee. 2.
Arms of offence in u(e among us at prefent are, the
fword, piftol, mufket, bayonet, pike, &c.
The arms of the Highlanders are, the broad fword,
target, poniard, and whinyar or durk, &e There are
feveral a£ts of parliament for difarming the Highland¬
ers } fee 1 Geo. I. c. 54. ; 11 Geo. 1. c. 26. j 19 Geo.
II. c. 39. j 21 Gto. II. c. 34. j 26 Geo. IL c. 22.
and 29.
Fire-arms are thofe charged with powder and ball :
fuch are cannon, mortars, and other ordnance $ muff
kets, carabines, piftols, and even bombs, granadoes,
carcafles, &c. In the Hiftory of the Royal Academy
for the year ijd"], we have an account of Ibme experi¬
ments made with fire-arms differently loaded, by M.
Caflini. Among other things he obferves, that by
loading the piece with a ball which is fomewhat leis
than the calibre, and only laying a little gunpowder
below the ball and a good deal above it, it will yield
a vehement noife, but have no fenfible effect or impulfe
tta the ball.—This he takes to have been all the lecret
of thofe people who pretended to fell the art of render¬
ing one’s felf invulnerable, or (hot-proof.
Arms, pa/s of% was a kind of combat in u(e among
the ancient cavaliers.
Anns,/and of. A (land of arms fignifies a mulket,
a bayonet, a fword, belt, and cartridge-box.
Arms of parade, or courtefy, were thofe ufed in the
ancient juus and tournaments 5 which were commonly
unffiod lances, fwords without edge or point, wooden
(words, and even canes.
Arms denote the natural weapons, Or parts of de-
tence, of beads : as claws, teeth, tulks of elephants,
beaks of birds, &c.
Arms are alfo ufed figuratively for the profeflion of
a foldier. Thus we fay, he was bred to arms.
Arms, or armories, are alfo ufed in heraldry for
marks of dignity and honour, regularly compofed of
■certain figures and colours, given or authoriled by (b-
vereigns, and borne in banners, (hields, coats, &c. for
the diffinflion of perlbns, families, and dates; and paf-
fing by defeent to poderity—They are called arms,
in regard they are borne principally on the buckler,
cuirals, banners, and other apparatus of war. They are
alio called coats oj arms, coat armour, &c. becaule an¬
ciently embroidered on fur-coats, &c. See Herai.d.
ry.—Some will have the name to have been fird oc-
cafioned by the ancient knights, who in their juds and
tournaments bore certain marks (which were frequent¬
ly their millrefs’s favours) in their armour, i. e. their
helmets or (hield, to didinguifh them from each other.
Arms, at prefent, follow the nature of titles,
which being made hereditary, thefe are alfo become
fo, being the feveral marks for didinguifhing of fa¬
milies and kindreds, as names are of perlbns and indi¬
viduals.
Arms are varioufly diffinguifhed by the Heralds.
Arms of alliance, are thofe which families or private
perfons join to their own, to denote the alliances which
they have contracted by marriage.
Anns, aff’umptive, are (uch as a man has a right to
a (fume of himfelf, in virtue of fome gallant aCtion.
As, if a man who is no gentleman, of blood, nor has
coat armour, takes a gentleman, lord, or prince, pri-
foner, in any lawful war ; he becomes entitled to bear
the Afield of fuch prifoner, and enjoy it to him and his
heirs. The foundation hereof is that principle in mi
litary law, that the dominion of things taken in lawful
war paffes to the conqueror.
Arms, canting, are thofe wherein the figures bear
an allufion to the name of the family.—Such are thofe
of the family of La Tour in Auvergne, who bear a
tower j that of the family of Prado in Spain, whofe
field is a meadow. Mod authors hold thefe the mod
noble and regular, as is (hown by an infinity of indan
ces produced by father Varenne and Menetrier.—
They are much debafed when they come to partake of
the Rebus.
Arms, charged, are fuch as retain their ancient inte¬
grity and value, with the addition of fome new ho¬
nourable charge or bearing, in confideration of fomC
noble action.
Arms of community, are thofe of bilhoprics, cities,
univerfities, and other bodies corporate.
Arms of concef/on, or augmentation of honour, are
either entire arms, or elfe one or more figures given
by princes, as a reward for (bme extraordinary fer-
vice.
Arms of dominion, are tho(e which emperors, kings,
and fovereign dates bear ; being annexed to the ter¬
ritories which they poffefs. Thus the three lions are
the arms of England j the fleurs de lys thofe of France,
&c.
Arms of family, or paternal arms, are fuch as be-(
long to a particular family, and which no other perfon
has a right to aflume.
Arms, full, or entire, are fuch as iretain their primi
tive purity, integrity, or value j without any altera¬
tions, diminutions, abatements, or the like.—It is a
rule, that the fimpler and lels diverfified the arms, the
more noble and ancient they are. For this reafon Gar¬
cias Ximenes, fird king of Navarre, and his fuccedbrs
for feveral ages, bore only gules, without any figure
at all.
The arms of princes of the blood, of all younger
fons, and junior families, are not pure and full; but
didinguilhed and diminidied by proper differences, &c.
U u 2 Arms
ARM £ 340 ] ARM
^ Arms, dr ms of patronage, are thofe which governors of
1 rm ^ron;: provinces, lords of manors, &c. add to their family
arms, in token of their peculiar fuperiority and jurifdic-
tion.
Arms of pretention, are thofe of fuch kingdoms or
territories to which a prince or lord has fome claim,
and which he adds to his own, though the kingdoms
or territories be poflTelTed by a foreign prince or other
lord. Thus the kings of England have quartered the
arms of France with their own, ever fince the claim of
Edward III. to that kingdom, in 1330.
Arms offuccejfion, are a (Turned by thofe who inherit
eflates, manors, &c. by will, entail, or donation, and
which they either impale or quarter wiih their own
arms.
Arms are alfo faid to be parted, couped, quartered,
&c.
Arms are faid to be falfe and irregular, when there
is fomething in them contrary to the mtab!idled rules of
heraldry. As, when metal is put on metal, or colour
on colour, &c.
The laws, and other affairs of arms, with the cogni
zahee of offences committed therein, belong, among
us, to the earl-maifhal and college of arms.
Arms in falconry, denote the legs of an hawk,
from the thigh to the foot. See Falconry.
ARMSTRONG (Dr John), an eminent phyfi-
eian, poet, and mifcellaneous writer, -was born in
Caftleton parifh, Roxburghfhire, where his father and
brother were minifters ; ctompleted his education in the
univerfity of Edinburgh, where he took his degree in
phyfic, Feb. 4. 1732, with much reputation ; and
publilhed his thelis, as the forms of that univerfity re¬
quire 5 the fubjeef was De tube purulenta. In 1735
publifhed a little humorous fugitive pamphlet in 8vo,
entitled, “ An effay for abridging the Study of Phy¬
fic j to which is added a Dialogue betwixt Hygeia,
Mercury and Pluto, relating to the Pradlice of Phy¬
fic, as it is managed by a certain illuftrious Society.
As alfo an Epdlje from Ulbek the Pcrfian to Joflma
Ward, Efq.’’ This piece contains much fun and
drollery ; in the dialogue, he has caught the very fpi-
rit of Lucian. In 1737 he publilhed A Synopfis of
the Hitlory and Cure of the Venereal Difeafes, 8vo.
This was foon followed by the Oeconomy of Love ; a
poem which has much merit; but, it mud be confefled,
is too ftrongly tinctured with the licentioufnefs of O-
vid. It is laid, however, that his maturer judgment
expunged many of the luxuriances of youthful fancy,
in an edition “ revifed and corredted by the author” in
1768. It appears by one of the cafes on literary pro¬
perty, that Mr Millar paid 50 guineas for the copy¬
right of this poem, which was intended as a burlefque
on fome diCtatic writers. It has been obferved of Dr
Armftrong, that his works have great inequalities,
fome of them being pofTefled of every requifite to be
fought after in the moft perfetl compofition, while
others can hardly be confidered as fuperior to the pro-
dudions of mediocrity. ''The Art of preferving Health,
his bell performance, which was publifhed in 1744,
will tranfmit his name to pofterity as one of the firfl
Englifh writers, has been honoured with the following
* ATiar- teftimony of a refpedable critic. On this work we
fiery*of " a^° tranfcribe a beautiful elogium from an emi-
bealthi nent phyfician * : “ Of all the poetical performances
on this fubjed that have come to my hands, Dr Arm- Arrhfirong
ilrong’s Art of preferving Health is by far the beft. ||
To quote every charming defeription and beautiful Army,
paffage of this poem, one mult tranferibe the whole.
We cannot, however, exped new rules, where the
principal defign was to raife and warm the heart into
a compliance with the fblid precepts of the ancients,
which he has enforced with great ftrength and ele¬
gance. And, upon the whole, he has convinced us,
by his own example, that we ought not to blame anti¬
quity for acknowledging
One power of phyfic, melody, and fong.”
In 1746 Dr Armftrong was appointed one of the phv-
ficians to the hofpital for lame and fick foldiers behind
Buckingham houle. In'^ijr he publiflied his poem
on Benevolence, in folio ; and in 1753, ” Tafte, an
epi tile to a young Critic. In 1758 appeared, “Sketches
or Eflays on various fubjeds, by Launcelot Temple,
Efq; in two parts.” 'In this produdion, which poflefi-
ies much humour and knowledge of the world,and which
had a remarkably rapid fale.he is fuppofed to have been
aiTulcd by Mr Wilkes. In 1760 he had the honour of
being appointed phyfician to the army in Germany,
wherein 1761 he wrote a poem called “ Day, anEpiftle
to John Wilkes of Aylefbury, Efq In this poem,
which is not colluded in his works, he wantonly ha¬
zarded a refledion on Churchill, which drew on him
the ferpent-toothed vengeance of that fevereft of fati-
rifts, whole embalming or corrofive pen could deify or
lampoon any man, according as he acquiefced with, or
difiented from his political principles. In 1770 Dr
Armftrong publilhed a colledion of “ Milcellanies in
2 vols ; containing, 1. The Art of preferving Health.
2. Of Benevolence, an Epiftle to Eumenes. 3. Tafte,
an Epiftle to a young Critic, 1753. 4. Imitations of
Shakelpeare and Spenfer. 5. The Univerfal Almanac,
by Noureddin Ali. 6. The-Forced Marriage, a tra¬
gedy. 7. Sketches.” In 1771 he publilhed “ A
(hort Ramble through fome parts of France and Italy,
by Launcelot Temple ;” and in 1773, in his own name,
a quarto pamphlet, under the title of Medical EJfays ;
towards the conclufion of which, he accounts for his
not having fuch extenfive practice ^as fome of his bre¬
thren, from his not being quailUed to employ the ufual
means, from a ticklilh ftate of Ipirlts^ and a diftem-
pered excels of fonfibility. He complains much of
the behaviour of fome of his brethren, of the herd of
critics, and particularly of the reviewers. He died in
Sept. 1779 ; and to the no Imall furprife of his friends,
left behind him more than L. 300 faved out of a very
moderate income, arifing principally from his half-pay.
ARMUYDEN, a fea-port town of the Unitau pro¬
vinces, in the ifland of Walcherin, formerly very flou-
■rilhing; but now inconfiderable, the fea having flopped |
up the harbour. The f it-works are its chief refource.
E. Long. 340 N. Lat. jr. 30.
ARMY, a large number of foldiers, confining of
horfe and foot, completely armed, and provided with
artillery, ammunition, provifions, &c. under the com¬
mand of one general, having lieutenant-generals, ma¬
jor-generals, brigadiers, and other officers, under him.
An army is compofed of fquadrons and battalions ; and ;
is ufually divided into three corps, and formed into
three lines : the firft line is called the van guard, the j
fecond the main-body, and the third the rear-guard or
ARM
Army, body afrefervt. The middle of each ’ir.e is poffclfed by
—v——' the foot •, the cavalry form the right and left wing of
each line ; and fbmetimes they place fquadrons ofhorfe
in the intervals between the battalions. When the army
is drawn up in order of battle, the horfe are placed at
five feet diitance from each other, and the foot at three.
In each line the battalions are diftant from each other
180 feet, which is nearly e^ual to the extent of their
front j and the fame holds of the fquadrons, which are
about 300 feet diflant, the extent of their own front.
Thefe intervals are left for the Iquadrons and battalions
of the fc cond line to range tbemlelves againlt the in¬
tervals of the firfl, that both may more readily march
through fhele Ipaces to the enemy : the firft line is
ufually 300 feet diilant from the iecond, and the fe¬
cund trom the third, that there may be luffich nt room
to rally when the fquadrons and battalions are broken.
See the article War.
This is to be underftood of a land-army only. A
naval or fea-army is a number of (hips of war. equip¬
ped and manned with f ilors and mariners, under the
command of an admiral, with other inferior officers
under him. See Naval Tactics.
It has been obferved, that in Europe a prince with
a millien of fubjetfls cannot keep an army of above
10,000 men, without ruining himlelf. _ It was other-
wife in the ancient republics : the proportion of lol-
diers to the reft of the people, which is now as about
1 to 100, might then be as about I to 8. The reafon
feems owing to that equal partition of lands which the
ancien\founders of commonwealths made among their
fubje£ts ; fo that every man had a confulerable proper¬
ty to defend, and means to defend it with : whereas,
among us, the lands and riches of a nation being (hared
among a few, the reft have no way of fubfifting but by
trades, arts, and the like ; and have neither any free
property to defend, nor means to enable them to go to
war in defence of it, without ftarving their families.
A large part of our people are either artifans or fer-
vantc, and fo on'y minifter to the luxury and effemina¬
cy of the great. While the equality of lands fubfifted,
Rome, though only a little date, being refufedthe fuc-
cours which the Lanm were obliged to furniffi after
the taking of the city in the confukte of Camillus,
prefently rajfed ten legions within its own wTalls; which
was more, Livy allures us, than they were able to do
in his time, though mafters of the greateft part of the
world. A full proof, adds the hiftorian. that we are
not grown ftronger; and that what fwells our city is
only luxury, and the means and effects of it.
Our armies anciently were a fort of militia, compo-
ffid chiefly of the vaffals and tenants of the lords.
When each company had (erved the number of days
or months enjoined by their tenure, or the cuftoms of
the fees they held, they returned home. The armies
of the empire confirt of divers bodies of troops furniffi-
ed by the feveral circles. The grofs of the French ar¬
mies under the Merovingian race, conftfted of infantry.
Under Pepin and Charlemagne, the armies confided
almoft equally of cavalry and foot : but fince the de-
clenfion of the Carlovingian line, the fees being be¬
come hereditary, the national armies, fays Le Gendre,
are chiefly cavalry.
A well-regulated (landing army is greatly fuperior
341 ] ARM
to a militia ; although a militia, it is to he ohlerved. Army;
after (erving two or three campaigns, may become v—
equal to a Handing army, and in every refpetft a match
ffir veteran troops. S' e Militia.
One ot the firft (landing armies of which we have
any diilincl acLOunt, in any well authenticated hiftory,
is that of Philip of Macedon. His frequent wars with
the Thracians, Illyrians, Theffalians, and fome of the
Greek citu s in the neighbourhood of Macedon, gra¬
dually formed his troops, which ity the beginning were
probably militia, to the exaH difeipline of a Handing
army. When he was at peace, which was very fel-
riom, and never for any long time together, he w'as
careful not to diffiand that army. It vanquiffied and
(uhdued, after a long and violent druggie, indeed, the
gallant and well exercifed militias of the principal re¬
publics of ancient Greece ; and afterwards, with very
li'tie ftruggle, the effeminate and ill-exercifed militia
of the great Perfian empire. The fall of the Greek re¬
publics and of the Perfian empire, was the effetft of the
irrefitlible fuperiority which a (landing army has over
every fort of militia. It is the firft great revolution in
the affairs of mankind of which hiftory has preferved
any diftindt or circumllantial account.
The fall of Carthage, and the confequent elevation
of Rome is the fecond. All the varieties in the fortune
of thore two famous republics may very well be ac¬
counted for from the fame cau(e.
From the end of the firft to the beginning of the
fecond Carthaginian war, the armies of Carthage were
continually in the field, and employed under three
great generals, who fucceeded one another in the
command ; Amilcar, his ion-in-law Aftlrubal, and his
fon Annibal; firft in chaftifing their own rebellious
(laves, afterwards in fubduing the revolted nations of
Africa, and, laflly, in conquering the great kingdom
of Spain. The army which Annibal led from Spain
into Italy muft neceffarily, in thole different wars, have
been gradually formed to the exa<ft difeipline of a
(landing army. The Romans, in the mean time, tho’
they had not been altogether at peace, yet they had
not during this period, been engaged in any war of
very great con'equence ; and their military difeipline,
it is generally f id, was a good deal relaxed. The Ro¬
man armies which Annibal encountered at Trebia,
Thrafymenus, and Cannue, were militia oppoled to a
(landing army. This circumllaoce, it is probable, con¬
tributed more than any other to determine the fate of
thole battles.
The (landing army which Annibal left behind him
in Spain, had the like fuperiority over the militia
which the Romans (ent to oppofe it, and in a few
years, under the command of his bro’her the younger
Afdrubal, expelled them almoft entirely from that
country.
Annibal was ill fupplied from hon e. The Roman
militia, being continually in the field, became in the
progrefs of the war a well diffiiplined and well-exercifed
(landing army ; and the fuperiority of Annibal grew
every day lefs and lefs. Afdrubal judged it neceffary
to lead the whole, or almoft the whole, of the (landing
army which he commanded in Spain, to the affiftance
of his brother in Italy. In this march he is faid to
have been mifled by his. guides 3 and in a country
which
A R. M [ 342 1 ARM
Army, which he did not know, was furprifed and attacked by afterwards invaded the weftern empire. It was only
another ftandingartny, in every relpe£t equal or fupe- by hiring the militia of Ibme of thole nations to op-
rior to his own, and was entirely defeated. pofe to that of others, that the emperors were for fome
When Afdrubal had left Spain, the great Scipio time able to defend themfelves. The fall of the weftern
found nothing to oppofe him but a militia inferior to empire is the third great revolution in the affairs of
his own. He conquered and fubdued that milhia; mankind, of which ancient hiftory has pteferved any
and in the courfe of the war, his own militia neceffarily diftin£t or circumftantial account. It was brought
became a well difciplined and well-exercifcd Handing about by the irrefiflible fuperiority which the militia
army. That Handing army wa« afterwards carried to of a barbarous has over that of a civilized nation;
Africa, where it found nothing but a militia to oppofe which the militia of a nation of fliepherds has over
it. In order to defend Carthage it becarhe necelfary that of a nation of huHiandmen, artificers, and manu-
to recal the Handing army of Annibal. Thedifheart- fadlurers. The victories which have been gained by
ened and frequently defeated African militia joijned it, militias have generally been not over Handing armies,
and at the battle of Zama cotnpbfed the greater part but over other militias in exercife and difeipline infe-
of the troops of Annibal. The event of that day de- rior to themfelves. Such were the vitffories which the
termined the fate of the two rival republics. Greek militia gained over that of the Ferfian empi
From the end of the fecond Carthaginian war till
the fall of the Roman republic, the armies of Rome
were in every refped Handing armies. The Handing
army of Macedon made fome refinance to their arms.
In the height of their grandeur it coft them two great
Wars and three great battles, tofubduethat little king¬
dom ; of which the conquefi would probably have been
Hill more difficult, had it not been for the cowardice of their original co'untby. It was a militia of Htepherds
s lafi king. The militias of all the civilized nations
of the ancient world, of Greece, of Syria, and of E-
gypt, made but a feeble refifiance to the Handing ar¬
mies of Rome. The militias of fome barbarous nations
defended themfelves much better. The Scythi,
mofi formidable enemies whom the Rotnans had to em
Counter after the fecond Carthaginian war. The Par¬
thian and German militias too were always refpetRable,
and upon leveral occafions gained very confiderable ad¬
vantages over the Roman armies. In general, however,
and when the Roman armies were well commanded,
they appear to have been very much fuperior.
Many different caules coritributed to relax the dif-
grandeur, when no enemy appeared capable of oppo-
fing them, their heavy armour was laid alide as unne-
ceffarily burdenfome, their laborious exerciies were ne-
gleifled as unneceffary toil fame. Under the Rottian
emperors, befides the Handing armies of Rome, thofe
particularly which guarded the German and Parinouian
Arriiy.
and fuch too were thofe which in later times the Swiff
militia gained over that of the Aufirians and Burgun¬
dians.
The military force of the German and Scythian na¬
tions, wh ' efiablifhed themfelves upon the ruins of the
wefiern empire, continued for fbme time to be of the
fame kind in their new fettlefnents sis it had been in
and hufbandmen, which in time of war took the field
under the command of the fame chieftains whom it was
accufibmed to obey in peace. It was therefore tole¬
rably well exercifed and tolerably well difciplined. As
arts and indufiry advanced, however, the authority of
Tartar militia, which Mithridates drew from the edun- the chieftains gradually decayed, and the great body
tries north of the Euxine and Cafpian feas, were the of the people had lefs time to fpare for military exer-
n r ‘‘ , 1 ’ 1 ' L J ‘ cifes; Both the difeipline and the exercife of the feu¬
dal militia, therefore, went gradually to ruin, and
Handing arttlies were gradually iritroduced to fupply
the place of it; When the expedient of a Handing
army, befides, had once been adopted by one civilized
nation, it became neceffary that all its neighbours
fiiould follow the example. They foon found that their
fafety depended upon their doing fo, and that their
cipline of the Roman armies. Its extreme (everity own militia was altogether incapable of refifiing the
Was, perhaps, one of thole caules. In the days of their attack of fuch an army.
The foldiers of a Handing army, though they may
never have feen an enemy, yet have frequently appear¬
ed to poffefs all the courage of veteran tfoops, and the
very moment that they took the field, to have been fit
to face the hardiefi and moft experienced veterans. In
a long peace the generals perhaps may fometimes for-
frontiers, became dangerous to their mailers, againfi get their (kill $ but where a Well regulated Handing
whom they ufed frequently to fet up their own generals, army has been kept up, the foldiers feem never to for-
In order to render them lefs formidable, according to get their valour.
fome authors Dioclefian, according to others Con- When a civilizfed nation depends for its defence np-
Hautine, firfi withdrew them from the frontiers, where on a militia, it is at all times expofed to be conquered
they had always before been encamped in great bodies, by any barbarous nation which happens to be in its
generally of two or three legions each, and dilperled neighbourhood. The frequent conqucfis of all the ci¬
thern in fmall bodies through the different provincial vilized countries in Afia by the Tartars, fufficiently
towns, from whence they were fcarce ever removed, demonftrates the natural fuperiority which the militia
but when it became neceffary to repel an invafion. of a barbarous has over that of a civilized nation. A
Small bodies of (bldiers quartered in trading and ma- well-regulated Handing army is fuperior to every mili-
nufadfuring towns, and feldom removed from tho'e tia. Such an army, as it can befi be maintained by an
quarters, became themfelves tradefmen, artificers, and opulent and civilized nation, fo it can alone delend
manufacturers. The civil came to predominate over fuch a nation againfl the invafion of a poor and barba-
the military charader; and the Handing armies of rous neighbour. It is only by means of a Handing
Rome gradually degenerated into a corrupt, neglected, army, therefore, that the civilization of any country
and undifeiplined militia, incapable of refilling the at- can be perpetuated, or even preferved for any ccnfi-
tack of the German and Scythian militias, which foon derable time.
As
A R N
A R N
[ 343 J
As it is only by means of a well-regulated ftanding lefs than-L. 10,997 ; 6: 8 out of the treafury for Ins Arnaud.
my that a civilized country can be defended, fo it is writings! but (pending his money as fall as it came, —v—"
ly by means of it that a barbarous cotimry can be and his (applies ilopning on Sir Robert’s refignation
army
only by means of it that a barbarous country
fuddenly and tolerably civilized. A ftanding army
eftabliflies, with an irrt fiftible force, the law of the fo-
vereign through the remoteft provinces of the empire,
and maintains lome degree of regular government in
countries which could not otherwile admit of any.
pplies Hopping on Sir Robert’s refignation,
he died broken-hearttd and in debt, in the 26th year
of his age. His invention was fo quick, that his ho¬
nourable employer ufed to fay, no man in England
could write a pamphlet in fo little time as Arnall.
ARNAUD de Meyrveilh, or Mereuil, a poet
Whoever examines with attention the improvements of Provence, who lived at the beginning of the 13th
which Peter the Great introduced into the Ruffian em- century. He wrote a book intitled Las recaffenas de
pire, will find that they almoft all refolve themfelves fa comtejfe, and a colle&ion of poems and fonnets. He
into the eftablifhment of a well regulated ftanding ar- died in the year 1220. Petrarch mentions him in his
my. It is the inftrument which executes and main- Triumph of Love.
tains all his other regulations. That degree of order Arnaud de Villa Nova, a famous phyfician, who
and internal peace which that empire has ever fince lived about the end of the 13th and beginning of tho
enjoyed, is altogether owing to the influence of that 14th century. He ftudied at Paris and Montpelier, and
army. _ travelled through Italy and Spain. He was well ac-
Men of republican principles have been jealous o'" a quaintedwith languages, and particularly with the
ftanding army as dangerous to liberty. It certainly is Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic. He was at great pains
fo, wherever the intereft of the general and that of the to gratify his ardent defire after knowledge j but this
principal officers are not neceffarily connefled with the paffion carried him rather too far in his refearches : he
fupport of the conftitution of the ftate. The ftanding endeavoured to difeover future events by aftroIogy,ima-
army of Caefar deftroyed the Roman republic j the gining this fcience to be infallible; and upon this foun-
ftanding army of Cromwel turned the long parliament dation he publifhed a prediction, that the world would
out of doors. But where the fovereign is himfelf the come to an end in the middle of the 14th century.. He
general, and the principal nobility and gentry of the praftifed phyfic at Paris for fome time ; but having ad-
country the chief officers of the army ; where the mi- vanced fome new do&rines, he drew upon himfelf the
litary force is placed under the command of thofe who refentment of the univerfity; and his friends, fearing he
have the greateft intereft in the fupport of the civil might be arrefted, perfuaded him to retire from that
authority, becaufe they have themfelves the greateft city. Upon his leaving France, he retired to Sicily,
(hare of that authority ; a ftanding army can never be where he was received by king Frederic of Arragou
dangerous to liberty: on the contrary, it may in with the greateft marks of kindnefs and efteem. Some
fome cafes be favourable to liberty. The fecurity time afterwards, this prince lent him to France, to at-
which it gives to the fovereign renders unneceffary tendPope'Clementinhisillrvefsjandhewasfhipwreck-
t hat troublefome jealoufy which in fome modern re- ed on the coaft of Genoa, about the year 1313. The
publics feems to watch over the minuteft a&ions, and works of Arnaud, with his life prefixed, were printed
to be at all times ready to difturb the peace of every in one volume in folio, at Lyons, in 1520 ; and at Ba-
citizen. Where the fecurity of the magiftrate, though fil in 1585, with the notes of Nicholas Tolerus.
fupported by the principal people of the country, is Arnaud d’Andilly (Robert), the fbn of a cele-
endangeredby every popular difeontent; where a fmall brated Advocate of the parliament of Paris, was born
tumult is capable of bringing about in a few hours a in 1588 ; and being introduced young at court, was
great revolution ; the whole authority of government employed in many confklerable offices, all which he dif-
muft be employed to fupprefs and punifh every mur- charged with great integrity and reputation. In 1644
inur and complaint againft it. To a fovercign, on the he quitted bufinefs, andretired into the convent of Port
contrary, who feels himfelf fupported not only by the Royal des Champs, where he pafFed the remainder of
natural ariftocracy of the country, but by a well regu his days in a continued application to works of piety
lated ftanding army, the rudeft, the moil groundlefs, and devotion ; and enriched the French language with
and the moft licentious remonftrances, can give little many excellent tranflations of different writers, as well
difturbance. He can fafely pardon or negledl them, as with religious compofitions of his owm. He died in
and his confcioufnefs of his own fuperiority naturally 1674, and his works are printed in 8 vols folio,
difpofes him to do fo. That degree of liberty which Arnaud (Anthony), brother of the preceding, and
approaches to licentioufbefs can be tolerated only in a doHor of the Sorbonne, was born in 1612. He pu-
countries where the fovereign is fecured by a well-regu- blifhed in 1643, ^ treatife on frequent communion^
lated ftanding army. It is in fuch countries only that which highly difpleafed the Jefuits; and the difputes
the public lafety does not require that the fovereign upon grace, which broke out about this time in the u-
fhould be trufted with any diferetionary power for niverfity of Paris, and in which he took a zealous part
fuppreffing even the impertinent wantonnefs of this li- with the Janfenifts, helped toincreafe the animofity be-
eentious liberty. tween him and the Jefuits. But nothing raifed fo great
ARNALL (William), a noted political writer in a clamour againft him as the two letters he . wrote on
defence of Sir Robert Walpole, was originally an at- Abfolution ; in the fecond of which the faculty of divi-
torney’s clerk ; but being recommended to Walpole, nity found two propofitions which they condemned,
he employed him fora courfe of years in writing the and M. Arnaud was expelled the fociety. Upon this
Free Briton and other papers in defence of his admini- he retired j and during a retreat which lafted near 25
ftration. By the report of the fecret committee, he ap- years, he compofed that great variety of works which
pears to have received, in the fpace of four years, no are extant of his, on grammar, geometry, logic, me-
taphyfics?
A R N [ 344- 1 A R N
Arnsy tapliyfics, &n<3 theology. In 1679, he withdrew from
|J France, living in oblcufity in the Netherlands, and
Arnheim. died in 1694. His heart, at his own requeft, was feat
v_ " to be depofited in the Port Royal. A maud had a re-
markable ftrength of genius, memory, and command of
his pen ; nor did thd'e decay even to the haft year of
his life. Mr Bayle lays, he had been told by perfons
who had been admitted into his familiar cpnverlation,
that he was a man very (imple in his manners ; and that
unlels any one propofed Tome queftion to him, or de-
lired feme information, he faid nothing that was be¬
yond common converlation, or that might make one
take him for a man of great abilities ; but when he fet
himfelf to give an nniwer to fuch as propofed a point
of learning, he leemed as it were transformed into
another man : he would then deliver a multitude of
fine things with great perfpicuity and learning, and
had a particular talent at making himfelf intelligible
to per tons not of the great eft penetration.
AR.NAY-LF, DUC, a town of France, in the duchy
of Burgundy, which carries on a pretty good trade.
It is feated on the Auxois, in a valley near the river
Aroux. E. Long. 4. 26. N. Lat. 47. 7.
APvNDT (John), a famous Proteftant divine of Ger¬
many, born at Ballenftad, in the duchy of Anhalt, in
the year 15 $5. At firit he applied himlelf to the ftudy
. of piiyfic : but falling into a dangerous ficknefs, he
made a vow to change his profeflion for that of divini¬
ty, if he fhould be reftored to health $ w hich he accord¬
ingly did upon his recovery. He was miuifter firft at
Quedlinburg and then at Brunfwick. He met with
great oppofition in this laft city: his fucceft as a preach¬
er raifed the enmity of his brethren, who became his
bitter enemies. In order to ruin his charafter, they
aferibed a variety of errors to him; and perfe
him to fuch a degree, that he wras obliged to leaved /f-
wick, and retire to Ifleb, where he was min’ for
three years. In i6ir, George Duke of Lunenburg,
who had a high opinion of his integrity and faiuffity,
gave him the cliurch of Zell, and appointed him fu-
perintendant of all the churches in the duchy of Lu¬
nenburg ; which office he difeharged for 11 years, and
died in 1621. It is reported that he foretold his death,
having faid to his w ife, upon his return home after his
laft fermon, that now he had preached his funeral fer-
mon. He wrote in High Dutch ji treatife on true
Chrijlianity, which has been tranflated into feveral lan¬
guages.
ARNE (Dr Thomas Auguftine), diftinguifhed by
his fkill in mufic, was the fon of Mr Arne an uphol-
fterer in Covent Garden, whom Addiibn is fuppofed
to have chara&triftd in No. 155 and No. 160 of The
Tatler ; and brother of IMrs Cibber the player. He
was early devoted to mufic, and foon became eminent
in his profeffiou. July 6. 1759, he had the degree of
doctor of mufic conferred on him at Oxford. His com-
pofitions are univerfally applauded, and he was alfo
particularly fkilful in inftru£ling vocal performers.
He died March 5. 1778, having written the following
pieces : Artaxerxes, 1762 ; *The Guardian outwitted,
i-jbt,; T^he Rofe, 1778 ; all of them operas.
ARNHEIVI, a town of the Low Countries, in the
province of Guelderland, capital of Veluive. It was
adorned with feveral fine churches, particularly that of
No. 29.
St Walburg and of St Eufebius; which laft has a very
high tower. The town has five gates, and feveral
fine ramparts, part of which are wafhed by the Rhine,
and the other parts have wide and deep ditches before
them. There is a canal made between this place and
Nimeguen, at the expence of both towns, on which
boats pafs backwards and forward, to carry on a trade
between them. The air is very healthful; on which
account it is inhabited by perfons of diftindfion. E.
Long. 5. 55. N. Lat. 52. o.
ARNICA, leoparbs bane, in botany : A genus of
the polygamia iuptrflua order, belonging to the fynge-
nefia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 49th order, CompoJitce-diJ'coides. The
receptacle is naked ; the pappus is fimple ; and the
filaments are five, without antherae. The
Species are (even, all natives of Ethiopia, except the
two following: 1. The montana, with oval leaves,
grows naturally on the Alps, and alfb upon many of
the high mountains in Germany, and other cold parts
of Europe. The roots of this fpecies, when planted
in a proper foil and fituation, fpread very far under the
furface, and put out many entire oval leaves, from be¬
tween which the flower-items at ife, which grow about
a foot and an half high. The top is terminated by a
iingle yellow flower, compofed of many florets, like
thofe of the dandelion. Theie are fucceeded by ob¬
long feeds, which are covered with down. 2. The
icorpioides, with fawed leaves growing alternately, is a
native of Bohemia and Siberia. The roots of this lort
are much jointed, and divide into many irregular fleihy
off-fets, which are variouily contorted ; from whence
fome fuperftitious perfons have imagined that they
would expel the poifon of fcorpions, and cure the
wounds made by the fting of that animal.
Culture. The firft fpecies delights in a moift (hady
fituation : it may be propagated by parting the roots
in autumn when the ftalks begin to decay ; or by the
feeds fown in autumn foon after they are ripe, for
thofe fovvn in the .fpring often fail. -The fecond fort
is to be propagated in the fame manner. Both are
very hardy, and require no other care than to be kept
free from weeds.
Medicinal U/es. The montana has an acrid bitter
tafte, and when bruifed, emits a pungent odour, which
excites freezing. On this account the country people
in fome parts of Germany ule it in fnuff, and Imoke it
like tobacco. It was formerly reprefented as a reme¬
dy of great efficacy againft effufions and fuffufions of
blood, from falls, bruifes, or the like ; and it W'as then
alfo mentioned as a remedy in jaundice, gout, nephri¬
tis, &c. but in thefe affections it is now very little, if
at all employed.
Of late it has been principally recommended in pa¬
ralytic affeCtions, and in cafes where a lofs or diminu¬
tion of lenfe arifes from an affeCtion of the nerves, as
in initances of amaurofis. In thefe it has chiefly been
employed under the form of infufion. From a dram
to half an ounce of the flowers has been direCted to be
infufed in a pint of boiling water, and taken in different
dofes in the courfe of the day : fometimes it produces
vomiting, fometimes fweating, fometimes diurefis; but
frequently its ufe is attended with no lenfible opera¬
tion, unlefs it can be confidered as fuch, that in fome
cafes
A R N [ 345 1 A R N
Arnifeus, cafes of paralyfis, the cure is faid to be preceded by a
Amobius.. peculiar prickling, and by (hooting pains in the affeft-
"v ed parts.
Befides being employed in paralytic affeflions, it has
alfo been of late reprefented as a very powerful anti-
fpafmodic ; and it is faid to have been fuccefsfully em¬
ployed in fevers, particularly thofe of the intermittent
kind, and likewile in cafes of gangrene. In thofe dif-
eafes it has been faid to prove as efficacious as the Pe¬
ruvian bark, when employed under the form of a pret¬
ty ftrong decodtion taken in fmall dofes frequently re¬
peated, or under the-fbrm of an eledfuary with honey.
But as thefe alleged virtues have not been confirm¬
ed by any trials made in Britain, its real influence ftill
remains to be determined by future obfervations. It
is, however, ene of thofe adiive fubftances from which
Ibmething may be expedled.
ARNISiEUS (Henningus), a philofbpher and phy-
fician of great reputation, about the beginning of the
17th century. He was born at Halberftad in Ger¬
many, and was profeflbr of phyfic in the univerfity of
Helmftad. His political works are much efleemed.
The mod remarkable of them is his book De authori-
tate principum in populum femper inviolabili, printed at
Francfort in 1612. In this" he maintains that the
authority of princes ought not to be violated. He
wrote alfo upon the fame dodlrine his three books De
jure majejlatis, printed at the fame place in 1610 j and
his ReJleSiiones Politico;, printed at Francfort in 1615.
Having received an invitation to go to Denmark, he
went thither, and was made counfellor and phyfician
to the king. He travelled into France and England,
and died in November 1635. Befides the pieces al¬
ready mentioned, he wrote feveral philofbphical, me¬
dicinal, and political treatifes.
ARNOB1US, profeflbr of rhetoric at Sicca, in
Numidia, towards the end of the third century. It
was owing to certain dreams which he had that he
became defirous of embracing Chriftianity. For this
purpofe he applied to the bifhops to be admitted into
the church. But they remembering the violence with
which he had always oppofed the true faith, had fome
diftruft of him ; and before they would admit him,
infifted on fome proofs of his fincerity. In compliance
with this demand, he wrote againfl the Gentiles j
wherein he has refuted the abffirdities of their religion,
and ridiculed their falfe gods. In this treatife he has
employed all the flowers of rhetoric, and difplayed great
learning : but from an impatience to be admitted into
the body of the faithful, he is thought to have been in
too great a hurry in compofing his work, and thence
it is that there does not appear in this piece fuch an
exaft order and difpofition as could be wifhed ; and
not having a perfett and exa<5i knowledge of the Chri-
ftian faith, he publifhed fome very dangelous errors.
Mr Bayle remarks, that his notions about the origin of
the Ibul, and the caufe of natural evil, and feveral other
important points, are highly pernicious. St Jerom, in
his Cpiftle to Paulinus, is of opinion that his ftyle is
unequal and too diffufe, and that his book is written
without any method ; but Dr Cave thinks this judg¬
ment too fevere, and that Arnobius wants neither ele¬
gance nor order in his compofition. Voffius ftyles him
the Varro of the ecclejiaflkul writers. Du Pin obferves
Vol. II. Part I.
that his work is written in a manner worthy of a pro- Arnold-
feflbr of rhetoric : the turn of his fentiments is very -y——
oratorical; but his ftyle is a little African, his exprei-
fions being harfh and inelegant. We have feveral edi¬
tions of this work of Arnobius againft the Gentiles,
one publifhed at Rome in 1542, at Bafil in 1546 and
1560, at Paris in 1570, at Antwerp in 1582, and one
at Hamburgh in 1610, with notes by Gebhard Elmen-
horftius, befides many others. He wrote alfo a piece
entitled De rhetoricae injiitutione ; but this is not ex¬
tant.
ARNOLD, of Brefcia, in Italy, diftinguifhed him-
felf by being the founder of a feet which oppofed the
wealth and power of theRomifh clergy. He went in¬
to France, where he ftudied under the celebrated Peter
Abelard. Upon his return to Italy, he put on the
habit of a monk, and opened his invectives in the ftreets
of Brefcia. The people crowded round him. He
told them he was fent to reform abufes, to pull down
the proud and to exalt the humble. He then pointed
his declamation againft the bifhops, againft the clergy,
againfl: the monks, and finally againft the Roman Pon¬
tiff himfelf: to the laity only he was indulgent.
Churchmen, faid he, who hold benefices, bifhops who
have domains, and monks that have pofleffions, will all
be damned. His hearers fhouted approbation. Thefe
things, continued he, belong to the prince ; he may
give them to whom he pleafes, but he rrmft give them
to the laity. It is on their tithes, and the voluntary
contributions of the people, that thol'e fons of God
mull live : they muft be frugal, continent, and mor¬
tified.
The church of Brefcia was fbon thrown into the
greateft confufion, and the people, already prejudiced
againft their minifters, threatened to overturn their al¬
tars. The facred writings he urged in fupport of his
aflertions, and from them he denounced the vengeance
of heaven againft the violators of the law. Indeed,
nothing could be more glaringly offenfive than the o-
ftentatious parade of the bifhops and great abbots, and
the foft and licentious lives of the monks and clergy.
In 1139 was celebrated a grand council at Rome.
Arnold was dted to appear before it. His accufers
were the Bifhop of Brefcia, and many others, whom
he had ridiculed and infulted. Nor from his judges
could he look for much indulgence. He was found
guilty, and fentenced to perpetual filence. Upon this
he left Italy, eroded the Alps, and found a refug e in
Zurich.
Though Arnold had quitted Italy, yet had his opi¬
nions taken deep root, and Rome itfelf was infe&ed
by them. Irritated by the conduct of their mailer
Innocent II. the Roman people aflembled in the Capi¬
tol. It was propofed that the power of the pontiff,
which they called exorbitant, ffiould be reftrained:
this was carried : when fuddenly, infpired as it were
by the genius of the place, they moved that the fe-
nate, which for years had been abolifhed, fhould be re-
ftored. The propofition was received with the loudeft
acclamations. Innocent in vain oppofed the bold de-
fign; there was a magic in it which fpread irrefiftibly,
and for a moment feemed to roufe the fallen fpirit of
the nation. The pope viewed with horror the reverie
of fortune which threatened the tiara ; to be ffiorn of
Xx his
A R N t 346 ] A R N
his mighty power, and to become the mere fhepherd
of the Chriftian people, was thought too afRiding :
he fell fick and died.
Under his two immediate fucceflbrs Celeftin and Lu¬
cius, whole reigns were but of a few months, the Ro¬
mans purfued their darling object. They waited on
the latter, and, in an imperious tone, demanded the
reui ution of all the honours and civil rights which
had been ufurped from the people. The prince of the
fenate, faid they, whom we have chofen, will belt ad-
minilter the important trult : the tithes and offerings
of the faithful will fufficiently anfwer ail the exigencies
of your holine's : It was thus that our ancient bilhops
lived.— Lucius furvived this event but a few days. His
fuccelfor was Eugenius III. the friend and difcipie of
the r-enowned Bernard. The night before his conie-
cration the fenators allembled, and it was agreed, that
either he Ihould folemnly confirm all their proceedings,
or they would annul his eleHion. This relblution was
notitied to him. He called together his friends $ and
it was their advice, that he Ihould neither accede to
the extravagant demand, nor expofe himlelf, by a re
fufal, to the fury of the populace. He therefore fi-
lently withdrew from Rome, and retired to a neigh
bouring fortrefs. Here the ceremony of his confecra
tion was performed.
Arnold, who in banifhment had contemplated the
effedl of his admonitions on the minds of the Romans,
and the fuccefs which feemed to follow their exertions,
was now informed that the pope had retired, and that
the gates of the capital were open to receive him : it
was likewile fuggefted to him, that his prelemce was
more than ever necelfary, to give energy to their re-
fblves, form to their plans, and liability to their under¬
takings. Arnold took fire at the news; an unufual
fwell of enthufiafm filled his bread j and he fancied
that, like Junius Brutus, he was called at once to give
liberty to Rome. At his appearance a new dream of
vigour anima ed the citizens ; they called him their
friend and deliverer. The Brefcian walked amongd
them ; hi - deportment was humble, his countenance
emaciated, his addrefs affable, and he fpoke to them
of moderation, of fubmiffion, of obedience. With the
nobles and new fenator-- he held another language j
though to them alfo he was mild and diffident, Ipeak-
ing much of virtue and of refped for religion and the
laws. But no looner was he lenfible of his own real
influence, and faw the lengths to which the revolters
had already carried their defigns, than he threw afide
the malk, and appeared in his own charafter, daring,
impetuous, felf-fufficient, vain. He harangued the
people ; he talked of their forefathers the ancient Ro¬
mans, who, by the wifdom of their fenate and the va
lour of their armies, had conquered nations and fub-
dueci the earth. He dwelt on the names and the at-
chievements of the Bruti, the Gracchi, and the Scipios ;
and of thefe men, faid he, are you not the children ?
He advi'.ed, that the capitol be inflantly repaired ; that
the equeftrian order be reftored ; that the people have
their tribunes; that dignity attend the fenate ; and,
that the laws, which had been filent ’and neglefted, be
revived in all their vigour. He fpoke of the pope as
of a depofed and baniffied tyrant: “ But ffiould you
again be difpofed (continued he) to admit him within
thefe walls j firfi: fix your own rights and determine
his. He is but your biffiop : let him therefore have Arnold,
his fpiritual jurifaiftion. The government of Rome,
its Civil eftabliffiments, and its territories, belong to
you. Thefe you will keep if you have the fpirit of
men and the hearts of Romans.” Fired by this ha¬
rangue, the people, headed by the molt difaffefted of
the nobles, publicly attacked the few cardinals and
churchmen who remained in the city ^ they fet fire to
the palaces ; and they compelled the citizens to fwear
obedience to the new government. Moderate men,
who faw the folly of the attempt, were fliocked at thefe
exeeffes of popular phrenzy ; but it was in vain to bp-
pofe the torrent : they fubmitted, looking forward
with fome curiofity, to the termination of an event
which had begun in extravagance, and mult end in
difappointment.
Eugenius till now had viewed, with feme concern,
the wild derangement of his people : but when it feem¬
ed that their eyes opened to their own exctffes, he
could be inaftive no longer. He excommunicated the
ringleaders of the fa&ion ; and at the head of his
troops, who were chiefly compofed of Tiburtini, a
people always hoftile to the Romans, he marched a-
gainft the enemy. His friends within the walls, who
were numerous, co operated with his defigns, and in
a few days overtures for peace were made to the pon¬
tiff. He acceded to them, but on condition that they
fliould annul the arrangements they had made, and if
they would have fenators, that they fhould acknowledge
all their power was.from him. The people were fatis-
fied, and they threw open the gates, through which
Eugenius entered,"among the acclamations of a fawn¬
ing arid inconftant multitude.—Before this event Ar¬
nold had retired ; but he left behind him many friends
flrongly attached to his perfon and principles. Of him-
felf we hear little more till the reign of Adrian our
countryman 5 when, on account of frefh tumults, he
and his adherents were excommunicated, and Rome
was threatened with an iriferditR unlefs they expelled
the whole party from their walls. This they did. The
Arnoldifts retired with their champion into Tufeany,.
where he was received as a prophet and honoured as a
faint. His enemies, however, prevailed ; he was made
prifoner, and conduced under a ftrong efcoft to Rome.,
In vain was great intereft made to fave his life ; he was
condemned and executed, and his affies thrown into
the Tiber, left the people fhould colleH his remains
and venerate them as the reliefs of a fainted martyr.
“ Such was Arnold of Brefcia; a man (fays Mr
Berington*), whofe character, whofe principles, and * 0y
whofe views, we perhaps fhould be difpofed to admire, the Lives ef
had his life been recorded by unprejudiced hiftoriaris, Abelard and
and not brought down to us drawn in the blackeftco- ^0-fa\
lours which party, bigotted zeal, and enthufiafm, could
lay on. He was raff, misjudging, and intemperate,
or never would he have engaged in fe unequal a con-
teft.—The view of fuch a phenomenon in the J2th
century excites a pleafing admiration. To attack the
Roman pontiff and his clergy in the very centre of
their power, required a more than common (hare of
fortitude y. to adopt a fettled feheme of reftoring to
its priftine glory the republic of Rome, demanded a
ftretch of thought comprehenfive and enterprifing ;
and to forego the eafe and indulgence of a diffipated
age, for the reformation of manners and the fuppref-
fion
A R N
C 347 1
A R O
{ion of what he thought ufurped dominion, argued a relating to the church of Rochefter : it is generally Arnus
character of mind difinterefted, generous, and benevo- known by the title of Textus Roffenjis, and is preferr ed I!
lent. But Arnold, like other reformers, went too far,
J and paffion foon vitiated undertakings which were be¬
gun perhaps with motives the moil laudable.—The
readinefs with which the Roman people embraced this
plan of lowering the jurifdhRion of the pontiff, and re-
flraining it within thofe bounds which the true fpirit
of Chriflianity had fixed, at once ihovvs that they could
the archives of the cathedral church of Rochefier. , Ar°Ph- ,
2. An Epiltle in Anfwer to fome Queftions of Lam-
bert abbot of Muniter ; and, 3. An Epillle on inceftu-
ous Marriage.
ARNUS, now Arno, a very rapid river of Tufcany,
which it divides, and in its courfe waihes Fiorence and
Pifa; rifing in the Apennine, to the eafl of Florence,
reafon juftly, and that they confidered the unbounded near a village called S. Maria della Grade, on the bor-
fway of the triple crown, to which reludlantly they
fubmitted, as an alfumed prerogative, to which violence
or mifconftruftion, and not Chriftian right, had given
efficacy.”
ARNOLDISTS, in church-hiilory, a left fo called
from their leader Arnold of Brefcia. See the preced¬
ing article.
ARNOLDUS (Gothofredus), pallor and infpeftor
of the churches of Perleberg, and hiftoriographer to
the king of Pruffia, was born at Annaburg in the
mountains of Mifnia in 1666. He was a zealous defend¬
er of Pietifts, a (eft among the German Proteftants,
and compofed a great number of religious works,; par¬
ticularly on Ecclejiajlical Hijlory, which expoled him to
the refentment of the divines j and another giving an
account of the doftrines and manners from the firft
ages, in which he frequently animadverts upon Cave’s
primitive Chrillianity. He died in 1714. Various are
the opinions concerning Arnoldus in Germany ; (bme of
his own countrymen and profeffion extolling him to the
Ikies as a faint of the laft century, and letting an ine-
ftimable value upon his works; while others pronounce
damnation upon him as an arch-heretic, and condemn
his writings as heterodox.
ARNON (anc. geog.) a brook running between the
borders of the Moabites and Ammonites on the other
fide Jordan (Moles, Jolhua) : Jofephus calls it a river
ders of Romagna, 15 miles to the weft of the fources
of the Tiber; and then turning fouthward towards
Arretium, it is there increafed by the lakes of the Cla-
nis j after which it runs weftward, dividing Florence
into two parts, and at length wafhing Pifa, falls eight
miles below it into the Tufcan fea.
ARNWAY (John), a clergyman diftinguilhed by
his benevolence and loyalty to King Charles I. was de-
fcended from a very good family in the county of Sa¬
lop, from which he inherited a confiderable eftate. He
was educated at Oxford ; and, having received holy or¬
ders, obtained the reftories of Hodnot and Ightfield,
where he diftinguifhed himfelf by his piety and exem¬
plary charity : for it was his cuftom to clothe annually
12 poor people, and every Sunday to entertain as many
at his table, not only plentifully, but with intimacy
and refpeft. The civil war breaking out, he preached
igainft rebellion, and raifed and clothed eight troopers
the opinions concerning Arnoldus in Germany ; (bme of for the fervice of King Charles I. upon which his houle
   1 c„/t:——u:— was plundered by the parliament’s army. He then
^ went to Oxford to ferve the king in perfon, which fub-
ftimable value upon his works; while others pronounce jefted him to a new train of misfortunes : for his eftate
was foon after fequeltered, and himfelf imprilbned
till the king’s death $ after which he went to the
Hague, where he publifhed, 1. The Tablet, or the
Moderation of Charles I. the Martyr; and, 2. An
Alarm to the Subjefts of England. He at laft went
rifing on the borders of Arabia, and at length falling to Virginia, where he died in 1653.
into the Dead Sea. It is alfo called the river of Gad.
as appears 2 Sam. xxv. 5. compared with 2 Kings x.
33*
ARNOT, in botany, the Englifti name of the bu-
nium- See Bunium.
ARNOTTO. The fame with Anotta. See Anot-
ta and Bixa.
ARNSTADE, a town of Germany, in Thuringia,
on the river Gera. E. Long. n. 3. N. Lat. 50. 54.
ARNULPH, or Ernulph, bilhop of Rochefter in
the reign of Henry I. He was born in France, where
he was fome time a monk of St Lucian de Beauvais.
The monks led moft irregular lives in this monaftery ;
for which realbn he refblved to quit it,but firft took the
advice of Lanfraoc archbiffiop of Canterbury, under
whom he had ftudied in the abbey of Becc, when Lan-
franc was prior of that monaftery. This prelate invi¬
ted him over to England, and placed him in the mona-
AROBE. See Arrobas.
AROLEO, an American weight, equal to 25 of
our pounds.
AROMA philosophorum, denotes either faffron,
or the aroph of Paracelfus; as aroma gennanicum de¬
notes elecampane. See Aroph.
AROMATA (anc. geog.), a town of Lydia, famous
for its generous wines ; and hence the appellation
(Strabo.) Alfo the name of a trading, town, and pro¬
montory of Ethiopia, at the termination of the Sinus
Avalites of the Red Sea (Arrian.)
AROMATIC, an appellation given to fuch plants
as yield a brifk fragrant fmell, and a warm tafte; as
all kinds of fpices, &c. See Materia Medica.
ARONA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan,
with a ftrong caftle. It ftands on the lake Maggoire.
E. Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. 45 41.
AROiNCHES, a town of Portugal, in Alantejo, on
the confines of Spain, feated on the river Caro. It is
   ' ' " W.
ftery of Canterbury, where he lived a private monk till  x ,     
Lanfranc’s death. When Anfelm came to the archi- well fortified, and has about 500 inhabitants,
epifcopal fee, Arnulph was made prior of the mona- Long. 5. 16. N. Lat. 14. 39,
ftery of Canterbury, and afterwards abbot of Peterbo- AROO.T
rough. In 1115, was conlecrated Bifhop of Ro-
chelter, wh ch fee he held nine years, and died in March
1124, aged 84.
Arnulph wrote, 1. A piece in,Latin concerning the
foundation, endowment, charters, laws, and other things
ARCOL, a town of the empire of Ruflia, in the
Ukrain, feated on the river Occa. E. Long. 38. 15.
N. Lat. 51. 48.
AROPH, a contraftion of aroma philofophorum ; a
name given to faftron.
Aroph Paracelji, a name given to a kind of chemi-
X x 2 cal
ARP [ 343 ] A R R
Aroph cal flowers, probably of the fame nature with the Ens
II Veneris, elegantly prepared by fublimation from equal
quantities of lapis haematitb and fal ammoniac.
~v Aroph is alfo a term ufed frequently by Faracelfus
in a fenfe fynonimous with lithontriptic.
AROSBAY, a town of the Eaft Indies, on the coaft
of the illand of Madura, near Java. E. Long. 14. 30.
N. Lat. 9. 30.
AROURA, a Grecian meafure of 50 feet. It was
more frequently uied for a fquare meafure of half the
plethron. The Egyptian aroura was the fquare of 100
feet.
ARPAD (anc. geog.), is thought to have been a
city of Syria. It was always placed with Hamath
(2 Kings xviii. 34. xix. 13. ifai. x. 9. xxxvi. 19.
xxxvii. 13. Jerem. xlix. 23.) Sennacherib boalls of
having reduced Arpad and Hamath, or of having de
ftroved the gods of thefe two places. Hamath is
known to be the fame with Emefa ; and it is thought
that Arpad is the fame with Arad or Arvad, as it is
fometimes called in Hebrew. See Arad.
ARPAGIUS, or Harpagius, among the ancients,
a perfbn who died in the cradle, at lead in early youth.
The word is formed from the Greek Ifnatch.
The Romans made no funerals for their arpagii. They
neither burnt their bodies, nor made tombs, monu¬
ments, or epitaphs for them ; which occafioned Juve
na to fay,
 Terra clauditur infans
Et minor igne rogi.
In after times it became the cuftom to burn fuch as had
lived to the age of 40 days, and had cut any teeth ; and
thefe they called A§7i a*™, or A^etypitoi, q. d. rapti,
ravijhed. The ufage feems to have been borrowed
from the Greeks j among whom, Euflathius aflures
us, it was the cuftom never to bury their children either
by night or full day, but at the firff appearance of the
morning 5 and that they did not call their departure by
the name of death, but by a fofter appellation,
aepev-vn, importing that they were ravifhed by Aurora,
or taken away to her embraces.
ARPENT, fignifies an acre or furlong of ground ;
and according to the old French account in domefday-
book, too perches make an arpent. The moft ordi¬
nary acre, called /’ arpent de France, is too perches
fquare : but 'ome account i> but half an acre.
ARPHAXAD, the fon of Shem and father of Sa
lah. Arphaxad was born in the year of the world
1658, a year after the deluge, and died in the year of
the world 2096, at the age of 438 years, (Genef. xi. 12,
8fc.)
ARPE See Argos Hippium.
ARP1NAS, or Arfino, (Jofeph Caefar), a famous
painter, born in the year 1560, at the caftle of Arpi-
nas, in the kingdom of Naples. He lived in great in¬
timacy with. Pope Clement VIII. who conferred upon
him the honour of knighthood, and bellowed on him
many other marks of his friendfhip. In the year 1600,
he went to Paris with cardinal Aldobrandin, who was
Tent legate to the French court on the marriage of
Henry IV. with Mary of Medicis. His Chriftian ma-
jefty gave Arpinas many confiderable prefents, and
created him a knight of St Michael. The colouring of
this painter is thought to be cold and inanimate j yet
there is fpirit in his defigns, and his compofitions have Arpinum
fomewhat of fire and elevation. The touches of his ||
pencil being free and bold, give therefore pleafure to Arraign,
connoifleurs in painting ; but they are generally incor.
red. What he painted of the Roman hiftory is the v
moft efteemed of all his works. The French king has
in his collection the following pieces of this matter, viz.
the nativity of our Saviour, Diana and Adeon, the rape
of Europa, and a Sufanna. He died at Rome in
1640.
ARPINUM, a town of the Volfci, a little to the
eaft of the confluence of the rivers Liris and Fibrenus
in the Terra di Lavora ; now decayed, and called Ar-
pino. It was the native place of Cicero, and of C. Ma¬
rius, (Salluft.)
ARQUA, a town of Italy, in the Paduan, and ter¬
ritory of Venice, remarkable for the tomb of Petrarch.
E. Long. 11. 43. N. Lat. 45. 43.
ARQUEBUS. See Harquebus.
ARQjJEi, a town of Normandy, in France, feated
on a fmall river of the fame name. E. Long. 1. 30.
N. Lat. 49. 34.
ARRACHEE, in heraldry, a term applied to the
reprefentations of plants torn up by the roots.
ARRACrllS, in botany. See Arachis.
ARRACK. See Aracr.
ARRAGON, a province of Spain, bounded on the
north by the Pyrenaean mountains, which feparate it
from France ; on the weft by Navarre and the two
Cattiles} on the fouth, by Valencia ; and on the eaft,
by Catalonia. It is in length about 180 miles, and in.
breadth 149; but the land is mountainous, dry, landy
or ftony, badly cultivated, and worfe peopled. How¬
ever it does not want rivers j for befides the Ebro,
which crofles it in the middle, there are the Xalo, the
Cinea, the Galego, and the Arragon. The air is pure
and wholefome ; and there are mines of iron, and fbme
fay of gold- The moft fertile parts are about the ri¬
vers : for there the land produces corn, wine, oil, flax,
hemp, various fruits, and a fmall quantity of faffron,
befides large flocks of fheep, and plenty of game in the
woods.
The Arragonefe have the character of being bold,
courageous, and well bred ; but pofitive in their opinions,,
and bigotted in their religion. Thefe were the firft of
the Spaniards that threw off the Moorilh yoke. Sara-
gofla is the capital of this province; and the other
chiet towns are Balbaftro, Jaca, Sarazona, Haefca, Ca-
latajud, Albarrazin, Trevel, Daroca, and Bona.
ARRAIGNMENT, in law, the arraigning or let¬
ting a thing in order, as a perfbn is laid to arraign
a writ of novel difleifin, who prepares and fits it for
trial.
Arraignment is moft properly ufed to call a perfbn
to anfwer in form of law upon an indiflment, &c.
When brought to the bar, the criminal is called up¬
on by name to hold up his hand $ which though it
may feem a trifling circumfiance, yet is of this im¬
portance, that by the holding up ot his hand confat de
peffana, and he owns himfelf to be of that name by
which he is called, fiowever it is not an indifpenfible
ceremony j for, being calculated merely for the pur-
pefe of identifying the perfon, any other acknowledge¬
ment will anfwer the purpofe as well : therefore, if the
prifoner obftinately and contemptuoufly refufes to hold
up
A R R [ 349 ] A R R
li Arraign- up his hand, but confefles he is the perfbn named, it is
i ment- fully fufficient.
* Then the indidfment is to be read to him diflinftly
in the Englifh tongue (which was law, even^ while all
other proceedings were in Latin), that he may fully
underltand his charge. After which it is to be demand¬
ed of him, whether he be guilty of the crime whereof
he ftands indicled, or not guilty ?
When a criminal is arraigned, he either ftands mute,
or confefles the fail, or eife he pleads to the indifl-
ment.
i. If he fays nothing, the court ought ex officio to
impannel a jury toenquire whether he ftands obflinately
mute, or whether he be dumb ex vijitatione Dei. If
the latter appears to be the cafe, the judges of the
court (who are to be of counfel for the prifoner, and
to fee that he hath law and juftice) {ball proceed to the
trial, and examine all points as if he had pleaded not
guilty. But whether judgment of death can be given
againft fuch a prifoner, who hath never pleaded, and
can fay nothing in arreft of judgment, is a point yet
undetermined.
If he be found to be obftinately mute (which a pri¬
foner hath been held to be that hath cut his own
tongue), then, if it be on an indictment of, high trea-
fon, it hath long been clearly fettled, that ftanding
mute is equivalent to a convitftion, nnd he fttall receive
the fame judgment and execution.
The Engliih judgment of penance for ftanding mute
was as follows : That the prifoner be remanded to the
prifon from whence he came, and put into.a low, dark
chamber j and there be laid on his back, on the bare
floor, naked, unlefs where decency forbids; that there
be placed upon his body as great a weight of iron as he
could bear, and more ; that he have no fuftenance, lave
only, on the firft day, three morfels of the wortt bread;
and, on the fecond day. three draughts of ftanding. wa¬
ter that ftiould be neareft to the prifon-door; and in
this fituation this ftiould be alternately his daily diet,
till he died, or, as anciently the judgment ran, till he
anfwered.
It hath been doubted whether this punifhment fub-
fifted at the common law, or was introduced in confe-
quence of the ftatute Weftm. i. 3 Edw. I. c. 12. which
feems to be the better opinion. For not a word of it
is mentioned in Glanvil or Bradlon. or in any ancient
author, cafe, or record (that hath yet been produced),-
previous to the reign of Edward I.: but there are in-
ftances on record in the reign of Henry III. where
perfons accufed of felony, and ftanding mute, were
tried in a particular manner, by two fucceflive juries,
and convidted; and it is aflerted by the judges in
8 Henry IV- that, by the common law before the fta¬
tute, ftanding mute on an appeal amounted to a con-
vidlion of the felony. This ftatute of Edward I. di-
redls fuch perfons, “ as will not put themfelves upon
inquefts of felonies before the judges at the fuit of the
king, to be put into hard and ftrong prifon (foient
mys en la brifone Jort et dure), as thole which refufe
to be at the common law of the land.” And. imme¬
diately after this ftatute, the form of the judgment ap¬
pears in Fleta and Britton to have been only a very
ftrait confinement in prifon, with hardly any degree of
fuftenance ; but no weight is direfted to be laid up
on the body, fo as to haften the death of the miferable
fufferer : and indeed any furcharge of punifhment on Arraign*
perfons adjudged to penance, fo as to fhorten their ™ent>
lives, is reckoned by Horne in the Mirror as a fpecies . '1‘in' ,
of criminal homicide. It alfp clearly appears, by a
record of 31 Edw. III. that the prifoner might then
poflibly fubfift for 40 days under this lingering punifh¬
ment. It is therefore imagined that the pradlice of
loading him with weights, or, as it is ufually called,
preffing him to death, was gradually introduced between
31 Edward III. and 8 Henry IV. at which laft period
it firft appears upon the books ; being intended as a
fpecies of mercy to the delinquent, by delivering him
the fooner from his torment : and hence it is alfo pro¬
bable, that the duration of the penance was then firft
altered ; and inftead of continuing, till he anfwered, it
was direcffly to continue till he died, which muft very
foon happen under an enormous preffure.
The uncertainty of its original, the doubts that were
conceived of its legality, and the repugnance of its
theory (for it rarely was carried into pradfice) to the
humanity of the laws of England, all concurred to re¬
quire a legiflative abolition of this cruel procefs, and a
reftitution of the ancient common law ; whereby the
ftanding mute in felony, as well as in treafon and in
trefpafs, amounted to a confefiion of the charge.
2. If the prifoner made a Ample and plain confeffion,
the court hath nothing to do but to award judgment :
but it is ufually very backward in receiving and re¬
cording fuch confeflion, put of tendernefs to the life of
the'fubjedf ; and will generally advife the prifoner to
retrasff it, and,
3. Plead to the indkftment; as to which, fee the ar¬
ticle Plea 0/ IndiBment.
ARRAN, an ifland of Scotland, in the Frith of
Clyde, between Kintyre and Cunningham. Of this
ifland the belt defcription we have is that given by Mr
Pennant, in his Tour through Scotland, Vol. II. 172—
184.
“ Arran, or properly Arr-inn, or ‘the ifland of
mountains,’ feems not to have been noticed by the an¬
cients, notwithftandiog it muft have been known to
the Romans, whofe navy, from the time of Agricola,
had its flatipn in the Glota JEfuarium, or the Frith of
Clyde. Camden indeed makes this ifland the Glota of
Antonine, but no fuch name occurs in his itinerary :
it therefore was bellowed oh Arran by feme of his com¬
mentators. By tile immenle cairns, the vaft monumen¬
tal ftones, and many relics ofDruidifm, this ifland muft
have been confiderable in very ancient times. Here are
ftill traditions of the hero Fingal, or Fin mac coul. who
is fuppofed here to have enjoyed the pleafures of the
chace ; and many places retain his name : but 1 can
difeover nothing but oral hiftory that relates to the ifland
till the time of Magnus the Barefooted, the Norwegian
vidlor, who<probably included Arran in. his conquefts
of K ntyre. If he did not conquer that ifland. it was
certainly included among thoie that Donald bane was¬
te cede; for it appears that Acho, one of the feccef*
fors of Magnus, in 1263, laid claim to Arran, Bute,
and the Cumrays, in confequence of that promife : the
two firft he fubdued, but the defeat he met with at
Largs feon obliged him to give up his conquefts.
Arran was the property of the crown. Robert BVuce
retired thither during his diltrefles, and met with pro-
teffion -from his faithful vaifals. Numbers of them fol¬
lowed
A R R [
lowed his fortunes ; and after the battle of Bannock¬
burn he rewarded feveral, fuch as the Mac-cooks, Mac-
kinnons, Mac-brides, and Mac-louis, or Fullertons,
with different charters of lands in their native country.
All thefe are now abforbed by this great family, ex¬
cept the Fullertons, and a Stewart, defcended from a
fon of Robert III. who gave him a fettlement here.
In the time of the Dean of the Ifles, his defcendant
pofTeffed Caftle Douan ; and he and his bluid, fays the
Dean, are the bejl men in that countrey. About the
year 1334, this ifland appears to have formed part of
the eftate of Robert Stewart, great ftewrird of Scot¬
land, afterwards Robert II. At that time they took
arms to Support the cattle of fhdr mafter ; who after¬
wards,in reward, not only granted at their requeit an
immunity from their annual tribute of corn, but added
feveral new privileges, and a donative to all the inha¬
bitants that were prefent. In 1456, the whole ifland
was ravaged by Donald Earl of Rofs and Lord of the
Ifles. At that period, it was ftil.l the property of
James H.; but in the reign of his fucceflbr James III.
when that monarch matched his filler to Thomas Lord
Boyd, he created him Earl of Arran, and gave him
the ifland as a portion. Soon after on the difgrace of
that family, he caufed the Countefs to be divorced from
her unfortunate hulhand ; and beftowed both the lady
and ifland on Sir James Hamilton, in whole family it
continues to this time, a very few farms excepted.
“ Arran is of great extent, being 23 miles from
Sgreadan point north to Beinnean fouth j and the
number of inhabitants are about 7000, who chiefly in¬
habit the coafts; the far greater part of the country
being uninhabited by reafon of the vaft and barren
mountains. Here are only two parifhes, Kilbride and
Kill-more ; with a fort of chapel of eafe to each, found¬
ed in the laft century, in the golden age of this ifland,
when it was blefled with Anne Dutchefs of Hamilton,
whofe amiable difpofition and humane attention to the
welfare of Arran render at this diftant time her memo¬
ry dear to every inhabitant. The principal mountains
of Arran are, Goatfield, or Gaodbheinn, or “ the
mountain of the winds,” of a height equal to moft of
the Scottifh Alps, compofed of immenfe piles of moor-
ftone, in form of wool-packs, clothed only with lichens
and mofles, inhabited by eagles and ptarmigans 5 Bein-
bharrin, or “ the fharp-pointed Ceum-na-caillich,
“ the ftep of the carline or old hag;” and Grianan
Athol, that yields to none in ruggednefs. The lakes
are, Loch-jorfa, where falmon come to ipawn ; Loch-
tana ; Loch-nah-jura, on the top of a high hill ; Loch-
mhachrai; and Loch-knoc-a-charbei, full of large eels.
The chief rivers are, Abhan mhor, Moina-mhor, Slon-
drai-machrei, and Jorfa ; the two laft remarkable for
the abundance of falmon.
“ The quadrupeds are very few ; only otters, wild¬
cats, fhrew-mice, rabbit', and bats : the flags, which
ufed to abound, are now reduced to about a dozen.
The birds are, eagles, hooded-crows, wild pigeons,
flares, black game, grous, ptarmigans, daws, green
plovers, and curlews. It may he remarked, that the
partridge at prefent inhabits this iflamd, a proof of the
advancement of agriculture.
“ The climate is very fevere : for befides the violence
of wind, the cold is very rigorous; and fnow lay here
in the valleys for 13 weeks of the lafl winter. In fum-
35° 1 A R R
mer, the air is remarkably falubrious; and many in- Arran,
valids refort here on that account, and to drink the v—
whey of goats milk.
“ The principal difeafe here is thepleurify : fmall-
pox, meafles, and chincough, vifit the ifland once in fe-
ven or eight years. The pradlice of bleeding twice
every year leems to have been intended as a preventa¬
tive againft the pteurify : but it is now performed with
the utmofl regularity at fpring and fall. The duke of
Hamilton keeps a furgeon in pay ; who at thofe fea-
fons makes a tour of the ifland. On notice of his ap¬
proach, the inhabitants of each farm aflemble in the
open air ; extend their arms ; and are bled into a hole
made in the ground, the common receptacle of the
vital fluid. In burning fevers, a tea of woodforrel is
ufed with fuccefs, to allay the heat. An infufion of
ranjbms, or allium urjinum, in brandy is cfleemed here
a good remedy for the gravel.
“ The men are ftrong, tall, and well made ; all fpeak
the Erfe language, but the ancient habit is entirely laid
afide.' Their diet is chiefly potatoes and meal; and
during winter, feme dried mutton or goat is added to
their hard fare. A deep dejedtion appears in general
through the countenances of all: no time can be fpared
for amufement of any kind ; the whole being given
for procuring the means of paying their rent, of lay¬
ing in their fuel, or getting a fcanty pittance of meat
and clothing.
“ The leafes of farms are 19 years. The fucceeding
tenants generally find the ground little better than a
caput mortuum : and for this reafon j Should they at
the expiration of the leafe leave the lands in a good
ftate, feme avaritious neighbours would have the pre¬
ference in the next letting, by offering a price more
than the perfen who had expended part of his fubftance
in enriching the farm could pofiibly do. This induces
them to leave it in the original ftate. The method of
fetting a farm is very Angular; each is commonly pof-
fefled by a number of fmall tenants ; thus a farm of
40/. a-year is occupied by 18 different people, who
by their l,eafes are bound, conjundtly and feverally, for
the payment of the rent to the proprietor. Thefe live
in the farm in houfes cluftered together, fo that each
farm appears like a little village. The tenants annual¬
ly divide the arable land by lot; each has his ridge of
land, to which he puts his mark, fuch as he would do
to any writing : and this fpecies of farm is called run-
rig, (z. r.) ridge. They join in ploughing ; every one
keeps a horfe or more ; and the number of thofe ani¬
mals confume fo much corn, as often to occafion a fear-
city ; the corn and peas railed being (much of it) de-
figned for their fubfiftence, and that of the cattle, du¬
ring,the long winter. The; pafture and moor-land an¬
nexed to the farm is common to all the poffeffors. All
the farms are open. Inclofures of any form, except in
two or three places, are quite unknown : fo that there
mull be a great lofs of time in preferving their corn,
&c. from trefpa'fe. The ufual manure is fea plants,
coral and fhells. The run-rig farms are now difeou-
raged : but fince the tenements are fet by roup orauc-
tion, and advanced by an unnatural force to aboye dou¬
ble the old rent, without any allowance for imflofing,
any example let in 'agriculture, any fcarcity of tenure
by lengthening the leafes, affairs will turn retrograde,
and the farms relapfe into their old ftate of rudenefs ;
migration
A R R [ 35i ] A R R
Arran, migration wfll increafe (for it has begun), and the
Ame nf6 rents be reduced even below their former value : the
> late rents were fcarce 1200 1. a-year; the expected
rents 3600 1.
“ 1'he produce of the ifland is oats ; of which about
5000 bolls, each equal to nine Winchefter bufhels, are
fown ; 500 of beans, a few peas, and above 1000 bolls
of potatoes, are annually fet : notwithflanding this,
500 bolls of oat-meal are annually imported, to fubfift
the natives.
“ The live ftock of the ifland is 3183 milch-cows j
2000 cattle, from one to three years old ; 1058 horfes j
1500 ftieep ; and 500 goats: many of the two laft are
killed at Michaelmas and dried for winter-provifion,
or fold at Greenock. The cattle are fold from 40 to
50 s. per head, which brings into the ifland about
12001. per annum : I think that the fale of horfes alfo
brings in about 3001. Hogs were introduced here on¬
ly two years ago. The herring-filhery round the ifland
brings in 300 1. the fale of herring-nets too l, and that
of thread about 300 1. for a good deal of flax is fown
here. Thefe are the exports of the ifland ; but the mo¬
ney that goes out for mere neceflaries is a melancholy
drawback.
“ The women manufaflure the wool for the cloath-
ing of their families; they let the potatoes, and drels
and fpin the flax. They make butter for'exportation,
and cheefe for their own ule.
“ The inhabitants in general are fober, religious,
and induftrious ; great part of the fummer is employ¬
ed in getting peat for fuel, the only kind in ufe here;
or in building or repairing their houles, for thebadnels
of the materials requires annual repairy : before and
after harveft, they are bulled in the herring-filhery ; and
during winter th& men make their herring-nets; while
the women are employed in fpinning. their linen and
woollen yarn. The light they often ufe is that of
lamps. From the beginning of February to the end
of May, if the weather permits, they are engaged in
labouring their ground : in autumn they burn a great
quantity of fern, to make kelp. So that, excepting
at new-year’s day, at marriages, or at the two or three
fairs in that ifland, they have no leilure for any amufe-
ments : no wonder then at their depreflion of fpirits.
“ Arran forms part of the county of Bute, and is
fubjeft to the fame lort of government: but, befides,
juftice is admiiiiftered at the baron’s baily-court, who
has power to fine as high as 20.S.; can decide in mat¬
ters of property not exceeding 40 s. $ can imprifon for
a month ; and put delinquents into the flocks for threq
hours, but that only during day-time.”
In this ifland there are many of thofe rude antiqui¬
ties or monuments called cairns, druidical circles, &c.
See Cairns. ■
ARRANGEMENT, or Rangement, the difpofi-
tion of the parts of a whole, in a certain order.
The modern philofophy Ihows us, that the diverfity
of the colours of bodies depends entirely on the fitua-
tion and arrangement of the parts, w'hich refle£I the
light differently $ the diverfity of taftes and fmells on
the different arrangements of the pores, which render
them differently fenfible ; and the general diverfity of
bodies on the different arrangement of their parts.
The happy arrangement of words makes one of the
greateft beauties of difcourfe.
ARRAS, the capital city of Artois, a province in
the French Netherlands. It is feated on a mountain 5
and the parts about it are full of quarries, where they
get ftohe for building. It is divided into two parts,
the town and the chy. The abbe of St Vaalt is lord
of the town, and the bifhop qf Arras of the city, which
is the lead part. They are divided by a ftrong wall,
a large fdfle, and the little river Chrinchron, which
igo paces below falls into the Scarp. They are both
well fortified, inclofcd by high ramparts, and by double
deep foffes, which in feveral places are cut out of the
rock. It has four gates ; and fince the French are be¬
come mafters of it, has a ftrong citadel with five baf-
tion». The moft remarkable places are, the great
fquare where the principal market is kept; this is full
of fine buildings, with piazzas all round it like thofe
of Covent-garden. Not far from this is the lefler mar¬
ket, which contains the town-houfe, a very noble ftruc-
ture, with a high tower covered with a crown, on the
top of which is a brazen lion which ferves for a vane.
In the midft of this market is the chapel of the Holy
Candle, which the papifts pretend was brought by the
Virgin Mary herlelf above 600 years ago, when the
city was afflidled with divers difeales, and every one that
touched the gandle was cured; itiskeptin afilver fhnne.
This chapel has a fpire fteeple, adorned with feveral
ftatues. The cathedral church of Notre-Dame Hands in
the city : it is a very large Gothic building, extremely
well adorned ; the tower is very high, and has a fine
clock embellifhed with little figures in bronze, which
reprefent the paflion of Jefus Chrift; they pafs before
the bell to ftrike the hours and half-hours. In this
church there is a filver flirine, enriched with pearls and
diamonds, which contains a fort of wool, which they
call manna ; that they fay fell from heaven in the time
of a great drought, almoft 1400 years ago : they carry
it very folemnly in proceflion when they want rain.
The abbey-church of St Vedaft is the greateft orna¬
ment of Arras, it being adorned with a fine fteeple,
and feats for the monks of admirable workmanfliip ;
the pulpit is of brafs, fafhioned like a tree, fupported
by two bears of the fame metal, fitting on their hind
legs ; there are little bears in different poftures coming,
to climb up the tree. The chimes are remarkable for
the different tunes which they play. There are 11
parifli churches, and a great many convents of men
and women. It is from this city that the tapeftry cal¬
led orraj- Zw/yiV/yr takes us denomination. E. Long.
2. 56. N. Lat. 50. 17.
Arras, or Araxes, is alfo the name of a river of
Georgia, which difeharges itfelf into the Cafpian fea.
ARRAY, in law, the ranking or fetting forth of
a jury, or inqueft of men impanelled-en a caule.
Array, the order or difpofition of an army,
drawn up with a view to engage the enemy. See
Army.
ARRAYERS, or Arragkrs, Arraitores, is ufied
in fome ancient ftatutes, for fuch officers as had care
of the foldiers armour, and faw them duly accoutred
in their kinds. In fome reigns, commiffioners have
been appointed for this purpofe. Such were the com¬
miffioners of array appointed by king Charles I. in
the year 1642.
ARREARS, the remainder of a fum due, or moneys
remaining in the hands of an accountant. It likewife
figpifies
ARM [
Anenta- fignJfies the money due for rent, wages, &c. or what
ti°n, rema[ns unpaid 0f penfions, taxes, &c.
< ‘ , _ ARRENTATION, in the foreft laws, implies the
licenfing the owner of lands in a forefl: to inclofe them
with a low, hedge and a fmall ditch, in confidera^ion of
a yearly rent.
ARREST, in Englifh law (from the French word
arrejler, to Jlop or /lay), is the reftraintof a man’s per-
Ibn, obliging him to be obedient to the law ; and is de¬
fined to be the execution of the command of fome court
of record or office of juftice. An arreft is the begin¬
ning of imprilbnment 5 where a man is firft taken, and
reftrained of his liberty, by power or colour of a law¬
ful warrant.
A.rretts are either in civil or criminal cafes.
i. An arrelt in a civil caufe is defined to be the ap¬
prehending or reftraining one’s perfon by procefs in
execution of the command of fome court.
An arreft mnft be by corporal feizing or touching
the defender’s body ; after which the bailiffmay juftify
.breaking open the houfe in which he is, to take him :
.otherwife he has no fuch power y but muft watch his
opportunity to arreft him. For every man’s houfe is
looked upon by the law to be his caff le of defence and
afylum, wherein he fhould fuffer no violence. Which
principle is carried fo far in the civil law, that, for the
moft part, not fb much as a common citation or fum-
mons, much lefs an arreft, can be executed upon a man
within his own walls. Peers of the realm, members of
parliament, and corporations, are privileged from ar-
refts j and of courfe from outlawries. And again ft
them the procefs to inforce an appearance muft be by
fummons and diftrefs infinite, infteadof a capias. Alfo
clerks, attorneys, and all other perfons attending the
courts of juftice (for attorneys being officers of the
court, are always fuppofed to be there attending), are
not liable to be arrefted by the ordinary procefs of the
court, but muft be fued by bill (called ufually a bill of
privilege), as being perfonally prefent in court. Clergy¬
men performing divine fervice, and not merely flaying
in the church with a fraudulent defign, are for the
time privileged from arrefts, by ftatute 50 Edw. III.
c. 5. and 1. Rich. II. c. 16. ; as likewife members of
convocation aftually attending thereon, by ftatute
8. Hen. VI. c. 1. Suitors, witneffes, and other per-
fbns, neceffarily attending any courts of record upon
bufinefs, are not to be arrefted during their aftual at¬
tendance, which includes the neceffary coming and re¬
turning. Seamen in the king’s fervice are privileged
from arrefts for debts under L. 20. (1 Geo. II. c. 14.
and 14 Geo. II. c. 38.) ; and foldiers or marines are
not liable to arrefts for a debt of lefs than L. 10.
(30 Geo. II. c. 6, 11.) And no arreft can be made in
the king’s prefence, nor within the verge of his royal
palace, nor in any place where the king’s juftices are
a (finally fitting. The king hath moreover a fpecial
prerogative (which indeed is very feldom exerted), that
he may by his writ of prote&ion privilege a defendant
from all perfonal, and many real fuits, for one year at
a time, and no longer ; in relpedl of his being engaged
in his fervice out of the realm. And the king alfo by
the common law might take his creditor into his pro-
teffion, fo that no one might fue or arreft him till the
king’s debt was paid : but by the ftatute 25 Edw. III.
c. 19. notwithftanding fuch prote&ion, another credi-
No. 29.
352 ] ARM
tor may proceed to judgment againft him, with a ftay
of execution, till the king’s debt be paid ; unlefs fuch
creditor will undertake Tor the king’s debt, and then
he ffiall have execution for both. And, laftly, by fta¬
tute 29 Car. II. c. 7. no arreft can be made, nor pro¬
cefs ferved, upon a Sunday, except for treafbn, felony,
or breach of the peace.
2. An arreft in a criminal caufe is the apprehending
or reftraining one’s perfon, in order to be forthcoming
to anfwer an alleged crime. To this arreft all perlbns
whatfoever are, without diftincfion, equally liable ; and
doors may be broken open to arreft the offender : but
no man is to be arrefted, unlefs charged with fuch a
crime as will at leaft juftify holding him to bail when
taken. There, is this difference alfo between arrefts in
civil and criminal cafes, that none Ihall be arrefted for
debt, trefpafs, or other caufe of a&ion, but by virtue
of a precept or commandment out of fome court 5 but
for trealbn, felony, or breach of the peace, any man
may arreft with or without warrant or precept. But
the king cannot command any one by word of mouth
to be arrefted ; for he muft do it by writ, or order of
his courts, according to law : nor may the king arreft
any man for fufpicion of treafon, or felony, as his fub-
je&s may ; becaufe, if he doth wrong, the party can¬
not have an a&ion againft him.
Arrefts by private perfbns are in fome cares com¬
manded. Ferlbns prefent at the committing of a fe¬
lony muft ufe their endeavours to apprehend the offen¬
der, under penalty of fine andimprifonment; and they
are alfo, with the utmoft diligence, to purfue and en¬
deavour to take all thofe who ffiall be guilty thereof
out of their view, upon a hue and cry levied againft
them. By the vagrant a& 17 Geo. II. c. 5. every
perlbn may apprehend beggars and vagrants ; and e-
very private perfbn is bound to affift an officer requir¬
ing him to apprehend a felon.
In fome cafes likewife arrefts by private perfons are
rewarded by law. By the 4 and 5 William and Mary,
c. 8. perfons apprehending highwaymen, and profe-
cuting them to a convi&ion, are entitled to a reward
of L. 40, and if they are killed in the attempt, their
executors, &c. are intitled to the like reward. By the
6 and 7 William III. c. 17. perfons apprehending
counterfeiters and clippers of the coin, and profecu-
ting them to convi&ion, are intitled to L. 40.
By 5 Ann, c. 31. perfons who ffiall take any one
guilty of burglary, or the felonious breaking and en¬
tering any houfe in the day-time, and profecute them
to convi&ion, ffiall receive the fum of E.40 within one
month after fuch convi&ion.
With regard to arrefts by public officers, as watch¬
men, conftables, &c. they are either made by their
own authority, which differs but very little from the
power of a private perfon j or they are made by a
warrant from a juftice of peace. See Warrant.
Arrest of Judgment, in law, the affigning juft rea-
fbn why judgment ffiould not pal's : as, Want of no¬
tice of the trial; a material defe& in the pleading ;
when the record differs from the deed impleaded; when
perlbns are mifnamed 5 where more is given by the
verdi& than is laid in the declaration, &c. This may
be done either in criminal or civil cafes.
ARRESTMENT, in Scots law, fignifies the lecu-
ring of a criminal till trial, or till he find caution to
Hand
Arreft,
Arreft-
ment.
A R R L 353 1 A R S
Arrefto ftand trial, in what are called baitable crimes. In civil
|| cafes, it fignifies either the detaining of ftrangers, or
Arrobas. natives in meditations fug<e, till they find caution judi-
cio JiJli, or the attaching the effedls of a ftranger in or¬
der to found jurildidlion. But, in the moft general
acceptation of the word, it denotes that diligence by
which a creditor detains the goods or effefts of his
debtor in the hands of third parties till the debt due to
him be either paid or fecurtd. See Law, Part III.
No. clxxviii.
ARRESTO facto super bonis, &c. a writ
brought by a denizen againil the goods of aliens found
within this kingdom, as a recompence for goods taken
from him in a foreign country.
ARRESTS, in farriery, mangy tumours upon a
horfe’s hinder-legs, between the ham and the pa¬
ttern.
ARRETIUM, (Cicero Ctefar) j Arrhelium, (Pto¬
lemy) ; Urbs Arrcheiinorum, (Polybius j) one of the
twelve ancient towms of Tufcany, near the Arnis and
Clanis, fituated in a pleafant valley. Now Are%%o,
42 miles call of Florence. E. Long. 13. tS. Lat. 43.
15.
ARRHABONARII, a feft of Chriftians, who held
that the eucharift is neither the real flefh or blood of
Chrift, nor yet the fign of them ; but only the pledge
or earneft thereof.
ARRHEPHORIA, a feaft among the Athenians,
inftituted in honour of Minerva, and Herfe daughter
of Cecrops. The word is compofed of myjiery,
and <p;p, l carry ; on account of certain myfterious
things which were carried in proceflion at this folem-
nity.—Boys, or, as fome fay, girls, between feven and
twelve years of age, were the minillers that aflifted at
this feaft, and were denominated ee^vtpo^oi. This feaft
was alfo called Herfiphoria, from the daughter of Ce-
ctops, already mentioned.
ARRIAN, a famous philofopher and hiftorian ..1-
der the emperor Hadrian and the two Antonines, was
born at Nicomedia in Bithynia. His great learning
and eloquence procured him the title of Hhefecond Xe¬
nophon ; and railed him to the moft confiderable dig¬
nities at Rome, even the confulftiip itfelf. We have
four books of his Dijfertations upon EpiBetus, whofe
fcholar he had been ; and his Hijiory of Alexander the
Great, in feven books, is greatly admired by the beft
judges.
ARRIERE, the hinder or pofterior part of any
thing.
Arrierf. Bon, in the French cuftoms, is a general
proclamation, whereby the king fummonfes to the war
all that hold of him, both his vaffals, i. e the noblefle,
and the vaffals of his vaffals.
Arriere Fee, or Fief, is a fee dependent on a fu-
perior one. Thele fees commenced, when the dukes
and, counts, rendering their governments hereditary
in their families, diftributed to their officers parts
of the royal domains which they found in their re-
Ipeclive provinces, and even permitted thole officers
to gratify the foldiers under them in the fame man-
tier.
ARROBAS, or Arobas, a weight ufed in Spain,
Portugal, and the foreign dominions of both. The
Arrobas of Portugal is alfo called Arata, and contains
thirty-two Lilbon pounds; that of Spain contains
Vox.. II. Part L
twenty-five Spanifh pounds. In Peru it is called Ar- Art&e*
roue. Ij
ARROE, a fmall ifland of Denmark, in the Baltic Arfenic.^
Sea, a little fouth of the ifland of Funen. It is eight ' ' ’ * "
miles in length, and about two in breadth ; and produ¬
ces corn, annifeed, black cattle and horfes. It has three
parifhes, the moft confiderable of which is Koping. It
ftands at the louth fide of the ifland, in the bottom of
a bay, and has a port with fome trade. E. Long. 9.
40. N. Lat. 55. 20.
ARROJO, de Sr Servan, a town of Spain, in
Eftramadura. W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 38. 40.
ARRONDEE, in heraldry, a crofs, the arms of
which are compofed of fections of a circle, not oppo-
fite to each other, lb as to make the arms bulge out
thicker in one part than another ; but the letftions of
each arm lying the fame way, fo that the arm is
every where of an equal thicknefi, and aU of them ter¬
minating at the edge of the efcutcheon like the plain
Crofs.
ARROW, a miffive weapon of offence, flender,
pointed, and barbed, to be call or Ihot with a bow.
See ArcherV.
ARROW-Malers are called Jletchers j and were for
mt*rly, as well as bowyers, perlbns of great conle-
quence in the commonwealth.
Arrow-heads and quarrels were to be well boched or
brafed, and hardened at the points with fteel; the do¬
ing of which feems to have been the bufinefs of the ar-
row-fmith.
Arrow Head, in botany. See Sagittaria.
ARROW-Root. See Maranta.
ARSACES, otherwife Mithridates, a king of
the Parthians, fpoken of in the firft book of Mac¬
cabees, xiv. 2. He confiderably enlarged the kingdom,
of Parthia by his good conduct and valour. See Par-
THIA.
ARSCHlN, in commerce, a long mealure ufed in
China to meafure fluffs. Four arfehins made three
yards of London.
ARSENAL, a royal or public magazine, or place
appointed for the making and keeping of arms, necef-
fary either for defence or affault. Some derive this
word from arx a Jortrefs j others from ars, denoting a
machine ; others again from arx and fenatus, becaufe
this was the defence of the fenate : but the more pro¬
bable opinion derives it from the Arabic darfenaa,
which fignifies arjenaU
The arfenalof Venice is the place where the galleys
are built and laid up. The arfenal of Paris is that
where the cannon or great guns are caft. It has this
infeription over the gate.
JEtna hcec Henrico vulcanic tela miniflrat,
Tela Gigantceos debellatura furores.
There are atfenals, or ftore-houfes, appropriated td
naval furniture and equipments. At Marfeilles is the
arlenal for the galleys j and at Toulon, Rochfort, and
Breft, are thofe for the men of war.
ARSENIC, in mineralogy and chemiftry, an heavy
opake fubftance, ufually fold in white mafles, which,
when broken, difeover a femi-tranfparency fomewhat
refembling that of fal ammoniac, but by expofure to
the air become white and opake like the outfide of the
original mafs. By various chemical proceffes it may
r
A R S
354 ] A R S
Arfentc. be made to afTume'the appearance either of an acid fait
or metal, at the pleafure of the operator ; and there¬
fore has been confidered both as a faline fubftance and
as a femi metal. It is not known at what time this
mineral was difcovered 5 though, as it abounds in ma¬
ny different kinds of ores, it is probable that the per¬
nicious properties it manifefts would very fbon make it
be taken notice c.f by metallurgifts. Ariilotle makes
mention of a fubftance called ZaJapaxy; and his difciple
Theophraftus makes mention of one named Appsmso;,
which by-Diofcorides and others was called Aga-svwcof
about the beginning of the Chriftian sera. By this,
j however, it appears, that they only meant the fu bit arr¬
is not men- ces now called fandarach and orpiment; and Avicenna
tioned till who lived in the nth century, is the firit who exprefs-
the time of jy mentions white arfenic, as well as its fublimate. It
Avicema. js not by whom arfenic was firft reduced to a
metallic form. Paracelfus afferts that arfenic, fublimed
with egg-fhell lime becomes like filverj and, in 1675,
M. Lemeri makes mention of a method of fubliming
arfenic with fixed alkali and fbap.
The true nature of arlenic being thus fo little known,
it is no wonder to find chemills differing very much as
to the clafs of natural bodies in which it ought to be
placed. Avicenna and a great number of others clafs
it with the fulphurs j Albertus Magnus and his follow-
2 ers, among the falts. Becher confiders it as a kind of
Compofed foap, or faline fulphureous body. Later experiments,
of an acid however, have made itevident,thatwhite arfenic confifts
and phlogi* 0f an united tophlogifton ; and that by diminifh-
on' ing the latter, the acid becomes more and more appa¬
rent } while, on the contrary, by augmenting the quan¬
tity of phlogiftic matter, the arfenic affumes the metal¬
lic form. With refpeft to the fulphureous nature of
arfenic, it appears, indeed that the regulus itfelf, as well
as orpiment and realgar, are inflammable fubftances;
but it is not fo with white arfenic. This inflammabi¬
lity, therefore, which arfenic in a certain ftate has in
common with zinc and feveral other fubftances, will
not denominate it fulphureous, any more than thofe of
other bodies which pofiefs the common property of in-
3 flammability can be denominated fulpburs.
Is not to be ;s commonly faid, that arfenic mineralizes metals;
asa^fub-1* anc* ^erefore> fays Mr Bergman, it is confidered as a
fiance by fulphur by fome, who yet extend the idea of mineral!-
which other zation fo far, as under it to comprehend all mixtures
metals are of which metals make a part. But if we examine this
mineraii- {!gnification a little more accurately, we fhall fee that
,ze ' it is extended too far; for if this be admitted, wemuft
at,the fame time allow, that no native metal is to be
found. Thus the gold called native, is feldom if ever
found pure, but more or lefs mixed with copper or fil-
ver ; and fo with other metals. If, therefore, arfenic,
which, unlefs in its reguline ftate, never diffolves other
metals, be confidered as a mineralizing fubftance, what
hinders us from faying that gold is mineralized by filver
or copper, and in general every metal mineralized by
fome other ? It is much more natural to fuppofe that
4 thofe metals are mineralized which are aftually diflbl-
Salphur the Vecl.and concealed by a menftruum. Sulphur is the
chief mine- chief agent employed by nature for this purpofe ; and
raiizer of though the acids of vitriol, phofphorus, nitre, and
nKta*s‘ fometimes even the aerial acid, occafion the metals to
put on an appearance foreign to their nature, yet the
number of thefe is fo fmall, that compared with the ful- Arfenic.
phurated minerals, they almoft vanifh. v v '
This mineral, ib troublefome to the mineralogift, An ajpeni.
occafioned the alchemifts to fufpeift the exiftence of a calprin-
certain arfenical principle indilpenfably neceflary to the ciple erro-
perfeiftion of every metal. Even as late as 1773 a neouflyfap-
queftion to this purpofe was propofed by the Royal fa°ry fo^the
Academy of Sciences at Berlin : the prize was adjud- perfeftion
ged to M. Monnet, who in his anfwer confidered of metals,
arfenic as a femi-metal of,a peculiar kind, which is
fo far from conftituting any eflential part of metals,
that its prefence is always attended with inconvenien¬
ces, either by carrying off the metal as it flies away, or
fpoiling the mafs in which it remains. Thefe confide-
rations, however, do not hinder us from aflerting that 6
the acid of arfenic, like others, is a mineralizing fub-Acid of
fiance, if at any time it happens to meet with metals
in the bowels of the earth, and to unite with it in that
form. fiance.
Arfenic in its pure ftate is well known to be a moft 7
deftrudlive and deadly poifon, for which the art of me- Poi[?”ous
dicine has fcarcely as yet afforded a cure. Mr Berg- a^fcnic'and
man is of opinion, that it affts as an highly corrofive its acid,
acid, even when applied externally. He alfo tells us,
that the dry acid is more deftrublive than white arfe¬
nic ; the regulus and realgar lefs lb. From an expe¬
riment of Mr Scheele, however, in which eight grains
of arfenical acid were given to a cat, it does not ap- g
pear that it afts more violently than white arfenic. why it is
The extreme danger attending this fubftance when ta-moie dan-
ken into the human body, ariles from its infolubility, gerous than
and the difficulty of decompounding it; for there can otliers‘
but little danger arife from a liquid, unlefs like corro¬
five acids, it fliould at once burn the fubftance of the
ftomach like fire ; or, like laurel water fulpend the ac¬
tion of the nervous fyftem. Corrofive fublimate, folu-
tions of mercury in aquafortis, &c. will as certainly
poifon as arfenic ; but they are much lefs difficult to
cure, becaule any alkaline fubftance will certainly de¬
compound them and deftroy their deleterious efficacy.
Arlenic, on the contrary, cannot be decompounded,
nor united with any known fubftance, at leaft in fuch
a ffiort time as the exigence of the cafe we fpeak of
would require, without a confiderable degree of heat.
It therefore remains in the ftomach, continually exert¬
ing its mifehievous qualities, unlefs it can be difehar-
ged by vomiting. 9
The lymptoms attending arfenic when fwallowed Symptoms
are, naulea, ficknels, and retching to vomit, about half attending
an hour after it is taken. Thefe are followed by vio- the fwal-
lent vomitings, hiccups, and pains in the ftomach and°
bowels. Convulfions and palfies of the limbs prelently
fucceed, with intenfe heats, cold fweats, palpitations of
the heart, extreme anxiety, proftration of ftrength,
thirftand drynefs of the mouth and throat, lofs of rea-
fon, and at laft death. If the quantity taken was con¬
fiderable, the patient dies in feven or eight hours after
taking it; and the ftomach and intellines are found,
upon difle&ion, to be corroded and perforated. When
this is not the cafe, violent putrefactive fymptoms
loon enfue after arlenic is fwallowed ; for the bodies of
thole who are poilbned by it generally have abundance
of red or purple fpots even before death. It remark¬
ably inflames the coats of the ftomach, and the putre-
A R S [ 355 ] A R S
Arfenic. fa£Vion is faid particularly to take place in the genitals
‘ v of men. Mr Bergman relates, that in the body of a man
who w'as poilbned with arfenic and dilfefted in the
anatomical theatre at Upfal, the putrefaction had been
fo (trong that the mineral was deprived of part of its
phlogifton, and emitted the garlic fmell, that peculiar
I3 charadteriftic of arfenic when in this fituation.
Antidotes Many antidotes have been propofed againfi: this
ineffe£tual- dreadful poifon by authors of the highefl: reputation ;
fy propofed-but it is to be feared without that fuc'cefs which the
confidence of thofe who propoled them leemed to en-
fure. Indeed, previous to any great hope of fuccefs in
this refpect, it ought to be fhown that thele antidotes
are able to eflFed! fbme confiderable change on arfenic
when out of the body j and that not in folution, but
when in a powder not very fine, as is the cafe with ar¬
fenic when it is ufually taken. Mr Bergman recom¬
mends alkalies in diieafes occafioned by arfenic : Nay
he tells us, that “ fmee phlogifion and alkalies are the
molt powerful correctors of acid acrimony, it will rea¬
dily occur, how it may be mitigated, and its deleterious
effeCts obviated.” But the many fatal accidents con-
fequent on taking this mineral, ihow that none of thofe
are to be depended upon. Bergman himfelf indeed
cautions us againft trufting to phlogilton correctors
alone 5 and perhaps the folution of hepar fulphuris,
which contains the united powers of both the alkaline
and phlogiltic antidotes united, might prove more effi¬
cacious than either of them fingly. Oils, fats, milk,
warm fat broths, frefli butter, &c. have all been recom¬
mended ; and, no doubt, in fuch deplorable cales, are
thole remedies to which we can molt readily have re
courfe : but even here it is evident, that their efficacy
mult be exceedingly dubious, whatever their intrinfic
virtues may be; and for this plain reafon, that the ar¬
fenic is already in contaCt with the Itomach, and tho’
the remedies might have prevented its aCtion had they
beenJirJl {wallowed, their operation mult be much left
powerful after the poifon has had accefs to the Itomach
rI and begun to exert its pernicious effeCts.
Arfenic re- Notwithftanding thefe dreadful effeCts of arfenic
commend- when taken in large quantity, attempts have not
ed as a me-been wanting to introduce it into the materia medica.
fniernah51*1 The difeafe indeed in which they have been recom-
am/exter- mended (the cancer) is of a very incurable nature, at
naliy. leaft by ordinary medicines. M. le Febure, a French
phyfician, fome time ago publiffied a treatife, in which
he recommended pure white arfenic as a fpecific in
that diltemper. The dole was four French grains,
equal to Englilh, diffolved in a French pint (^2
troy ounces) of diftilled water. A table-fpoonful of
this folution is to be taken with an equal quantity of
milk, and half an ounce of fyrup of poppies, every
morning falling, and taking care to tatle nothing for
an hour after. This courle mull be continued eight
days; after which a dofe is to be taken twice every day
in the fame manner, one in the morning and another
about eight at night. At the end of a fortnight three
dofes may be exhibited daily, the third being taken at
mid-day. Thus people of a weakly conftitution may
continue till the cure is completed ; but fuch as are
more robult may gradually augment the dofe till two.
table-fpoonfuls are taken at each time with as much
milk, and half an ounce of fyrup of poppies. Children
mull on no account take more than three tea-lpoonfuls Arfenic.^
a day, with a proportional quantity of lyrup of pop- w~~'
pies. For adults, the llrength of the folution, as well
as the quantity, is to be augmented ; fix grains being
put into the fecond bottle and eight into the third;
and a. purgative, compofed of manna, rhubarb, and fal
feignette, is to be given every eight or twelve days.
An iffue he confiders. as ufeful in every cafe. The
tumor, if not ulcerated, ought to be; walked with
a folution of arfenic in the proportion of eight grains
to a pint;-and he advifes the following cataplafm :
“ Take of carrot juice one pound, of lugar of lead
half an ounce, of arfenic, diffolved in dillilled vinegar,
half an ounce, of liquid laudanum a dram and an half;
form the whole into a mafs with as much powder of
hemlock as is fufficient for the purpofe. The tumor
is to be covered to a moderate thicknefs with this ca¬
taplafm, which is to be kept on by a diachylon plafter.”
When the cancer is of the ulcerated kind, he directs1
the ichorous lerofity to be taken away by means of dry
charpee at each dreffing, and the fore to be fomented
with the arfenical folution with the chill taken off it,
and having about a third part of red wine added to it.
When the fore is of a very bad kind, he propofes the
arfenic to be diffolved in decoflion of bark for the
purpofe of fomentation ; after which the cataplafm
and plafter are to be applied, and this is to be renew¬
ed every twelve hours.
Mr Le Febure afferts, that the arfenic, when taken
with the precautions juft mentioned, is not attended
with any bad conlequences, nor has it a difagreeable
tafte. Its action is fcarcely perceived on any of the
fecretions or excretions; though fome difeharge their
urine more freely than ufual, and with fome the belly
is more loofe. In Ibme the perfpiration is more co¬
pious ; but thele effefts are neither regular nor con-
llant. He does not confider it as an infallible cure for
the diftemper in every poffible ftage ; but thinks that
the diieale is incurable, when, in its progrefs, it has
eroded a blood-veflel, and occafioned a confiderable he-
morrhagy ; alfo when the patient is of a hedtic or
phthifical habit of body. With reipedl to regimen, he
diredts whey, with twelve grains of nitre to the bottle,
or a weak decodtion of althea with an equal quantity
of nitre ; and to abftain from wine and fermented li¬
quors. Broth made with beef, veal, or chicken, is al¬
fo proper. l2
Mr Bergman informs us, that “ it can hardly be Mr Berg-
doubted but arfenic may be applied to valuable pur- man’s opi-
poles in medicine, and experimejits have long ago putmon-
that out of doubt; but with refpedt both to its dofe
and preparation, the utmoft caution is neceffary.” 13
Dr Black, however, has leen the internal exhibition The inter-
of arlenic, in thole cales where it is recommended by n.a*
foreign phyficians, attended with very dangerous con- e*
fequences, fuch as hedtics, &c. He has likewife provej by
known obftinate ulcers healed by it. Yet though the Dr Black,
external ufe of arfenic has proved fuccefsful in fome
cales, it has often, even in this way, produced very
terrible confequences: lb that the Dodlor, far from
recommending the internal ule of it, reprobates it even ,
in external applications.
As phyficians are often called in cales where it is
fulpedled that people have died from the effedts of ar-
Y y 2 fenic
A R S
[ 35^ ]
A R S
Arfenic. fenic taken internally, Doftor Black gives the follcw-
diredions to the phyfician who happens to be thus
demijlr™ employed.
14 “ He mould anfwer every queftion put to him with
Direftions caution, as the lives and reputations of many often de-
to a phyfi- pen(j on h'is opinions.
aaTwhen t0 “ ^ <lueft'on ufually put is. Whether, from
called in t^e fymptoms of the patient, or the appearance of the
cafes of ar- body after death, he imagines the deceafed died by be-
fenic being ing poifoned with arlenic ? The fymptoms attending
wallowed, taking Qf arfenic are, in about a quarter of an
hour, ficknefs at ftomach. fucceeded by vomiting, pur¬
ging, burning pain in the bowels, heat and third, pains
and cramps in the legs and thighs, fyncope, and death.
When the body is examined, the inteftines appear in¬
flamed and corroded ; nay, fome ulcerations appear
about the anus even before death. But we mud
take care not to be deceived by erofions of the ftomach
occafioned by the gaftric juice, which has a power of
diflfolving the ftomach after death. 1 he difference is,
that the arfenic occafions inflammation and blacknefs,
whereas none appears in the other cafe. If the per-
fon efcapes, he is in danger of being afflicfed by ma-
rafmus, paralytic affections of the limbs, great debi¬
lity, &c.
“ The fecond queftion generally alked is, Whether
any arlenic has been found in the inteftines ? The me¬
thod of difcovering this is as follows. The contents
of the ftomach and inteftines ftiould be taken out and
waflied in water ; and any powder it contains fuffered
to feparate. If any arfenic be mixed with it, it wdl fall
to the bottom, and muft then be examined by the fol-
Iftwing methods.
“ 1. By laying it on a red hot iron. If .it be arfe¬
nic, it will evaporate, without melting, in a thick white
vapour} and this may be Ihown by the 40th part of a
grain.
“ 2. We may mix Ibme of it with charcoal j in
which ftate, if it be arfenic, it will emit an odour very
I ke garlic ; but this will not be perceived unlefs it be
mixed with charcoal or fome inflammable matter.
“ 3. We may inclofe the powder with fome. char¬
coal, between two polifhed bits of copper, the edges of
which are moiftened with a lute made of two parts of
fine land and one of pipe clay. The plates being then
bound together with a wire, and the whole made red
hot, the arfenical powder will thus be metallized, and,
penetrating the copper, a blackilh Ikin willfirft appear
upon it; which being rubbed off, the parts which the
arfenical vapour has touched will appear of a whitilh
or lead colour.
“ 4. We may metallize or reduce the arfenic in a
glafs tube, by means of the black flux. This is eafily
done by mixing two or three parts of the flux with one
of the powder. This mixture being put into a fmall
glafs tube, and a heat applied fufficient for volatalizing
the arlenic, the greateft part of it will be metallized.
One end of the tube is to be left open at firft, and
then flopped with lint or wool j the other made red
hot; and if the tube be then broken, the arfenic is
found metallized. One grain of arfenic will be fufficient
for all thole experiments.”
The firft fymptoms which enfue on the taking of ar¬
fenic Ihow that it is of a highly inflammatory, cauftic,
and corrofive nature, with regard to the fyftem in ge¬
neral, and the inteftines in particular : the pulle be- Arfenic.
comes extremely weak and irritable, and this is attended -y—
with a kind of paralytic affedlion of the limbs, maraf-
mus, &c. Milk and oil have been recommended as an¬
tidotes : but the milk may curdle, and the oil will not
mix with the fluids in the inteftines. It is therefore ad-
vifable, when a phyfician is called to a patient who
has fwallowed arfenic, to make ule of mucilages. A
friend of Dr Black’s, who had no mucilage at hand,
thought of the whites of eggs, and fucceeded. After
the violence of the firft attack is over, a milk diet,
opiates, &c. are proper ; and fume time after, eletflri-
city has been found of great lervice. Some have ad-
vi ed to exhibit hepar fulphuris, as already noticed : but
this is founded, not on experience, but theory ; and it
cannot be fuppoled that fuch a quantity can enter the
fyftem as will be fufficient for neutralizing the arfenic,
and converting it into orpiment,-which is the defign
of exhibiting it.
The following accountof the ufeof arfenic in medicine 'Edinburgh
is given by Dr Duncan. “ Notwithftanding, however, Newbif-
the very violent effects of arlenic, it has b en employed penfatory.
in the cure of difeafes, both as applied externally and
as taken internally. Externally, white arfenic has been
chiefly employed in cafes of cancer ; and as ufed in this
way, it is fuppofed that its good effetfts depend on its
aefing as a peculiar corrofive : and it is imagined, that
arfenic is the bafis of a remedy long celebrated in can¬
cer, which, however, is ftill kept a fecret by a family
of the name of Vlunhet in Ireland. According to the
beft conjetftures, their application confifts of the pow¬
der of ffime vegetables, particularly the ranunculus
flammeus and cotula foetida, with a confiderable pro¬
portion of arlenic and flow'er of fulphur intimately
mixed together. This powder, made into a pafte with
the white of an egg, is applied to the cancerous part
which it is intended to corrode; and being covered
with a piece of thin bladder, fmeared alfo with the
white of an egg, it is fuffered to lie on from 24 to 48
hours ; and afterwards the efehar is to be treated with
foftening digeflive, as in other cafes.
“ Arfenic, in fubftance, to the extent of an eight of
a grain for a dofe, combined with a little of the flow¬
ers of fulphur, lias been faid to be employed internally
in fome very obftinate cafes of cutaneous difeafes, and
with the beft effed. But of this we have no experience.
“ Of all the difeafes in which white arlenic has been
ufed internally, there is no one in which it has been Co
frequently and lb fuceefsfully employed as in the cure of
intermittent fevers. It has been long ufed in Lincoln-
fliire, and fome other of the fenny countries, under the
name of the arfen/c drop, prepared in different ways :
And it is conjectured, that an article, which has had a
very extenfive fide, under the title of the taftelefsague-
drop, the form of preparing which, however, is ftill
kept a fecret, is nothing elfe but a folution of arfenic.
But w hether this be the cafe or not, we have now the
moft fati faCtory information concerning this article iu
.the “ Medical Reports, of the effeCts of Arfenic in the
cure of agues, remitting fevers, and periodic head-
achs,” by Dr Fowler of Stafford. He direCts, that 64
grains of arfenic, reduced to a very fine powder, and
mixed with as much fixed vegetable alkaline fait,ftiould
be added to half a pound of diftilled water in a flo-
rence flalk; that it ffiould be then placed in a fand-
heat,
A R S l 357 1 A R S
Arfenie. heat, and gently boiled till the arfenic be completely
v——v—diflTolved ; that after the folution is cold, half an ounce
of compound fpirit of lavender be added to it, and as
much diftilled water as to make the whole folution
amount to a pound. 1 his 1’olution is taken in dofes^
regulated according to the age, flrength, and other
circumftances of the patient from two to twelve drops,
once, twice, or oftener in the course of the day. And
in the difeafes mentioned above, particularly in inter-
mittents, it has been found to be a fafe and very effica¬
cious remedy, both by Dr Fowler and by other practi¬
tioners : but in fbme inftances, even when given in
very fmall doles, we have found it excite violent vo¬
miting. But befuies this, it has alfo been alleged by
fume, that thofe cured of intermittents by arfenic are
very liable to become phthilical. It arienic fhall ever
be extenfively employed internally, it will probably be
molt certain and molt fate in its operation when brought
15 to the Hate of a talt readily foluble in water.”
Other ufes With regard to its other ufes he expretTes himfelf
of arfenic. thus . << Philofophers are wont to evince the extraor¬
dinary porofity of bodies, and the wonderful fubiilty
of vapours, by a tympathetic ink made with orpiment
* See Sjw-andlime *; for writing made with vinegarof litharge,
pathetic by ittelf invifible, expofed to the vapour of this liquor
Ink. becomes in a few minutes brown, even though a great
many folds of paper be interpoled.
Of the a- “ Wines naturally acid, or grown fo by age, tfill
dulteration continue to be edulcorated by lead, notwithlianding
of wines. the punithments attending the detection of this fraud :
it is therefore of great confequence. to be in potletfion
of an eafy method of difcovering iuch a fophiltication.
For this purpote a probatory liquor has been recom¬
mended, compofed ofcaultic fixed alkali and orpiment;
which inftantly throws down a black or dark-brown
precipitate in confequence of the union of the fulphur
of the orpiment with the metal. The fame effect will
take place on the addition of common hepar fulphuris;
but methods have been contrived of eluding this proof.
If a fmall quantity of chalk be contained in the wine,
the faline hepar does not produce the intended effeCt. j
for the falling of the white calcareous earth diminithes
the blacknefs. The other probatory liquor is alfo ren¬
dered ineffectual by a large quantity of tartar ; becaufe
the tanareous acid, uniting with the lime, forms a
kind of felenite, which in like manner diminilhes the
,7 blacknefs.
Arfenic in “ Arfenic fbmetimes enters metallic compofitions,
eompofition efpecially Copper and tin ; but it were much to be
with metals, vv-[Qi£,j that fuch compofitions were banilhed, at leafl
^c‘ from the kitchen. Shot made of lead is fometimes
hardened by orpiment.
“ Regulus of arfenic enters into the compofition of
Meuder’s phofphorus. The power of the calx in vitrifica¬
tion was long ago known to Geber; and it is frequent¬
ly employed in glafs-houfes, either for facilitating fu-
fion, for acquiring a certain degree of opacity, or fi¬
nally for carrying off phlogiflon. The method in winch
mountain-cryllals, placed over orpiment, white arfenic,
crude antimony, and fal ammoniac, mixed in a cru¬
cible, are tinged by means of heat, is deferibed by
Neri, and upon trial is found to be true. I have thus
obtained thefp cryflals beautifully marked with red,
yellow, and opal fpots; but at the lame time cracked,
which could fcarcely be avoided.
“ In painting, too, the artifls, fometimes employ Arferue-
arfenic. Painters in oil frequently ufe both orpiment J|
and realgar ; and it is probable that wood covered with , ‘''r‘'noe-
a pigment mixed with white arfenic would not be (g
fpoiled by worms. A moft beautiful green pigment rn painting,
may be precipitated from blue vitriol by means of
white ari’enic diffolved in water, together with vege¬
table alkali. This prepared either with water or oil,
affords a colour which fuffers no change in many years.
The playthings of children, however, fhould not be
painted with this or any other preparation of arfenic,.
on account of their cuftom of putting every thing into
their moutlo.”
Arfenic is alfo ured in dyeing, and the yellow com¬
bination of it with fulphur has the property of readily
diffolvi.ig indigo j for which purpol’e it ism fed in cloth¬
printing. It lets it fall again, however, on expofure
to the air ; and therefore can be employed only in pen¬
cil colours, where a large quantity is laid on at once.
The neutral arfenical fait is ufed in fbme manufa&ures
in France ; but for what purpofes is not known.
ARSENI US, a deacon of the Roman church, of
great learning and piety. He was pitched upon by
the pope to go to the emperor Theodofius, as tutor to-
his fon Arcadius. Arfenius arrived at Conftantinople
in the year 383. The emperor happening one day to
go into the room where Arfenius was inftru&ing Ar¬
cadius, his fon was feated and the preceptor ftandingj
at this he was exceedingly difpleafed, took from his fon
the imperial ornaments, made Arfenius fit in his place,
and ordered Arcadius for the future to receive his lef-
fons ftanding uncovered. Arcadius, however, profited
but little by his tutor’s inllrutlions, for fbme time af¬
ter he formed a defign of difpatching him. Tiie officer
to whom Arcadius had applied for this purpofe, di¬
vulged the affair to Arfenius, who retired to the de¬
farts ofScete, where he pafled many years in the exer-
cifes of the mofl ftriiR and fervent devotion. He dfed
there, at 95 years of age.
ARSHOT, a town of the Andrian Netherlands,
fituated about 14 miles eaftof the city of Mechlin, in
E. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 51. 5..
ARS1NOE (anc. geog.), a town of Egypt, on the
well fide of the Arabian gulf, near its extremity, to-
the fouth of Heroopolis (Strabo, Ptolemy) ; called
C/eopatns by fome.. Another Arfinoe, a town of Ci¬
licia, (Ptolemy) ; and the fifth of that name in Cilicia,
(Stephanus) ; with a reader ftation forfhips, (Strabo).
A third Arfinoe, in the fouth of Cyprus, with a port
between Citium and Salamis, (Strabo). A fourth, an
inland town of Cyprus, called Marium formerly, (Ste¬
phanus). A fifth in the north of Cyprus, between A-
camas and Soli, (Strabo)-; fo called from Arfinoe, a
queen of Egypt, Cyprus being in the hands of the Pto¬
lemies. A fixth Arfinoe, a maritime town of Gyrene,
formerly called Heuchira. A feventh Arfinoe, in the
Nomos Arfinoites, to the weft of the Heracleotcs, on
the weftern bank of the Nde, formerly called CVowj-
dilorum Urbs, (Strabo) ; the name Aijinoe continued
under Adrian, (Coin). Ptolemy calls this Arfinoe an
inland metropolis, and therefore at fome diftance from
the Nile, with a port called Ptolemais. An eighth Ar¬
finoe, a maritime town of Lycia ; fo called by Ptolemy
Philadelphus, after the name of his confort, which did
not hold long, it afterwards recovering its ancient name
Patarax.
ART C 358 ] ART
Arfis Patara, (Strabo). A ninth, a town of the Troglo-
II dytae, near the mouth of the Arabian gulf, which to-
wards Ethiopia is terminated by a promontory called
Dire, (Ptolemy). This Arfinoe is called Berenice,
,and the third of that name in this quarter, with the
diifindtion Epidires •, becaufe fituate on a neck of land
.running out a great way into the fia.
ARSIS thesis, in mufic is a term applied to
compofitions in which one part rifes and the other
falls.
ARSMART in botany. See Persicaeua.
ARSON, in Englifh law, is the malicious and wil¬
ful burning of the houfe or out-houfe of another man ;
which is felony at common law.
This is an offence of very great malignity, and much
more pernicious to the public than fimple theft : be¬
caufe, firff, it is an offence againft that right of ha¬
bitation which is acquired by the law of nature as
well as by the laws of fociety y next, becaufe of the
terror and confufion that neceffarily attends it ; and,
laftly, becaufe in ffmple theft the thing flolen only
changes its mafter, but ffill remains in ejj'e for the be¬
nefit of the public ; whereas by burning the very fub-
flance is abfolutely deftroyed. It is alfo frequently
more deftru&ive than murder itfelf, of which too it is
often the caufe : fince murder, atrocious as it is, fel-
dom extends beyond the felonious a<R deiigned, where¬
as fire too frequently involves in the common calamity
perfons unknown to the incendiary, and not intended
to be hurt by him, and friends as well as enemies.
ARSURA, in ancient cuftoms, a term ufed for the
melting of gold or filver, either to refine them, or to
examine their value—The method of doing this is ex¬
plained at large in the Black Book of the Exchequer,
al'cribed to Gervaife, in the chapter De Officio Militis
Argentarii, being in thofe days of great ufe, on ac¬
count of the various places and different manners in
which the king’s money w’as paid.
Arsura, is alfo ufed for the lofs or diminution of the
metal in the trial. In this fenfe, a pound was faid tot
ardere denarios, to lofe lb many penny-weights.
Arsura is alfo ufed for the duff and fweepings of
filver fmiths, and others, w'ho work in filver, melted
down.
ART is defined by Lord Bacon, A proper difpofal
. of the things of nature by human thought and expe¬
rience, fo as to anfwer the feveral purpcfes of man¬
kind } in which fenfe art Hands oppoled to nature.
Art is principally ufed for a fyftem of rules ferying
to facilitate the performance of certain actions ; in
which fenfe it Hands oppofed-tofcience, ora fyltem of
fpeculative principles.
Arts are commonly divided into w/r/a/or mechanic,
liberal or polite. The former are thofe wherein the
hand and body are more concerned than the mind ; of
which kind are moff of thofe which furnilh us with
the neceffaries of life, and are popularly known by
the name of trades; as baking, brewing, carpentry,
fmithery, weaving, &c.—The latter are fuch as de¬
pend more on the labour of the mind than that of the
hand; they are the produce of the imagination, their
effence confifls in expreffion, and their end is pleafure.
Of this kind are poetry, painting, mufic, &c.
1. Progre/s of the Arts. Some ufeful arts muff be
0”gm nearly coeval with the human race 5 for food, cloathing,
and habitation, even in their original fimplicity, re- Arts,
quire fome art. Many other arts are of fuch antiquity y——1
as to place the inventors beyond the reach of tradition.
Several have gradually crept into exiffence without an
inventor. The bufy mind, however, accuflomed to a anil
beginning in things, cannot reff till it finds or imagines
a beginning to every art. The moff probable conjec¬
tures of this nature the reader may fee in the hiftorl-
cal introdu&ions to the different articles.
In all countries where the people are barbarous and progrefs of
illiterate, the progrefs of arts is extremely flow. It is ufeful arts,
vouched by an old French poem, that the virtues of the [Karnes's
loadftone were known in France before anno 1180.
The mariner’s compafs was exhibited at Venice anno
1260, by Faulus Venetus, as his owm invention. John
Goya of Amalphi was the firfl who, many years after¬
ward, ufed it in navigation ; and alfo palled for being
the inventor. Though it was ufed in China for navi¬
gation long before it was known in Europe, yet to this
day it is not lb perfect as in Europe. Inffead of fuf-
fpending it in order to make it abt freely, it is placed
upon a bed of fand, by which every motion of the ffiip
diffurbs its operacion. Hand-mills, termed ywemr,
were early ufed for grinding corn; and when cornjcame
to be railed in greater quantity, horfe-mills fucceeded.
Water-mills for grinding corn are defcribed by Vitru¬
vius. Wind-mills were known in Greece and in Ara¬
bia as early as the feventh century; and yet no mention
is made of them in Italy till the fourteenth. That they
W’ere not known in England in the reign of Henry VIII.
appears from a houfehold book of an Earl of Northum¬
berland, cotemporary with that king, Hating an al¬
lowance for three mill-horfes, <{ two to draw in the
mill, and one to carry Huff to the mill and fro.”
Water-mills for corn muH in England have been of a
later date. The ancients had mirror-glafles, and em¬
ployed glafs to imitate cryflal vafes and goblets ; yet
they never thought of ufmg it in windows. In the
1 2th century, the Venetians were the only people who
had the art of making cryHal glafs for mirrors. A
^clock that flrikes the hours was unknown in Europe
till the end of the 12th century. And hence the cu-
flom of employing men to proclaim the hours during
night j which to this day continues in Germany, Flan¬
ders, and England. Galileo was thefirfi who conceived
an idea that a pendulum might be uleful for mea-
furing time ; and Huygens was the firH who put the
idea in execution, by making a pendulum clock. Hook,
in the year 1660, invented a fpiral fpring for a watch,
-though a watch was far from being a new invention.
Paper was made no earlier than the 14th century ; and
the invention of printing was a century later. Silk ma-
nufaftures were long eflabliflied in Greece before filk-
worms were introduced there. The manufablurers were
provided with raw filk from Perfia: but that com¬
merce being frequently interrupted by war, two monks,
in the reign of Juffinian, brought eggs of the filk-
worm from Hindoffan, and taught their countrymen
the method of managing them.—The art of reading
made a very How progrefs. To encourage that art in
England, the capital puniffiment for murder was re¬
mitted if the criminal could but read, which in law-
language is termed benefit of clergy. One would ima¬
gine that the art mufl have made a very rapid progrefs
when fo greatly favoured : but there is a fignal proof
A R T [ 359 3 ART
Arts. of the contrary : for fo fmall an edition of the Bible 10 years after, they gamed a fignal vidlory at Mara-
as 600 copies, tranllated into Englilh in the reign of thon 5 and, under Themiftocles, made head againft that
Henry VIII. was not wholly fold off in three years, prodigious army with which Xerxes threatened utter
The people of England mud have been profoundly ig- ruin to Greece. Such profperity produced its ufual ef-
norant in Queen Elizabeth's time, when a forged claufe febt : arts flourifhed with arms, and Athens became
added to the 20th article of the Englifh creed palled the chief theatre for fciences, as well as for fine arts,
unnoticed till about 50 years ago. The reign of Auguftus Caefar, which put an end to
The difcoveries of the Portuguefe in the weft coaft of the rancour of civil war, and reftored peace to Rome,
Africa is a remarkable inftance of the flow progreis of with the comforts of fociety, proved an aufpicious tera
arts. In the beginning of the 15th century, they were for literature ; and produced a clond of Latin hiftorians,
totally ignorant of that coaft beyond CapeNon, 28 deg. poets, and philofophers, to whom the moderns are in¬
north latitude. In 1410, the celebrated Prince Henry debted for their tafte and talents. One who makes a
of Portugal fitted out a fleet for difcoveries, which pro- figure roufes emulation in all : one catches fire from
ceeded along the coaft to Cape Bojadore in 26 deg. but another, and the national fpirit is every where triumph-
had not courage to double it. In 1418, Triftan Vaz ant: claflical works are compofed, and ufeful difcove-
difcovered the ifland Porto Santo ; and the year after, ries made in every art and fcience. With regard to
the ifland Madeira was difcovered. In 1449, a Portu- Rome, it is true, that the Roman government under
guefe captain doubled Cape Bojadore ; and the next Auguftus was in effeft defpotic : but defpotifm, in that
year the Portuguefe reached Cape Blanco, lat. 20 deg. Angle inftance, made no obftrudtion to literature, itha-
I11 1446, Nuna Triftan doubled Cape Verd, lat. 14. ving been the politic of that reign to hide power as
40. In 1448, Don Gonzallo Vallo took pofleflion of much as poflible. A fimilar revolution happened in.
the Azores. In 1449, the iflands of Cape V'erd were Tufcany about three centuries ago. That country ha-
difeovered for Don Henry. In 1471, Pedro d’Efcovar ving been divided into a number of fmall republics,
difcovered the ifland St Thomas and Prince’s Ifland. the people excited by mutual hatred between fmall na-
In 1484, Diego Cam difcovered the kingdom of Con- tions in clofe neighbourhood, became ferocious and
go. In i486, Bartholomew Diaz, employed by John II. bloody, flaming with revenge for the flighted offence..
of Portugal, doubled the Cape of Good'Hope, which Thefe republics being united under the Great Duke of
he called Carbo Tormento/o, from the tempeftuous Tufcany, enjoyed the fweets of peace in a mild go-
weather he found in the paffage. vernment. That comfortable revolution, which made
Caufes The exertion of national fpirit upon any particular the deeper impreflion by a retrofpeft to recent calami-
which ad- art, promotes atflivity to profecute other arts. The Ro- ties, roufed the national fpirit, and produced ardent
vance the_ mans, by conftant ftudy, came to excel in the art of application to arts and literature. The reftoration of
progrefs of warj whjch led them naturally to improve upon other the royal family in England, which put an end to a
ar,• arts. Having, in the progrefs of fociety, acquired  1 1 ’ '
fome degree of tafte and polifli, a talent for writing
broke forth. Nevius compofed in verfe feven books
of the Punic war ; befules comedies, replete with bit¬
ter raillery againft the nobility. Ennius wrote- annals,
and an epic poem. Lucius Andronicus was the father
of dramatic poetry in Rome. Pacuvius wrote trage¬
dies. Plautus and Terence wrote comedies. Lucilius
compofed fatires, which Cicero efteems to be flight
and void of erudition. Fabius Pidfor, Cincius Ali-
mentus, Pifo Frugi, Valerius Antias, and Cato, were
rather annalifts than hiftorians, confining themfelves to
naked fadfs, ranged in order of time. The genius of the
Romans for the fine arts was much inflamed by Greek
learning, when free intercourfe between the two nations
was opened. Many oftbole who made the greateftfigure
in the Roman ftate commenced authors; Caefar, Cicero,
&c. Sylla compofed memoirs of his own tranfadlions,
a work much efteemed even in the days of Plutarch.
The progrefs of art feldom fails to be rapid, when
a people happen to be roufed out of a torpid ftate by
cruel and envenomed civil war, promoted improvements-
of every kind : arts and induftry made a rapid progrefs
among the people, though left to themfelves by a weak
and flufhiating adminiftration. Had the nation, upon
that favourable turn of fortune, been bleffed with a
fucceflion of able and virtuous princes, to what a height
might not arts and fciences have been carried! Im
Scotland, a favourable period for improvement was the
reign of the firft Robert, after (baking off the Engliftv
yoke 5 but the domineering fpirit of the feudal fyftem
rendered abortive every attempt. The reftoration of
the royal family mentioned above, animated the legif-
lature of Scotland to promote manufadtures of various
kinds: but in vain ; for the union of the two crowns
had introduced defpotifm into Scotland, which funk
the genius of the people, and rendered them hear dels
and indolent. Liberty, indeed, and many other ad¬
vantages, were procured to them by the union of the
two kingdoms; but the falutary effedts were long fuf-
pended by mutual enmity, fuch as commonly fubfifts
, . .. . . between neighbouring nations. Enmity wore out gra-
fome fortunate change of circumftances. Profperity, dually, and the eyes of the Scots were opened to the
contrafted with former abafement, gives to the mind a advantages of their prefent condition ; the national
fpring, which is vigoroufly exerted in every new pur- fpirit was roufed to emulate and to excel 5 talents
fuit. The Athenians made but a mean figure under were exerted, hitherto latent; and Scotland at prefent
the tyranny of Pififtratus : but upon regaining free- makes a figure irt arts and fciences above what it ever
dom and independence, they were converted into he- made while an independent kingdom,
roes. Miletus, a Greek city of Ionia, being deftroy- Another caufe of aftivity and animation, is the he¬
ed by the king of Perfia, and the inhabitants made ing engaged ai fome important aftion of doubtful e-
flaves, the Athenians, deeply affe&ed with the mifery vent; a ftruggle for liberty, the refifting a potent in-
of their brethren, boldly attacked the king in his own vader, or the like. Greece, divided into fmall dates
dominions, and burnt the city of Sardis. In lefs than frequently at war with each other, advanced literature
and
a r t r
Arts. aiu] t{lc fine arts to unrivalled perfeiflion. The Corfi-
cans, while engaged in a perilous war for defence of
their liberties, exerted a vigorous national fpirit; they
founded a univerfity for arts and fciences, a public li¬
brary, and a public bank. After a long ftupor during
the dark ages of Chrillianity, arts and literature re¬
vived among the turbulent dates of Italy- The royal
fociety in London, and the academy of Iciences in Pa¬
ris, were both of them inftituted after civil wars that
had animated the people and roufed their activity.
As the progrefs of arts and fciences toward perfec¬
tion is greatly promoted by emulation, nothing is more
fatal to an art or fcience than to remove that fpur, as
where fome extraordinary genius appears who foars
above rivallhip. Mathematics feem to be declining in
Britain j the great Newton, having furpafled all the
ancients, has not left to the moderns even the fainteft
hope of equalling him ; and what man will enter the
lilts who defpairs of viefory ?
In a country thinly peopled, where even neceflary
arts want, hands, it is common to fee one perfon ex-
ercifing more arts than one : in feveral parts of Scot¬
land, one man ferves as a phyfician, furgeon, and apo¬
thecary. In every populous count ry, even Ample arts
are fplitinto parts, and each part has an artift appro¬
priated to it. In the large towns of ancient Egypt,
a phyfician was confined to a Angle difeafe. In me¬
chanic arts that method is excellent. As a hand con¬
fined to a Angle operation becomes both expert and ex¬
peditious, a mechanic art is perfected by having its dif¬
ferent operations dillributed among the greateft num¬
ber of hands : many hands are employed in making a
watch, and a ftill greater number in manufacturing a
web of woollen cloth. Various arts or op erations car¬
ried on by the fame man, envigorate his mind, becaufe
they exercife different faculties j and as he cannot be
equally expert in every art or operation, he is fre¬
quently reduced to fupply want of (kill by thought
and invention. Conftaut application, on the contrary,
to a fingle operation, confines the mind to a fingle
objeCt, and excludes all thought and invention : in
fuch a train of life, the operator becomes dull and ftu-
pid, like a beaft of burden. The difference is vi-
fible in the manners of the people: in a country where,
from want of hands, feveral occupations mufl be car¬
ried on by the fame perfon, the people are knowing
and converfable : in a populous country, where manu¬
factures flourifh, they are ignorant and unfociable.
The fame effeCt is equally vifible in countries where an
art or manufacture is confined to a certain clafs of men.
It is vifible in Indotian, where the people are divided
into cafis, which never mix even by marriage, and
where every man follows his father’s trade. The Dutch
lint-boors are a fimilar inftance : the fame families
carry on the trade from generation to generation } and
are accordingly ignorant and brutifh even beyond other
Dutch peafants. The inhabitants of Buckhaven, a
fea-port in the county of Fyfe, were originally a co¬
lony of foreigners, invited hither to teach our people
the art of fifhing. They continue fifhtrs to this day,
marry among themfelves, have little intercourfe with
5 their neighbours, and are dull and llupid to a proverb.
Progrefs of Ufeful arts paved the way to fine arts. Men upon
thcjineartsi whom the former had bellowed every convenience,
No 29.
360 } ART
turned their thoughts to the latter. Beauty was flu- Arts,
died in objeCts of fight; and men of tafte attached w—y-—"
themfelves to the fine arts, which multiplied their en¬
joyments, and improved their benevolence. Sculpture
and painting made an early figure in Greece 5 which
afforded p’enty of beautiful originals to be copied in
thefe imitative arts. Statuary, a more fimple imita¬
tion than painting, was fooner brought to perfection s
the ftatue of Jupiter by Phidias, and of Juno by Po-
lycletes, though the admiration of all the world, were
executed long before the art of light and (hade was
known. Apollodorus, and Zeuxis his difciple, wh®
flourifhed in the 15th Olympiad, were the firft wh»
figured in that art. Another caufe concurred to ad¬
vance ilatuary before painting in Greece, viz. a great
demand for ftatues of their gods. Architecture, as a
fine art, made a flower progrefs. Proportions, upon
which its elegance chiefly depends, cannot be accu¬
rately afcertained, but by an infinity of trials in great
buildings ; a model cannot be relied on : for a large
and a fmall building, even of the fame form, require
different proportions. 4
From the fine arts mentioned, we proceed tolitera- Literary
ture. It is agreed, among all antiquaries, that the cdmpoft-
firlt writings were in verfe, and that writing in profe t‘on'
was of a much later date. The firil Greek who wrote
in profe was Pherecides Syrus: the firft Roman was
Appius Caecus, who compofed a declamation againlt
Pyrrhus. The four books of the Chatah Bhade,
which is the facred book of Hindoftan, are compofed
in verle ftanzas ; and the Arabian compofitions in profe
followed long after thofe in verfe. To account for that
lingular faCt, many learned pens have been employed 5
but without fuccefs. By fome it has been urged, that
as memory is the only record of events where writing
is unknown, hiftory originally was compcled in verfe
for the fake of memory. This is not fatisfactory. To
undertake the painful talk of compofing in verfe, mere¬
ly for the fake of memory, would require more fore¬
fight than ever was exerted by a barbarian : not to
mention that other means wereufed for preferving the
memory of remarkable events; a heapof itones* a pillar,
or other objeCt that catches the eye. The account
given by Longinus is more ingenious. In a fragment
of bis treatife on verfe, the only part that remains, he
obferves, “ that meafure or verfe belongs to poetry,
becaufe poetry reprefents the various paflions with
their language ; for which reafon the ancients, in their
ordinary difcourfe, delivered their thoughts in verfe
rather than in profe.” Longinus thought, that an¬
ciently men were more expofed to accidents and dan¬
gers, than when they were protected by good govern¬
ment and by fortified cities. But he feems not to
have adverted, that fear and grief, infpired by dangers
and misfortunes, are better fuited to humble profe than
to elevated verle. It may be added, that however na¬
tural poetical didtion may be when one is animated
with any vivid paflion, it is not fuppofable that the
ancients never wrote nor fpoke but when excited by
paflion. Their hiftory, their laws, their covenants,
were certainly not compofed in that tone of mind.
An important article in the progrefs of the fine arts,
which writers have not fufficiently attended to, will
perhaps explain this myftery. The article is the pro¬
fe flion
ART l 36i 1 ART
feffion of a bard, which fprung up in early times, be
* Sec'the ^ore wr*t‘n§ was ^rtown *> and cl*ed away gradually
article as writing turned more and more common f.
Writing. The fongs of the bards, being univerfal favourites,
t SteBard. were certainly the firft compofitlons that writing was
employed upon : they would be carefully colle&ed
by the moft tkilful writers, in order to prelerve them
in perpetual remembrance. The following part of the
progrefs is obvious. People acquainted wTith no writ¬
ten compofitions, but what were in verle, compofed in
verfe their laws, their religious ceremonies, and every
memorable tranfaftion that was intended to be prefer-
ved in memory by writing. But when fubjefts of
writing multiplied, and became more and more invol¬
ved ; when people began to reafon, to teach, and to
harangue $ they were obligecf to defcend to humble
profe : for to confine a writer or fpeaker to verfe in
handling fubjefts of that nature, would be a burden
5 unfupportable.
Idiftory. The profe compofitions of early hiftorians are all of
them dramatic. A writer deftitute ,pf art is naturally
prompted to relate fa£ts as he faw them performed :
he introduces his perfonages as fpeaking and confer¬
ring ; and he himfelf relates what was a£ted, and not
fpoke. The l^iftorical books of the Old Teftament
are compofed in that mode ; and fo addided to the
dramatic are the authors of thofe books, that they fre¬
quently introduce God himfelf into the dialogue. At
the fame time, the fimplicity of that mode is happily
fuited to the poverty of every language in its early pe¬
riods. The dramatic mode has a delicious effed in
exprefling fentiment, and every thing that is Ample
and tender. Read, as an inftance of a low incident be¬
coming, by that means, not a little interefting. Ruth i.
8. to iv. 16.
The dramatic mode is far from pleafing fo much in
relating bare hiftorical fads. Read, as an example,
the ftory of Adonijah in I Kings i. n.—49.
In that paflage there are frequent repetitions; not
however by the fame perfon, but by different perfons.
who have occafion in the courfe of the ftory to fay the
fame things; which is natural in the dramatic mode,
where things are reprefented precifely as they were
tranfaded. In that view, Homer’s repetitions are a
beauty, not a blemifh j for they are confined to the
dramatic part, and never occur in the narrative.
But the dramatic mode of compofition, however
pleafing, is tedious and intolerable in a long hiftory.
In the progrefs of fociety new appetites and new paf-
fions arife j men come to be involved with each other
in various connedions 5 incidents and events multiply,
and hiftory becomes intricate by an endlefs variety of
circumflances. Dialogue accordingly is more fparingly
ufed, and in hiftory plain narration is mixed with it.
Narration is as it were the ground-work ; and dia¬
logue is raifed upon it, like flowers in embroidery.
Homer is admitted by all to be the great mafter in
that mode of compofition.
The narrative mode came in time fo to prevail, that
in a long chain of hiftory, the writer cbmmonly leaves
off dialogue altogether. Early writers of that kind
appear to have very little judgment in diftinguifhirg
capital fads from minute circumftances, fuch as can be
fupplied by the reader without being mentioned. The
hiftory of the Trojan war by Dares Phrygius is a cu¬
rious inftance of that cold and creeping manner of Art.
compofition. The Roman hiftories before the time of '“■—v—
Cicero are chronicles merely. Cato, Fabius Pidor,
and Pifo, confined themfelves to naked fads. In the
Auguftte Hifloriae Scriptores we find nothing but a
jejune narrative of fads, commonly of very little mo¬
ment, concerning a degenerate people, without a
fingle incident that can roufe the imagination or exer-
cife the judgment. The monkifh' hiftories are all of
them compofed in the fame manner.
The dry narrative manner being very little inte¬
refting or agreeable, a tafte for embellifhment prompt¬
ed fome writers to be copious and verbofe. Saxo-
Grammaticus, who in the 12th century compiled in
Latin a hiftory of Denmark, furprifingly pure at
that early period, is extremely verbofe and full of tau¬
tologies. Such a ftyle, at any rate unple&fant, is into¬
lerable in a modern tongue, before it is enriched with
a ftock of phrafes for expreffmg aptly the great vari
ety of incidents that enter into hiftory.
The perfedion ofhiftorical compofition which wri¬
ters at laft attain to after wandering through various
imperfed modes, is a relation of interefting fads,
conneded with their motives and confequences. An
hiftory of that kind is truly a chain of caufes and ef-
feds.
The hiftory of Thucydides, and ftill more that of
Tacitus, are (hining inftances of that mode. 6
Eloquence was of a later date than the art of litera- Eloquence,
ry compofition ; for till the latter wras improved,
there were no models for ftudying the former. Cice¬
ro’s oration for Rofcius is compoled in a ftyle diffufe
and highly ornamented J which, fays Plutarch, was uni •
verfally approved, becaufe at that time the ftyle in
Afia, introduced into Rome with its luxury, wras in
high vogue. But Cicero, in a journey to Greece,
where he leifurely ftudied Greek authors, was taught
to prune off fuperfluities, and to purify his ftyle, which
he did to a high degree of refinement. ^Ie introdu
ced into his native tongue a fweetnefs, a grace, a ma-
jefty, that furprifed the world4 and even the Romans
themfelves. Cicero obferves with great regret, that if
ambition for power had not drawn Julius Csefar from
the bar to command legions, he would have become
the moft complete orator in the world. So partial are
men to the profeffion in which they excel. Eloquence
triumphs in a popular affembly, makes fome figure in
a court of law compofed of many judges, vety little
where there is but a fingle judge, and none at all in a
defpotic government. Eloquence flouriftied in the re¬
publics of Athens and of Rome ; and makes fome fi¬
gure at prefent in a Britiftv Houfe of Commons.
The Greek ftage has been juftly admired among all ^ ,
polite nations. The tragedies of Sophocles and Eu- TraSed?!
ripides in particular are by all critics held to be perfect
in their kind, excellent models for imitation, but far
above rivalfliip. If the Greek ttage was. fo early
brought to maturity, it is a phenomenon not a little
Angular in the progrefs of arts. The Greek tragedy
made a rapid progrefs from Thefpis to Sophocles and
Euripides, whofe compofitions are wonderful produc¬
tions of genius, confidering that the Greeks at that
period were but beginning to emerge from roughnefs
and barbarity into a tafte for literature. The compo-
fitions of Efchylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, muft
ART [ 362 ] ART
Art. have been highly relilhed among a people who had no
"v ' idea of any thing more perfedl. We judge by com-
parifon, and every work is held to be perfect that has
no rival. It ought at the fame time to be kept in
view, that it was not the dialogue which chiefly en¬
chanted the Athenians, nor variety in the paffions re-r
prelented, nor perfection in the a&ors; but machinery
and pompous decoration, joined with exquifire mufic.
That thefe particulars were carried to the greateft
height, we may with certainty conclude from the ex¬
travagant turns bellowed on them : the exhibiting a
tingle tragedy was more expenfive to the Athenians
than their fleet or their army in any Angle campaign.
One would imagine, however, that thefe compofi-
tions were too Ample to enchant for ever ; as variety
in aCIion, fentiment, and paflion, is requiAte, without
which the ftage will not continue long a favourite en¬
tertainment : and yet we find not a Angle improve¬
ment attempted after the days of Sophocles and Euri¬
pides. The manner of performance, indeed, prevented
abfolutely any improvement. A fluctuation of paflion
and refined leutiments would have made no figure on
the Grecian fiage. Imagine the difcording fcene be¬
tween Brutus and Catfius ip Julius Caefar to be there
exhibited, or the handkerchief in the Moor of Venice :
how flight would be their effedt, wEen pronounced in
a matk, and through a pipe ? The workings of nature
upon the countenance, and the fleCtions of voice ex-
preflive of various feelings, fo deeply affecting in mo¬
dern reprefentation would have been entirely loft. If
a great genius had arifen with talents for compofing a
pathetic tragedy in perfection, he would have made
no figure in Greece. An edifice mutt have been ereCted
of a moderate fize : new aCtors mutt have been trained
to aCt with a bare face, and to pronounce in their own
voice. And after all, there remained a greater miracle
ftill to be performed, viz. a total reformation of tafte
in the people of Athens. In one word, the fimplicity
of the Greek tragedy was fuited to the manner of
g aCting ; and that manner excluded all improvements.
Comedy. With refpeCt to comedy, it does not appear that the
Greek comedy furpafled the tragedy in its progrefs
toward perfection. Horace mentions three ftages of
Greek comedy. The firtt well fuited to the rough
and coarfe manners of the Greeks, when Eupolis, Cra-
tinus, and Ariftophanes, wrote. Thefe authors were
not afhamed to reprefent on the ftage real perfons, not
even ditguifing their names: of which we have a lin¬
king inltance in a comedy of Ariftophanes, called The
Clouds, where Socrates is introduced, and moft con-
temptuouily treated. This fort of comedy, fparing
neither gods nor men, wasreftrained by themagiflrates
of Athens, fo far as to prohibit perfons to be named on
the ftage. This led writers to do what is done atpre-
fent: the characters and manners of known perfons
were painted, fo much to the life, that there could be
no miftake y and the fatire was indeed heightened by
this regulation, as it was an additional pleafure to find
out the names that were meant in the reprefentation.
This was termed the middle comedy. But as there ftill
remained toogreat fcope for obloquy and licentioufnefs,
a law w as made prohibiting real events or incidents to
be introduced upon the ftage. This law happily ba-
nifhed fatire againft individuals, and confined it to man¬
ners and cuftoms in general. Obedient to this law are
the comedies of Menander, Philemon, and Diphilus, Art.
who flourithedabout 300 years before the Chriftian sera.' v—
And this is termed the third Jlage of Greek comedy. s
The comedies of Ariftophanes which ftill remain, err
not lefs againtt tafte than againft decency. But the
Greek comedy is fuppofed to have been confiderably
refined by Menander and his cotemporaries. Their
works, however, were far from perfection, if we can
draw any conjeCture from their imitator Plautus, who
wrote about a century later. Plautus was a writer of
genius; and it may be realbnably liippoled that his
copies did not fall much thort of the originals, at leatt •
in matters that can be faithfully copied ; and he thows
very little art, either in his compofnions or in the con¬
duct of his pieces. With refpeCt to the former, his
plots are wondrous fimple, very little varied,, and very
little interefting. The ilibjeCt of almoft every piece is
a young man in love with a mufic girl, defiring to pur-
chafe her from the procurer, and employing a favour¬
ite flave to cheat his father out of the price ; and the
different ways of accompliftting the cheat is all the va
riety we find. In fome few of his comedies the ftory
rifes to a higher tone, the mulic girl being difeovered
to be the daughter of a freeman, which removes every
obftruCtion to a marriage between her and her lover.
In the conduCt of his pieces there is a miferable defeCP
of art. Inftead of unfolding the fubjeCt in the progrefs
of the aCtion, as is done by Terence, and by every
modern writer, Plautus introduces a perfon for no
other end but to explain the ftory to the audience. In
one of his comedies, a houfehold god is fo obliging as
not only to unfold the fubjeCt, but to relate before¬
hand every particular that is to be reprefented, not
excepting the cataftrophe.
The Roman theatre, from the time of Plautus to
that of Terence, made a rapid progrefs. Ariftotle
defines comedy to be “ an imitation of light and tri¬
vial fubjeCts, provoking laughter.” The comedies of
Plautus correfpond accurately to that definition;
thofe of Terence rife to a higher tone.
Nothing is more evident than the fuperiority of Te¬
rence above Plautus in the art of writing and, confi-
dering that Terence is a later writer, nothing would
appear more natural, if they did not copy the fame o-
riginals. It may be owing to genius that Terence ex¬
celled in purity of language and propriety of dialogue ;
but how account for his fuperiority over Plautus in the
conftruCtion and conduCt of a play? It will not cer¬
tainly be thought, that Plautus would imitate the worft
conftruCted plays, leaving the belt to thofe who fhould
come after him. This difficulty does not feem to have
occurred to any of the commentators. Had the works
of Menander and.of his cotemporaries been preferved,
they probably would have explained the myflery ;
which for want of that light wilt probably remain a
myftery for ever. 9
Homer has for more than 2000 years been held the Epopee,
prince of poets. Such perfe&ion in an author who
flourifhed when arts wrere far'fhort of maturity, is tru¬
ly wonderful. The'nations engaged in the Trojan war
are. deferibed by him as in a progrefs from the fhepherd-
ftate to that of agriculture. Frequent mention is made
in the Iliad of the moft eminent men being fhepherds.
Andromache, in particular, mentions feven of her bre¬
thren who were flain by-Achilles as they tended their
father’s
ART [ 363 ] ART
Art father’s flocks and herds. In that Hate, garments of
woollen cloth were ufed ; but the (kins of beads, the
original clothing, were dill worn as an upper garment:
every chief in the Iliad appears in thatdrefs. Such in¬
deed was the fimplicity of this early period, that a
black ewe was promifed by each chief in' the man who
would undertake to be a fpy. In times of fuch fimpli¬
city, literature could not be far advanced $ and it is a
great doubt, whether there was at that time a Angle
poem of the epic kind for Homer to imitate or improve
upon. Homer is undoubtedly a wonderful genius,
perhaps the greatefi that ever exided : his fire, and the
boldnefs of his conceptions, are inimitable. But in
that early age, it would fall little ftiort of a real mi¬
racle, to find fuch ripenefs ofjudgment, and corre£lnefs
of execution, as in modern writers are the fruits of long
experience and progreflive improvements during the
courfe of many centuries. Accordingly, that Homer
is far from being fo ripe, or fb correft, cannot efcape
the oblervation of any reader of tafle and difcernment.
One driking particular is, his digreflions without end,
which draw our attention from the principal fubjeft.
Diomedes, for indance, meeting with Glaucus in the
field of battle, and doubting from his majeflic air,
whether he might not be an immortal, inquires who he
was, declaring that he would not fight with a god.
Glaucus lays hold of this very flight opportunity, in
the very heat of a&ion, to give a long hidory of his
family. In the mean time, the reader’s patience is
put to a trial, and his ardour cools. Again Aga¬
memnon defiring advice how to refid the Trojans, Dio¬
medes fprings forward j but before he offers advice,
gives the hidory of all his progenitors, and of their
characters, in a long train. And, after all, what was
the fage advice that required fuch a preface ? It was,
that Agamemnon (hould exhort the Greeks to fight
bravely. At any rate, \jps Diomedes fo little known,
as to make it proper to (ufpend the aCtion at fo critical
a junCture, for a genealogical hidory ? There is a
third particular which jufily merits cenfure ; and that
is, an endlefs number of minute circumdances, efpe-
cially in the defcription of battles, where they are
mod improper. The capital beauty of an epic poem
is, the feleCtion of fuch incidents and circumdances
. as make a deep impreflion, keeping out of view every
thing low or familiar. An account o£ a fingle battle
employs the whole fifth book of the Iliad and a great
part of the fixth : yefin the whole there is no general
aCVion; but unknown warriors, whom we never heard
qt before, killed at a didance with an arrow or a jave¬
lin j and every wound defcribed with anatomical accu¬
racy. The whole feventeenth book is employed in the
contefl about the dead body of Patroclus, duffed with
minute circumdances, below the dignity of an epic
poem. In luch Icenes the reader is fatigued with end¬
lefs particulars; and has nothing to fupport him but
I0 the melody of Homer’s verfification.
Caufes of Having traced the progrefs of the fine arts toward
the dec!:ne maturity, in a fummary way, the decline of thefe arts
arts * finecomes next order. An art, in its progrefs toward
ar s‘ maturity, is greatly promoted by emulation; and, af¬
ter arriving at maturity, its downfal is no Ids promo¬
ted by it. It is difficult to judge of perfection but by
comparifon ; and an artid, ambitious to outdrip his
predeceffbrs, cannot fubmit to be an imitator, but mud
firike out fomething new, which, in an art advanced
to ripenefs, feldom fails to be a degeneracy. This
caufe of the decline of the fine arts may be illuflrated
by various indances. The perfection of vocal mufic is
to accompany paflion, and to enforce fentiment. In
ancient Greece, the province of mufic was well under-
dood; which being confined within its proper fphere,
had an enchanting influence. Harmony at that time
w'as very little cultivated, becaufe it was of very little
ufe : melody reaches the heart, and it is by it chiefly
that a fentiment is enforced, or a paffion (oothed ; har¬
mony, on the contrary, reaches the ear only ; and it
is a matter of undoubted experience, that the mod me¬
lodious airs admit but of very fimple harmony. Art-
ids, in later times, ignorant why harmony was fo little
regarded by the ancients, applied themfelves ferioufly
to its cultivation; and they have been wonderfully fuc-
cefsful. But they have been fuccefsful at the expence
of melody ; which in modern compofitions, generally
fpeaking, is loll amid the btaie of harmony. Thefe
compofitions tickle the ear by the luxury ofcomplica-
ted founds, but feldom make any impreflion on the
heart. The Italian opera, in its form, refembles the
Greek tragedy, from which it is evidently copied; but
very little in fubflance. In the latter, mufic being
made fubfervient to fentiment, the dialogue is nervous
and fublime : in the former, the whole weight is laid on
mufic ; and the dialogue, devoid of fentiment, is weak
and fpiritlefs. Redlefs man knows no golden mean,
but will be attempting innovations without end By
the fame ambition, architedlure has vifibly declined
from its perfection. The Ionic was the favourite order
when architecture was in its height of glory. The
Corinthian order came next; which, in attempting
greater perfection, has deviated from the true fimpli-
city of nature : and the deviation is (till greater in the
Compofite order. With refpeCt to literary productions,
the firfl: effays of the Romans were very imperfeCt.
We may judge of this from Plautus, whole compofi¬
tions are abundantly rude, though much admired by
his cotemporaries, being the bed that exifted at that
time. The exalted fpirit of the Romans hurried rhem
on to the grand and beautiful ; and literary produc¬
tions of all kinds were in perfection when Auguftus
reigned. In attempting dill greater perfection, the
Roman compofitions became a drange jumble of incon¬
fident parts: they were tumid and pompous ; and, at
the fame time, full of antithefes, conceit, and tinlel
wit. Every thing new in the fine arts pleafes, though
lefs perfect than what we are accudomed to ; and, for
that reafbn, fuch compofitions were generally relidi-
ed. We fee not by what gradual deps writers, after
the time of Augudus, deviated from the patterns that
were before them ; for no book of any moment after
that time is preferved till we come down to Seneca,
in whole works nature and fimplicity give place to ar¬
tificial thought and badard wit. He was a great cor¬
rupter of the Roman tade ; and after him nothing
was relidied but brilliant drokes of fancy, with very
little regard to fentiment: even Virgil and Cicero
made no figure in comparifon. Lucan has a forced
elevation of thought and dyle very difficult to be fup-
ported ; and, accordingly, he finks often into puerile
reflections; witnefs his encomium on the river Po ;
which, fays he, would equal the Danube, had it the
7. z 2 fame
ART [ 364 ] ART
fame number of tributary ftreams. Quintilian, a wri¬
ter of true and claffical tafte, who was protected and
encouraged by Vefpafian, attempted to ftem the tide
of falle writing. His rhetoric is eompofed in an ele¬
gant ftyle-; and his oblervations contain every delicacy
of the critical art. At the fame time flourifhed Ta-
citps, poffc fling a more extenfive knowledge of the
nature of man than any other author, ancient or mo¬
dern, if Shakefpeare be,not excepted. His ftyle is ori¬
ginal, concile, compafl, and comprehenfive j and, in
what is properly called his hijiory, perfectly correct and
beautiful. He has been imitated by feveral, but never
equalled by any. Brutus is faid to be the laft of the
Romans for love of liberty : Quintilian and Tacitus
may be faid to be the laft of the Romans for literary
genius. Pliny the younger is no exception 5 his ftyle
is affe&ed, turgid, and full of cWldifh brilliancy. Se¬
neca and Pliny are proper examples of writers who ftu-
dy fhow more than iubftance, and who make fenfe yield
to found. The difference between thefe authors and
thofe of the Auguftine age, refembles the difference be¬
tween Greek and Italian Mufic. Mufic, among the
Greeks, limited itfelf to the employment to which it is
deftined by nature, viz. to be the handmaid of fenfe,
to enforce, enliven, or fweeten a fentiment. In the
Italian opera, the miftrefs is degraded to be hand¬
maid ; and harmony triumphs, with very little regard
to fentiment.
Another great caufe that precipitates the downfal of
every fine art is defpotifm. The reafbn is obvious j and
there is a difmal example of it in Rome, particularly
with regard to eloquence. We learn from a dialogue
accounting for the corruption of the Roman eloquence,
that in the decline of the art it became fafhionable to
fluff harangues with impertinent poetical quotations,
without any view but ornament merely ; and this alfo
was long fafhionable in France. It happened unlucki¬
ly for the Romans, and for the world, that the fine
arts were at their height in Rome, and not much upon
the decline in Greece, when delpotifm put an end to the
republic. Auguftus, it is true, retarded their fall, par¬
ticularly that of literature ; it being the politic of his
reign to hide defpotifm, and to give his government
an air of freedom. His court was a fchool of urbani¬
ty, where people of genius acquired that delicacy of
tafte, that elevation of fentiment, and that purity of
expreflion, which charatlerize the writers of his time.
He honoured men of learning, admitted them to his
table, and was bountiful to them. It would be pain¬
ful to follow the decline of the fine arts in Rome to
their total extirpation. The tyranny of Tiberius, and
of fubfequent emperors, broke at laft the elevated and-
independent fpirit of the brave Romans, reduced them
to abjedl flavery, and left not a fpark of genius. The
fcience of law is the only exception, as it flourifhed even
in the worft of times : the Roman lawyers were a re-
fpe£table body, and lefs the obje<5l of jealoufy than
men of power and extenfive landed property. Among
the,greeks alfo, a conquered people, the fine arts de¬
cayed ; but not fb rapidly as at Rome ; the Greeks,
farther removed from the feat of Government, being
lefs within the reach of a Roman tyrant. During
their depreflion, they were guilty of the moft puerile
conceits : witnels verfes compofed in the form of an
ax, an egg, wings, and fuch like. The ftyle of Greek
authors, in the reign of the emperor Adrian, is une- Art.
qual, obfcure, ftiff, and affedled. Lucian is the only l——y——^
e. ception that may be made.
We need fcarce any other caufe but defpotifm, to
account for the decline of ftatuary and painting in
Greece. Thele arts had arrived at their utmoft per-
fedlion about the time of Alexander the Great ; and
from that time they declined gradually with the vigour
of a free people j for Greece was now enflaved by the
Macedonian power. It may in general be oblerved,
that when a nation becomes ftationafy in that degree
of power which it acquires from its conftnution and fi-
tuation, the national fpirit fubfides, and men of talents
become rare. It is ftill worle with a nation that is
funk below its former power and pre-eminence j and
worft of all when it is reduced to llavery. Other caui'es
concurred to accelerate the downfal of the arts men¬
tioned. Greece, in the days of Alexander, was filled
with ftatues of excellent worlcmanftiip ; and there being
little demand for more, the later ftatuaries were re¬
duced to heads and bulls. At laft the Romans put a
total end both to ftatuary and painting in Greece, by
plundering it of its fineft pieces ; and the Greeks, ex-
pofed to the avarice of the conquerors, beftowed no
longer any money on the fine arts.
The decline of the fine arts in Rome is by a * writer * Petronius
of tafte and elegance afcribed to a caufe different from Arbiter,
any above mentioned, a caule that overwhelms man¬
hood as well as the fine arts where-ever it prevails j
and that is opulence, joined with its faithful attendants
avarice and luxury. “ In ancient times (lays he),
when naked virtue had her admirers, the liberal arts
were in their higheft vigour $ and> there was a generous
conteft among men, that nothing of real and perma¬
nent advantage ftiould long remain undifcovered. De¬
mocritus extracted the juice of every herb and plant ;
and, left the virtue of a fingle ftone or twig Ihould e-
fcape him, he confumed a lifetime in experiments.
Eudoxus, immerfed in the ftudy of aftronomy, ("pent
his age upon the top of a mountain. Chryfippus, to
ftimulate his inventive faculty, thrice purified his ge¬
nius with hellebore. To turn to the imitative arts:
Lyfippus, while labouring on the forms of a fingle fta-
tue, perifhed from want. Myron, whofe powerful
hand gave to the brals almoft the foul of man and ani¬
mals,—at his death found not an heir! Of us of mo¬
dern times what lhall we fay ? Immerfed in drunken-
neft and debauchery, we want the fpirit to cultivate
thole arts which we poffefs. We inveigh againft the
manners of antiquity ; we ftudy vice alone ; and vice is
all we teach. Where now is the art of reafoning ?
Where aftronomy ? Where is the right path of wif-
dom ? What man now-a-days is heard in our temples
to make a vow for the attainment of eloquence, or for
the dilcovery of the fountain of true philofbphy ? Nor
do we even pray for health of body, or a found under-
ftanding. One, while he has fcarce entered the porch
of the temple, devotes a gift in the event of the death
of a rich relation ; another prays for the difcovery of a
treafure ; a third for a minifterial fortune. The fenate
itfelf, the exemplary preceptor of what is good and
laudable, has promiled a thoufand pounds of gold to
the capitol; and, to remove all reproach from the crime
of avarice, has offered a bribe to Jupiter himfelf. How
ffiould we wonder that the art of painting has declined,
when,
ART [ 365 ] ART
Art. when, in the eyes both of the gods and men, there is
/ more beauty in a mafs of gold than in all the works of
Phidias and Apelles.”—In England, the fine arts are
far from fuch perfeflion as to fuffer by opulence. They
are in a progrefs, it is true, toward maturity > but
they proceed in a very flow pace.
There is ftili another-caufe that never fails to under¬
mine a fine art in a country where it is brought to
perfedlion, abflrafting from every one of the caufes
above mentioned, [t is remarked a little above, that
nothing is more fatal to an art or to a fcience than a
performance fo much fuperior to all of the kind as to
extinguilh emulation. This remark is exemplified in
the great Newton, who, having furpafled all the an
cients, has not left to his countrymen even the fainted:
hope of rivalling him ; and to that caufe is attributed
the vifible decline of mathematics in Great Britain.
The fame caufe would have been fatal to the arts of
ftatuary and painting among the Greeks, even though
they had continued a free people. The decay of paint¬
ing in modern Italy is, probably, owing to the fame
caufe: Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, &c. are
lofty oaks that bear down young plants in their neigh¬
bourhood, and intercept from them the funftiine of e-
mulation. Had the art of painting made a flower pro¬
grefs in Italy, it might have there continued in vigour
to this day. Velleius Paterculus fays judicioufly, “ Ut
primo ad confequendos quos priores ducimus accendi-
mur ; ita, ubi aut praeteriri aut aequari eos pofle de-
fperavimus, ftudium cum fpe fenefcit; et quod adfe-
qui non poteft, fequi definit: praeteritoque eo in quo
eminere non poflimus, aliquid in quo nitamur conqui-
rimus.”
The decline of an art or fcience proceeding from the
foregoing caufe, is the moft rapid where a ftri6t com¬
panion can be inftituted between the works of differ¬
ent mailers. The fuperiority of Newton above every
other mathematician can be afcertained with precifion;
and hence the fudden decline of that fcience in Great
Britain. In Italy a talent for painting continued ma¬
ny years in vigour, becaufe no painter appeared with
fuch fuperiority of genius as to carry perfection in e-
very branch of the art. As one furpafled in defigning,
one in colouring, one in graceful attitudes, there was
ftillfcope for emulation. But when at laft there was
not.a fingle perfection but what one or other mafter
had excelled in, from that period the art began to lan¬
guid). Architecture continued longer in vigour than
painting, becaufe the principles of companion in the .
former are lefs precife than in the latter. The artift
who could not rival his predecefTors in an eftablilhed
mode, fought out a new mode for himfelf, which,
though perhaps lefs elegant or perfeCt, was for a time
J1 fupported by novelty.
Ufeful arts Ufeful arts will never be neglected in a country
lefs fubjeft where there is any police j for every man finds hisac-
to decline, count in them. Fine arts are more precarious. They
are not relilhed but by perfons of tafte, who are
rare j and fuch as can fpare great Turns for fupport-
ing them are ffill more rare. For that reafon, they
will never flourilh in any country, unlefs patronized
by the fovereign, or by men of power and opulence.
They merit fuch patronage, as one of the fprings of
government: and a capital fpring they make, by mul¬
tiplying amufements, and. humanizing manners} upon
which account they have always been encouraged by
good prince s.
General Theory of the Polite Arts. The effence of
the polite arts, as before obferved, confiffs in ex[>re(fion.
The end of all thefe arts is pleafure ; whereas the end
of the fciences is inflruclion and utility. Some of the
polite arts indeed, as eloquence, poetry, and architec¬
ture, are frequently applied to objeCIs that are ufeful,
or exercifed in matters that arc inffructive, as we fhall
(how more particularly in their proper place ; but in
thefe cafes, though the ground-work, belongs to thofe
fciences which employ the underffanding, yet the ex-
preflion arifes from the inventive faculty. It is a pic¬
ture that is defigned by Minerva, to which the mufes
add the colouring, and the graces the frame. This u-
nion forms therefore the perfetffion of the art, accord¬
ing to that fententious and well known precept of Ho¬
race : Omne tulit pun&um, qui mif uit utile dulci.
Under the denomination, therefore, of Polite Arts,
we comprehend, 1. Eloquence ; 2. Poetry j 3. Mafic j
4. Painting ; 5. Sculpture $ 6. Graving ; 7. Architec¬
ture j 8. Declamation ; 9. Dancing. Particular de-
feriptions of thefe arts are given under their refpedtive
names. This branch of the prefent article is intended
as a general introduiffion to them; and, as fuch, will
be occafionally referred to.
There is one very effential refleftion, which it ap¬
pears to us proper to make in the firft place, on the po¬
lite arts in general. All the rules in the world-are not
fufficient to make a great poet, an able orator, or an
excellent artift ; becaufe the quality, neceflary to form
the(e, depends on the natural difpofition, the fire of
genius, which no humijn art can confer, but which is
the pure gift of heaven. The rules, however, will
prevent a man from being a bad artift, a dull orator, or
a wretched poet; feeing they are the reflections of the
greateft mafters in thofe arts, and that they point out
the rocks which the artift (hould (hun in the e-xercifc
of his talents. They are of ufe moreover, in facilitating
his labours, and in dire&ing him to arrive by the
fhorteft and furefl; road to perfection. They refine,
ftrengthen, and confirm, his tafle. Nature, abandon¬
ed to herfelf, hasconftantly fomething wild and lavage.
Art, founded on juft and fagacious rules, gives here-
legance, dignity and politenefs ; and it is impoffible
to facrifice properly to the graces, without knowing
the incenfe that is pleafing to them.
Beauty is the object of all the polite arts. It is not,
however, fo eafy, as it may feem, to give a clear and
determinate idea of what we precifely mean by that
term *. Many able writers, who have treated ex-
prefsiy on the fubjeift, have fhown that they were to¬
tally ignorant of what it was. It is one of thofe ex-
preflions that we comprehend immediately, that prelent
us with a clear and precife idea, that leave a diftincl
impreflion on our minds, when it is (imply written or
pronounced ; but which philofophers envelope in dark-
nefs, when they attempt to elucidate it by definitions
and deferiptions ; and the more, as mankind have dif¬
ferent ideas of beauty, their opinions and tafles being
as various as their underftandings and phyfiognomies.
We may fay, however, in general, that beauty refults
from the various perfections of which any objeCt is fu-
fceptible, and which it aCtually poflefl'es ; and that the
perfections which produce beauty confilt principally in
the
What arts
fo denonni--
Ufe of pre«-
cepts.
Jeait/y, re--
nius, tajte,
what.
ART [ 366 ] ART
the agreeable and delightful proportions which are of grafs that grows in our world, that can have efcaped
“"found, x. Between the fcveral parts of the fame ob- the refearches of botanifts. But the novelty, of which
' jeft; 2. Between each part and the whole together ; we here Ipeak, confifts in the ingenious ufe of combina-
3. Between the parts and the end or defign of the ob- tions of all the various objects of nature, that are new,
ject to which they belong. Genius, or invention, is happy, and agreeable, that have not yet been exhauft-
that faculty of the mind by Which beauty is produced, ed, and which appear even to be inexhauftible ; and of
tfo TaJ!e\, diipofition, or rather the natural fenlation of the ule which the artift makes of all new difcoveries,
the mind refined by art, ferves to guide the genius in which he turns to his advantage, by a judicious appli
rFirft gcne-
ral.rule.
imagination:
what.
difceTning, embracing, and producing, that which is
beautiful of every kind. From whence it follows,
that the general theory of the polite arts is nothing
more than the knowledge of what they contain that is
truly beautiful and agreeable ; and it is this knowledge,
this theory, which modern phUofqphers call by the
Latin name of cejlhelica.
It (hould be conftantly remembered, that theeflence
of the polite arts confifls in expreffion. This expreffion
dies fometimes in the words, and fometimes in the
pen ; fometimes in founds and their harmony, and at
others in corporeal attitudes j fometimes in the pen-
■ cil or in the chile!, and at others in the graver 5
fometimes in a proper difpofition or judicious employ¬
ment of the mechanic .arts, and at others merely in
their manner of aiding. From whence arife thofe arts
that we have mentioned, and which are defcribed in
their order.
The general theory of the polite arts, or eflhetics,
neceflarily fuppofes, therefore, certain rules ; but thefe
general rules are of no great number. The firft is.
That whoever would devote himfelf to the polite arts,
flxould above all things covfult his genius 5 divert him¬
felf of all felf-love ; and examine if he be a true fon of
Apollo, and cherilhed by the mules : for
In vain, ralh author, doft thou drive to climb,
By lofty verle, Parnaffus’ height fublime,
If heaven does not by fecret powers infpire,
Or if thy natal ftar darts not poetic fire.
This precept with regard to poetry in particular, is
cation. Invention therefore fuppofes a confiderable
fund of preliminary knowledge, fuch as is capable of
furnilhing ideas and images, to form new combinations.
But there is no, art by which invention itfelf can be
produced ; for that, as we have already faid, is the gift
of heaven ; and it is an endowment wThich we cannot
even make ufe of whenever we pleafe. We would ra¬
ther fay, therefore, that invention confiftsin producing,
in works of genius, that which is unexpected ; an objedt,
a harmony, a perfection, a thought, an expreffion, of
which we had no idea, that we could not forelee, nor
hope to find, where the artift has fo happily placed it,
and where we perceive it with delight. This idea ap¬
pears applicable to fuch of the polite arts as affedt the
mind by the hearing as well as by the fight j and it is
a matter that is highly effential. 19
The lecond rule is, That every artift ought incef- 2d Rule,
fantly to labour in the improvement of his tajle ; in ^Provfe"
acquiring that fenfible, refined, and clear difcernment, ^ne 0
by which he will be enabled to diftinguifh the real
beauties in each objedt, the ornaments that are agree¬
able to it, and the proportions and relations that fubfift
among the feveral parts : and by this faculty, he will
be regulated in the employment of his natural talents*
This labour confifts not only in the profound reflec¬
tions he will make on the properties of objedls as they
relate to the fine arts, but alfo in a conftant, afliduous
ftudy of the grand models of beauty. 20
The third rule to be obferved in the pradtice of the 3d Imita-
polite arts, is the imitation of nature. Every objedt in £I0n of na"
applicable to all the polite arts in general; for their the univerfe has its peculiar nature, of which the artift
moft happy fuccefs is founded on imagination. By i-r. e: t_
this term we underftand, in general, a faculty of the
mind, a particular genius, a lively invention, a certain
fubtile Ipirit, which gives a facility in difcovering jufftjr imitated, it will for ever remain imperfedt. The
18
Novelty
and
Invention.
fomething new. But it is neceffary allb to prefcribe
juft bounds to this term new, which muft not be here
taken in an abfolute fenfe. Solomon wifely remarks,
that, even in his time, there was nothing new under paflions that are fcarce pardonable in mortals, and make
ftiould never lofe fight in his manner of treating it. In
vain will he otherwife ornament his work with the moft
refined and moft brilliant ftrokes ; for, if nature be not
fublime Homer has fbmetimes finned againft this rule :
for, as the gods have a nature peculiar to themfelves,
it cannot be a juft imitation when we attribute to them
the fun* In fadt, all that exifts, and all that is capable
of being cjifcovered in the known world, has already
been difcovered. The fine arts in their imitations of
nature, in their expreflions, can borrow images, fi-
them frequently converfe in a language that is at once
vulgar and ridiculous. It was not to imitate nature,
to put into the mouth of a hero, at the moment of a
decifive battle, an harangue that muft become tedious
gures, comparifons, from thofe things only that exift by its exceflive length, and which certainly could not
and are known. As there have been from the begin¬
ning of the world to our days, millions of authors in
each of the polite arts, almoft all the poffible combi¬
nations of the various fubjedls have been produced by
their lively imaginations ; and when we hear the igno¬
rant part of mankind talk of a work of wit or of art
that is entirely new, that offers ideas which were be¬
have been heard by the thoufandth part of a numerous
army : but we have already touched upon feme of the
faults that are ftrewed over the poems of that great
man; to multiply or dwell upon them would be un¬
grateful. We muft, however, obferve that this imita¬
tion of nature, which appears at firft view fo fimple
and fo eafy, is of all things the moft difficult in prac-
fore utterly unknown, that had never entered into the tice ; and that it requires a difcernment fo fagacious,
brain of any other man, we fhould refer fuch aflertions -~J - —/r-~" r~ 1 ” k'"'
to the clafs of popular errors; andrefleft on thofe fto-
ries we every day hear of certain empirics, who pretend
to be alone pofleffed of marvellous methods of cure by
and an expreflion fo happy, as is rarely beftowed by
heaven on mortal man. 2[
Perfpicuity forms the fourth rule of expreffion. In 4>h, Pcr-
all the fine arts, in general, an obfcure, perplexed, am- fpicuity.
means of fimples; as if there were any plant, any ftalk biguous, and elaborate expreflion, is always bad. The
ART [ 3*7 3 ART
Art true ftriking beauty muftbe manifeft and perceptible
If to the moil ignorant of mankind as well as the moft
, Arta a' learned. Thote are ever falfe or inferior beauties that
have occafion for a covering, a kind of veil that may
make them appear greater than they really are : true
beauty wants no veil, but fhines by its native luftre.
From the union of the true imitation of nature with
perfpicuity of expreflion arifes that truth which is fo
a2 eflential in the productions of the fine arts.
5th, Ekva- In all the polite arts, and in all the fubjeCts they
tion of fen-embrace, there muft neceflarily reign an elevation of
timent. fentiment, that exprefles each objeft in the greateli
perfection of which it is iiifceptible ; that imitates na¬
ture in her molt exalted beauty. This makes the fifth
general rule. The defign of the fine arts being to ex¬
cite pleafure by the expreflion of that which is beauti¬
ful, every artilt fhould raife himlelf above his fubjeCt j
and, choofing the moft favourable light wherein to
-place it, ftiould there embellifh it with the greateft,
moft noble, and beautiful ornaments, that his own ge
nius can fuggeft 3 ftill, however, obferving a ftriCt imi-
13 tation of nature.
6th, The From the obfervation of thefe two laft rules refults
fublime to which is the union of the greateft perfpi-
voined6af-cu’ty with the ftrifteft truth and moft exalted elevation
ter. poflible. It is neceflary to remark here, that the moft
Ample and common liibjeds are fufceptible of a fublime
that is agreeable to their nature. An idyl or landfcape
may be as fublime in their kinds as an epic poem or a
hiftory-piece. When Mofes begins the book of Gene-
fis with thefe words, In the beginning God created the
heaven and the earth; or when he tells us, that God
faid, Let there be light, and there was light; thefe ex-
preflions are fublime in the higheft degree, becaufe they
are perfectly clear, true, and elevated. Every author
•'See the fliould therefore endeavour after the fublime * in every
article fubjeCt that he undertakes j and this makes the fixth
^iVK~andand ^ §eneral ru!e *n tlle praCtice of the polite arts.
Sublimity. But if he cannot attain to this, it is, however, indif-
penfably neceflary that he conftantly make ufe of ex-
preflions that are noble and refined. Every thing that
is low, indecent, or difiagreeable, is naturally repug¬
nant to the fublime, and ought to be for ever banithed
from all works that proceed from the noble and liberal
arts.
Art is alfo an appellation given to feveral fuperfli-
tious praClices, as, St Anfielhm’s art, St Paul’s art,
&c.
Art and Part, in Scots law. See Accessory.
ARTA, by fome called Larta, a town of Lower
Albania, in Turky in Europe, with a Greek archbi-
fhop’s fee. It is a pretty large town, and contains
about 7 or 8000 inhabitants, Greeks and Turks, but
the former are the moft numerous. The cathedral has
as many windows and doors as there are days in; the
year. Iris fupported by above 2000 marble pillars-;
and was built by Michael Ducas Commeno emperor of
Conftantinople, as appears by an infcription over the
great door. It carries on a confiderable trade, parti
cularly in tobacco and furs. E. Long. 31. . 30.
N. Lat. 39. 28.
ARTABA, an ancient meafure of capacity ufed by
the Perfians, Medes, and Egyptians.
The Perfian artaba is reprefented by Herodotus as
bigger than the Attic medimnus by three Attic chce-
nixes: from which it appears that it was equal to 6-| Artahanus'
Roman modii; confequently that it contained i66y II
pounds of wine or water, or 126-7- pounds of wheat. Artemido-
The Egyptian artaba contained five Roman modii, , <
and fell Ihort of the Attic medimnus by one modius 3
confequently held 133-^ pounds of water or wine, 100
pounds of wheat, or 60 of flour.
ARTABANUS, the name of feveral kings of Par-
thia. See Parthia.
AR PABAZUS, the fon of Pharnaces, command¬
ed the Parthians and Chorafmians in the famous expe¬
dition of Xerxes. After the battle of Salamis, he
efcorted the king his mafter to the Hellefpont with
60,000 chofen men ; and after the battle of Plataea, in
which Mardonius engaged contrary to his advice, he
made a noble retreat, and returned to Afia with 40,000 “
men under his command.
ARTAXATA, orum, the royal refidence and me¬
tropolis of Armenia Major (Strabo, Pliny, Juvenal),
and built according to a plan of Hannibal, for king
Artaxias, after whom it was called. It was fituated
on an elbow of the river Araxes, which formed a kind
of peninfula, and furrounded the town like a wall, ex¬
cept on the fide of the Ifthmus, but this fide was Ihcu-
red by a rampart and ditch. This town was deemed fo
ftrong, that Lucullus, after having defeated Tigranes,
durft not lay fiege to it 3 but Pompey compelled him
to deliver it up without flriking a blow. It was then
levelled with the ground 3 but the Armenians have a
tradition, that the ruins of it are ftill to be leen at a
place called Ardachat. Sir John Chardin fays, that
it has the name of Ardachat from Artaxias, whom in
the Eaft they call Ardechier. Here are the remains of
a ftately pa'ace which the Armenians take tabe that
of Tiridates who reigned in the time ofCbnftantine the
Great. One front of this building is but half ruined,
and there are many other fine antiquities which the in¬
habitants call 7a£l. Tradat, that is, the throne of Tiri¬
dates. Tavernier alfo mentions the ruins of Artaxata
between Erivan and mount Ararat, but does not fpe-
cify them. The ancient geographers mention another
city of the fame name, likew ife fituated on the Araxes,
but in the northern part of Media, known among the
ancients by the name of Atrogatia.
ARTAXERXES, the name of feveral kings of
Perfia. See Persia.
ARTEDIA : A genus of the digynia order, be¬
longing to the pentandria clafs of plants 5 and in the
natural method ranking under the 45th order, Umbel-
latce. The involucra are pinnatifid ; the flofcules of
the dife are mafculine j and the fruit is hifpid with
feales.— There is but one fpecies, the fquamata, with
fquarnofe feeds, a native of the Eaft : Rewvolf found it
growing on mount Libanus. It is an annual plant,
whole ilalks rife about two feet high, fending out a
few fide-branches, which are garnilhed with narrow'
compound leaves refembling thofe of dill 5 the extre¬
mity of the ftalk is terminated by a large umbel of
white flowers, compofed of five unequal petals. Thefe
are fucceeded by roundifh comprefTt d fruit, each having
two feeds; whole borders are fealy.
AR TEMIDORUS, famous for his Treatife on
Dreams. He was born at Ephefus, but took upon him
the furname of Datdianus in this book, by way of
refpeft to his mother’s country Daltk. He ftyled him-
art t 368 ] ART
Aitcrmiu. hphtjian in his other performances. He not natural method ranking under the 49th order, Campo- Artemifu-
only bought up all that had been written concerning Jitce-nucamentacece. The receptacle is either naked or
the explication of dreams, which amounted to many
volumes ; but he likewife fpent many years in travel¬
ling, in order to contradl an acquaintance with fortune¬
tellers : he alfo carried on an extenfive correfporidence
with all the people of this fort in the cities and aflem-
blies of Greece, Italy, and the moft populous iflands ;
collefting at the fame time all the old dreams, and the
events which are faid to have followed them. The
work which he wrote on dreams confifted of five books :
the firft three were dedicated to one Cafiius Maximus;
and the lafl: two to his fon, whom he took a good deal
of pains to inftrufl in the nature and interpretation of
dreams. This work, though filled with frivolous ob-
fervations, contains fome things that are interefting.
It was firft printed in Greek at Venice in 1518 ; and
Rigaltius publiftied an edition at Paris, in Greek and
Latin, in 1603, and added fome notes. Artemidorus
wrote alfo a treatife upon Auguries, and another upon
Chiromancy ; but they are not extant. He lived un¬
der the emperor Antoninus Pius.
ARTEMISIA, wife of Maufolus king of Caria,
has immortalized herfelf by the honours which (he paid
to the memory of her hufband. She built for him in
Halicarnaflus a very magnificent tomb, called the Mau-
foleum, which was one of the feven wonders of the
world, and from which the title oiMaufoleum wasafter-
wards given to all tombs remarkable for their grandeur 5
but ftie died of regret and forrow before the Maufo-
leum was finilhed. She appointed panegyrics to be
made in honour of him, and propofed a prize of great
value for the perfon who fhould compofe the beft. He
died about the end of the 106th Olympiad, 351 years
before the Chriftian
a little downy ; it has no pappus; the calyx is imbri¬
cated with roundifti fcalesj and the corolla has no ra¬
dii.—The
Species are 23 ; of which the moft noted are the fol¬
lowing. 1. The vulgaris, or common mugwort, grows
naturally on banks and by the fides of foot-paths in
many parts of Britain ; fo is feldom admitted into gar¬
dens, where it would prove a troublefome weed, as it
fpreads very fall by its creeping roots. It flowers in
June, at which time the plant is ready for ufe. 2. The
dracunculus, or tarragon, which is frequently ufed in
fallads, elpecially by the French, is a very hardyplant,
and fpreads greatly by its creeping roots. 3. The abro-
tanum, or IbuthernWood, which is kept in gardens for
the fake of its agreeable fcent, is a low (hrub, feldom
riling more than three or four feet high, fending out
lateral Ihrubby branches, growingeredf, garnilhed with
five briftlyleaves, having an agreeable fcent whenbrui-
fed : the flowers are produced in fpikes from the extre¬
mity of the branches ; but unlefs the autumn proves
warm, they feldom open in England. 4. The fan-
tonicum produces the lemen fantonicum, which is
much ufed for worms in children. It grows naturally
in Perfia, from whence the feeds are brought to Eu¬
rope. It hath the appearance of our wild mugwort ;
the branches are flender, ereft, and garnilhed with
linear winged leaves, and terminated by recurved Hen-
der fpikes of flowers which have naked receptacles.
5. The artemifia maritima, or fea-wormood, grows
naturally on the fea-coafts in moft parts of Britain,
where there are fevefal varieties, if not diftimft fpecies
to be found. Thele are low under Ihrubs, moft of
which creep at the root, by which they multiply great-
Artemisia, queen of Caria, and the daughter of ly in their natural fituation, but when tranfplanted in-
Ligdamis, marched in perfdn in the expedition of to gardens feldom thrive fo well. 6. The pontica, or
Xerxes againft the Greeks, and performed wonders in
the fea-fight near Salamis, 480 years before the Chri¬
ftian aera. Being purfued by an Athenian veflel, Ihe
attacked one of the Perfian ftiips, commanded by De-
mafithymus, king of Calyndus, her enemy, and funk
it 5 on which the Athenians, thinking that her fhip
was on the fide of the Greeks, ceafed their purfuit:
but Xerxes was the principal perfon impoled upon in
this affair ; for believing flie had funk an Athenian
veflfel, he declared, that “ the men had behaved like
women, and-the women like men.” Xerxes intrufted
her with the care of the young princes of Perfia, his
fons, when, agreeably to her advice, he abandoned
Greece, in order to return to Afia. Thefe great qua¬
lities did not lecure her from the weaknefs of love :
flie was paffionately fond of a man of Abydos, whofe
name was Dardanus, and was fo enraged at his negled
of her, that flie put out his eyes while he Was afleep.
The gods, in order to punilh her for this, infpired her
with a ftill ftronger paflion for him ; fo that the oracle
having advifed her to go to Leucas, which was the
ufage of defperate lovers, flie took the leap from
thence, and was interred at that place.—Many writers
politic wormwood, commonly called Roman wormwood,
is a low herbaceous plant, whofe ftalks die in autumn,
and new ones appear in the fpring. Thefe are gar-
nifhed with finely-divided leaves, whofe under-fides are
woolly ; and the upper part of the ftalks are furniftied
with globular flowers which nod on one fide, having
naked receptacles. Thefe appear in Auguft, but are
rarely fucceeded by feeds in Britain. 7. The abfin-
thium, or common wormwood, grows naturally in
lanes and uncultivated places, and is too well known
to require any particular defcription. 8. The arbo-
refcens, or tree-wormwood, grows naturally in Italy
and the Levant near the fea. It rites, with a woody
ftalk, fix or feven feet high, fending out many lig¬
neous branches, garnilhed with leaves fomewhat like
thofe of the common wormwood, but more finely di¬
vided, and much whiter. The branches are terminated
by fpikes of globular flowers in the autumn, which are
feldom fucceeded by feeds in this country.
Culture. The fouthernwood- is propagated by flips
or cuttings planted in a fhady border about the begin¬
ning of April, obferving to water them duly in dry
weather. In this border they may remain till the fol-
confound this Artemifia with the former, the wife of lowung autumn, when they fhould be tranfplanted, ei-
Maufolus.
Artemisia, Mugwort, Southernwood, and Worm¬
wood : A genus of the polygamia fuperflua order, be-
longing to the fyngenefia clafs of plants; and in the
ther into pots or thofe parts of the garden where they
are to remain. The fantonicum is likewife propagated
by flips : but the plants Ihould be placed in a dry foil
and Iheltered fituation, where they will endure the cold
of
ART C 369 ] • ART
Arteraifia. 0f 0Uf ordinary winters pretty well; though it will be
'r y proper to have a plant or two in pots, which may be
fheltere'd under a common hot-bed frame in winter, to
preferve the fpecies. The true wormwood is eafily
propagated in the fame manner. The cuttings muft
be planted in a (hady border, and duly watered dyring
the fummer feafon, in which cafe, they will take root
freely. In autumn fome of the y-oung plants fliould
be potted, that they may be (heltered in winter ; the
others may be planted in a warm border, where they
will live, provided the winter prove§ favourable. The
other forts fpread by their creeping roots j and require
no culture, as they are very hardy, and will thrive
any where.
Medicinal U/es. The feeds of the fantonicum are
fmall light, chaffy, comppfed as it were of a number
of thin membranous coats, of a yellowifh colour, an
unpleafant fmell, and a very bitter tafte. They are
celebrated for anthelmintic virtues (which they have
in common with other bitters), and are fometimes
taken in this intention, either along with melalfes or
candied with fugar. They are not very often met
with genuine in the (hops. The leaves of the fea,
common, and Roman wormwoods, are ufed as fto-
machics, but are all very difagreeable : the Roman
is the leail fo, and therefore is to be preferred ; but
$ie other two kinds are generally fubftituted in its
place. The diflilled oil of wormwood is fometimes
made ule of to rub on the belly as a cure for worms.
The leaves of the vulgaris, or common mugvvort,
have a light aromatic fmell, and an herbaceous bitterifh
tafte. They were formerly celebrated as uterine and
antihyfteric : an infufion of them is fometimes drank,
either alone or in conjunftion with other fubftances, in
fupprefiion of the tnenftrual evacuations. This medi¬
cine is certainly a very mild one, and confiderably lefs
hot than moft others to which thefe virtues are attri¬
buted. In fome parts of this kingdom, mugwort is of
common ufe as a pot-herb. It is now, however, very
little employed in medicine } and it is probably with
propriety that the London College have rejedfed it
from their pharmacopoeia.
The moxa, fo famous in the eaftern countries for
curing the gout by burning it on the part affedled, is
the lanugo or down growing on the under fide of the
leaves of a fpecies of mugwort, fuppofed to be the fame
with our common fort. From fome dried famples of
this plant which were brought over to this country,
Mr Miller reckons them to be the fame, differing only
in fize ; in which the Eaft Indian kind is inferior to
ours. He fuppofes that the lanugo of our mugwort
would be equally efficacious. But according to Abbe
Cbin^ Groller,“ the leaves are more deeply indented thanthofe
of the common kind; it is alfo fofter, and of a more
filky texture. The ancient Chinefe made great ufe of
it in medicine. In all the northern provinces, the
principal remedy for moft difeafes confifted in making
deep pundlures in the body, upon which fmall balls of
the down of this plant were burnt. Thefe punctures
were made with needles of gold or fteel, without
drawing blood; and all the fisill required in the
phyfician, was to determine their number and depth,
and where it was neceflary to make them. It was
neceflary that the down of the mugwort fhould be
very old ; and, as every kind ef fire was not proper
Vol. II. Part I. 1 *
for lighting the falutary balls, they employed mir- Aitemifu,
rors made of ice or metal. “ They caufed the water Artemi,
to freeze (fays the ancient text) in a round convex , l*um-
yeflel; and the ice being prefented to the fun, colle&ed
its rays, and fet fire to the down of the plant.” The lite-
rati are not at prefent agreed whether the fecret of cu¬
ring difeafes by punctures be preferved; but thefe downy
balls are ftill ufed inftead of cupping glaffes in apopledfic
and fithargic cafes. Girdles made of this down are alfo
recommended for the fciatica, and thofe afflifted with
the rheumatifm in their legs are advifed to quilt their
ftockings with it. The mugw’ort deftined for thispur-
pofe is gathered only in autumn ; and care muft be taken
to pick that which has the fhorteftand fofteft down.
In China, the juice of the common mugwort, when
green, is ufed to flop fpitting of blood : and the feeds
are employed for the fame purpofe. The dofe of the
latter is divided into two parts: one of which is redu¬
ced to afhes, and put into water in which the other
has been boiled. 1 hefe aihes, it is faid, when taken as
fnufF, immediately flop bleedings of the nofe. The
Chinefe prefcribe this plant alfo with fuccefs for dy-
fenteries which proceed from weaknefs, and for pleu-
rifies, and diforders of the ftomach. An infufion of
the ftalks and buttons of mugwort is recommended to
old people iuftead of tea.—Mugwort was formerly coh--
fidered there as a powerful prefervative againlt witch¬
craft. The ancient books relate, that, in the third
century of the Chriftian aera, it was cuftomary for
people to gather this plant before fun-rife, and to fu-
Ipend it afterwards oyer their doors. The poets of the
feventh century mention this cuftom, and defcribe the
manner in which the ftreets of the capital were orna¬
mented with it on the fifth day of the fifth moon ; that
is to fay, about midfummer.
Of a fpecies which bears prickles on the edges of its
leaves, the leaves,when dried, are beaten with awooden
bat until the foft part is entirely leparated from the
fibres; and after they have been dipped in water mix¬
ed with faltpetre, they are ufed for tinder; no other
kind is known at Pe-king ; and it is equal to that of
Europe. It appears that the ancient Chinefe made
ufe of the foft part of this plant for quilting, for ma¬
king mattrefles, and even for cloth. They alfb em¬
ployed it for manufaduring a kind of paper.”
ARFEMISIUM (anc. geog.), a promontory on
the north eaft of Euboea (called Leon and Cale ABc
by Ptolemy), memorable for the firft fea-engagements
between the Greeks and Xerxes.
The Grecian fleet was ftationed in the harbour;
while that of the Perfians too numerous for any har¬
bour to contain, had anchored in the road that extends
between the city of Caftanaea and the promontory of
Sepias, on the coaft of Theflaly.
The firft line of their fleet was Iheltered by the coaft
of Theflaly ; but the other lines, to the number of fe-
ven rode at anchor, at fmall intervals, with the prows
of the veflels turned to the fea. When they adopted
this arrangement, the waterswere fmooth,the fky clear,
the weather calm and ferene : but on the morning of
the fecond day after their arrival on the coaft, the fky
began to lour ; the appearance of the heavens grew
threatening and terrible ; a dreadful ftorm fucceeded;
and for three days raged with unabating fury. Four
hundred galleys were deftroyed by its violencej befides a
3 A vaft
ART [ 37° 1 ART
Artemi- vaft number of ftoreftiips and tranfports. Eight hun-
, , dred fliips of war, however, befides innumerable veflels
of bur4en, failed into the Pegafean bay, and anchored
in the road of Aphete, which, at the diftance of a few
miles, lies directly oppofite to the harbour of Artemi-
fium.
From Gil- The Grecians had polled centinels on the heights of
H’ftory Euboea to obferve the confequences of the ftorm, and
oj reece. t0 wat;ci1 ^.[ie motions of the enemy. When informed
of the diialter which had befallen them, they poured
out a joyous libation, and facrificed, with pious grati¬
tude, to “ Neptune the Deliverer.”
The Perlians, however, having recovered from the
terrors of the ftorm, prepared for battle ; and as they
entertained not the Imalleft doubt of conquering, they
detached 200 of their belt failing veflels round t,he ille
of Euboea, td intercept the expected flight of the ene¬
my through the narrow Euripus.
About fun-fet the Grecian fleet approached in a line ;
and the Perfians met them with the confidence of vie
tory, as their Ihips were ftill fufficiently numerous to
furround thofe of their opponents. At the firft fignal
the Greeks formed into a circle, at the fecond they
began the fight. Though crowded into a narrow com-
■pafs, and having the enemy on every fide, they foon
took 30 of their Ihips, and funk many more. Night
came on, accompanied with an impetuous ftorm of
rain and thunder } the Greeks retired into the harbour
ofArtemifium; the enemy were driven to the coalt
of Theflaly.
By good fortune, however, rather than by defign,
the greateft part of the Perfian fleet efcaped immediate
deftru&ion, and gained the Pegafean bay ; but the
Ihips ordered to fail round Euboea met with a more
dreadful dilafter. They were overtaken by the ftorm,
after they had adventured further from the Chore than
was ufual with the wary mariners of antiquity. Clouds
foon intercepted the ftars, by which alone they direct¬
ed their courfe 5 and after continuing during the
greateft part of the night the fport of the elements,
they all perilhed miierably amidft the fhoals and rocks
of an unknown coaft.
The morning arofe with different profpeCts and hopes
to the Perfians and the Greeks. To the former it difeo-
vered the extent of their misfortunes j to the latter it
brought a reinforcement of 53 Athenian Ihips. En¬
couraged by this favourable circumftance, they deter¬
mined again to attack the enemy, at the fame hour as
on the preceding day, becaufe their knowledge of the
coaft and their Ikill in fighting their Ihips rendered the
dulk peculiarly propitious to their -defigns. At the
appointed time, they failed towards the road of Aphetej
and having cut off the Cilician fquadron from the reft,
totally deftroyed it, and returned at night to Artemi-
fium.—The Perfian commanders being deeply affeCted
with their repeated difafters, but ftill more alarmed at
the much dreaded refentment of their king, they de¬
termined to make one vigorous effort for reftoring the
glory of their arms. By art and ftratagem, and un¬
der favour of the night, the Greeks had hitherto gain¬
ed many important advantages. It now belonged to
the Perfians to choofe the time for adlion. On the
third day at noon, they failed forth in the form of a
crefcent, which was ftill fufficiently extenfive to infold
the Grecian line. The Greeks, animated by former
fuccefs, were averfe to decline any offer of battle ; yet Artemi-
it is probable that their admirals, and particularly The- fmm
miftocles, would much rather have delayed it to a more I!
favourable opportunity. Rage, refentment, and indig , Arthur-
nation,Tupphed the deft-<5! of the barbarians in fkill
and courage. The battle wTas longer, and more doubt¬
ful, than on any former occafion ; many Grecian vef-
fels w'ere deftroyed, five were taken by the Egyptians,
who particularly fignalized themfeives on the fide of
the barbarians, as the Athenians did on that of the
Greeks. The perfevering valour of the latter at length
prevailed, the enemy retiring, and acknowledgingtheir
iuperiority, by leaving them in poffeflion of the dead
and the wreck. But the viflory coft them dear 5 fince
their veffels, particularly thofe of the Athenians, were
reduced to a very (battered condition j and their great
inferiority in the number and fize of their fhips, made
them feel more fenfibly every diminution of ftrength.
Artemisium, a town of Oenotria, (Stephanus) :
now S. Agatha, in the Hither Calabria, on the river
Pifaurus, or la Foglia, diftant eight miles from the
Tufcan Sea.—Another of the Conteftani, in Spain,
(Strabo) ; otherwife called Dianium : now Denia, on
the fea-coatl of Valencia.
ARTERIOTOMY, the opening an artery, with
defign to procure an evacuation of blood. See Sur¬
gery.
ARTERY, in anatomy, a conical tube or canal
which conveys the blood from the heart to all parts of
the body. See Anatomy, no. 117,—125.
ARTHRITIS, in medicine, the Gout. See the
Index fubjoined to Medicine.
ARTHRODIA, in natural hiftory, a genus of irm
perfect cryftals, found always in complex maffes, and
forming long fingle pyramids, with very ftiort and flen-
der columns.
Arthrodia, in anatomy, a fpecies of articulation,
wherein the flat head of one bone is received into a
fhaliow focket in the other. The humerus and fcapu-
la are joined by this fpecies of articulation.
ARTHUR, the celebrated heroof the Britons, is faid
to have been the ion of Uther Pendragon king of Britain,
and to have been born in 501. His life is a continued
feene of wonders. It is laid that he killed four hundred
andfeventy Saxons with his own hand in one day ; and af¬
ter having fubduedmany mighty nations, andinftituted
the order of the Knights ot the Round Table, died
A. D. 542, of wounds which he received in battle.
The moft particular detail of his flory and his exploits .
is that given by Geoffroy of Monmouth : but the pro¬
bable is there ib blended with the marvellous and the
extravagant, that not only the truth of the whole, but
even the reality of Arthur’s exiftence, has been called
in queftion.
In this controverfy, Mr Whittaker has taken much
pains to vindicate the exiftence, and dilcriminate be¬
tween the real and the fabulous tranfadlions, of the
Britifh worthy. “ Many of the adlions (he obferves)
attributed to Arthur by the Welih chronicles of Bri¬
tain, are as abfurd in themfeives as they are fpurious
in their authority. Written, as thofe narratives were,
many centuries after the fadls, and being merely the
authentic accounts of Arthur, embelliihed with the
fibtions and diftorted by the perverfions of folly j they
are inconfiftent equally with the ftateof the times, and
ART [ 37i 1 ART
Arthur, the hiftory of the continent and the ifland. And the
1 / jgnorance 0f tjjg forgers, and the credulity of their
Manchester abettors, can be equalled only by the injudicioufnefs
vol. ii. 410.' and incredulity of the opponents to both. If fome ac-
edit. p. 31. counts of Arthur and Cunobeline in thefe hiftories be
etfeq. certainly fpurious, others are as certainly genuine.
And the relations of Suetonius, Dio, and Nennius, are
not to be rejefted, becaufe of the falfehoods which itn-
pofture has engrafted upon them, and abfurdity ad¬
mitted with them.
“ The exiftence of Arthur is evinced by that of the
fables, which have at once annihilated his actions and
his name with the misjudging critic. And the rea-
Ibner’s own arguments really turn againft himfelf, and
demonftrate the point which they were intended to dif-
prove. The annals of Wales have long laboured in
Arthur’s commendation. The Highlanders have long
had a poetical hiftory of his exploits in their own lan¬
guage. The whole iiland is in traditionary pofleffion of
his character; and 600 or 700 places within it are ftill
diftinguifhed by his name.
“ The genuine actions of the chief are mentioned
by his own hiftorians, with a modefty and concifenefs
that is no bad argument of the truth, and with a par¬
ticularity of time and place that is a good evidence of
the fa<Ts. They are noticed by men, whom the death
of the hero had exempted from all temptation to flat¬
tery : they are recited by perfons, whom a proximity
to the times had precluded from all poflibility of mi-
flake : and they are attefted by the beft hiftorical au¬
thority, writers who lived cotemporary with him, au¬
thors who converfed with his warriors, and hiftorians
that wrote within a few years after him. He is Ipo-
ken of as the honourable father of the Britilh heroes
by the aged Llomarch, a writer adlually cotemporary
with him, and fbme time refident at his court. One
of his greater adfions is incidentally recorded by Ta-
liefin, an hiftorical bard living under Maelgwn Gwin-
ed, who was a fovereign among the Britons in the days
of Arthur, Gildas, and Llomarch. Another of his
confiderable exploits is cafually intimated by Myrdhin
Wyhlt or Merlinus Caledonius, who complains of the
fevere treatment which he himlelf received from Ryd-
derch Hael, a king cotemporary with Urien Reged,
and engaged with him in a war againft the Saxons on
the death of Ida in 560. And all his adlions are par¬
ticularly recited by Nennius.
“ In the Hijloria Britonum of this laft author, Ar¬
thur’s victories over the Saxons are thus recorded.
The firft battle was fought at the mouth of the river,
which is denominated Glem. The fecond, third, fourth,
and fifth, were upon another river, that is called Du-
glas, and lies in the region Linuis. The fixth was on
a ftream, which bears the appellation of BaJJas. The
feventh was in the wood of Celidon, that is, in Cat
Coit Celidon. The eighth was at Caftle Gunnion.
And the ninth was at the city of the Legion. The
tenth was on the bank of the river Ribroit ; the ele¬
venth at the hill Agn^d Cathregonion ; and the twelfth
at Mount Badon. Thefe twelve battles of Arthur are
defcribed to us in the lame manner as Vortimer’s three.
Only the general fafts are mentioned, and only the
common names of places are recited, in both. And
from the whole air and afpetft of the hifiory, the re¬
markable concifenefs with which the notices are given,
and the great eale with which the places are pointed Arthur,
out, the detail appears to have been drawn up at the -v—-^
diftance only of a few years from the tranfa&ions,
and when thele little references were fufficiently under-
ftood.”
Mr Whittaker proceeds to afcertain the fcenes of Ar¬
thur’s battles; after which he gives a relation of them
with a furprifing particularity. A levere critic might
be apt to fay, as Dr Kippis obferves, that it requires all
our faith in the author’s judgment, as well as in his in- p ^
genuity and learning, not to lufpecft that hefometimes al¬
lows too much fcope to fancy and conjecture. However,
the whole of what he hath advanced is Angularly curious,
and deferves peculiar attention and confideration. And
no one can help admiring the penetration with which
he hath fornrted fuch a regular detail of fads, from the
combined aid of hiftory, romance, and tradition. Ac¬
cording to Mr Whittaker, Arthur’s principal exploits
were again!! the northern Saxons, whilft he was only
prince of the Silures, and Ambrofius was the diCIator
or pendragon of the Britons. “ In a feries probably
of five campaigns, and in a fucceffion certainly of ele¬
ven victories, this great commander had repelled the
Saxons from the north of Flavia, diflodged them from
all Maxima, and difpoflefled them or all Valentia.
And thefe were fucceiles fo unchequered with misfor¬
tunes, Co great in themfelves, and fo beneficial to the
public, that the name of Arthur claims the firft rank
in the lift of military, and the better one of patriot,
heroes.” The twelfth battle of Arthur was fought in
the louth of England, after he was eleCIed to the pen-
dragonfliip, again!! Cerdic the Saxon. “ This (fays
Mr Whittaker) was a moft extraordinary viCIory, and
completes the circle of Arthur’s military glories.” In
the author’s account of this prince’s conduC! in peace,
he aflerts, that “ Arthur faw that an appointment was
wanted, which ftiould at once be a more regular and
more honourable fignature of merit; by the certainty of r
the honour and the greatnefs of the dignity, call out all
the worth of all the worthy in the nation ; and colled! it
round the throne of the pendragon. Accordingly he
eftabliflied a military order. It was the fir!! that had
ever been iuftituted in the ifland ; and it has fince been
imitated by all the nations on the continent. By
means of this aflbciation, Arthur railed among the
provincials a general glow of ingenious heroifm, the firft
fpirit ot chivalry that ever appeared in Europe 5 that
manly and honourable gallantry of foul, which has
made him and his worthies the fubjed! of romantic
hiftories over all the weft of it. By this, and this alone,
could he have been what hiftory reprefents him, the
Reverend Father of the Britilh Heroes in general, even
to the conclufion of the fixth century, and nearly the
middle of the feventh. The order naturally furvived its
founder. And the members of it were denominated
the Warriors of Arthur, though the perfons were born
half a century after his death.” Mr Whittaker goes
on to inform us, that under the prudent management
of Arthur for 20 years together, a fair profped! dawn¬
ed upon the Britons, and long fcenes of future glories
opened to their imaginations. * “ But the gay vifion
was deftroyed at once by the commencement of a ci¬
vil war. Many towns ftill remained in ruins, the me¬
morial of the former wars, and the difgrace of the
prefent. The diffufed fpirit of chivalry was turned up-
3 A 2 on
Arthur.
ART [ 372 1 ART
on the nation, and heroifm became the tool of diffen-
' Con. And the dreadful combination of civil evils was
begun and confummated, at once, by the death of the
renowned Arthur in battle. Thus died the incompa¬
rable hero in 542.”
To thefe obiervations it may not be improper to add
the following account of jfhe difeovery of Arthur’s
tomb, which appears to be tolerably well authenticated.
Henry II. who was the firlt of the Plantagenet line,
being, in the laft year of his reign, at Pembroke, and
hearing there a Welfli bard finging to his harp the
ifory of Arthur, concluding witn an account of his
death and burial in the church-yard of Glallenbury
between two pyramids ; the king inflantly gave orders
that the matter fhould be inquired into, and the body
dug up. This was done as the king directed ; and at
the depth of feven feet was found a vaft Itone, where¬
on was faltened a leaden crois, with this infeription on
the infide : Hie Jacet Sepultiu Incljtus Rex Arturius
in Infula Avalonia ; i. e. “ Here lies the famous King
Arthur, buried in the ifle of Avalon.” Digging Hill
lower, they found the king’s body in the trunk of a
tree, his beautiful queen lying by him, with long Cow¬
ing hair, in colour bright as gold, which however funk
into dull when touched. The King’s bones were very
large Czed ; and in his fkull there were ten wounds or
more, all cicatrized, except that of which he died.
This difeovery was made in the year 1189, as Giral-
dus Cambrenfis tells us, who faw thefe bones, and ex¬
amined the whole matter carefully. There was alfo a
table containing this Cory, fet up in the monaftery of
Glaftenbury, and the leaden crofs with the infeription
remained there till the diflblution of the monaltery,
where it was feen by the great antiquary Leland, but
what is become of it Cnee does not appear.
Of the different places above alluded to as being di-
ftinguifhed by our hero’s name, and ferving to evince
his exiftence, the following may be mentioned as one
of the principal.
Arthur’s Heat, a high hill in the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, faid to have been fo denominated from a
tradition that king Arthur furveyed the country from
its Cimmit, and had alfo defeated the Saxons in its
neighbourhood. This hill rifes by a deep and rugged
afeent, till it terminates in a rocky point near 700 feet
high from the bafe, being'more tiian double the height
of the crofs on the top of St Paul’s, London, which is
340 feet. On the fouth it is in many parts a perpen¬
dicular rock, compofed of bafaltic pillars, regularly
pentagonal or hexagonal, about three feet in diameter,
and from 40 to 50 feet in height. Contiguous, upon
the weft, and partly conneifled with it at the bale, are
Salifbury craggs, of inferior height, but exhibiting an
appearance equally fingular and grand. They prefent
to the city an awful front of broken rocks and preci¬
pices, forming a fort of natural amphitheatre of folid
rock ; and backward from the craggy verge above,
the hill forms an extenCve irregular Hope, the furface
affording pafture to numerous flocks of fheep. 1 he
craggs, beGdes ores, fpars,irock-plants, and here and
there it is faid fome precious itones, afford an inex-
hauftible fupply of granite for paving the ftreets and other
purpofes. In quarrying, a part .of the craggs has been
worn down into a fpacious fhelf, having the appearance
of a lofty terrace, and ftretching^a conflderable length.
From hence is a near and diftimfl profpefi of the city Artlchoak
with its environs and the adjacent country. But from jj
the pinnacle called Arthur’s Seat the view is more noble Article.
and extenfive. The traveller may here fit and furvey 1 v—“-
at his eafe the centre of the kingdom, befides having
a complete view of Edinburgh and its caftle, on which
he looks down as if feated among the clouds. In a
word, the German ocean, the whole courfe of the
Forth, the diftant Grampians, and a large portion of
the moft populous and belt cultivated part of Scot¬
land, torm a landfcape fublime, various, and beauti¬
ful.
The denomination of this hill, derived as above, has
been adduced as an argument againft thofe who dif-
pute the exiftence of the Britifh Arthur. That deri¬
vation, however, tho’ probable, is not without uncer¬
tainty. For Arthur's Seat is faid to be derived, or
rather corrupted, from A’rd Seir, a “ place or field of
arrows,” where people fhot at a mark : And this not
improperly ; for among thefe cliffs is a deli or reclufe
valley, where the wind can fcarcely reach, now called
the Hunter's bog, the bottom of it being a morafs.
The adjacent craggs are fuppofed to have taken their
name from the Earl of Saitjbury, who in the reign of
Edward III. accompanied that prince in an expedition
againft the Scots.
ARTICHOAK, in botany. See Cinara.
ARTICLE, a daufe or condition of a contrafl,
treaty, &c. It is alfo a (mall part or divifion of a'dif-
courie, book, or writing, &c.
Article of Death, the laft pangs or agony of one
juft expiring.
Article of Faith, is by fome defined a point of
Chriftian dodtrine, which we are obliged to believe, as
having been revealed by God himfelf, and allowed and
eftabliihed as fuch by the church.
The thirty nine articles are founded, for the moll
part, upon a body of articles compiled and publifhed
in the reign of Edward VI. They were firft paffed in
the convocation, and confirmed by royal authority in
the year 1562. They were afterwards ratified anew in
the year 1571, and again by Charles I. The law re¬
quires a fubfeription to theie articles of all perfons or¬
dained to be deacons or priefts, 13 El. cap. 12. of all
clergymen indufied to any ecclehaltical living, by the
fame llatute, and of licenled lecturers and curates,
13 El. cap. 12. and 13. and 14. Ch. 2. cap. 4. of the
heads of colleges, of chancellors, officials and commif-
laries, and of fchool mafters. By 1 Will. 3. cap. 18.
diffenting teachers are tofubferibe all, except the 34th,
35th, and 36th, and part of the 20th (and in the cafe
of Anabaptifts, except alfb part of the 27th); other-
wife they are exempted from the benefits of.the aft of
toleration.
Article, in grammar, denotes a particle ufed in
moft languages forthe declining of nouns, and denoting
the feveral cafes and genders thereof.
The ufe of articles arifes chiefly hence, that in lan¬
guages which have no different terminations, to ex-
prefs the different Hates and circumftances of nouns,
there is fomething required to fupply that office.
The Latins have no articles; but the Greeks and
moft of the modern languages, have had recourfe to
them, for fixing and afeertaining the vague fignifica-
tion of common and appellative names.
ART C 373 I ART
Ankle The Greeks have their o, the eaftern tongues their
|| he emphaticum the Italians their z'/, lo, and la. The
Artificer. French their U, la, and Us. The Germans their der,
das, dat.
The Englifli alfo have two articles a and//5ry
which being prefixed to fubftantives, apply their ge.
neral fignification to fome particular things.
Some grammarians make the article a diftinfl part
of fpeech j others will have it a pronoun, and others
a noun adje<51ive. See Grammar.
Articles are of great fervice in a language, as they
contribute to the more neat and precife expreffing of
feveral properties and relations, which mult otherwife
. be loft. And hence one great difadvantage of fuch
languages over the Latin, in that the article being ei¬
ther exprefted or left out, makes an alteration in the
fenfe, which the Latins cannot diftinguilh. Thus
when the devil faid to our Saviour, Si tu es Filius Dei,
it may either be underftood, “ if thou art a fon of God,”
or, “ if thou art the fon of God.” The Italians even
prefix articles to proper names, which do not natu¬
rally need any, becaufe they themfelves fignify things
individually. Thus they fay, il Arinjlo, il Tq/fo, il
Petrarcha. Even the French join the article to the
proper names of kingdoms, provinces, &c. as/a Suede,
la Normandie. And we likewife annex it to the names
of certain mountains and rivers $ as The Rhine, The
Danube, The Alps, &c.
ARTICULATE sounds, are fuch founds as ex-
prefs the letters, fyllables, or words, of any alphabet
or language : fuch are formed by the human voice,
and by fome few birds, as parrots, &c.
ARTICULATION, or jointing, is the joining
of bones together. See Anatomy, no 46.
Articulation, in botany, is the connexion of
parts that confift of joints or knees, fuch as the pods
of French honey-fuckles, which when ripe divide into
fo many parts as there are knees or joints ; alfo thofe
parts of plants which fwell into nodes or joints, and
which ufually fend forth branches.
ARTIFICER, a perfon whofe employment it is to
manufacture any kind of commodity, as in iron, brafs,
wool, &c. fuch are fmiths, braziers, carpenters, &c.
The Roman artificers had their peculiar temples, where
they afiembled and chofe their own patron, to defend
their caufes : they were exempted from all perlbnal
fervices. Taruntenus Paternus reckons 32 fpecies of
artificers, and Conftantine 35, who enjoyed this privi¬
lege. The artificers were incorporated into divers col¬
leges or companies, each of which had their tutelar
gods, to whom they offered their worfliip. Several of
thefe, when they quitted their profeffion, hung up their
tools, a votive offering to their gods. Artificers were
held a degree below merchants, and argentarii or mo¬
ney-changers, and their employment more fordid. Some
deny, that in the earlieft ages of the Roman ftate ar¬
tificers were ranked in the number of citizens: others,
who affert their citizenftiip, allow that they were held
in contempt, as being unfit for war, and lb poor that
they could fcarce pay any taxes. For which reafon
they were not entered among the citizens in the cen-
for’s books ; the defign of the ceufus being only to fee
what number of perfons were yearly fit to bear arms,
and to pay taxes towards the fupport of the ftate. It
may be added, that much of the artificers bufinefswas
done by flaves and foreigners, who left little for the Artificial
Romans to mind but their hufbandry and war. By j!
means of the arts, the minds of men are engaged in Artillery,
inventions beneficial to the whole community ; and /''"~
thus prove the grand prefervative again ft the barba-
rifm and brutality, which ever attend on an indolent
and inaflive ftupidity.
By the Englilh laws, artificers in wool, iron, fteel,
brafs, or other metal, going out of the kingdom into
any foreign country without licence, are to be impri-
Ibned three months, and fined in a fum not exceeding
one hundred pounds. And fuch as going abroad, and
not returning on warning given by our ambaffadors,
&c. {hall be difabled from holding lands by defcent or
devife, from receiving any legacy, &c. and be deemed
aliens. Stat. 5. Geo. I. cap. 27. By 23 Geo. II. cap. 13.
§ 1. penalty is alio inflitled on leducing artificers to
go abroad. Ramnzini has a treatife on the difeafes
of artificers.
ARTIFICIAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fome-
thing made, fafhioned, or produced by art, in contra-
diftin&ion from the produbiions of nature.
Artificial is alfo frequently ufed for faftitious.
Tims we have artificial fal ammoniac, artificial borax,
&c.
Artificial Fz'rr-worij are compofitions of inflam¬
mable materials, chiefly ufed on folemn occafions, by
way of rejoicing. See Pyrotechny.
Artificial Lightning. See Electricity and
Lightning.
Artificial Lines> on a febtor or fcale, are certain
lines fo contrived, as to reprefent the Logarithmic
fines and tangents $ which, by the help of the line of'*
numbers will folve all queftions in trigonometry, na¬
vigation, &c. pretty exablly.
Artificial Magnets. See Magnets.
ARTIGI, indeclinable, (Pliny); (Ptole¬
my) ; a town of the Turduli, in Btetica. Now Alha-
ma.
ARTILLERY, in its general fenfe, denotes the
offenfive apparatus of war, particularly of the miffile
kind. Among the French the term was anciently ap
propriated to archery. In its modern acceptation it
fignifies fire-arms, mounted on their carriages and rea¬
dy for abtion, with their balls, their bombs, their gre¬
nades, 8fc.
If we take the term in a moreextenfive meaning, it
includes the powder, the matches, inftruments fox¬
fire-works, the utenfiis of ordnance, the machines
which facilitate their motion and tranfport them, the
vehicles over which they traverfe rivers, every thing
necelfary to them, and all that enters into the form
of a train of artillery.
The fame word ftill farther extended in its mean¬
ing, likewile comprehends the men deftined for the
fervice of the artillery ,• the people who provide the
artillery with materials and implements when en¬
gaged, the cahnoniers, the bombadiers, the officers
of every rank, and engineers of every kind.
By artillery is likewife underftood the fcience which
the officers of artillery ought to poffefs. This fcience
teaches to know the nature of all the materials and
ingredients which enter into the compofition and the
ftrufture of every thing relative to the artillery, fuch
as, nitre, fulphur, charcoal; the properties of air and
ART C 374 1 ART
Artillery.^ £re . tiie compofition and preparation of gun-powder}
materials for fire-wotks j the conftru&ion, propor¬
tions, &e. of the different warlike machines j the ar¬
rangement, movement, and whole management, of
cannon, &c. in the field or in fieges, in fuch a manner,
that each of them, according to the length of its tube
and the diameter of itsjjore, may be fituated in the
bell place and at the propereft diftance for execution,
and that the whole train taken together may recipro¬
cally affift and fupport each other with the greateft:
advantage.
Artillery has undergone many changes from its ori¬
gin to the prelent time. The artillery of the ancients
were the catapulta, the baliftte, the different kinds of
llings, &c. In latter ages, the Franks ufed the hatchet
as a miffile weapon, throwing it in the fame manner as
the Americans do theirs called the tomahawk. The
Galcons and Genoefe were excellent crofs bow-men.
The Swifs owed their vidlories to their ftrength and
(kill in the uie of the pike, halberd, and efpadon or
two-handed fword } and the victories of Creffy, Poic-
tiers, and Agincourt, will occafion the valour and Ikill
of the Engliih archers to be tranfmitted down to lateft
poflerity. See Archrey.
The chevalier Folard was extremely attached to the
ancient machines firil mentioned, and feemed even to
prefer them to our fire arms: an opinion which mull
appear not a little extraordinary from fuch a perfon.
Father Daniel might well be millaken in the compari-
fion which he made between the effe&s of ancient and
modern artillery, and in his conclufion that the latter
was of little ufe : the fituation of this good father re¬
moved him from the fcenes of war and the opportuni¬
ties of military experience. But it is allonilhing, that
One fo learned in the military art as the commentator
of Polybius, who had ocular demonllration of the fuC-
cefs of modern artiljery, Ihould have declared lb violent¬
ly againft it. Whatever be the cafe with thefe au¬
thors and their mdxims, it may be afferted, that can¬
non is one of the moll lingular difcoveries which have
been made amongll men ; arid by little and little it has
changed the whole art of war, and of coniequence in¬
fluenced the whole fyflem of policy, in Europe. The
aera of artillery is dated from the battle of Creffy in
1346, becaufe it is only from that day that cannons
were mentioned in battle. Edward III. of England
fuccefsfully employed fome pieces of artillery placed in
the front of his army. The invention of artillery was
then known in France as well as in England ; but pro¬
bably Philip VI. marched with fo much hurry and pre¬
cipitation to attack his enemy, that he left his cannon
as ufelefs incumbrances behind him. The ignorance
of that age in mechanical arts confiderabiy retarded
the progrefs of artillery ; and that of which they were
then poffeffed was fo unwieldy and imperfedt, that
they could not poflibly difcern its importance and ef¬
ficacy in pradlice.
After the inverkidn of gun powder, the Spaniards
Were the firfl: who armed part of their foot with mulk-
ets and harquebuffes, and mixed them with the pikes.
In this they were foon imitated by moft other nations ;
though the Englifh had not entirely laid afide their fa¬
vourite weapon the long-bow, and generally taken to the
life of fire-arms, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth.
The firfl mufkets were very heavy, and could not be
fired without a reft : they had matchlocks, and barrels
of a wide bore, that carried a large ball and charge of
powder, and did execution at a great diftance. The
mufketeers on a march carried only their refts and am¬
munition, and had boys to bear their mufkets after
them, for which they were allowed great additional pay.
They were very flow in loading, not only by reafon of
the unwieldinefs of the pieces, and becaufe they carried
the powder and balls feparate, but from the time it
took to prepare andadjuft the match j fo that their fire
was not near fo brifk as ours is now. Afterwards a
lighter kind of matchlock-mufket came into ufe j and
they carried their ammunition in bandeliers, which
were broad belts that came over the fhoulder, to which
were hung feveral little cafes of wood covered with
leather, each containing a charge of powder ; the balls
they carried loofe in a pouch, and they had alfo a
priming-horn hanging by their fide. Matchlocks were,
about the beginning of this century, univerfally difufed
in Europe, and the troops were armed with firelocks}
to which, much about the fame time, the bayonet
being added, pikes alfo were laid afide ; which latter
change, whether it was for the better or not, is a point
that Hill admits of difpute among the beft military
writers, who are divided in their opinions about it,
though moft of them difapprove of it.
The old Englifh writers call thofe large mufkets ca~
livers ,• the harquribufs was a lighter piece, that could
b« fired without a reft. The matchlock was fired by
a match, fixed by a kind of tongs in the ferpentine or
cock, which by pulling the trigger was brought down
with great quicknefs upon the priming in the pan,
over which there was a Hiding cover, which was drawn
back by hand, juft at the time of firing. There was a
great deal of nicety and care required to fit the match
properly to the cock, fo as to come down exadlly true
on the priming, to blow the aflies from the coal, and
to guard the pan from the fparks that fell from it: a
great deal of time was alfo loft in taking it out of the
cock, and returning it between the fingers of the left,
hand, every time that the piece was fired} and wet
wreather often rendered the matches ufelefs. How¬
ever, moft writers allow that they were very fure, and
lefs apt to mifs fire than the firelock.
The firelock is fo called, from producing fire of it-
felf, by the a£lion of the flint and fteel. The meft an¬
cient invention of this fort is the wheel-lock, which we
find mentioned in Luigi Collado’s Treatife of Artillery,
printed at Venice, 1586, as then lately invented in
Germany. This fort of lock was ufed till within thefe
hnndred years, efpecially for piftols and carbines. It
Was compofed of a folid fteel wheel, with an axis, to
which was faftened a chain, which, by being round it
drew up a very flrong fpring ; on pulling the trigger,
the fpring affing, whirled the wheel about with great
velocity, and the fridlion of the edge of it (which was
a little notched) againft the Hone produced the fire ;
the cock was made fo as to bring the Hone upon the
edge of the wheel, part of which was in the pan, and
touched the priming ; they ufed any common hard
pebble for that purpofe, which ferved as well as flint.
Thefe locks were inconvenient, took time to wind
up (or fpan, as they termed it), and fometimes would
not go off; an inftance of which may be feen in Lud¬
low’s Memoirs.
Artillery.
When
art [ 375 1 ART
'Artillery^ When the firelock, finch as we now ufie, was invent- thrown or (hot in an ancient one, could eafily be picked Artillery
ed, we cannot aficertain : it is called by writers of about up again, and were befides of very little value. The '“■“■""v—
the middle of the laft century, z fnaphaneox fnaphance, cannon and the mortar are not only much dearer, but
which being the Dutch word fora yfre/ocl, feems to much heavier machines than the balifta or catapulta,
indicate that it is a Dutch invention, and that we took and require a greater expence, not only to prepare
it from them. But Ward, in his Animadverfions of them for the field, but to carry them to it. As the
War, printed in 1639, P* 5°2> after deficribing the ex- fiuperiority of the modern artillery toooVer that of the
ercifie of the firelock, piftol, and carbine (by which he ancients is very great, it has become much more diffi-
means the wheel-lock), fays, that as mod of our pieces cult, and confiequently much more expenfive, to fortify
go with Englifh locks, which differ from firelocks, he a town fo as to refiff even for a few weeks the attack
fhall add the method of handling them ; and then gives
the exercifie of the finaphine carbine 5 by which it ap¬
pears, that there was little or no difference between
that and the pieces now in ufe. The more modern
writers call it a fufee, from the French word fu/il;
whence the name of fufileers is ftill continued to fieve-
ral of our regiments, which were the firft that w ere
armed witfi them on the dii'ufie of matchlocks.
They ufied the mulket and reft in England (b late as
the beginning of the civil wars, as may be fieen in
Col. Bariffe’s Young Artillery Man, printed at Lon¬
don, 1643.
Figuerra, in his embaffy in 1518, relates, that the
Perfians would neither make ufe of infantry nor of ar¬
tillery, becaufie by them the impetuofity of attack and
the facility of retreat were equally incumbered and re¬
tarded : in thefie expedients alone their addrefis and
■ their glory confifted. This method of advancing and
recalling is widely different from the prefient conduct
of war, as the artillery in armies is now prodigioufly
multiplied, and muff be tranfiported to every place
where any body of troops whatever is deftined to ope¬
rate.
The length and diameter of cannon has been much
diminifhed, which muft likewife proportionably dimi-
niftt their weight. It is by long practice and experi¬
ence that they have dificovered how much might be
deduced from their magnitude in both the(e refpedts
with propriety, without hurting the grand effedfs
which, on (bme occafions, it is neceffary they fhould
produce, by rendering them more eafiy to be wielded,
which was the advantage purfued by leffening their
fize. See further the articles Cannon, Gunnery, and
Projectiles.
Improvements, however, are ftill making, and will
probably long continue to be made, in thefie ignivo-
rrous machines that mock the thunder, which, though
they fit em to be invented for the deftrudfion of the hu¬
man race and the iubverfion of empires, have yet by
their effcdls rendered w ar lefis fiavage and lefs fanguine;
political alliances have been more fiuccefisfully concili¬
ated among all nations, conquefts are become lefis fre¬
quent and leff rapid, and fucceffes in war have been
more eafily reduced to calculation.
Wealth of T*16 change introduced in the military art By the
Nations, modern artillery, Dr Smith obfierves, has enhanced
vol. iii. 70- greatly both the expence of exercifing and difciplining
any particular number of foldiers in time of peace, and
that of employing them in time of war. Both their arms
andtheir-ammunition are become more expenfive.. A
mufket is a more expenfive machine than a javelin or a
bow and arrows; a cannon or a morta, than a balifta or a
catapulta. The powder which is (pent in a modern re¬
view is loft irrecoverably, and occafions a very confidera-
ble expence. The javelins and arrows which were
of that fiuperior artillery.
In modern war the great expence of fire arms gives
an evident advantage to the nation which can beft af¬
ford that expence 5 and confiequently, to an opulent
and civilized, over a poor and barbarous nation. In
ancient times, the opulent and civilized found it diffi¬
cult to defend themfielves againft the poor and barba¬
rous nations. In modern tiines the poor and barba¬
rous find it difficult to defend themlelves againft the
opulent and civilized. The invention of fire-arms, an
invention-, which at firft fight appears to be fo pernici¬
ous, is certainly favourable both to the permanency,
and to the extenfion of civilization.
It has to many appeared matter of furprifie, that the
battles of the ancients Ihould be defcribed with an or¬
der, perfpicuity, and circumftantial minutenefs, which
are not to be found in the military writers of modern
times. Scholars have endeavoured to explain this dif¬
ference, by obfierving the immenfe difproportion, in
point of dignity and abilities, between the military hi-
ftorians of modern Europe and thofe of Greece and
Rome. But the difficulty will be better folved, Dr
Gillies thinks, by refle&ing on the changes introduced-
into the art of w'ar by the change of artillery 5 which
in military-operations, form the pivot on which the
whole turns. 1. From the nature of fire-arms, modern
battles are involved in fmoke and confufion. 2. From
the fame caufie, modern armies occupy, a much greater
extent of ground, and begin to a£t at much greater
diftances; which renders it more difficult to obierve
and afcertain their manoeuvres. 3. The immenfe train
of artillery, ammunition, &c. required in the pradlice
of modern w'ar, gives a certain immobility to our ar¬
mies, which renders it impoffible to perform, without-
great danger, thofe rapid evolutions in fight of an ene¬
my, which fo often decided the battles of the ancients..
With us, almoft every thing depends on the judicious
choice of ground, a matter requiring great military
genius, but not admitting the embellifhments of hifto-
rical defcription.
In the battles of. the Greeks and Romans, the ex¬
traordinary difproportion between the numbers flain on.
the fide of the vi&ors and the vanquiffied has been ob-
ferved as another remarkable circmnftance. But this
necefiarily refulted from thenatureof theirarms. Their
principal weaponsbeing not miftile, but manual,armies
could not begin toaiff till they had approached (b near-
ly to each other, that the conquered found themfelves
cut off from all poffibility of retreat. In modern times,
fiuch confequences feldorn take place. The ufe of fire¬
arms (which often renders the afilion itfeif more bloody)
furniffies the defeated party with various means of re-
treating with confiderable fafety. The fphere of mili*
tary adb’on is fo widely extended in modern times,
that before the vidors can run over the Ipace which fie-.
parates
ART [3
Artillery, parates them from the vanqniflied, the latter may fall
Artobnga- back, and proceed with little lofs beyond their reach ;
v an(^ fbould any village, hedge, ravine, &c. be found in
their way, may often check the ardour of the purfuers.
Upon thele confiderations, the invention of gun-pow¬
der and modern artillery may be faid to have faved the
effufion of human blood. Equeftrian engagements
(fince the principles on which cavalry aft remain near¬
ly the fame in every age) are ftill diftinguilhed by (imi-
lar circumftances to thole which appear fo extraordi¬
nary in the battles of antiquity.
AftTiLLERY-Pr?^, the place in the rear of both lines
in the army, for encamping the artillery, which is
drawn up in lines, of which one is formed by the
guns ; the ammunition waggons make two or three
lines, 60 paces behind the guns, and 30 diftant from
one another ; the pontoons and tumbrils make the latl;
line. The whole is furrounded with a rope which forms
the park: the gunners and matroifes encamp on the
flanks; and the bombardeers, pontoon-men, and arti¬
ficers, in the rear.
Artillery-a certain number of pieces of
ordnance mounted on carriages, with all their furni¬
ture fit for marching.
ARTiLLERY-£W///>rf7jy, a band of infantry, confiding
of 600 men, making part of the militia or city-guard
of London.
ARTIST, in a general fenfe, a perfon {killed in
fome art. Mr Harris defines an artift to be, “ A per¬
fon poflefling an habitual power of becoming the caufe
of fbme effeft, according to a fyftem of various and
well-approved precepts.” See Art.
* £vel,T>i{- We are told* of a privilege granted at Vicenza to
courfe of artifts, like that of clergy in England : in virtue there-
medals, of,'Criminals adjudged to death fave their lives if they
P- 237,&c. can prove themfelves the moft excellent and confum-
mate workmen in any ufeful art. This benefit is allow*
ed them in favorem artir, for the firll offence, except
in fome particular crimes, of which coining is one j for
here the greater the artift, the more dangerous the
perfon.
Artist {Artiftd), in an academical fenfe, denotes
a philofopher or proficient in the faculty of arts.
In the early ages of univerfities, the feven liberal arts
completed the whole courfe of ftudy, or philofophy, as
it was called : whence the mafters of this faculty were
denominated Artifts. What they underftood by the
liberal arts ufed to be fummed up in the following La¬
tin verfe:
Lingua, Lropus, Ratio, Numerus, Tonus, Angulus,AJlra.
Artist is more peculiarly ufed, by Paracelfus and
ether adepts, for a chemift or alchemift.—We find fre¬
quent mention, in authors of this clafs, of Elias Artifta,
or Elias the artift, who is to come fome time before
the diffolution of the world, and reftore and make per-
feft all arts and fciences, but efpecially the gold-ma¬
king art; and ufher in a truly golden age, or millen¬
nium. The lower and meaner things in this fublime
art, Paracelfus pbferves, God has permitted to be al¬
ready difcovered ; but for the greater and more impor¬
tant matters, as the tranfmutation of other metals into
gold, they are referved to the coming of Elias the artift.
ARTOBRIGA, a town of Vindelicia (Ptolemy) :
No. 30.
76 ] ART
Now Altzburg, in Bavaria, on the Danube, below In- Artoeatpm-
golftadt (Aventinus) : but Cluverius fuppofes it to be
Lebenau, on the Saltzbach, below LaufFen, in the arch-
bifhopric of Saltzburg.
ARTOCARPUS (from ee^ros bread, and jtapwo;,
fruit), the Bread-fruit Tree : A genus of the mo-
nandria order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants.
It has a cylindric amentum or catkin, which thickens
gradually, and is covered with flowers $ the male and
female in a different amentum. In the male, the calyx
is two-valved, and the corolla is wanting. In the fe¬
male, there is no calyx nor corolla } the ftylus is one,
and the drupa is many-celled.
Though this tree has been mentioned by many voy¬
agers, particularly by Dampier, by Rumphius, and by
Lord Anfon, yet very little notice feems to have been ta¬
ken of it till the return of Captain Wallis from the South
Seas, and fince that time by others who have touched at
Otaheite and fome countries in the Eaft Indies. Cap¬
tain Dampier relates, that in Guam, one of the La-
drone iflands, “ there is a certain fruit called t\\e bread
fruit, growing on a tree as big as our large apple-tree?,
with dark leaves. The fruit is round, and grows on
the boughs like apples, of the bignefs of a good pen¬
ny loaf : wdien ripe, it turns yellow, foft, and fweet j
but the natives take it green, and bake it in an oven
till the rind is black : this they fcrape off, and eat the
infide, which is foft and white, like the infide of new-
baked bread, having neither feed nor ftone ; but if it
is kept above 24 hours it is harfh. As this fruit is in
feafon eight months in the year, the.natives feed upon
no other fort of bread during that time. They told
us that all the Ladrone iflands had plenty of it. I ne¬
ver heard of it in any other place.”
Rumphius, after deforibing the tree, obferves, that
" the fruit is fhaped like a heart, and increafos to the
fize of a child’s head. Its furface or rind is thick,
green, and covered every where with warts of a qua-
dragonal or hexagonal figure, like cut diamonds, but
without points. The more flat and fmooth thefe warts
are, the fewer feeds are contained in the fruit, and
the greater is the quantity of pith, and that of a more
glutinous nature. The internal part of the rind, of
peel, confifts of a flefhy fubftance, full of .twifted fibres,
which have the appearance of fine wool j thefe adhere
to, and in fome meafure form it. The fleftiy part of
this fruit becomes fofter towards the middle, where
there is a fmall cavity formed without any nuts or feeds,
except in one fpecies, which has but a fmall number,
and this fort is not good, unlefs it is baked or prepared
fome other way : but if the outward rind be taken off,
and the fibrous flefli dried and afterwards boiled with
meat as we do cabbage, it has then the tafte of arti¬
choke bottoms. The inhabitants of Amboyna drefs
it in the liquor of cocoa-nuts : but they prefer it roaft-
ed on coals till the outward part or peel is burnt. They
afterwards cut it into pieces, and eat it with the milk
of the cocoa nut. Some people make fritters of it,
or fry it in oil; and others, as the Sumatrians, dry the
internal foft part, and keep it to ufe inftead of bread
with other food. It affords a great deal of nourifti-
ment, and is very fatisfying, therefore proper for hard¬
working people : and being of a gentle aftringent qua-
lity, is good for perfons of a laxative habit of body.
ART [ 377 ] ART
Artocarpus. tt is more nourifhing boiled in our manner with fat
meat than roafted on coals. The milk)' juice which
diftils from the trunk, boiled with the cocoa-nut oil,
makes a very Itrong bird-lime. This tree is to be
found on the eaflern parts of Sumatra, and in the
Malay language is called foccus and foccum capas. It
grows likewil'e about the town of Bantam in Java, and
in Ballega and Madura, and is known there by the
name offoccum.”
In Anfon’s voyage we are informed, “ that the rima,
or bread-fruit tree, is common in all the Ladrone
iflands and fome of the Philippines. It is fomewhat
larger than our apple-free, and bears a broad dark-
coloured leaf with five indentures on each fide. The
fruit hangs on boughs like apples; and is of the fize
of a penny loaf, with a thick tough rind, which when
full ripe turns yellow. The natives gather it before
it is quite ripe, and bake it till the cruft is pretty black ;
then they rafp it, and there remains a pretty loaf,
with a tender yellow cruft, and the crumb of it is foft
and fweet as a new-baked roll : it is without any feeds
or ftones. This fruit the inhabitants enjoy for about fe-
ven months; during which they never eat any other
kind of bread : but they are obliged to bake it every
day ; for when it grow's a little ftale, it becomes harlh
and bulky, fomewhat like the potato-bread made in
the weft of England. There is, however, a remedy
for this j which is cutting the loaf into flices when it is
new, and drying it in the fun, by which it is changed
into the pleafanteft rufk that can be eaten.”
Captain Cook, in his voyage, obferves, that this
fruit not only ferves as a fubftitute for bread among
* Ha-wkef- the inhabitants of Otaheite * and the neighbouring
-worth's ac- iflands, but alio, varioufly drefled, compofes the prin-
(°“ntCookers' c‘Pa^ Part tlle‘r food. It grows on a tree that is
vwjre°° e S ab°ut the fize of a middling oak; its leaves are fre¬
quently a foot and an half long, of an oblong fhape,
deeply finuated like thofe of the fig-tree, which they
refemble in colour and confidence, and in the exfuding
of a milky juice upon being broken. The fruit is about
the fize and fhape of a new-born child’s head ; and the
+ Plat- furface is reticulated f, not much unlike a truffle ; it
Lvi. is covered with a thin fkin, and has a core about as
big as the handle of a fmall knife. The eatable part
lies between the fkin and the core ; it is as white as
fnow, and fomewhat of the confiftence of new bread ;
it muft be roafted before it is eaten, being firft divided
into three or four parts; its tafte is infipid, with a
flight fweetnefs lomewhat refembling that of the crumb
of wheaten bread mixed with a Jerufalem artichoke.
This fruit is alfo cooked in a kind of oven, which ren¬
ders it foft, and lomething like a boiled potato ; not
quite fo farinaceous as a good one, but more fo than
thofe of the middling fort. Of the bread-fruit they
alfo make three difhes, by putting either water or the
milk of the cocoa nut to it, then beating it to a pafte
with a ftofie peftle, and afterwards mixing it with ripe
plantains, bananas, or the four pafte which they call
mahie.
The mahie, which is likewife made to ferve as a
fuccedaneum for ripebread-fruitbefore thefeafon comes
on, is thus made : The fruit of the bread-tree is ga¬
thered juft before it is perfe&ly ripe ; and being laid
in heaps, is clofely covered with leaves: in this ftate
it undergoes a fermentation, and becomes difagreeablv
Vol. II. Part I. 6 *
fweet; the core is then taken out entire, which is done Artocarprs,
by gently pulling out the flalk, and the reft of the i Artois.
fruitjis thrown into a hole which is dug for that purpofe "
generally in the houfes, and neatly lined in the bot¬
tom and (ides with grafs : the whole is then covered
with leaves and heavy ftones laid upon them ; in this
ftate it undergoes a fecond fermentation, and becomes
four, after which it will fuffer no change for many
months. It is taken out of the hole as it is wanted
for ufe ; and being made into balls, it is wrapped up
in leaves and baked : after it is drefled, it will keep
five or fix w'eeks. It is eaten both cold and hot; and
the natives feldom make a meal without it, though to
Europeans the tafte is as difagreeable as that of a
pickled olive generally is the firft time it is eaten. The
fruit itfelf is in feafon eight months in the year, and
the mahie fupplies the inhabitants during the other
four.
To procure this principal article of their food (the
bread fruit), cofts thefe happy people no trouble or la¬
bour except climbing up a tree : the tree which pro¬
duces it does not indeed grow fpontaneoufly ; but if a
man plants ten of them in his life-time, which he may
do in about an hour, he will as completely fulfil his
duty to his own and future generations, as the native
of our lefs temperate climate can do by ploughing in
the cold of winter, and reaping in the fummer’s heat,
as often as thele feafons return ; even if, after he has
procured bread for his prefent houfehold, he ftiould
convert a furplus into money, and lay it up for his
children.
There are two fpecies of artocarpus, viz. the incifus,
with gaflied leaves ; and the integrifolia, with entire
leaves.^ There is alfo faid to be another diftindtion, in¬
to that which bears fruit with ftones or feeds, and
that in which the fruit has none. The parts of
frudlification of that tree which bears the fruit without
ftones are defedlive. The amentum, or catkin, which
contains the male parts, never expands. The ftyli,
or female part of the fruit, are likewife deficient.
From which it follows, that there can be no ftones or
feeds, and therefore that this tree can be propagated
only by fuckers or layers; although it is abundantly
evident, that it muft originally have proceeded from
the feed-bearing bread-fruit tree. Inftances of this
kind we fometimes find in European fruits ; fuch as
the barberry, and the Corinthian grape from Zftnt
commonly called currants, which can therefore be in-
creafed only by layers and cuttings. Dr Solander was
aflured by the oldeft inhabitants of Otaheite and the
adjoining iflands, that they well remember there was
formerly plenty of the feed-bearing bread fruit ; but
they had been negledled upon account of the prefer¬
ence given to the bread-fruit without feeds, which
they propagate by fuckers.
AHTOIS, a province of France, and one of the
fineft and moft fertile in the whole kingdom ; formerly
it was one of the 17 provinces of the Netherlands, but
now belongs entirely to France. The names of Ar¬
tois, and Arras its capital, are derived from the Atre-
bates, a people of Gallia Belgica, mentioned by Ju¬
lius Cafiar. Its greateft length from north to fouth
is about 24 leagues, and its breadth about 12, being
bounded to the fouth and weft by Picardy, to the eaft
by Hainault, and to the north by Flanders. A con-
3 B fiderable
A R U [ 37& 1 A R U
fiderable trrtde is carried oi) in the province in grain,
flax, hops, wool, and linen cloth. The ftates, who
meet regularly once a-year, confift of the clergy, no¬
bility, and commoners; and fit generally a fortnight at
Arras : their chief bufinefs is to deliberate on the ways
and means to raife the money which the king demands
of them, and which ufually amounts to about 430,000
livres, exclufive of forage-money. The moft confider-
able places in Artois are, Arras the capital, Bapaume,
Bethune, St Venant, and St Omer.
ARTOLICA (anc. geog.), a town of the SalaiTu,
in Gallia Cifpadana, (Antonine) ; at the foot of the
Alps : now called la Tuile by the inhabitants, a ham¬
let of Savoy, in the duchy of Aoult, at the foot of
mount St Bernard the Lefs.
ARTOTYRITES, a Chriftian fe<a, in the pYimi-
tive church, who celebrated the eucharifl: with brcad
and cheefe, faying, that the flrfl oblations of men, were
not only of the fruits of the earth, but of their flocks.
The word is derived from bread, and tu^o«,
cheefe.
The Artotyrites admitted women to the priefthood
and epifcopacy 4 and Epiphanius tells us, it was a com¬
mon thing to fee feven girls at once enter into their
church, robed in white, and holding a torch in their
hand ; where they wept, and bewailed the wretched-
nefs of human nature, and the miieries of this life.
ARUA (anc. geog.), a town of Baetica, 'of the re¬
fort of the Conventus Hifpalenfis, ; (Pliny) : now Al-
clea, a citadel of Andalufia, on the Baetis, or Guadal-
quiver, feven leagues above Seville.
ARVALES fratres, in Roman antiquity, a col¬
lege of 12 priefts, inftituted by Romulus, and chofen
out of the moft noble families, himfelf being one of
that body : they affiRed in the facrifices of the amber-
valia annually offered to Ceres and Bacchus, for the
profperity of the fruits of the earth ; when they wore
on their heads crowns made of-ears of corn.—The ori¬
ginal of this inftitution was as follows: Acca Lauren-
tia, Romulus’s nurfe, was accuftomed once a-year to
make" a fblemn facrifice for a bleffing on the fields, her
1 2 fons plways affifting her in the folemnity 4 but at
lad lofing one of her fons, Romulus offered himfelf to
fupply his place, and gave this fmall fociety the name
of Arvales fratres. This order was in great repute at
Roqte : they held the dignity for life, and never loft
it upon account of imprifonment, banifhmentj or any
other accident.
ARUBA, a fmall ifland on the coaft of Terra Fir-
ma, fubjeft to the Dutch, and fituated in W. Long.
69. 30. N. Lat. 12. 30.
ARUCI (anc. geog.), a town of the Celtic!, in the
nortlnof Lufitania, (Antonine, infcription) j called alfo
Aruci Novum, to diftinguifh it from the following :
Now fuppofed to be Moura, a fmall city of Portugal,
near the confluence of the Ardila and Guadalquiver.
Aruci Vetus (anc. goog.), a fmall city of the
Turdetani, in Bsetica, (Ptolemy) ; now Arocbe, a ham¬
let of Andalulia, on the confines of Portugal and Ef-
tramadura, on the river Gama, feven leagues to the
eaft of Aruci Novum or Mcura. From it a mountain,
in its neighbourhood, takes the name Arucitanus. Now
la Sierra de Aroche.
ARUCIA (anc. geog.), a town of Illyria, in the
inlandparts of Liburnia, (Ptolemy) Now Bregna, ac¬
cording to fbme ; but Otlofchatoi, according to others;
a citadel of Morlachia.
ARVERN1, an appellation-early ufed for the capi¬
tal of the Arverni, according to the cuftom of the lat¬
ter ages of naming towns from the people j it was for¬
merly called Nemojfus, (Strabo). The Arverni, a brave
and ancient people, and one of the moft powerful na¬
tions of Gaul, claimed affinity with the Romans, as
defcendents from Antenor, (Lucan) : and after their
conqueft by the Romans, their ancient liberty was pre-
ferved to them on account of their bravery, (Pliny).
Above 1000 years ago the town was called Clarus
Mans, from its fituation, (Valefius.) Now Clermont,
in Auvergne. E. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 45. 42.
ARVIL-supper, a feaft or entertainment made at
funerals, in the north part of England. Arvil-bread is
the bread delivered to the poor at funeral folemnities :
and arvil, arval, arfal, are ufed for the burial or fune¬
ral rites; as, .
Come, bring my jerkin, Tibb, I’ll to the arvili
Yon man’s dea fcuv fcoun, it makes me marvil.
Torkjh. Dial. p. 5.3.
ARVIRAGUS, an ancient Britifh king who flou-
rifhed in the time of the emperor Domitian. He gain¬
ed a complete viflory over Claudius: but being foon
after befieged in the city of Winchefter, he made a
treaty with the Romans, and married the emperor’s
daughter GenuiiTa. This monarch lived to a good old.
age : he confirmed the ancient laws, enafted new ones,,
and liberally rewarded perfons of merit.
ARUM, wakerobin, or cuckow-pint : A genus
of the polyandria order, belonging to the gynandria
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking-
under the 2d order, Piperitee. The fpatha is mono-
phyllous, and cowl-fhaped-; the fpadix is naked above,
female below, and ftamen’d in the middle.—The
Species are 22 ; of which the moft remarkable are
the following. 1. The maculatum, or common wake-
robin, grows naturally in woods and on ftiady banks in
moft parts of Britain. The leaves are halberd-fhaped,
very entire, and fpotted; the berries numerous, grow¬
ing in a naked clufter. The flowers appear in April;
and their wonderful ftruddure hath given rife to many
difputes among the botanifts. The receptacle is long,
in the fliape of a club, with the feed-buds furrounding
its bale. The chives are fixed to the receptacle amongft
the feed-buds, fo that there is no occafion for the tips
to be fupported upon threads, and therefore they have
none ; but they are fixed to the fruit-ftalk, and placed
between two rows of tendrils : the point in difpute is,
what is the ufe of thofe tendrils ? 2. The proboicidium.
3. The arifarium. 4. The tenuifolium. Thefe three fpe-
cies have yfually been feparated from this genus, and
diftinguifhed by the general name of arifarum or friar :s
cowl, on account of the refemblance of their flowers to
the fhape, of the cowls worn by friars. The flowers ap¬
pear in April. 5. The italicum, is a native of Italy,
Spain, and Portugal. The leaves rife a foot and an
half high, terminating in a point; they are very large,
and finely veined with white, interfperfed with black,
fpots, which, together with the fine fliining green, make
a pretty variety. The flowers grow near a foot high ;
A H ti [ 379 ] A R U
and have very long upright fpathas, vvliich are of a pale becomes at length an almofl infipid farinaceous fub- Al'unda,
green. They appear in the end of April, or begin- fiance. ^Arundel
ning of May. 6. The dracunculus, or common dra- This root is a powerful ilimulant and attenuant. It
gons, grows naturally in moll of the fouthern pans of is reckoned a medicine of great efficacy in fome cachec-
Europe. It hath a ftraight ftalk three or four feet high, tic and chlorotic cafes, in weaknefs ot the ftomach oc-
which is Ipotted like the belly of a fnake : at the top cafioned by a load of vifcid phlegm. Great benefit has
it is fpread out into leaves, which are cut into ieveral been obtained from it in rheumatic pains, particularly
narrow fegments almoll to the bottom, and are fpread thole of the fixed kind, and which were feated deep. In
open like a hand; at the top of the ftalk the flower is thele cafes it may be given from to grains to a fcruple
produced, which is in lhape like the common arum, ha- of the frelh root twice or thrice a-day, made into abo-
ving a long fpatha of a dark purple colour, Handing lus or emulfion with unctuous and mucilaginous fub-
eretft, with a large piftil of the fame colour, lb that fiances, which cover its pungency, and prevent its
when it is in flower it makes no unpieafing appear- making any painful impreffion on the tongue. It gfc-
ance ; but the flower hath fo flrong a (cent of carrion, nerally excites a flight tingling fenfation through the
that few people can endure it, for which reafon it hath whole habit, and, when the patient is kept warm in
been banilhed moll gardens. 7. The trilobatum, or bed, produces a copious tweat.
arum of Ceylon, is a native of that ifland and fome other The arum was formerly an ingredient in an officinal
parts of India ; fo is very impatient of cold. It is a low preparation, the compound powder; but in that form
plant; the flow er rifes immediately from the root, Hand- its virtues are very precarious. Some recommended .
ing on a very Ihort footflalk : the fpatha is long, eredl, a tinilufe of it drawn with wine 5 but neither wine,
and of a fine fcarlet colour, as is allb the pitlil. 8. The water, nor (pints, extradl its virtues,
colocafia. 9. The divaricatum, with fpear fliaped ARUNDA, 3 town of Hifpania Bsetica, on the
leaves. 10. The peregrinum, or elder. n.Theef- Annas, or Guadiana, (Ptolemy, Pliny) : Now faid to
culentum, or eatable arum. 12. The Ikgittifolium, or be Honda, in the province of Granada, on the confines
greateft Egyptian arum. All thefe fpecies have mild of Andalufia. W. Long. 5. 40. Lat. 36. 26.
roots, which are eaten by the inhabitants of the hot ARUNDt.L (Thomas) archbilbop of Canterbury
countries, where they grow' naturally ; and fome of them in the reigns of Richard II. Henry IV. and Henry X.
are cultivated by the inhabitants of the fugar colonies, He was the fecond fon of Robert Earl of Arundel and
where their roots are conftantly eaten, as alfo the leaves Warren, and brother of Richard Earl of Arundel who
of fome of them, particularly thole of the elculentum, was beheaded. At 22 years of age, from being arch-
vvhich they call; and which, in thole coun deacon of Taunton he was railed to the bilhopric of
tries wffiere many of the efculent vegetables of England Ely, the 6th of April 1375, in the reign of Edward
are with difficulty produced, proves a good fucceda- III. He was a great benefaflor to the church and
neum. 13. The arborefcens, or dumb cane, is a native palace of this lee 5 among other donations he gave k
of the fugar iflands and warm parts of America, where curious table of mafly gold, adorned with precious
it grows chiefly on low grounds. All the parts of it Hones, which had been given to prince Edward by
abound with an acrid juice; fo that if a leaf or part the king of Spain, and Ibid by the latter to Bifhop A-
of the flalk is broken and applied to the tip of the rundel. In 1386, he was appointed lord chancellor of
tongue, it occafions a very painful fenfation and a great England ; two years after, he was tranflated to the fee
defluxion of faliva. The llalks of this plant are feme- of York ; and, in 1396, was advanced to the archiepil-
times applied to the mouths of the negroes by way of copal lee of Canterbury, when he refigned the chan-
punilbment. cellorlhip. This was the firfl inHance of the tranfla-
Culture. All the fpecies of this plant are hardy, tion of an ArchbiHiop of York to the fee of Canterbury,
except the trilobatum and the arborefcens. The for- Scarcely was he fixed in this fee, when he had a conteH
mer mufl be kept conflantly in a Hove, and the lafl in with the univerfity of Oxford about the right of vifi-
a moderate hot bed. The arborefcens is propogated tation. The affair was referred to king Richard, who
by cutting off the ffalks into lengths of three or four determined it in favour of the arehbifliop. At his vi-
joints, which mufl be left to dry fix weeks or two fitation in London, he revived an old conffitution, by
months ; for if the wounded part is not perfecRly heal- which the inhabitants of the refpeblive parilhes were
ed over before the cuttings are planted, they will rot obliged to pay to their redlor one halfpenny in the
and decay. They are then to be planted in fmall pots pound out of the rent of their houfes. In the fecond
filled with light fandy earth, and plunged in a mode- year of his tranflation, a parliament being held at Lon-
rate hot bed of tan, obferving to let them have little don, the commons with the king’s leave impeached
water till they have taken good root. the archbilhop, together with his brother the Earl of
Medicinal U/es. The roots of the macuLtum and Arundel, and the Duke of Glocefler, of high treafen.
draeunculus are ufed in medicine, and differ in nothing The archbilhop was fentenced to be baniflied’and with¬
out that the latter is fomewhat flronger than the for- in forty days to depart the kingdom on pain of death,
mer. All the parts of the arum, particularly the root. He retired firfl to France; and then to the court of
have an extremely pungent, acrimonious tafle ; if the Rome, where Pope Boniface IX. gave him a kind re¬
root be but lightly chewed, it continues to burn and vel- ception. About this time the Duke of Laucafter (af-
licate the tongue for fome hours, occafioning at the terwards Henry IV.) was in France, having been ba-
f'ame time a confiderable tliirfl : thefe fymptoms are al- nifhed by king Richard. The nobility and others, tired
leviated by butter, milk, or oily liquors. Dried and with the oppreffions of Richard, folicired the Duke to
kept for fome time, it lofes much of its acrimony, and take the crown. This their requeft they drew up in a
3 B 2 letter,
A R V [ 380 ] A R U
Arundel, letter, aftd fertt it over by faithful mefTengers toarch-
~ v ' bifhop Arundel, defiring him to be their advocate on
this occafion with the Duke. The archbifhop, being a
fellow-fufferer, gladly accepted the office j and went
with the meflengers to the Duke at Paris, where they
delivered the letters from the nobles and commons of
England, and the archbifhop feconded them with the
bell arguments he could invent. The inviting offer,
after fome objections which were eafily obviated, the
Duke accepted ; and upon his acceffion to the throne,
Arundel, who had returned with him to England, was
reftored to his fee. In the firfl year of this prince’s
reign, Arundel fummoned a fynod which fat at St
Paul’s. The next year the commons moved that the
revenues of the church might be applied to the fervice
of the public ; but Arundel oppol’ed the motion with
luch vigour, that it was thrown afide. Inthe year 1408,
Arundel began to exert himfelf againfl the Lollards,
or Wickliffites; and his zeal for fuppreffing that fed
carried him to feveral unjuflifiable feverities againfl the
heads of it, particularly againfl Sir John Oldcaflle and
Lord Cobham. He alfb procured a fynodical conllitu-
tion, which forbad the tranflation of the Scriptures
into the vulgar tongue. This prelate died at Canter¬
bury, Feb. 20th, 1413, of an inflammation in his throat,
with which he was feized (as it is pretended) whilfl
he was pronouncing fentence upon Lord Cobham. The
Lollards afferted this to be a judgment from God ;
and indeed Bifhop Goodwin fpeaks in the fame manner,
faying, “ He who had with-held from the people the
word of God, the food of the foul, by the juft judge¬
ment of God had his throat fo clofed, that fie could
not fpeak a Angle word, nor fwallow meat or drink,
and was fo flarved to death.” He was buried in the
cathedral church of Canterbury, near the weft end,
under a monument erefted by himi’elf in his lifetime.
To this church he was a confiderable benefaClor : for
he built the lantern tower and great part of the nave ;
gave a ring of five bells, called from him Arundel's
ring ; feveral rich veftments, a mitre enchafed with
jewels, a filver gilt crofier, and two golden chalices.
Arundel, a borough and market town in Suffex,
feated on the north-weft fide of the river Arun, over
which there is a bridge. It had a harbour, wherein a
ihip of 100 ton burthen might ride 5 but the fea had
ruined it fo far, that, in 1733, an aft {faffed for re¬
pairing it, and for erefting new piers, locks, &c. The
caftle, which gives the title of earl to its poffeffors, is
feated on the eaft of the Tame, and is reputed to be a
mile in compafs. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment ; and is 55 miles fbuth-well-by-fouth of London,
and .10 miles eaft of Chichefter. Arundel is the pre¬
mier earldom in England, belonging to the illuftrious
family of Norfolk ; and is the only title in England
that goes along with the lands. W. Long. o. 25. N.
Lat. jo. 45.
Arundel Oil, in the materia medica. At Bom¬
bay, Gambroon, and Surat, in the Eaft Indies, there
grows a tree which bears a nut inclofed in a rough
hufk, which refembles much the horfe-chefnut; and
the kernel of the nut yields an oil by expreflion, which
is of a purgative nature. A tea-fpoonful of it is rec¬
koned a dole. The tree goes by the name of the A-
rundel tree at Bombay, and its oil by that of the Arun¬
del oil. Mr Sinclair, one of the furgeons belonging to Arunde-
theroyal regimentofartillery, who was form erlyfurgeon lian-
to an Eaft India (hip, gave Dr Monro of London a fmall v
bottle full of this oil. which he find was much ufed for
the cure of the dyfentery in India, and that he had
given it in four recent cafes of dyfentery with fuccefe.
—Dr Monro thinks it probable that this is the oil of
the purging nuts mentioned in Dale’s Fharmacologia,
which are got from the tree called Lignum Moluccenfe,
Pavana diBum, fruEiu avellanie, J. B. 1. 342; and
pinus Indira, nucleo purgante, C. B. 492 ; and the
palma Chrifti Indira, Tournefort Mat. Med.
ARUNDELIAN Marbles, Oxford Marbles,
or Parian Chronicle, are ancient Hones (as has
been fuppofed), whereon is infcribtd a chronicle of
the city of Athens, engraven in capital letters in the
ifland of Paros, one of the Cyclades, 264 years before
Jefus Chrift. They take their firft name from Thomas
Earl of Arundel, w ho procured them out of the Eaft,
or from Henry his grandfon, who prefented them to
the univerfity of Oxford.
The Arundelian marbles, in their perfeft ftate, con-
tained a chronological detail of the principal events
of Greece during a period of 1318 years, beginning
with Cecrops, before Chrift 1582 years, and ending
with the archonlhip of Diognetus, before Chrift 264.
But the chronicle of the hill 90 years is loft ; fo that
the part now remaining ends at the archonfhip of Dio-
timus, 3J4 years before the birth of Chrift : and in
this fragment the inl’cription is at prefent fomuch cor¬
roded and effaced, that the fenfe can onlybedifcovered
by very learned and induftrious antiquaries ; or, more
properly fpeaking, fupplied by their conjeftures.
This chronicle, and many other relics of antiquity,
real or pretended, were purchafed in Afia Minor, in
Greece, or in the iflands of the Archipelago, by Mr Wil¬
liam Petty, who in the year 1624 was fent by Thomas
Earl of Arundel for the purpofe of making fuch collec¬
tions for him in the Eaft. They were brought into Eng¬
land about the beginning of the year 1627, and placed
in the gardens belonging to Arundel houfe in London.
Soon after their arrival they excited a general curio-
fity, and were viewed by many inquifitive and learned
men ; among others by Sir Robert Cotton, who pre¬
vailed upon Selden to employ his abilities in explaining
the Greek infcriptions. Selden and two of his friends,
Patrick Young, or, as he flyled himfelf in Latin, Pa¬
tricias Junius, and Richard James, immediately com¬
menced their operations, by cleaning and examining
the marble containing the Smyrnean and Magnefian
league, and afterwards proceeded to the Parian chro¬
nicle. The following year "felden publiflied a fmall vo¬
lume in quarto, including about 39 inferiptions copied
from the marbles.
In the turbulent reign of Charles I. and the fubfe-
quent ufurpation, Arundel-houfe was often deferted by
the illuftrious owners; and, in their abfence, fome of
the marbles were defaced and broken, and others either
ftolen or ufed for the ordinary pu' pofes of architefture.
The chronological marble, in particular, was unfortu¬
nately broken and defaced. The upper part, contain¬
ing 31 epochas, is faid to have been worked up in re¬
pairing a chimney in Arundel-houfe.
In the year 1667, the Hon. Henry Howard, after-
. wards-
A R U [
wards Duke of Norfolk, the grandfoa of the firft col¬
lector, prefented thefe fuppofed remains of antiquity to
the univerfity of Oxford.
Seldon’s work becoming very fcarce, Bifliop Fell en¬
gaged IVir Prideaux to publifli a new- edition of the in-
fcriptions, which was printed at Oxford in 1676. In
1732 Mr Maittaire obliged the public with a more
comprehenfive view of the marbles than either of his
predeceflbrs. Ladly, Dr Chandler publiflied a new
and improved copy of the marbles in 1763, in which
he corrected the midakes'of the former editors; and
in fome of the infcriptions, particularly that of the
Parian chronicle, fupplied the lacuna: by many inge¬
nious conjectures.
The Arundelian marbles have generally been regard¬
ed as a curious monument of antiquity. They were,
however, difcovered in lome initances to be incontin¬
ent with the mod authentic hitforical accounts ; Sir
Itaac Newton and feveral other modern philofophers
paid little or no regard to them 5 and of late their ab-
fblute authenticity has been teverely queftioned in an
exprefs diflertation upon the tubjeft, entitled *Ihe Pa¬
rian Chronicle. In this diflertation much ingenuity as
well as judgment and a great extent of ancient learn¬
ing are difplaypd. His doubts, the author obferves,
arife from the following confiderations.
I. “ The charafters have no certain or unequivocal
marks of antiquity.” The n and Z, which frequently
occur in the form fuppofed to be the moft ancient (viz.
the perpendicular line of the P on the right hand only
half as long as that on the left, and the Z in the form
cf a prodrate E ), are fo well known, that any modern
fabricator of a Greek infcription, which he intends to
impolh upon the world as a relift of antiquity, would
mod probably ufe them in preference to the more
common and ordinary forms. But the letters in the
Parian chronicle have no appearance of antiquity ex¬
cept this very equivocal one. They do not in the lead
refemble the Sigean, the Nemean or the Delian in¬
fcriptions, which are dtppofed to be of a more ancient
date. They differ in many refpefts from the letters
on the Marmor Sandivenfe, which, according to the
learned editor of that infcription, was engraved in the
year before Chrid 374. They bear no (brt of relem-
blance to the charafters on the Farnefian pillars, to
thole of the Alexandrian manufeript, or others of a
later date. They feem, continues our author, to re¬
femble perhaps more than any other the letters of the
alphabet taken by Montfaucon from the Marmor Cyzi-
cenum at Venice. They are plain and fimple in their
form, and fuch as an ordinary done-cutter of the pre-
fent age would probably make, if he were employed to
engrave a Greek infcription according to the alphabet
now in ufe. The fmall letters intermixed among the
larger have, in the opinion of our author, an air of af¬
fectation and artifice, rather than genuine antiquity ;
and he is perfuaded, that the antiquity of an infcrip¬
tion can never be proved by the mere form of the let¬
ters, becaufe the mod ancient charafters may be as
eafily counterfeited as thofe which compofe our prefent
alphabets.
That the learned reader may form a competent idea
of the charafters in the Parian chronicle, the author
has compared them with thofe of other infcriptions,
and given.what isufually termed r&facJimile.
381 ] A R U
In regard to feveral archaifms, as they are called, in
this chronicle, and which our author fpecifies, he con¬
tends, that no conclufion can be drawn from them in
favour of its antiquity. What reafon could there be,
he afks, for introducing thefe into the Parian chroni¬
cle i* We do not ufually find them in Greek writers of
the fame age, or even in thofe of the mod early date.
The reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, with the 2 id year
of which the date of the chronicle coincides, was not
an age of rude antiquity with refpeft to the Greek
language ; being only 130 years after the time of Xe¬
nophon and Plato, when the Greek was ipoken and
written in its utmod purity and elegance : and we can
fcarcely fuppofe, that even a done cutter, in that re¬
fined age, would have been permitted to difgrace a fu-
perb and learned monument with fuch barbarifms as
occur in the chronicle. The archaifms, however, he
remarks, are not uniformly obferved in this infcription.
He adduces fix indances of deviation ; and adds, he is
almod tempted to fufpeft, that iy. ru^y
and other pretended archaifms, are owing to a mere
affeftation of antiquity, or to a corrupted dialeft and
pronunciation in later ages. Thefe archaifms, our au¬
thor acknowledges, appear on other marbles: but he
thinks, that, for that very reafon, they would naturally
be adopted by the fabricator of a fuppofititious infcrip¬
tion ; and the authenticity of thofe infcriptions in.
which they appear mud be edablifhed before they can
be urged in oppofition to the prefent argument.
II. “ It is not probable that the chronicle was en¬
graved for private ufc.”—Our author thinks it an im-
podible fuppofition that fuch an expenfive and cumber-
fome work could have been executed by a private ci¬
tizen, either for his own amufement, or for the bene¬
fit of his fellow citizens. In the fird place, a long in¬
fcription could not be engraved in marble without fuch
an expence as few learned Greeks were able to afford..
Or, if its author, by an uncommon felicity, was able
to ereft fuch a literary monument, the feheme would
have been ufelefs and imprudent; as all the contents of
the infcription might have been publidied more com-
modiouily and effectually by the common mode of
writing in ufe at that time.
A variety of arguments is adduced, illudrating the
fuperiority of a manufeript to fuch au infcription as
the chronicle, in a number of refpefts ; and enforcing
the improbability of its having ever been executed, ei ¬
ther for public or private ufe. Much evidence from
ancient hidory is likewife produced infupport of the
affertion, that the common mode of writing, in the
reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, was not on dones. It
is not, however, neceffary to prove, by the tedimony
of ancient authors, that books were w ritten on parch¬
ment, or paper made of the F.gyptian papyrus, or any
fuch materials, before the date of the Parian chronicle.
This is fufficiently evinced, by the very exidence of the
writings of Mofes, David, Solomon, and the Jewifh
prophets ; the works- of Homer, Hefiod, Anacreon,
Pindar, xEfchylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus,
Hippocrates, Aridophanes, Thucydides, Xenophon,
Plato, Demodhenes, Aridotle, &c. : And it is dill more
incontedably proved by the libraries which were col-
lefted in preceding ages, or about that time ; fuch as
thofe of Polycrates in Samos, Pifidratus and Euclides
at Athens, Nicocrates in Cyprus,. Euripides the poet,
Ariftotk.
A R tr [ 382 1 A R U
Anwde- Ariftotle the philofopher, Clearchus at Heraclea Pon-
lia^- tica, and the moft e.xtenfive and magnificent library of
^" Ptolemy Philadelphus in Egypt, founded in or before
the year 2S4, which in his time is faid to have contain¬
ed 100,000 volumes, and to have been enlarged by
his fucceflbrs to the amount of almoft 700,000. Not
long afterwards a library was founded at Pergamus by
Attalus and Eumenes, which, according to Plutarch,
contained 200,000. Thefe are clear and decifive proofs,
that the common mode of writing in the time of Pto¬
lemy Philadelphus was not on ftones.
III. “ The chronicle does not appear to have been
engraved by public authority?'
1. The firft argument in fupport of this opinion is,
that infcriptions of that kind ufually begin with a par¬
ticular form ; as, H BOTAH KA1 O AHMCJ', ‘ The fenate
and the people or thus, EAOHEN TKI BOTAHI KAI
TOI AHMfil, ‘ It pleafed the fenate and the people,
But the Parian chronicle begins in the manner of a
private man, fpeaking of his own performance in the
firft perfon Angular. This argument, our author re¬
marks, cannot be much affedted by obferving, that the
beginning of the infcription is obliterated ; for it is
neceftarily implied by the words now remaining.
2. The fadls and dates, which are mentioned in
this chronicle, do not appear to have been extracted
from any public records, or calculated to anfwer the
purpofe of authentic documents ; as many eminent
princes and magiftrates arepafled over without notice ;
in feveral inftances, the tranfaflions of whole centuries
are omitted ; and the fafts, chiefly Ipecified, are not
matters of general or national importance.
3. The Parian infcription is fuch a one as we can
hardly fuppofe the magiftrates or the people of Paros
would have ordered to be engraved. Stately fepulchres,
pillars, triumphal arches, and the like, were eredted
to perpetuate the glory of eminent men. The remem¬
brance of events in which nations were interefted, the
fiicceflion of princes, &c. were preferved in the fame
manner. Leagues, decrees, and laws, were likewife
engraved on marble or brafs, and fixed to a pillar, the
wralls of a temple, or other public buildings; becaule
fuch infcriptions were defigned for the infpedtion of
the people, as they eflentially concerned their condudf,
their property, their liberty, or their lives. But, our
author alks, for whom could the chronicle of Paros be
intended ? It contains no encomiums on any of the
patriots, the heroes, or the demigods of the country,
no decrees of the magiftrates, no public records, no
laws of ftate. Dn the contrary, it is a work of mere
fpeculation and learning, in which the inhabitants of
that ifland, efpecially the common people, had not the
leaft intereft or concern.
Thele words at the beginning, to; tw Tlc ^v,
would naturally lead us to fuppofe, that the infcription
related to Paros. And, if !b, it would have been na¬
tural for the author to have mentioned fome of the
rnoft important occurrences in the hiftory of that ifland.
But, fays this acute and learned critic, what fcheme
does our chronologer purfue on this occafion ? Does he
record the events and revolutions of his own country ?
Does he mention any of the battles, fieges, and trea¬
ties of the Parians ? any of their public inftitutions ? any
of their poets, patriots, or warriors ? Does he mention
Archilochus, who was honoured by his countrymen,
and dlftinguiflied as a poet in a general aflembly of the Arunde-
Greeks ?—Not a lyllable on any of thefe fubjedts ! On , l*an'
the contrary, he rambles from place to place, and re- " v
cords the tranfadtions of Athens, Corinth, Macedon,
Lydia, Crete, Cyprus, Sicily, Perfia, and other foreign
countries with which Paros had no connexion.
In this view the infcription feems to have been as
impertinent in the ifland of Paros, as a marble monu¬
ment would be in this country, recording the antiqui¬
ties of France or Spain, or one in Jamaica recording
the revolutions of England. But upon fuppofition
that the infcription is a forgery, it is eafy to account
for this extraordinary circumflance. A few'chronologi¬
cal occurrences in the ancient hiftory of Paros would
not have been fo interefting to the generality of read¬
ers, or fo valuable in the cftimation of every lover of
antiquities, or, in (hort, fo profitable to the com¬
piler, as a general lyftem of Grecian chronology.
IV. “ The Greek and Roman writers, for a long
time after the date of this work, complain that they
had no chronological account of the affairs of ancient
Greece.” This pofition is confirmed by the teftimony
of Julius Africanus, Juftin Martyr, Plutarch, Jofephus,
Varro, Diodorus Siculus, and others ; and the follow¬
ing feries of interrogatories is fubjoined : ‘ Thucydides,
I know, lived 140 years before the chronicle is faid to
have been written ; but if Thucydides, as well as other
writers, complained that there was nothing but uncer¬
tainty in the earlier period of Grecian hiftory, from
whence can we fuppofe the author of this infcription
collected fuch a clear, determinate, andcomprehenfive
lyftem of chronology ? If he had any lources of infor¬
mation, which were unknown to fucceeding writers,
how happens it, that they ftiould all of them overlook
this moft confiderable, moft exadft, moft: creditable au¬
thor ? Why did they omit this ancient account of their
early ages ? Why did they not copy his moft memo¬
rable epochas? Why did they not produce his autho¬
rity ? or, at leaft, why did they not mention his opi¬
nion ? Surely nothing, to all appearance, could be more
elaborate, more important, or of higher authority,
than a chronological table, which was thought wor¬
thy of being engraved on marble.
V. “ The chronicle is not once mentioned by any
writer of antiquity.” This indeed appears a ftrong ar¬
gument againft its authenticity. Apollodorus, an A-
thenian, the difciple of Ariftarchus the grammarian,
and Pansetius the philofopher, wrote a genealogical
and hiftorical work on the early ages of Greece 5 but,
though compofed 120 years after the date of the Pa¬
rian chronicle, it does not contain the fmalleft traces
of a fyftematical chronology. It is remarkable too
that the chronicle of Apollodorus is quoted by Diodo¬
rus Siculus, Strabo, Plutarch, A. Gellius, Lucian,
and many other writers of antiquity; while the Parian
chronicle, which comprehends a more extenfive period,
is entirely unnoticed. It contains, however, fuch won¬
derful difcoveries in ancient hiftory, that if it had ex-
ifted 264 years before the Chriftian sera, it muft have
excited a general attention, and been referred to as an
authority by writers of fucceeding times. But we do
not find, in any author of antiquity, either poet or hi-
ftorian, geographer or chronologer, mythologift or
fcholiaft, the moft diftant allufion to the Parian chro¬
nicle j though it was fuch a common pra&ice among
A R U C 383 ] A R U
Antnde- the ancients to mention the works of their predecef-
*a- fors, that in many books vve find references and ailu-
' fions to three, four, five, fix, or {even hundred difie-
rent authors of every denomination.
VI. <f Some of the fads mentioned in the chronicle
feem to have been taken from writers of a later date.”
Our inquirer collates feveral pafTages in the Parian
chronicle with parallel pa flag es in Greek authors, to
evince that there i-t, in the former, an appearance of
imitation, or a fironger resemblance than fuch as may
be fuppofed to arife from accident ; that there are
likewile fome improbabilities attending the account of
Deucalion, as related in the Parian chronicle; and that
the names of fix, and, it the lacunte are properly fup-
piied, the names of 12 cities appear to have been en¬
graved on the marble, exactly as we find them in JE.-
lian’s Various Hiflory. But there is not, our author
obferves, any imaginable reafon for this particular ar¬
rangement. It does not correfpond with the time ot
their foundation, with their fituation in Ionia, with
their relative importance, or w ith the order in which
they are placed by other eminent hiftorians. The argu¬
ment by which our author endeavours to prove that the
Parian chronicle has, in this inltance, copied TElian’s
Various Hiflory, feemsdecifive of the fad. He ohierves,
that fix names may be tranlpofed 720 different ways;
and that 12 names admit of 479,001,600 different
tranfpofitions, Suppofing then, that there is no par¬
ticular reafon for one arrangement rather than ano¬
ther, it will follow, that the chance of two authors,
placing them in the fiime order, is, in the former cale,
as 1 to 720; and in the latter as 1 to 479,001,600.
It is therefore, fays he, utterly improbable, that thefe
names would have been placed in this order on the
marble, if the author of the infcription had not tran-
Icribed them from the hiltorian.
It may indeed be urged, with regard to the fimi-
larity of arrangement in the Parian chronicle and
iElian’s Various Hiltory, that the inference might be
the very inverfe of that which is fpecified by our au¬
thor. But that fEJian flrould have feen the Parian
chronicle, without once mentioning it ; or that he
fhould have exactly copied a lid of towns, arranged
neither according to chronological nor topographical
order ; is indeed a fuppofition equally improbable with
the ocher.
VII. u Parachronifms appear in fome of the ep chas,
which we can fcarceiy fuppole a Greek chronoioger in
the 129th Olympiad would be liable to commit.” Af¬
ter fpecifying thefe, our inquirer afks. Would a, writer
of reputation and learning, in one of the moil polifhed
and enlightened aeras of ancient Greece, commit fuch
miftakesin oppofition to the pofirive atteftations of
the mod accurate hiftorians, in events of public noto¬
riety ? Would a private citizen, or a magiftrate of Pa¬
ros, order a crude and inaccurate feries of epochas to
be engraved, at a great expence, and trgnfinitted to
pofterity on a marble monument ? It is hardlv probable.
VIII. “ The hiftory of the difcovery of the Parian
chronicle is obfcure and uhfatisfaHory.” Our author
obferves, that it is attended with fome fufpicious cir-
cumftances, and without any of thore clear and une¬
quivocal evidences which always difcriminate truth
from fallehood. There are no data in the infcription
by which to difcovex the place where the marble was
eredfted. The place likewife where it was found is A unde-
not afcertained ; though the generality of writers- who lian-
have had occaficn to mention it have fuppofed that it v-‘—v—'
was found in the iiland of Paros. If it was ereiled at
Smyrna, as fome imagine, our author afks, for what
purpole does the writer mention Allyanax the archon
of Paros, and not one circum(lance relative to Smyrna f
If, adds he, it was ereHed at Paros, why does he not
mention more archons of that city than one ? Or how
(hall we account for his profound filence with refpett
to all the events and revolutions which mult have hap ¬
pened in that iflarid, and have been infinitely more in-
terefting to the natives than the tranfifotions of any
foreign country i1
The train of circumltances by which the Parian
chronicle came into the polfeflion of Mr Petty, whom
Lord Arundel had fent into the £u!t for the purpole
of collecting antiquities, as well as the fubfequent con-
ducft of Peirefc its former owner, affords our author a
ftrong prefumption, that “ the infoription was actuallv
fabricated, with the view of obtaining for it a high
price, upon the pretence that it was a relic of great
antiquity. It is certain, that there is fomething my-
fterious in the conduct of the firft oftenfible proprietor.--.
. The'e marbles had been totally unknown, or unnoticed,
for almofl 1900 years, and at laft they are dug out of
the ground—-no body can tell us when or where !”
IX. “ The literary world has been frequently im-
pofed upon by fpurious books and infcriptions; and
therefore we fhould be extremely cautious with regard
to what we receive under the venerable name of anti¬
quity.” This propofition is illufirated by a. great va¬
riety of examples, and very properly expofes the for¬
geries which have difgraced the republic of letters in
different ages : and although one of the more recent
ones cited, namely, Offiatvs poems, be a point very
far indeed from being eltablifhed, yet that deceptions
of this kind have been pra&ifed is an unqueftionable-
fa ft.
In endeavouring, toward the end of his diflertation,
to inveftigate the time of the fuppoled forgery, he ob¬
ferves, that the 16th century, and the prior part of
the 17th produced a multitude of grammarians, critics,
and commentators, deeply, verfed in Grecian literature,
and amply qualified for the compilation of fuch a chro¬
nological fiyftem as that of the Arundelian marbles.-
Aboveall, the foie nee of chronology was particularly
ftudied and inveftigated about that time : “ Nunc fer-
vet chronologia,” fays Scaliger in the year 1605,
“ omnes hoc ferrum excalfaeiunt.” Cafaubon treats
thofo perfons with contempt who were unacquainted
with the improvements which had been made in that
department of learning after the revival of letters. In¬
numerable fyflems of chronology had been publifhed
before the year 1625 ; from which it was eafy to ex¬
tract a feries of memorable events, and give the com¬
pilation a Grecian drefs. “ The avidity,” fays our
author, “ with which all relics of antiquity were then
collected, and the high price at which they were pur-
chafod, were fufficient inducements to any one, whole
avarice or vvhofe neceffity was ftronger than his inte¬
grity, to engrave his labours on marble, and tranfmit
them to Smyrna, as a commodious emporium for fuch
rarities.”
The precife period of the fabrication, however, muff:
ftilL
A R U t 384 ] A R TJ
Ar-undo. fliU be x^eckoned apocryphal and uncertain. The mm
y—j 0y gUineaSj which Pierefc gave to the fuppofed
fabricator, was inadequate to Inch a laborious and ex-
penfive work. Upon the whole, perhaps, it would be
too hafty to pronounce decifively that this famous
Chronicle, fo long refpefted, is an impofition upon
the public. It may, however, be fafely affirmed, that
the fufpicions againfl: it are extremely ftrong, and the
objedlions already cited of a nature very difficult to be
removed. No attempts have yet been made with this
view : But under fome future article, as Chronology,
Marbles, or Parian Chronicle, we maypoffibly have
an opportunity of refuming the fubjeft with addition¬
al informatioh.
ARUNDO, the Reed : a genus of the digynia or¬
der, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants; and in
the natural method ranking under the 4th order, Gra¬
mma. The calyx confilts of two valves, and the tlof-
cules are thick and downy.
Species and properties. 1. The phragmitis, or com¬
mon marffi-reed, grows by the fides of rivers and in
Handing waters. 2. The debax, or manured reed, is a
native of warm countries, but will bear the cold of our
moderate winters in the'open air. It dies to the fur-
face in autumn, but appears again in the fpring, and,
if kept fupplied with water, will grow 10 or 12 feet
high in one fummer. The (talks of this are brought
from Spain and Portugal 5 and are ufedby the weavers,
as alfo for making filhing-rods. 3. The verficoloi-, or
Indian variegated reed, is fuppofed to be a variety of
the fecond, differing from it only in having variegated
* See £tf?«-le‘aves. 4. The bambos, or bamboo *, is a native of
ioo. the Eaft Indies and fome parts of America; where it
frequently attains the height of 60 feet. The main
root is long, thick, jointed, fpreads horizontally, and
fends''out many cylindrical woody fibres, of a whitiffi
colour, and many feet long. From the joints of the
main root fpring feveral round jointed ffalks to a pro¬
digious height, and at about 10 or 12 feet from the
ground fend out at their joints feveral balks joined to¬
gether at their bafe : thefe run up in the fame manner
as thofe they (hoot out from. If any of thefe be plant¬
ed with a piece of the firfl: ftalk adhering to them, they
will perpetuate their fpecies. They are armed at their
joints with one or two (harp rigid fpines, and furnifhed
with oblong oval leaves, eight or nine inches long, feat-
ed on (hort foot-flalks. The flowers are produced in
large panicles from the joint of the flalks, placed three
in a parcel clofe to their receptacles ; they refemble
thofe of the common reed, and are fucceeded by feeds
of the fame form furrounded with down.
, The young (hoots are covered with a dark-green
bark ; thefe when very tender are put up in vinegar,
fait, garlic, and the pods of capficum, and thus afford
a pickle, which is efteemed a valuable condiment in
the Indies, and is faid greatly to promote the appetite
and affift digeftion (fee Achiar). The ftalks in their
young (late are almoft folid, and contain a milky juice:
this is of a fweet nature ; and as the ffalks advance in
age, they become hallow, except at the joints, where
they are flopped by a woody membrane, upon which
this liquor lodges, and concretes into a fubftance called
Yabaxir, or fugar of Mombu, which was held in fuch
efteem by the ancients, in fome particular diforders,
that it was equal in value to its weight in filver. The
No, 30.
old ftalks grow to five or fix inches diameter, are then Arundo,
of a (hining yellow colour, and are fo hard and durable i Arufmi.
that they are ufed in buildings, and (hr making all v—
forts of houfehold furniture. Thefe when bored
through the membranes at their joints, are converted
into water-pipes. They ferve alfo to make the flicks
and poles with which the (laves or other perfons carry
thofe forts of litters which are called palanquins, and
are fo common and convenient in all the Eaft. The
fmaller ftalks are ufed for walking-flicks. The inha¬
bitants of Otaheite make flutes of them, about a foot
long, with two holes only, which they flop with the
firll finger of the left hand and the middle one of the
right, and they blow through their uoftrils. 5. The
arborea, with a tree like ftalk, differs from the former
only in having narrower leaves. 6. The orientalis is
what the Turks ufe as writing-pens ; it grows in a
valley near mount Athos, as alio on the banks of the
river Jordan. None of thefe plants are at prefent to
be found in Britain.
Culture. As all thefe plants grow naturally in low
marftiy lands, they muft be fupplied with plenty of
water. The fecond kind requires little care ; the third
is more delicate, and requires to be kept in pots. The
fourth, fifth, and fixth forts muft be prelerved in ftoves.
They are to be planted in tubs filled with rich earth,
and plentifully (upplied with water. When the tubs
decay they may be fuffered to grow into the tan, which
will encourage them to grow to a larger fize : but
care muft be taken, when the bed is refreflied with
new tan, to leave a fufficient quantity of old tan about
the roots of the plants ; for if they are too much bared
and the new tan laid near them, when that heats it
will fcorch their roots, fo that the plants are fome-
times deftroyed by it.
Arundo Saccharifera, or Sugar-cane. See Saccha-
rum.
ARUSINI campi (erfoneoufly written Taurajini
by Cluverius), plains in Lucania, famous for the laft
battle fought between the Romans and Pyrrhus. That
prince being at Tarentum, and hearing that the two
new confuls Curius Dentatus and Cornelius Lentulus
had divided their forces, the one including Lucania
and the other Sanmium ; he likewife divided a chofen
detachment of his army into two bodies, marching
with his Epirots againft Dentatus, in hopes of furpri-
fing him in his camp near Beneventum. But the con-
ful having notice of his approach, marched out of
his entrenchments with a ftrong detachment of legio¬
naries to meet him, repulfed his vanguard, put many
of the Epirots to the fword, and took fome of their
elephants. Curius, encouraged by this fuccefs, march¬
ed into the Arufiau fields, and drew up his army in a
plain, which was wide enough for his troops, but too
narrow for the Epirot phalanx to a£t with its full ef-
feft. But the king’s eagernefs to try his ftrength and
(kill wuth fo renowned a commander, ftimulated him
to engage at,that great difadvantage. Upon the firft
fignal the a^lion began; and one of the king’s wings
giving way, vidtory feemed to incline to the, Romans.
But that wing where the king fought in perfon repul.
fed the enemy and drove them to their intrenchments.
This advantage was in great part owing to the ele¬
phants ; a circurtaftance which Curius perceiving, com¬
manded a body of referve, which he had polled near
A R Z [38J] ASA
Arufpices the camp, to advance and attack thofe animals with
|| burning torches j which frightened and annoyed them
k tofuch a degree, that they wheeled about, broke into
' v * the phalanx, and put that body into the utmoft difor-
der. The Romans taking advantage of this confufion,
charged with fuch fury that the enemy were entirely
broken and defeated. Pyrrhus retired to Tarentum,
attended only by a fmall body of horfe, leaving the
Romans in full poffeffion of his camp ; which they fo
much admired, that they made it a model which they
followed ever after.
ARUSP1CES, or haruspices, in Roman anti¬
quity, an order of priefts who pretended to foretel fu¬
ture events by infpe&ing the intrails of viiRims killed
in facrifice j they were alfb confulted on occafion of
portents and prodigies. The harufpices were always
chofen from the bell families $ and as their employ¬
ment was of the fame nature as that of the augurs,
they were as much honoured. Their college, as well
as thofe of the other religious orders, had its particu¬
lar regifters and records.
ARX, in the ancient military art, a town, fort, or
caftle, for defence of a place.
The arx in ancient Rome was adiftindt edifice from
the capitol, though fome have confounded the two.
According to Ryckius, the arx, properly fpeaking,
was a place on the higheft partof the Capitoline Mount,
Rronger and better fortified than the reft, with towers
and pinnated walls: in which was alfo the temple of
Jupiter Capitolinus.
Arx alio denoted a confecrated place on the Pala¬
tine Mount, where the augurs publicly performed
their office. Some will have the arx to have been the
augural temple j but Varro exprefsly dilfinguifhes be¬
tween the two.
Arx was particularly ufed for a public place in
Rome, fet apart for the operations of the augurs. In
which fenfe arx amounts to the fame with what is
otherwife called auguraculum and auguratorium, and
in the camp augurale. Out of this arx it was that the
feciales, or heralds, gathered the grafs ufed in the ce¬
remony of making leagues and treaties.
Arx Brttannica, a citadel- of Batavia, whole foun¬
dation is feen at low water, near the old mouth of the
middle Rhine : fome imagine it the pharos or high
tower of Caligula, as Suetonius calls it; a monument
of Caligula’s fliam ednqueft of Britain. Others, that
it was built by Drufus, with an altar afterwards by
Claudius, on his expedition into Britain. But the
ufuat palfage was from Geflbriacum ; and Suetonius
exprefsly fays, Claudius pafled over thence. The an¬
cient name of this citadel, now covered by the fea, is
no where exprefled : Now commonly called ’t Huts
Britten, or Brittenburg ; that is, Arx Britannica ; but
from what authority does not appear.
ARYTENOIDES, in anatomy, the name of two
cartilages which, together with others, conflitute the
head of the larynx. It is alfo applied to fome mufcles
of the larynx.
ARYTHMUS, in medicine, the want of a juft mo¬
dulation in the pulle. It is oppoled to eurythmus, a
pulfe modulated agreeably to nature.
ARZILLA, a very ancient maritime town of A-
frica, in the kingdom of Fez, about five leagues from
Vob, II. Part I.
Tangiers. It is built at the mouth of a river, and in¬
habited by Moors and Jews, who carry on no trade.
It was formerly a Roman colony ; afterwards fell under
the government of the Goths, and was next taken by
the Mahometans. Alphonfo of Portugal, furnamed
the African, took it by aflauit iu 1471, and brought
away the prefumptive heir of the crown. Aiter that
prince came to the throne, he btfieged it, in 1508, with
100,000 men ; but was obliged to abandon the under¬
taking. However, at length the Portuguefe forfook it
of their own accord. W. Long. 5. 30 N. Lat. 35. 30.
AS, in antiquity, a particular weight, confifting of
1 2 ounces; being the fame with libra, or the Roman
pound. The word is derived from the Greek <*»?,
which in the Doric dialeft is ufed for in, one, q. d. an
entire thing ; though others will have it named as
quafi ees, becaufe made ofbrafs.
As was alfo the name of a Roman coin, tyhich was
of different weights and different matter in different
ages of the commonwealth.—Under Numa Pompilius,
according to Eufebius, the Roman money was either
of wood, leather, or fhells. In the time of Tullus
Hoftilius, it was of brafs ; and called as, libra, hbella,
or pondo, becaufe a&ually weighing a pound or 12
ounces. Four hundred and twenty years after, the firft
Punic war having exhaufted the treafury, they reduced
the as to two ounces. In the fecond Punic war, Han
tubal preffmg very hard upon them, they reduced the
as to half its weight, viz. to one ounce. And, laftly,
by the Papirian law, they took away half an ounce
more, and confequently reduced the tfjto the diminu¬
tive weight of half an ounce : and it is generally
thought that it continued the fame during the com¬
monwealth, and even till the reign of Vefpafian. The
as therefore was of four different weights in the com¬
monwealth. Its original ftamp was that of a fheep,
ox, or fow : but from the time of the emperors, it had
on one fide a Janus with two faces, and on the reverfe
the roftrum or prow of a fhip.
As was alfo ufed to denote any integer or wfyole.
Whence the Englifti word ace Thus as fignified the
whole inheritance; whence hceres ex ajje, the heir to
the whole eftate.
ASA, king of Judah, fucceeded his fathdr Abijam.
He pulled down the altars eredted to idols, reftored
the worfhip of the true God, and, with the afliftance
of Benhaded king of Syria, took feveral towns from
the king of Ifrael. He died 917 years before the Chri-
ftian aera, and was fucceeded by Jehofliaphat.
Asa, among naturalifts. The writers of the later
ages have formed this word afa from the lafar of the
ancients, and attributed it to a gum very different
from that anciently known by the name they have
thus corrupted.
The afa of the ancients was an odoriferous and fra«
grant gum ; and the afa of the after-ages had fo little
title to this epithet, that they diftinguiflved it by one,
expreffmg its being of an offenfive or ftinking fmell.
The Arabian writers, according to this diftindlion, de-
feribe two kinds of afa, the one ftinking, the other a-
romatic; and the modern Greeks prelerved the name
afa, or lafar, to the ftinking gum the Latins called by
that name, but added a diftindlive epithet to exprefs
its fmell, and called it fcardolafarum.
' 3 C Asa
ASA C 386
Asa or Ass a, in the materia medica, a name given
to two very different fubftances, called afa-dulcis and
j afa-fatida.
Asa Dulcis is the fame with Benzoin.
h-Sk-Fcetida is the concrete juice of a large umbelli¬
ferous plant growing in feveral parts of Afia the pro¬
perties of which are defcribed under the article Fe-
] A S B
ner, whence, according to Pliny, the denomination- ‘
ASAPH (St), a city in Flintfhire, with a bifhop’s
fee; on which account principally it deferves notice,
being in itfelf but a poor place. As a biflioprick, it is
of great antiquity, and was founded about the year
560, by Kentigern, a Scotfman, bilhop of Glafgow,
lie began the church on the banks of the river Elwy,
whence it is called by the Wellh Land Elwy, nnd in
Latin Elwenjis. Kentigern returning into Scotland,
left a holy man his fucceffor, St Afaph. Who was
his fucceilbr is uncertain, as there are no records that
mention it ^ and it feems rather probable that the re¬
ligious lettled here had been neceflitated to remove to
fome more peaceful abode, as the country was frequent¬
ly the feat of war between the Englidi and the Wellh.
This lee w-as formerly a very wealthy one ; but its re¬
venues were greatly leffened by the profufion of bilhop
Parfew, who alienated much of the lands belonging to
this bilhoprick.
This dioceie doth not contain any one whole county;
but confilts of part of Denbigh, Flint (where its church
is), Montgomery, and Merioneth (hires, and a fmall
part of Shroplhire 5 wherein are 121 pariflies, and 131
churches and chapels, moft of which are in the imme¬
diate patronage of the bilhop. This fee hath but one
archdeaconry, viz. that of St Afaph, which is united
to the bilhoprick, for the better maintenance thereof.
This fee is valued in the king’s books at L. 187 : 11,
6, but computed to be worth annually L. 1500. The
tenth of the clergy comes toL. 186 : 19 : 6-|. To this
cathedral belongs a bilhop, a dean, archdeacon, chan¬
cellor, &c.
ASAPPES, or Azapes, an order of foldiers in the
Turkifh army, whom they always expofe to the lirft
Ihock of the enemy ; to the end that the enemy being
thus fatigued, and their fwords blunted, the fpahis and
janifaries may fall on and find an ealy conqueft. The
word is derived from the Turkilh faph, which fignifies
rank, from whence they have formed afphaph, “ to
range in battle.” The afappes are faid to be held of
fo little value, that they frequently ferve as bridges for
the cavalry to pafs over in bad roads, and as fafcines
to fill up the ditches of places befieged. They travel
on foot, and have no pay but the plunder they can
get from the enemy.
ASAR-addon, or Esar-Haddon, the fon of Sen¬
nacherib, fucceeded his father about 712 years before
the Chriftian aera, and united the kingdoms of Nine¬
veh and Babylon. He rendered himfelf mailer of Sy¬
ria ; fent a colony to Samaria ; and his generals took
king Maneffes, and carried him loaded with chains to
Babylon. Afar Addon died after a reign of 12 years.
ASAR1NA. See Chelone.
ASA ROTA, arx^uTci, from * and vu^u, Ifweep, a
kind of painted pavements in ufe before the invention
of mofaic work. The moft celebrated was that at Per-
gamus, painted by Sefus, and exhibiting the appearance
of crumbs, as if the floor had not been fwept after din-
Perrault fuppofes them to have been a black kind of
pavements of a fpongy matter. i ,
ASARUM, asarabacca : A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of
plants. The calyx is trifid or quadrifid, and refts on
the germen j there is no corolla 5 the capfule is lea¬
thery and crowned.—The fpecies are three 5 the Eu-
ropeum, the Canadenle, and Virginicum. The firft
fpecies grows naturally in fome parts of England. It
hath thick flelhy jointed roots; the leaves grow fingly
upon jhort foot-ftalks, which arife immediately from
the root: the flowers grow upon very Ihort foot-ftalks
clofe to the ground, lb are hid under the leaves. They
have a bell lhaped impalement, of a worn out purple
colour, which is cut in three at the top, where it turns
backward. It delights in a moift lhady place, and
may be propagated by parting the roots in autumn.
The two other fpecies have no remarkable properties.
Medicinal Ufes. The dried roots of this plant have
been generally brought from the Levant 5 thofe of our
own growth being fuppofed weaker. Both the roots
and leaves have a nauleous, bitter, acrimonious, hot
tafte ; their fmell is ftrong, and not very difagreeable.
Given in fubftance from half a dram to a dram, they
evacuate powerfully both upw-ards and downwards. It
is faid, that tindhires made in fpirituous menftrua, pof-
fefs both the emetic and cathartic virtues of the plant;
that the extraft obtained by infpiffating thefe tinflures,
a<Rs only by vomit, and with great mildnefs; that an
infufion in water proves cathartic, rarely emetic ; that
aqueous decodions made by long boiling, and the wa¬
tery extradl, have no purgative or emetic quality, but
prove notable diaphoretics, diuretics, and emmena-
gogues.
The principal ule of this plant among us is as a fter-
nutatory. The root of afarum is perhaps the ftrongeft
of all the vegetable errhines, w hite hellebore itfelf not
excepted. Snuffed up the nofe, in the quantity of a
grain or two, it occafions a large evacuation of mucus,
and raifes a plentiful (pitting. The leaves are confi-
derably milder, and may he ufed to the quantity of
three, four, or five grains. Geoffrey relates, that after
fnuffing up a dofe of this errhiue at night, he has fre¬
quently obferved the difeharge from the nole to con¬
tinue for three days together ; and that he has known
a paralyfis of the mouth and tongue cured by one dofe.
He recommends this medicine in ftubborn dilorders of
the head proceeding from vifeid tenacious matter, in
palfies, and in loporific diftempers. The leaves are
the principal ingredient in the pulvis Jlernutatonus, or
pu/vis afari conipqjiius, as it is now called, of the (hops.
ASBAMEA, a fountain of Cappadocia, near Ty-
ana, facred to Jupiter, and to an oath. Though this
fountain bubbled up, as in a Hate of boiling, yet its
water was cold ; and never ran over, but fell back a-
gain : (Philoftratus, Ammian).
ASBESTOS, a fort of native foflile Hone, which
may be Iplit into threads and filaments, from one inch
to ten inches in length, very fine, brittle, yet fome-
what tradable, filky, and of a greyilh colour, not un¬
like talc of Venice. It is almoit infipid to the tafte,
indiffoluble in water, and endued with the wonderful
property of remaining unconfumed in the fire, which
only whitens it. There are fome forts of albeftos
whofe
A S B [ 387 ] A S C
Aibeftos. whofe filaments are rigid and brittle] others more
'•——r—-* flexible.
The induftry of mankind has found a method of
working this untoward mineral, and employing it in
divers manufactures, chiefly cloth and paper. The
manufacture is undoubtedly difficult enough. Pliny
calls the afb.'itos inventu rarum, textu difficilimum.
Wormius aflures us, that the method of making cloth
of atbeflos is now entirely unknown. And indeed
one would fcarce imagine the thing practicable, with¬
out the mixture of tome other pliant matter, as wool,
hemp, or flax, along with the atbeftos, the filaments
of this latter appearing too coarfe and brittle to make
any tolerable fine work. However this be, Bapt. Por¬
ta-affures us, that in his time the fpinning of afbeftos
was a thing known to every body at Venice. Sig. Ca-
ftagnatta, liiperintendant of fome mines in Italy, is
faid to have carried the manufacture to fuch perfection,
that his afbeffos was foft and trad able, much refcmbiing
lamb-fkin dreffed white', he could thicken and thin it
at pleafure, and thus either make it into a very white
fkin or a very white paper.
This kind of linen cloth was chiefly efteemed by the
ancients j though then better known and more com¬
mon than among us, being held equally precious with
the richeft pearls : nor is it now of mean value, even
in the country where it is molt generally made, a Chi¬
na cover (7. e. a piece of 23 inches and three-quarters
long) being worth 80 tale, ?. e. L. 36 : 13 :4. Pliny
fays, he himfelf had feen napkins thereof, which, be¬
ing taken foul from the table after a feaff, were thrown
into the fire, and by that means were better fcoured
than if they had been waflied in water, &c. But its
principal ufe, according to Pliny, was for the making
of fhrouds for royal funerals, to wrap up the corple,
fo that the alhts might be preferved diftinCI from thofe
of the wood, fife, whereof the funeral pile was com-
pofed : and the princes of Tartary, according to the
accounts in the Philofophical Tranladions, flill ufe it
at this day in burning their dead. Some of the an¬
cients are faid to have made themfelves clothes of it,
particularly the Brachmans^imong the Indians. The
wicks for their perpetual lamps, according to Dr Li-
iter, were a’fj made of it : lome to this day ule it for
the wicks of fuch lamps as they would not have any
trouble with ; becaufe the afbeflos never vvafling, there
is no occafion for Ihifting the wick. Septalla, canon
of Milan, had thread, ropes, nets, and paper, made of
the afbellos. A handkerchief or pattern of this linen
was long fince prefented to the Royal Society, a foot
long and half a foot broad. This gave two proofs of
its refifting fire ] though, in both experiments, it loft
above three drams in its weight. When taken out
red-hot, it did not burn a piece of white paper on which
it was laid. Mr Villette pretends that his large burn¬
ing concave ufually vitrifies the aibeftos.
The method of preparing the incombuflible paper
and cloth is thus deferibed by Ciampini : The ftone is .
laid to foak in warm water } then opened and divided
by the hands, that the earthy matter may be waflied
out. The ablution being feveral times repeated, the
flax-like filaments are colleffed and dried j and they
are meft conveniently fpun with an addition of flax.
Two or three filaments of the afbeftos areeafily twill¬
ed along with the flaxen thread, if the operator’s fin¬
gers are kept oiled. The cloth alfo, when woven, is Afcafou
belt preferved by oil from breaking or wafting. On ||
expofure to the fire, the flax and the oil burn out, and Afcendant--.
the cloth remains pure and white. Probably from the v
diflipation of fome extraneous matter of this kind
proceeded the diminution of weight in the handker¬
chief jult recited 5 fur pure afbeftos leaves nothing.
The ihorter filaments which feparate in wafting tin
flone may be made into paper in the common mannen
The afbeftos is found in Crete and Cyprus j in Tar
tary j at Namur in the Low Countries ; in Thuringia
among the mines j in the Old Noricum 5 in Egypt ;
in the mountains of Arcadia ; at Puteoli > in the ifland
ol Corfica 3 in the ifland of Anglefey in Wales j in
Aberdeenlhire in Scotland ; at Montaubon in France >
and in the kingdom of Siberia.
ASCALON, an ancient city, and one of the five
fatrapies or principalities of the Philiftines j fituated
on the Mediterranean, 43 miles to the fouth-weft of
Jeruialtm (Antonine), between Azotus to the north
and Gaza to the fouth. ’1 he birth-place of Herod
the Great, thence furnamed yffcclonita (Stephanos).
Famous tor its fcallions, which take name from this
town (Strabo, Pliny). Now Scalona. E. Lomw 24.
30. Lat. 31. 30.
A SCAN I US, the fon of ./Eneas and Creufa, fuc-
ceeded his father in the kingdom of the Latins, and
defeated Mezentius king of the Tufcans, who had re-
fufed to conclude a peace with him. At length he
founded Alba Longa j and died about 1139 years be-
lore the Chriilian tera, after a reign of 38 years.
ASCARIS, in zoology, a genus of infers belonging
to the order of vermes intellina. The body of the
afearis is cylindrical, filiform, and tapers at both ends.
The fpecies are two, viz. 1. The vermicularis, with Plate LIT.
faint annular rugae, and the mouth tranfverfe, is about
a quarter of an inch long, and thicker at one end than
the other. It is found in boggy places, in the roots
of putrid plants, and very frequently in the reftum of
children and horfes. It emaciates children greatly, and
is fometimes vomited up. 2. The lumbricoides is a-
bout the fame length with the lumbricus terreftris, or
common earth-worm j but it wants the protuberantring
towards the middle of the body, the only mark by
which they can properly be diftinguifhed. 1’he body
of the lumbricoides is cylindrical, and Tubulated at
each extremity j but the tail is fomewhat triangular.
I he lumbricoides is the worm which is moll commonly
found in the human inteftines. It is viviparous, and
produces vaft numbers. For the method of expelling
thel’e two kiqds of inlefls, lee MEmciNE-IWifiv.
ASCENDANT, in allrology, denotes the horo-
fcope, or the degree of the ecliptic which rifes upon
the horizon at the time of the birth of any one. This
is fuppofed to have an influence on the perfon’s life
and fortune, by giving him a bent and propenfity to
one thing more than another.
In the celeftial theme, this is alfo called the Jirft
houfe, the angle of the Eajl or Oriental angle, and the
Ji^nfiiator of life.— Such a planet ruled in his afeen
dant : Jupiter was in his afeendant, &c.—Hence the
word is alfo ufed in a moral fenfe, for a certain fupe-
riority which one man has over another, from fome
unknown caufe.
ASCENDANTS, in law, are oppofed to defeendants
3 C 2 in
A S C l 388 ] A S C
Amending, jn fucceffion 5 i. e. when a father fucceeded his fon, or
Afcenfion, an uncle nephew, &c. heritage is faid to afcend, or
v go to afcendants.
ASCENDING, in aftronotny, is faid of fuch liars
as are riling above the horizon in any parallel of the
equator.
Ascending Latitude, is the latitude of a planet when
going towards the north pole.
Ascending Node, is that point of a planet’s orbit,
wherein it pafles the ecliptic, to proceed' northward.
This is otherwife called the northern node, and repre-
fented by this chara&er
Ascending in anatomy, thofe - which carry
the blood upwards; as the aorta alcendens. See
Anatomy, n° 123.
ASCENSION, in altronomy, is either right or ob¬
lique. Right afcenfion of the fun, or a liar, is that de¬
gree of the equinodlial, counted from the beginning of
aries, which riles with the fun or liar in a right fphere.
Oblique afcenfion is an arch of the equator intercepted
between the firll point of aries and that point of the
equator which rifes together with a liar in an oblique
Iphere.
Ascension Day, a fellival of the Chrillian Church,
held ten days before Whitfuntide, in memory of our
Saviour’s afcenfion into heaven after his refurree‘tion.
Ascension IJIand, a barren ifland on the coaft of
Africa, lying in W. Long. 17. 20. S. Lat. 7. 5.
The following account is given of it by Mr Forlter.
u This ifland was firll dilcovered in 1501, by Joa” de
Nova Galego, a Portuguefe navigator, who named it
Jlha de Nojfa Senbora de Conce/fao. The fame admi¬
ral on his return to Portugal in 1502, difcovered the
ifland of St Helena, which obtained that name from
the day of the difcovery. Alcenfion was feen a fecond
time by Alfonfo d’Albuquerque on his voyage to In¬
dia in 1503, and then received the name it now bearsj
but was already at that time in the fame defolate con¬
dition as at prefent. We fent feveral parties on fliore,
who pafled the night on the watch for turtles, which
came to lay their eggs on the fandy fhores. The
drearinefs of this ifland fufpafled all the horrors of Ea-
(ler Ifland and Tierra del Fuego, even without the af-
liltance of fnow. It was a ruinous heap of rocks, many
of which, as far we could dilcern from the Ihip, Teem¬
ed to be totally changed by the fire of a volcano.
Nearly in the centre of the ifland rifes a broad white
mountain of great heigRt, on which we difeerned fome
verdure by the help of our glafles, from whence it has
obtained the name of Green Mountain.
“ We landed early in the morning among fome
rocks, the fiurf being always immenfely high on the
great beach ; which confifts of minute Ihell-fand, chiefly
of a fnowy white, very deep, dry, and intolerable to
the eyes when the fun fhines. We afeended among
heaps of black cavernous flone, which perfeflly re-
fembles the moll common lavas of Vefuvius and Ice¬
land, and of which the broken pieces looked as if they
had been accumulated by art. The lava currents cool¬
ing very fuddenly, may eafily be imagined to produce
fuch an effecfl. Having afeended about 12 or 15 yards
perpendicular, we found ourfelves on a great level plain
of fix or eight miles in circuit ; in the different corners
of which we obferved a large hill of an exa£t conical
fliape, and of a reddifh colour, Handing perfedlly infu-
lated. Part of the plain between thefe conic hills was Afcenfion,
covered with great numbers of fmaller hillocks, confift- —v——'
ing of the fame wild and ragged lava as that near the
fea, and ringing like glafs when two pieces are knock¬
ed together. The ground between the heaps of lava
was covered with a black earth, on which we walked
very firmly ; but when thefe heaps did not appear, the
whole was a red earth, which was fo loofe, and in fuch
dry minute particles, that the wind railed clouds of
dud upon it. The conic hills confifted of a very dif¬
ferent fort of lava, which was red, foft, and crumbling
into earth. One of thefe hills (lands diredtly in front
of the bay, and has a wooden crofs on its fummit, from
whence the bay is faid to take its name. Its fides are
very deep, but a path near three quarters of a mile
long winds round it to the fummit. After examining
this remarkable country a little longer, we concluded,
with a great degree of probablity on our fide, That the
plain on which we dood was once the crater or feat of
a volcano, by the accumulation of whole cinders and
pumice-dones the conic hills had been gradually form¬
ed : that the currents of lava which we now faw divi¬
ded into many heaps, had perhaps been gradually bu¬
ried in frelh cinders and adies $ and the waters coming
down from the interior mountain in the rainy feafon
had fmoothened every thing in their way, and filled up
by degrees the cavity of the crater. The rocky black
lava was the refidence of numberlefs men of war birds
and boobies, which fat on their eggs, and fuffered us
to come clofe to them.
“ About eight in the evening, it being then quite
dark, a fmall veflel came into the bay, and anchored
direflly within us. Captain Cook having hailed her
repeatedly, received in anfwer that (lie was the Lucre-
tia, a New York Hoop, which had been at Sierra Leon,
and was now come to catch turtles, in order to fell
them at the windward iflands of the Weft Indies. A
lieutenant was fent on board, who learned from the
mafter, that he had taken our (hip to be a French In-
diaman, and was very defirous of trading with Englifti
India (hips, in which he was difappointed by the com¬
pany’s regulations. He dined with our officers the
next day, but on the 31ft at day-break left the ifland.
On the 30th in the morning, we landed a fecond time j
and, eroding the plain, arrived at a prodigious lava-
current, interfedled by many channels from fix to eight
yards deep, which bore ftrong marks of being worn
by vaft torrents of water, but were at prefent perfedtly
dry, the fun being in the northern hemifphere. In
thefe gullies we found a fmall quantity of foil confiding
of a black volcanic earth, mixed with fome whitilh
particles gritty to the touch. Here we faw fome fmall
bunches of purflane, and a fpecies of grafs {panicum
fanguineuni) which found fufficient nutriment in the
dry foil. Having at laft, with great fatigue, climbed
over this extenfive and tremendous current of lava,
which was much more folid than the heaps nearer to
the fea, we came to the foot of the Green Mountain,
which even from the (hips place in the bay we had
plainly diftinguifhed to be a different nature from all
the reft of the country. Thofe parts of the lava which
furrounded it were covered with a prodigious quantity
of purflane, and a kind of new fern (Jonchites Adfcen-
Jionis), where feveral flocks of wild goats were feed¬
ing. The great mountain is divided in its extremities,
A S C [ 389 l A S G
Afcenfion by various clefts, into (everal bodies; but in the centre
II they all run together, and form one broad mafs of
great height. The whole appears to confift of a grit-
" 1'~" ’ ty tophaceous lime ftone, which has never been at¬
tacked by the volcano, but probably exifted prior to
its eruption ; its fides are covered with a kind of grafs,
peculiar to the ifland, which Linnaeus has named ari-
JUda Adfcenjionis. We likewife obferved feveral flocks
of goats feeding on it 5 but they were all exceffively
(hy, and ran with furprifing velocity along tremendous
precipices, where it was impoflible to follow them.
The matter of the New-York floop acquainted us, that
there is a fpring of water on one part of this mountain,
which falls down a great precipice, and is afterwards
abforbed in the fand. I am almott perfuaded, that,
with a little trouble, Afcenfion might fliortly be made
fit for the refidence of men. The introduftion of
furze (ulex Europceus'), and of a few other plants
which thrive beft in a parched foil, and are not likely
fo be attacked by rats or goats, would foon have the
fame effeff as at St Helena. The moifture attraded
from the atmofphere by the high mountains in the
centre of the ifland, would then no longer be evapora¬
ted by the violent adion of the fun, but colled into
rivulets, and gradually fupply the whole ifland. A
fod of grafles would every where cover the furface
of the ground, and annually increafe the flratum of
mould, till it could be planted with more ufeful vege¬
tables.
“ We returned gradually to Crofs Bay, in the heat
of noon, over the plain ; having a fpace of more than
five miles to traverfe, where the fun burnt and blifter-
ed our faces and necks, and heated the foil to fuch a
degree, that our feet were likewiie extremely fore.
About three o’clock we arrived at the water’s fide ;
and after bathing in a fm?ll cove among a few rocks,
we made the fignal for a boat, and were taken on
board. The next forenoon we made another fmall
excurfion, in company with Captain Cook, towards
the Green Mountain ; but we were all of us fo muck
fatigued, that we could not reach it. We made no
new obfervation^in the courfe of this day, the nature
of the ifland being dreary beyond defcription in its
outfkirts.”
ASCENSIONAL difference, the difference be¬
tween the right and oblique afcenfion of the fame point
to the furface of the fphere.
ASCENT, in a general fenfe, implies the motion
of a body upwards, or the continual recefs of a body
from the earth. The Peripatetics attribute the fpon-
taneous afcent of bodies to a principle of levity inhe¬
rent in them. The moderns deny any fuch thing as
fpontaneous levity ; and ffiow, that whatever afcends,
does it in virtue of fome external impulle or extrufion.
Thus it is that fmoke and other rare bodies afcend in
the atmofphere ; and oil, light woods, &c. in water j
not by any external principle of levity, but by the fu-
perior gravity or tendency downwards of the parts of
the medium wherein they are. The afcent oi light bo¬
dies in heavy mediums is produced after the fame'man-
ner as the afcent of the lighter fcale of a balance. It
is not that fuch fcale has an internal principle whereby
it immediately tends upwards; but it is impelled up¬
wards by the preponderancy of the other fcale ; the ex-
cefs of the weight of the one having the fame effedf,
by augmenting its impetus downwards, as fo much APceirt
real levity in the other ; by reafon the tendencies mu- ||
tually oppofe each other, and that aftion and reaction Attham.
are always equal. w’”“
Ascent of Bodies on Inclined Planes, the reader will
find explained under Mechanics ; Afcent of Fluids,
under Hydrostatics} and Afcent of Vapours, under
the article Evaporation.
ASCESIS, properly denotes exercife of the bo¬
dy. It is formed from the verb aarx-en, ufed by the
ancients in fpeaking of the fports and combats of the
athletae.
Ascesis is alfo ufed by philofophers, to denote an
exercife conducive to virtue, or to the acquiring a
greater degree of virtue. This is particularly deno¬
minated the philofophical afeejis, btcaufe practifed
chiefly by philofophers, who make a more peculiar
profefiion of improving themfelves in virtue } on the
model whereof, the ancient Chrittians introduced a re¬
ligious Afcefis.
ASCETERIOM, in ecclefiaftical writers, is fre¬
quently ufed for a monaftery, or place fet apart for the
exercifes of virtue and religion- The word is formed
from afeejis, “ exercife }” or afeetra, “ one who per¬
forms exercife.” Originally it fignified a place where
the athletae or gladiators performed their exercifes.
ASCETIC, an ancient appellation given to fuch
perfons as, in the primitive times, devoted themfelves
more immediately to the exercifes of piety and virtue,
in a retired life } and particularly to prayer, abfti-
nence, and mortification. The word is demed from
ae-Kta, exercto, “ I exercife.” Afterwards, when the
monks came in fafliion, this title was beftowed upon
them ; efpecially upon fuch of them as lived in fo-
litude.
Ascetic is alfo a title of feveral books of fpiritual
exercifes.—As, the Afciatics, or devout exercifes of
St Bafil, archbiftiop of Caefarea in Cappadocia.
We alfo fay the afcehc life, meaning the ex-ercile of
prayer, meditation, and mortification.
ASCH AFENBURG, a town of Germany, feated
on the river Maine, in the circle of the lower Rhine,
and territory of the ele&or of Mentz, who has a pa¬
lace there. It is memorable for being the place
where the king of Great Britain’took up his quarters
the night before the battle of Dettingen. E. Long. 9.
35. N. Lat. 50. 14.
ASCHAM (Roger), was born at Kirby-Wiflce,
near North Allerton in Yorkfliire, in the year 1516.
His father was fteward to the noble iamily of Scroop.
Our author Roger was educated in the family of Sir
Anthony Wingfield, who, about the year 1530, lent
him to St John’s College, Cambridge, where he was
foon diftinguiflied for his application and abilities. He
took his degree of Bachelor of Arts at the age of 18,
was loon after elefted fellow of his college, and in
i536 proceeded Matter of Arts. In 1544, he was
chofen univerfity orator } and, in 1548, was fent for
to court, to inftruiR the lady Elizabeth (afterwards
queen) in the learned languages. In the year 1550,
he attended Sir Richard Moryfine, as fecretary, on his
embafly to the emperor Charles V. at whofe court he
continued three years, and in the mean time was ap¬
pointed Latin fecretary to king Edward VI. But
upon the death of that prince, he loft his preferment
A S C [ 390 ] A S C
Afcham, and all his hopes, being profefTedly of the reformed
l!_ religion j yet, contrary to his expectations, he was
Afci1, _ Toon after, by the intereft of his friend lord Paget,
v made Latin lecretary to the king and queen. In June
1554, he married Mrs Margaret How, a lady of a
good family, with whom he had a confiderable for¬
tune. It is very remarkable of Mr Ai'cham, that, tho’
he was known to be a Proteifant, he continued in fa¬
vour not only with the miniftry of thofi: times, but
w ith Queen Mary herfelf. Upon theacceflion of Queen
Eliy.abeth, he was not only confirmed in his poll of
Latin fecretary, but was conftantly employed as pre¬
ceptor to her Majefty in the Greek, and Latin lan¬
guages. He died in the year 1568,-muclt regretted,
efpecially by the Queen, who faid fhe had rather have
loft L. 10,000. Camden and fome other writers tell us,
that he had a great propenfity to dice and cock-fight¬
ing. He certainly died poor.—He wrote,
1. Toxophilus. The fchole or partitions of {hoot¬
ing, contayned in two bookes, written by Roger Af¬
cham, 1544, and now newly peruled. Pleafaunt for
all gentlemen and yeomen of England, &c. Lond.
1571. Whilft at the univerfity he was fond of ar¬
chery by way of exercife and anmfement, for which
he was cenfured; and on that account he fat down to
write this book, which was dedicated to Henry VIII.
who fettled a penfion of L. 10 per annum on the au¬
thor. It is rather whimfical ; but is admirably well
written and full of learning. 2. A report and dif-
courfe, written by Roger Afcham, of the affairs and
ftate of Germany, and the Emperor Charles his court,
&c. 410. A valuable curiofity. 3. The fchoolmafter.
Firfl: printed in 1573, 4to. Mr Upton publiftied an
edition with notes in 1711. It has uncommon me¬
rit ; abounding in great good fenfe, as well as know¬
ledge of ancient and modern hiftory : it is alfo expref-
five of the great humanity of the author, who was
for making the paths of knowledge as level and plea-
fant as poflible, and for trying every gentle method of
enlarging the mind and winning the heart. 4. Latin
epiftles. Firft publiihed by Mr Grant 1576 ; have
fince paffed many editions : the belt is that of Qxford
in 1705. Much admired on account of the ftyle, and
efteemed almoft the only claffical work of that kind
written by an Englilhman. 5 Apologia contra mif-
fam. 1577, 8vo.
ASCIBURGIUM (anc. geog.), mentioned by Ta¬
citus, fuppofed to be one of the 50 citadels built on
the Rhine ; who adds, fome imagined it was built by
Ulyfles. Here was a Roman camp and agarrifon. To
its fituation on the banks of the Rhine anfwers a i’mall
hamlet, now called /Jjburg, not far from Meurs, in the
duchy of Cleves. ■
AbCIDlA, a genus of animals belonging to the or¬
der of vermes mollufca. The body is cylindrical, and
fixed to a (hell, rock, &c. It has two apertures; one
on the fummit, the other lower, forming a Iheath.
There are fixfpecies of this animal, viz. thepapillofum,
gelatinofum, inteftinalis, quadridentata, ruftica, and
* PlateLV. echinata ; only one of which, viz. the ruftica *, is
found in the Britifli feas. Animals of this genus have
the faculty of fquirting out1 the water they take in.
The expanfion and contradion of their bodies occafion
their afluming various forms.
ASCII, among geographers, an appellation given
to thofe inhabitants of the earth who, at certain feafons
of the year, have no ftiadow ; fuch are all the inhabi¬
tants of the torrid zone, when the fun is verticle tothem.
ASCITAL (from a bag or battle), in antiquity,
a led or branch of Montanifts, who appeared in the
fecond century. They were fo called, becaufe they
introduced a kind of Bacchanals into their affemblies,
who danced round a bag or fliin blowedupj faying,
they were thofe new bottles, filled with new wine
whereof our Saviour makes mention, Matth. ix. 17.—
They are fometimes alfo called Afeodrogita.
ASCITES, in medicine, the dropfy of the abdo¬
men. See MEDiciNE-fWriv.
ASCLEP1A, a teftival of Aifculapius the god of
phyfic, obferved particularly at Epidaurus, where it
was attended with a conteft between the poets and
muficians, whence it was likewife called Isgs< Ay«v,
the /acred contention.
ASCLEP1AD, in ancient poetry, a verfe compo-
led of four feet, the firft of which is a fpondee, the ie-
cond a choriambus, and the two lait dad\ Is} or of
four feet and a caelura, the firft a fpondee, the fecond
a dadyl, after which comes the caelura, then the two
dadyls ; as, Maecenas at avis edite regibus.
ASCLEPIADES, one of the molt celebrated phy-
ficians among the ancients, was a native of Prufa, in
Bithynia 5 and pradifed phyfic at Rome, under Pom-
pey, 96 years before the Chriftian ama. He was the
head of a new fed 5 and, by making ufe of wine and
cold water in the cure of the fick, acquired a very
great reputation. He wrote feveral books, which are
frequently mentioned by Galen, Celfus, and Pliny j
but they are now loft.
Asclepiadks, a famous phyfician under Hadrian,
of the fame city with the former. He wrote feveral
, books concerning the compofition of medicines $ both
internal and external.
ASCLEPIAS, Swallow-wort : A genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants $ and in the natural method ranking under the
30th order, Contortee. The generic charader is taken
from five oval, concave, horn-like nedaria which are
found in the flower. The
Species are 19 ; of which the following are the moft
remarkable. 1. The alba, or common fwallow-wort,
has a root compofed of many ftrong fibres connected at
top like thofe of afparagus, from whence arife many
ftalks, in number proportional to the fize of the roots,
which grow two feet high, and are very llender at the
top: the haves are placed oppofite by pairs j the
flowers are white, growing in umbels near the top of
the ftalk, from whence are lent out fmaller umbels.
After the flower is paft, the two germens become long
pointed pods, incloling many comprelled feeds lying
imbricatim, which are crowned with a loft white down.
It flowers in June, and the feeds ripen in September.
It is a native of the fouth of France, Spain, and Italy.
2. The Syriaca, or greater Syrian doglbane, is a pe¬
rennial plant, which fends up leveral upright ftalks in
the fpring, about two feet high, garniihed with oval
leaves growing oppofite j at the top of the ftalks the
umbels of flowers are produced, which are of a bright
purple colour, making a pretty appearance, but are
not fucceeded by pods in England. 3. The curraflavi-
ca, or baftard ipecacuanha, is a native of the warm parts
of
A S C L 391 1 ASH
Afclepias of America. It rifes to the height of five or fix feet,
|| with upright ftems, and fmooth oblong leaves placed
Afcriptitib 0pp0fUe. Toward the top of the branches the umbels
' of flowers come out, which itand eredl : the petals of
the flowers are of a fcarlet colour, and the horny nec-
tariums in the middle are of a bright faffron colour,
which make a pretty appearance 5 and there is a fuc-
ceffion of flowers on the lame plant from June to Octo¬
ber. The flowers are fucceeded by long taper pods,,
filled with feeds crowned with a loft down, which ripen
late in autumn. The firft two-fpecies are hardy ; but
the laftoneis tender, and therefore mull be prelerved
in a ftove.
Medicinal U/es, S<c. The root of the firft fpecies is
ufed in medicine. It is reckoned by botanills a ipe-
cies of doglbane; from all the poifonous forts of
which it may be diftinguilhed, by yielding a limpid
juice, whilft that of the others is milky. The root
has a ftrong fmell, efpecially when freth, approaching
to that of valerian, or nard ; the tafte is at firft
fweetifh and aromatic, but foon becomes bitterifti, fub-
acrid, and naufeous. This root is efteemed fudorific,
diuretic, and emmenagogue : it is alfo frequently em-
ftoyed by the French and German phyficians as an a-
exipharmic, and fometimes as a fuccedaneum to con-
trayerva, whence it has received the name of contray-
erva Germanorum. Among us it is very rarely made
ufe of: it appears from its fenfible qualities to be a me¬
dicine of much the fame kind with valerian, which is
indifputably preferable to it. The root of the third
fpecies has been fometimes fent over from America
inftead of that of ipecacuanha, and mifchievous effefls
have been produced by it. Thole who cultivate
this plant ought to be careful that none of its
milky juice mix with any thing which is taken in¬
wardly.
ASCODUTAE, in antiquity, a fe<51 of heretics, in
the fecond century, who rejetfted all ufe of fymbols and
facraments, on this principle, That incorporeal things
cannot be communicated by things corporeal, nor di¬
vine myfteries by any thing vifible.
ASCOLI, formerly /Ifcitlum Apulum, a pretty large
and populous town of Italy, in the marche of Ancona,
and territory of the church ; it is a biftiop’s fee, and
feated on a mountain, at the. bottom of which runs the
river fronto. E. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 42. 47.
Ascoli de Satriano, formerly Afculutn Picenum, an
epifcopal city of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples;
feated on a mountain. E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 42. 8.
ASCOLIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival cele¬
brated by the Athenian hufbandmen in honour of Bac¬
chus, to whom they facrifice a he goat, becaufe it de-
ftroys the vines {Ovid Fajl. i. 357) j and, to Ihow the
greater indignity to an animal hated by Bacchus, the
pealants, after having killed him, made a foot-ball of
his fkin. Virgil has beautifully defcribed the occafion
of the facrifice, and manner of celebrating the feftival,
Georg, ii. 380.
ASCPvIPTITII, or Adscriptitii, were' a kind of
villeins, who, coming from abroad, fettle in the lands
of fome new lord, whofe fubjefts or fervants they com¬
mence ; being lb annexed to the lands, that they may
be transferred and fold with the fame. Alcriptitii is
fometimes alfo ufed in fpeaking of aliens or foreigners
newly admitted to the freedom of a city or country.
AscttipriTU was alfo ufed in the military laws for Afcuptuu
the recruits appointed to fupply the lofles of the legions, II
called al fo Accenfi. . Alh-
ASCR. 1VTUM (^anc. geog.),-a town of Dalmatia,
on the Sinus Rhiztcus (Pliny, Ptolemy) : Now Ca/-
taro (tdarduin) 5 the capital of the territory of Cat-
taro, in Venetian’Dalmatia. E. Long. 19. 20. Lat.
45- 25;
AbCULUM apulum (anc. geog.), a town of A-
pulia, much mentioned in the war with Pyrrhus (Flo-
rus, Plutarch) : Now called Afcoli •, a city of the Capi-
tanata, in the kingdom of Naples. E. Long. 16. 30.
Lat. 41. 15.
Asculum Picetuim (anc. geog.), a town of the Pi-
ceni (Caefar) ; and the capital (Floras) : Now Afcolifm
the march of Ancona, on the river Tronto. E. Long.
15. 5. Lat. 42. 50.
ASCYRUM, peter’s-wort : A genus of the poly-
andria order, belonging to the polydelphia clafs of
plants $ and »u the natural method ranking under the
20th order, Rotacece. The calyx confifts of four leaves 5
the corolla has four petals ; the filaments are numerous,
and divided into four bundles. There are three fpe¬
cies, the crux andreae, the hypericoides, and the vilio-
fum, all natives of the Weft Indies or America, but
pofi'efling no property worthy of notice.
ASDRUBAL, the name of feveral Carthaginian
generals. See Carthage.
ASEKI, or Asekai, the name which the Turks
give to the favourite fultanefles who have brought forth
ions. Thefe are greatly diftinguilhed above others in
their apartments, attendants, penfions, and honours.
They have fometimes fhared the government. The
fultana who firft prefents the emperor with a male child,
is reckoned the chief favourite, is called buyut afeki,
and ranks as a legitimate wife : though, from the time
of Bajazet I. the fultans are forbid to marry by a pu¬
blic law, which Solyman II. violated in favour of Ro-
xalana. \
ASELLUS, in zoplogy, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of onifcus. See ^niscus.
ASGILL (John), \ late humourous writer, was
bred to the law, and prRtffifed in Ireland with great
fuccefs. He was there elected a member of the houfe
of commons, but was expelled for writing a treatife on
the poflibility of avoiding death ; and being afterwards
chofen a member for the borough-of Bramber in Suf-
fex, he was alfo on the fame account-expelled the par¬
liament of England. After this, he coiTtmued 30
years a prifoner in the Mint, Fleet, and King’s-bench ;
during which time he publiftied a multitude of fmall
political pamphlets, feveral of which were in defence of
the fucceflion of the houfe of Hanover, and againft the
pretender. He died in the rules of the King’s bench,
in the year 1738, when he was upwards of foorfcore.
ASH, in botany. See Fraxinus.
Asu-Hole, among chemifts, is the loweft part of a
furnace ; and is intended to receive the aflies falling
from the fire, and to give a paflage to the air which is
to be introduced into the furnace, to keep up the com-
buftion.
Ash Wednefday, the firft day of Lent 5 fuppofed to
have been fo called from a cuftom in the church, of
fprinkling allies that day on the heads of penitents them
admitted to penance. See Lent.
ASH,
asm [ 392 ] ASM
ASHRORN, a town in Derbyfliire, feated between
the rivers Dove and Compton, over which there is a
j flone bridge, in a rich foil. It is a pretty large town,
though not fo flourifhing as formerly. W. Long. 1. 35.
N. Lat 53. o.
ASHBURTON, a town in Devonflnre. It fends
two members to parliament, and is one of the four ftan-
nery towns. It is feated among the hills, which are
remarkable for tin and copper ; and has a very hand-
fome church ; as alfo a chapel, which is turned into a
fchool. It gives title of Baron to Dunning the late
folicitor-general, whofe fon notv enjoys it. W. Long. 3.
10. N. Lat. 50. 30.
ASHBY de la zouch, a market-town in Leicefler-
fhire, fituated in W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 52. 40. It
had a caftle which was long in the pofleflion of the fa¬
mily of de la Zouch. It afterwards fell into the hands
of Edward IV. who granted it to Sir Edward Haftings,
created baron HafHngs, with licence to make a caftle
of the manor-houfo, to which he adjoined'a very high
tower. It was demolifhed in 1648 ; but a great part
of the tower is ftill flanding. It now belongs to the
Earl of Huntingdon.
ASHDOD, or Azotus. See Azores.
ASHES, the earthy particles of combuftible fub-
ftances after they have been burnt.
If the afhes are produced from vegetable bodies, they
contain a confiderable quantity of fixed fait, blended
with the terrene particles : and from thefe afhes the
fixed alkaline falls called pot-ajh, pearl-ajh, &c. are ex¬
tracted. See Potash, &c.
The afhes of all vegetables are vitrefiable, and found
to contain iron.—They are alfo an excellent manure
for cold and wet grounds. See Agriculture,
n° 20.
Several religious ceremonies depend upon the ufe of
afhes. St Jerome relates, that the Jews in his time
rolled themfelves in afhes, as a fign of mourning. To
repent in fackcloth and afhes, is a frequent expreffion
in Scripture for mourning and being afflided for our
fins. There was a fort of lye and luftral water made
with the a flies of an heifer facrificed upon the great
day of expiation ; the afhes whereof were diftributed
to the people, and this water was ufod in purifications,
as often as any touched a dead body, or was prefent at
funerals, (Numb. xix. 17.) Tamar after the injury
received from her brother Amnon, covered her head
with afhes, (2 Sam. xiii. 19.) The Ffalmift in great
fotrow (ays, that he had eaten afhes as if it were bread,
(Pf. cii. 9.) $ which, however, is to be confidered as
an hyperbole. He fat on alhes, he threw afhes on his
head j his food, his bread, was fpoiled with the afhes
wherewith he was covered.
The ancient Perfians had a fort of punifhment for
fome great criminals, which confifted in executing them
in afhes. The criminal was thrown headlong from a
tower 50 cubits high, which was filled with afhes to a
particular height, (2 Mac. xiii. 5, 6.) The motion
which the criminal ufod to difengage himfelf from this
place, plunged him Hill deeper into it, and this agita¬
tion was further increafod by a wheel which ilirred the
allies continually about him till at lait he was ftifled.
ASHFORD, a market-town of Kent, fituated about
12 miles fouth-wefl of Canterbury, in E. Long. 45. and
N. Lat. 51. 15.
No. 30,
ASHLAR, a term ufod among builders 3 by which Aflilat
they mean common or free Hones, >as they come out of i|
the quarry, of different lengths and thickneffes. Afhm .le
ASHLF.RING, among builders, fignifies quarter-
ing, to lath to, in garrets, about two and a half, or
three feet high, perpendicular to the floor, up to the
under fide of the rafters.
ASHMOLE (Elias), a great antiquary and herald,
founder of the Afhmolean mufseum at Oxford, was born
at Litchfield in Staffordfhire, 1617. In the early part
of his life, he prachfod in the law j and in the civil war
had a captain’s commiflion under the king, and was alfo
comptroller of the ordinance. He married the lady
Mninwaring in 1649, and fettled at London 3 where
his houfo was frequented by all the learned and inge¬
nious men of the time. Mr Alhmole was a diligent
and curious coiledfor of manuferipts. In the year 1650,
he publifhed a treatife written by Dr Arthur Dee, re¬
lating to the philofbpher’s ftone 3 together with ano¬
ther trad! on the fame fubjedt, by an unknown author.
About the fame time, he was bufied in preparing for
the prefs a complete colledtion of the works of fuch
Engliftichemiflsas had till then remained in manui'eript.
This undertaking colt him great labour and expence ;
and at length the work appeared, towards the clofo of
the year 1652. He propoled at firft to have carried it
on to leveral volumes 3 but he afterwards dropped this
defign, andfeemed to take a different turn in his fludies.
He now applied himfelf to the fiudy of antiquity and
records : he was at great pains to trace the Roman road,
which in Antoninus’s Itinerary is called Bennevanna,
from Weedon to Litchfield, of which he gave Mr Dug-
dale an account in a letter. In 1638, he began to
colled! materials for his hiftory of the order of the gar¬
ter, which he lived to finifh, and thereby did no lefs
honour to the order than to himfolf. In September
following, he made a journey to Oxford, where he fot
about giving a full and particular defeription of the
coins prefonted to the public library by Archbifoop
Laud.
Upon the reftoration of King Charles II. Mr Afh-
mole was introduced to his majefly, who received him
very gracioufly 5 and on the 18th of June 1660, bellowed
on him the place of Windfor herald. A few days after,
he appointed him to give a defeription of his medals,
which were accordingly delivered into his poffeffion,
and King Henry Vlil.’s clofet was afligned for his ufo.
On the 15th of February, Mr Aflunole was admitted a
fellow of the royal fociety 3 and, on the 9th of Febru¬
ary following, the king appointed him fecretary of Su¬
rinam, in the Weft Indies. On the 19th of July 1699,
the univerfity of Oxford, in confideration of the many
favours they had received from Mr Aftimole, created
him doblor of phyfic by diploma, which was prefonted
to him by Dr Yates, principal of Brazen Nofe college.
On the 8th of May 1672, he prefonted his “ Itiftitution,
laws, and ceremonies of the moil noble order of the
garter,” to the king 3 who received it very gracioufly,
and as a mark of his approbation, granted him a
privy foal for L. 400 out ot the cuftom of paper. On
the 26th January 1679, a fire broke out in the Middle
Temple, in the next chamber to Mr Aihmole’s, by
which he loft a noble library, with a colledion of 9000
coins, ancient and modern, and a vaft repofitory of
foals, charters, and other antiquities and curiofities 3
but
A S I [ 393 J A S 1
but bis manufcripts and his moft valuable gold medals
were luckily at his houle at Lambeth. In 1683, the
univerfity of Oxford having finifhed a magnificent re-
pofitory near the theatre, Mr Afhmole fent thither his
curious colledron of rarities ; which benefa<51ion was
confiderably augmented by the addition of his manu-
fcripts and library at his death, which happened at
Lambeth, the 18th of May, in the 76th year of his
age. He was interred in the church of Great-Lam-
beth, in Surry, on the 26th of May 1692, and a black
marble ftone laid over his grave, with a Latin infcrip-
' tion.
Befides the works which we have mentioned, Mr
Afhmole left feveral which wrere publifhed fince his
death, and fbme which remain ftill in manufcript.
ASIA, is one of the three general parts of our con¬
tinent, and one of the four of the whole earth. It is
feparated from Europe by the Mediterranean fea, the
Archipelago, the Black Sea, the Palus Meotjs, the
Don, and the Dwina, which fall into the White Sea ;
and from Africa, by the Arabic Gulph or Red Sea, and
the Iflhmus of Suez. All the other parts are furround-
ed by the ocean. The late difcoveries (how that it does
not join to America, though it extends very near it :
(See America, n°- 105.). It is fituated between 44
and 196 degrees of eaft longitude, and 1 and 74 de¬
grees of north latitude. From the Dardanelles to the
moft eaftern ftiore of Tartary, it is 4740 miles in
length 5 and from the moft fouthern point of Malacca
to the moft northern point of Nova Zembla, it is
4380 miles in breadth.
This vaft extent of territory was fucceflively govern¬
ed in paft times by the Afljrrians, the Medes, the Per-
fians, and the Greeks ; but the immenle regions of
India and China were little known to Alexander, or
the conquerors of the ancient world. Upon the de¬
cline of thofe empires, great part of Afia fubmitted to
the Roman arms ; and afterwards, in the middle ages,
the fucceflbrs of Mahomet, or, as they are ufually cal¬
led, Saracens, founded in Afia, in Africa, and in Eu
rope, a more extenfive empire than that of Cyrus,
Alexander, or even the Roman when in its height of
power. The Saracen greatnefs ended with the death
of Tamerlane; and the Turks, conquerors on every
fide, took pofleffion of the middle regions of Afia,
which they ftill enjoy. Befides the countries poflefted
by the Turks and Ruffians, Afia contains at prefent
three large empires, the Chinefe, the Mogul, and the
Perfian ; upon which the leffer kingdoms and fove-
reigntiesof Afia generally depend. The prevailing
form of government in this divifion of the globe is ab-
folute monarchy. If any of them can be (aid to en¬
joy fome (hare of liberty it is the wandering tribes,
as the Tartars aud Arabs. Many of the Afiatic na¬
tions, when the Dutch firft came among them, could
not concejve how it w aspoflible for any people to live
under any other form pf government than that of'a
defpotic monarchy, Turky, Arabia, Perfia, part of
Tartary, and part of India, profefs Mabmpetanifm.
'I he Perfian and Indian Mahometans are of the fedt of
Hah, and the others of that of Omar; but both own
Mahomet for their law-giver, and the Koran for their
rule of faith and life. In the other parts of Tartarv,
India, China, Japan, and the Afiatic Iflands, they are
generally heathens and idolaters. Jews are to be found
every where in Afia. Chriftianity, though planted
here with wonderful rapidity by the apoftles and pri¬
mitive fathers, fuffered an almoft total ecliple by the
conquefts of the Saracens, and afterwards of the Turks.
Incredible indeed have been the hazards, perils, and
■ fufferings of popifh miffionaries, to propagate their
dodfrines in the moft diftant regions, and among the
groffeft idolaters; but their labours have hitherto fail¬
ed of iuccefs, owing in a great menfure to their own
avarice, and the avarice and profligacy of the Euro¬
peans, who refort thither in fearch of wealth and do¬
minion.
AGa may be divided info the following parts :
Turky in Afia, Arabia, Perfia, the Mogul’s Empire)
with the two peninfulas of the Ii.dies ; Tibet, China)
hnd Korea ; Great and Little Buckaria, with Korafin ;
Tartary, Siberia, and the ifiands. The principal lan¬
guages fpoken in Afia are, the modern Greek, the
Turkifti, the Ruffian, the Tartarian, the Perfian, the
Arabic, the Malayan, the Chinefe, and the Japaneie,
The European languages are allb (poken upon the
coafts of India and China.
Afia is looked upon as that part of the world which,
of all others, has been moft peculiarly diftinguifhed by
heaven. There it was the firft man was created ; there
the patriarchs lived, the law was given to Mofes, and
the greateftand moft celebrated monarchies wTere form¬
ed ; from thence the firft founders of cities and na¬
tions in other quarters of the world brought their co¬
lonies. Laftly, in Afia Jefus Chrift appeared : there
it was that he wrought the falvation of mankind," that
he died and rofe again ; and from thence it is that the
light of the gofpel was diffuled over all the world.
Laws, arts, fciences, and religion, altnoft all had their
original in Afia.
As Afia exceeds the other two parts of our conti¬
nent, Europe and Africa, fo it is fuperior to them in
the lerenity of its air, the fertility of its foil, the deli-
cioufhefs of its fruits, the fragrancy and balfainic qua¬
lities pf its plants, Ipices, and'gums ; the falubrity of
its drugs"; the quantity, variety, beauty, and value of
its gems; the richneis of its metals, and the finenels of
its filks and cottons. A great change indeed hath hap¬
pened in that part of it called Turky, which hath loft
much of its ancient fplendor, and from the moft po¬
pulous and beft cultivated fpot in Afia, is become a
wild and uncultivated defert. The other parts of Afia
continue much in their former condition ; the foil be¬
ing as remarkable for its fertility, as moft of the inha¬
bitants for their indolence, effeminacy, and luxury.
This effeminacy is chiefly owing to the warmth of
the climate, though in fome meafure heightened by
cuftom and education; and the fymptoms of it are
more or lefs vifible as the feveral nations are feated
nearer or farther from the north. Hence the Tartars,
who live near the fame latitudes with us, are as brave,
hardy, ftrong, and vigorous, as any European nation.
What is wanting in the robuft frame of their bodies
among the Chinefe, Mogul Indians, and all the inha¬
bitants of the .more fouthern regions, is in a great
meafure m^de up to them by the vivacity of their
minds, anti ingenuity in various kinds of workmanfhip,
which our moft fkilful mechanics have in vain endea¬
voured to imitate.
The chief rivers of Afia are, the Euphrates and Ti¬
ft D Sris»
I
A S I [ 39+ ] A S L
gris, in Turky 5 the Indus and Ganges, in India ; the
II Kiang and Hoang ho, in China; the Sir Amu and
> la' , Wolga, in Weftern Tartary ; the Saghalia Ula or A-
mur, in Eaftern 1'artary ; the Irtifh, Oby, Jenifea.
and Lena, in Siberia. The lakes are, that prodigious
one called the Cafpian Sea ; and near that another very
large one, but lately known to us, called Aral, or the
lake of eagles. The Baykal is in Siberia, the Kokonor
near Tibet, and the Tong Ping in China. The chief
mountains are, the Taurus in Turky and Perfia ; the
Imaus, between India and Tibet; and the Altay, in
Tartary.
^ The Afiatit iflands are very numerous, infbmuch
that fome reckon 150,000 ; but of this there is no cer¬
tainty. However, the;y may be divided into thofe of
the call, weft, * fouth and fouth-eaft. Thofe that lie
on the eaft of Afia are, the iflands of Jeflb or Yedfo,
and Japan, with feveral fmall ones on the coaft of Ko¬
rea, the ifland of Formofa, and the Philippines. Thole
on the weft are, the illand of Cyprus, in the Mediter¬
ranean ; ScanderoonjOfFNatolia, and the ifle of Rhodes
off Phifchio, on the fame coaft. Thofe on the fouth
are, the ifles of the Maldives, in the Indian Sea; the
ifle of Ceylon, off Cape Komorin ; with a great many
fmall ones in the gulph of Bengal. Thofe on the fouth-
eaft are, the ifles of Sandi, as Sumatra, the ifles of Ja¬
va, Borneo, &c. the Moluccas, the ifles of Kumbava,
Timor, &c.
AJia Minor, or LeJJ'er AJia ; the fame with Nato-
^ lia. See Natolia.
ASIARCHiE, (termed by St Paul, Chief of AJia,
Acts xix. 31.) were the Pagan Pontifs of Afia, chofen
to fuperintend and have the care of the public games;
which they did at their own expence : for which rea-
fon they were always the richeft and molt confiderable
men of the towns.
ASIDE, in the drama, fomething laid by "an ac¬
tor, wdiich fome, or even all the other aftors prefent,
are fuppofed not to hear ; a circumftance juftly con¬
demned as being unnatural and improbable.
ASIITO, » town of Italy, in Perugia, and in the
Pope’s territories. E. Long. 23. 40. N. Lat. 43. o.
ASILUS, or Hornet-fly, a genus of infedts be¬
longing to the order of infedta diptera. It has two
wings ; and a horny, ftrait, two-valved beak. There
are 17 Ipecies of this infedl. Many of them wound
in a very painful manner, and are particularly trouble-
fome to cattle in low meadows; others of them are
quite harmlefs. See Plate L1V.
ASINARA, an ifland of Italy, on the weftern coaft
of Sardinia. E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat. 41. o.
ASINIUS (Pollio), conful and Roman orator, di-
ftinguilhed himfelf under Auguftus by his exploits and
his literary works. He is frequently mentioned with
praifes by Horace and Virgil, and is faid to have col-
ledled the firft library at Rome. He died at Frefcati,
at 80 years of age.
ASIONGABER, Esiongeber, or Eziongeber,
a town of Arabia Petraea, on the bay of Elath, a part
of the Arabian Gulf; the dock or ftation for the ftiips
of Solomon and Jehofaphat; an ancient town, men¬
tioned alfo by Mofes. It was afterwards called Be¬
renice, (Jofephus).
ASISIA, or Assisia, a town of Liburnia (Ptole¬
my, Antonine), now in ruins, but exhibiting many
monuments of antiquity. It is the Affefia or Afferia Afifa
of Pliny. This author, after having fpecified the Li- ||
burnian cities that were obliged to attend the congrefs Aihni
or diet of Scar dona, adds to the catalogue the free u’—v—
Afferians, immunefque Afferiates ; and this people who
created their own magiftrates, and were governed by
their own municipal laws, were no doubt more rich
and powerful than their neighbours.
The veftiges of the walls of Afferia that ftill remain,
are a fufficient proof of this ; for their circumference
is clearly diftinguilhable above ground, and meafures
3600 Roman feet. The 1'pace inclofed by them forms
an oblong polygon, and they are built with common
Dalmatian marble; but not taken from the hill on
which they Hand, for that furnishes only foft ftone.
The walls are invefted, both infide and out, with this
marble : fome of the ftones are ten feet long, and they
are of all confiderable dimenfions. The thicknefs of
thefe fortifications is commonly about eight feet : but
at thenarroweft extremity, which falls towards the foot
of the hill, they are eleven feet thick ; and, in fome
parts, their height ftill above ground reaches to near
30 feet. An antiquary, or eVen a Ample lover of the
fine arts, or of erudition, the Abbe Fortis obferves,
cannot help wilhing at Podgraje (the modern name of
Afferia), that fome powerful hand quicquidfub terra
efl in apricum proferit: and fuch a wilh becomes
ftronger when he refleifts, that fince the deftrudlion of
that city no fearch has ever been made under ground,
with a view to difcover any thing curious; and yet
thefe walls without doubt inclofe a valuable depofite
of antiquities, thrown down in heaps, who knows by
what caufe ; perhaps naturally, by an earthquake, or
perhaps by a fudden inundation of barbarians, which
is ftill worfe. The gate now demoliftied, the confider¬
able height of the walls to be feen in feveral places
from without, fome pieces of thick walls that ftill ap¬
pear levelled to the ground among the bufhes, are cir-
cumftances which give ground to hope that many coft-
ly monuments might be recovered out of thefe ruins.
The magnificence of the remaining wall, and the ma¬
ny pieces of well-cut ftone and fine marble fcattered
over the contiguous fields, afford I'ulhcient proof that
both good tafte and grandeur once flourdhed in that
country. In the midit of the rubbilh which covers the
remains of Afl'eria, the parifli-church of the little vil¬
lage Hands infulated; it is built of broken pieces of
ancient ruins, taken as they happened to be neareft,
mixed with mutilated infcriptions, and fragments of
noble cornices.
ASKELON. See Ascalon.
ASKERON, a place five miles from Doncafter,
noted for a medicinal fpring. It is a ftrong fulphure-
ous water, and isflightly impregnated with a purging
fait. It is recommended internally and externally in
ftrumous and other ulcers, fcabs, leprofy, and fimilar
complaints. It is good in chronic obftru£Uons, and
in cafes of worms and foulnefs of the bowels.
ASISIO, or Asitio, a city of the Pope’s territo¬
ries in Italy, fituated about 16 miles eaft of Perugia.
E. Long. 13. 35. N. Lat. 43.
ASKRIG, a town in the N. Riding of Yorkfhire.
W. Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 53. 50.
ASLANI, in commerce, a filver coin, worth from
115 to 120 afbers. See Asper.
ASMONEUS,
A S O C 39i; J A S 0
ASMONEUS, or Assamoneus, the father of Si- ibrus, or Hazor, a town of GaliJee ; called the capi-
mon, and chief of the Afmoneans, a family that reign- tal of all the kingdoms to the north of Paleftine. It
ed over the Jews during 126 years. was taken by Jofhua ; the inhabitants were put to the
ASNA, or Esna, a town in upper Egypt, feated fword, and their houfeis burnt. It was afterwards re-
upon the Nile, believed by fome authors to be the an- built (Judges, 1 Sam.) ; but remained ftill in the hands
cient Syena, though others fay the ruins of it are ftill
to be feen near Aftuan. It is fo near the catarafls of
the Nile, that they may be heard from thence. It con¬
tains feveral monuments of antiquity 5 and among the
reft an ancient Egyptian temple, pretty entire, all
painted throughout, except in fome places that are ef¬
faced by time. The columns are full of hieroglyphic
figures. This fuperb ftrutfture is now made ufe of for
a liable, wherein they put oxen, camels, and goats. A
little way from thence are the ruins of an ancient nun¬
nery, faid to be built by St Helena, furrounded with
tombs.—Afna is the principal town in thefe parts, and
the inhabitants are rich in corn and cattle. They drive
a confiderable trade into Lower Egypt and Nubia, by
means of the Nile, and alfo by the caravans that pafs
over the Defart. The inhabitants are all Arabs, ex¬
cept about 200 Copts, the ancient inhabitants, and
of the Canaanites, though in the lot of the tribe of
Naphthali, (jolTiua). It lay to the north of the La-
cus Samachonites, called in Scripture the Waters of
Merom, (Jofephus).
ASOW, a celebrated and important fortrefs ofRuf-
fia, once a place of confiderable tfade, but now demo-
lilhed. It was fituated in thedillridl of Bachmut, near
the place where the Greeks many centuries ago built,
the city of Tanais, which was very famous for its trade,
and underwent many viciflitudes. The Genoefe, who
fettled a trade with Ruffia feon after the difcovery of
Archangel by Captain Chancellor, became mailers of
this place, and gave it the name of Tana, or Catana :
but the Tartars, who were very powerful in thele parts,
Ipem to have been in polleffion of it long before ; for,
as.Bufching informs us, there are Afow coins yet ex¬
tant, on which is the name of Taktamyfs-Kan. From
fort of Chriitians. They are under the government of the Genoefe it fell into the hands of the Turks, loft
the Turks, who have a cadi, and the Arabs have two
ftieriffs of their own nation. E. Long. 31. 40. N. Lat.
38. i5*
ASOLA, a town of the Breflan. in Italy, belonging
to the republic of Venice. E. Long. 14. 18. N. Lat.
45- I5-
ASOLO, a town of Italy, in the Trevifan, feated
on a mountain 17 miles north weft of Trevifan, and
10 north-eaft of BalTano. E. Long. 12. 2. N. Lat. 45.
49.
ASOPH, a town of Coban Tartary, in Alia, feated
on the river Don, near its mouth, a little to the call
of the Palus Mceotis^ or Sea of Azoph. It has been
its trade and became an inconfiderable town. In 1637,
it was taken by the Coflacks, who defended it againll
the Turks in 1641, and next year let fire to it, and blew
it up. The Turks rebuilt it with ftrong fortifications,
7’he Ruffians laid claim to it in 1672, and took jt in
1696; but, by the treaty of Pruth in 1711, it wasre-
ftored to the Turks. In 1736, the Ruffians became
mailers of Afow ; but by the treaty of Belgrade they
were obliged to relinquilh it, and entirely deftroy the
place. ,
ASP, in natural hiftory, a fmall poifonous kind of
ferpent, whole bite gives a fpeedy but eafy death. It
is laid to be thus denominated from the Greek caxmsy
feveral times taken and retaken of late years ; but in Jhie/d, in regard to the manner of its lying convolved
1739, the contending powers agreed that the fortific a
tions Ihould be demohlhed, and the town remain under
the dominion of Ruffia. E. Long. 41. 30. N. Lat. 471
18.
ASOPUS, a river of Phrygia Major, which, toge¬
ther with the Lycus, walhes Laodicea, (Pliny).—Ano¬
ther of Boeotia, which running from mount Cithaeron,
and watering the territory of Thebes, feparates it from
the territory of Platsea, and falls with an eaft courle in¬
to the Euripus, at Tanagra. On this river Adraftus
king of Sicyon built a temple to Nemefis, thence
called Adrajleia. From this river Thebae came to be
furnamed Afopides, (Strabo). It is now called Afopo.
... A third Afopus, a river of Peloponnefus, which runs
by Sicyon, (Strabo) } and with a north weft courfe
falls into the Sinus Corinthiacus, • to the weft of Co-
rfiith.—A fourth, a fmall river of the Locri Epicne-
midii, on the borders of Theflfaly, (Pliny) ; riling in
Mount Oeta, and falling into the Sinus Maliacus.
Asopus, a town of Laconica, (Paufanias) 5 on the
Sinus Laconicus, with a port in a peninfula, between
in a circle, in the centre of which is the head, which it
exerts, or railes, like the umbo or umbilicus of a buck¬
ler. This fpecies of ferpent is very frequently men¬
tioned by authors ; but fo carelefsly deferibed, that it is
not eafy to determine which, it any of the fpecies known
at prefent, may properly be called by this name. It is
faid to be common in Africa, and about the banks of
the Nile ; and Bellonius mentions a fmall fpecies of ler-
pent which he had met with in Italy, and which had a
fort of callous excrefcence on the forehead, which he
takes to have been the afpis of the ancients. It is with
the afp that Cleopatra is laid to have difpatched herfelf,
and prevented the defigns of Auguftus, who intended
to have carried her captive to adorn his triumphal en¬
try into Rome. But the fa£l is contelled : Brown
places it among his vulgar errors. The indications of
that queen’s having ufed the miniftry of the afp, were
only two almoll inlenfible pricks found in her arm j
and Plutarch fays it is unknown what Ihe died of. At
the fame time, it mull be obferved, that the flightnels
of the pricks found in her Arm furuilhes no prefumption
Boae to the eaft, and the mouth of the Eurotas to the againft the fa<ft ; for no more than the prick of a needle-
weft. 1'he citadel only remains Handing, now called ‘ J' ‘ ' ' '' rr . c 1 |
by the failors Cajlel Rampano.
ASOR, or Razor (anc. geog.), a town of the
tribe of Judah, to the fouth-weft, on the borders of
Afcalon, (Jolhua); as alfo Hafor-Hadata, tranflated
by the feventy Atrugrt Ecct/n (id).—Another Afor, A-
point dipt in the poilbn was neceflary for the purpofe.
See the article Seapent.
Lord Bacon makes the afp the lead painful of alt
the inftruments of death. He fuppoles it to have an
affinity to opium, but to be lefs difagreeable in its ope¬
ration j and his opinion feems to correlpond with the
3 D 2 accounts
A S P [396
Afpa accounts of moft writers, as well as with the effects de¬
li fcribed to have beea produced upon. Cleopatra } for
Asparagus. vvflich fee the article already referred to.
v 1'he ancients had a plafler called £1 KTirdw, mad'e of
tliis terrible animal, of great efficacy as a difcutient of
ftrumae and other indurations, and ufed likewife againft
pains of the gout. The flefii and fldn, or exuviae, of
the creature, had alfo their (hare in the ancient mate¬
ria medica.
ASFA, a town of Parthia, (Ptolemy); now Ifpa-
han, (Holffenius). In Ptolemy the latitude feems to
agree, being 33° 5 hut whether the longitude does, is
a queftion. E. Long. 51. Lat. 32, 30.
ASPALATHUS, African broom : a genus of the
decandria order, belonging to tjie diadelphia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
q2d order, Papilionacece. The calyx confifts of 5 <!i
vifions : the pod is oval, and contains 2 (eeds. Of this
genus there are 19 fpecies ; all of which are natives
of warm climates, and muff be preferved in floves by
thofe who would cultivate them here. The role-
wood, whence the oleum rhodii is obtained, is one of
the fpecies, but of which we have yet had no particu¬
lar defcription. The wood is heavy, oleaginous, fome-
„ what (harp and bitter to the tafte, of a ftrong fmell
and purple colour. It is called rofe-wood or lignum
Rhodium, either on account of its fweet fmell, or of its
growth in the ifland of Rhodes. It was anciently in
much repute as an aftringent, ftrengthener, and drier;
but it is now difufed in internal practice. It affords
an oil of an admirable fcent, reputed one of the beft
of perfumes : it is chiefly ufed in fcenting pomatums
and liniments.
ASPARAGUS, sparagus, sperage, or sparrow-
grass : A genus of the monogynia order, belonging
to the hexandria clafs of plants; and in the natural
method ranking under the nth order, Sarmentacece.
The calyx is quinquepartite, and ereft ; the 3 in¬
ferior petals are bent outwgrds; the berry has 3 cells,
and contains 2 feeds.—The fpecies are 10; but the
only one cultivated in the gardens is that with an up¬
right herbaceous flalk, briftly leaves, and equal ftipu-
la, or the common afparagus. The other fpecies are
kept only in the gardens of the curious for the fake of
variety.
Culture. The garden afparagus is with great care
cultivated for the u!e of the table. The propagation
of this ui'eful plant is from feed ; and as much of the
fucctfs depends upon the goodnefs of the feed, it is
much better to fave it than to buy it at the (hops. The
manner of faving it is this : Mark with a flick fome of
the faireft buds ; and when they are run to berry, and
the flalks begin to dry and wither, cut them up’; rub
off the berries into a tub, and pouring water upon them,
rub them about with your hands ; the hufks will break
and let out the feed, and will fwim away with the water
in pouring it off; fo that in repeating this two or three
times, the feeds will be clean wafhed, and found at the
bottom of the tub. Thefe muft be fpread on a mat
to dry, and in the beginning of February muft be fown
on a bed of rich earth. They muft: not be fown too
thick, and muft be trod into the ground, and the earth
raked over them fmooth : the bed is to be kept clear
of weeds all the fommer ; and in October, when the
] ASP
(talks are withered and dry, a little rotten dung triuft Afparagus.
be fpread half an inch thick over the whole furface of
the bed. The fpring following, the plants will be fit
to plant out for good ; the ground mufl therefore be
prepared for them by trenching it well, and burying
a large quantity of rotten dung in the trenches, fb
that it may lie at lead fix inches below the lurface of
the ground : when this is done, level the whole plot
exactly, taking out all the loofe ftones. This is to be
done juft at the time when the afparagus is to be plant¬
ed out ; which muft be in the beginning of March, if
the foil is dry and the feafbn forward ; but in a wet
foil, it is better to wait till the beginning of April,
which is about the feafon that the plants are begin-
niug to (hoot. The feafon being now come, the roots
muff be carefully taken up with a narrow-pronged
dung-fork, (baking them out of the earth, feparating
them fronr-each other, and obferving to lay all their
heads even, for the more convenient planting them ;
which muft be done in this manner. Lines muft be
drawn at a foot diflance each, ftraight acrofs the bed ;
thefe muft be dug into fmall trenches of fix inches deep,
into which the roots muft be laid, placing them againft
the fides of the trench with their buds in a right pofi-
tion upwards, and fo that, when the earth is raked
over them, they may be two inches under the furfaee
of the ground. Between every four rows a -fpace of
two feet and a half fliould be left for walking in, to
cut the afparagus. When the afparagus is thus plant¬
ed, a crop of onions may be (own on thegrouffd, which
will not at all hurt it. A month after this, the afpa¬
ragus will come up, when the crop of onions muft be
thinned, and the weeds carefully cleared away. About
Auguft the onions will be fit to pull up. In Oftober
following, cut off the (hoots of the afparagus within
two inches of the ground, clear well all weeds away,
and throw up the earth upon the beds, fo as to leave
them five inches above the level of the alleys. A row
of colworts may be planted in the middle of the alleys,
but nothing muft be now fown on the beds. In the
fpring the weeds muft be hoed up, and all the fummer
the beds kept clear of weeds. In October they muft
be turned up, and earthed again, as the preceding fea¬
fon. The fecond fpring after planting, fome of the
young afparagus may be cut for the table. The larger
ihoots fhould only be taken, and thefe fhould be cut at
two inches under ground, and the beds every year ma¬
naged as in the fecond year. Bnt as fome people arc
very fond of early afparagus, the following direiffions are
given by which it may be obtained any time in winter :
Plant fome good roots at one year old in a moift rich
foil, about eight inches apart ; the fecond and third
years after planting, they will be ready to take up for
the hot beds; thefe fhould be made pretty ftrong, a-
bout three feet thick, with new ftable dung that has
fermented a week or more; the beds muft be covered
with earth fix inches thick ; then againft a ridge made
at one end, begin to lay in your plants, without trim¬
ming or cutting the fibres, and between every row lay
a little ridge of fine earth, and proceed thus till the
bed is planted ; then cover the bed two inches thick
with earth, and encompafs it with a ftraw-band, and
in a week, or as the bed is in the temper, put on the
frames and glades, and lay on three inches thick of
frefh
ASP C 397 ] ASP
.Afpaft*, frefh earth over the beds, and give them air and add
Afoafti* frcfh jreat to as jt requires. Thefe beds may be
cum' , made from November till March, which will laft till
the natural grafs comes on.
Medicinal U/es. The roots have a bitteritli muci¬
laginous tafte, inclining to fweetnefs; the fruit has
much the fame kind of tafte ; the young (hoots are
more agreeable than cither. Afparagusjjromotes ap¬
petite, but affords little nourifhment. It gives a ftrong
ill fmell to the urine in a little.time after eating it, and
for this reafon chiefly is fuppofed to be diuretic : it is
likewife efteemed aperient and debbftruent; the root
is One of the five called opening roots. Some fuppofed
the (hoots to be moft efficacious ; others, the root; and
others, the bark of the root. Stahl is of opinion that
none of them have any great (hareof the virtues usual¬
ly afcribed to them. Afparagus appears from expe¬
rience to contribute very little either to the exciting of
urine when (upprefted, or increafing its difchatge ; and
in cafes where aperient medicines generally do fervice,
this has little or no effeift.
ASPASIA o/-Miletus, a courtefan who fettled
at Athens under the adminiftration of Pericles, and one
of the moft noted ladies of antiquity. She was of ad¬
mirable beauty : yet her wit and eloquence, (fill more
than her beauty, gained her extraordinary reputation
among all ranks in the republic. In eloquence (lie
furpaffed all her contemporaries j and her converfation
was fo entertaining andinftru&ive,that notwith(landing
the diflionourable commerce (he carried on in female
virtue, perfons of the firft diffin£lion,male and female,
reforted to her houfeas loan academy : (he even num¬
bered Socrates among her hearers, and admirers. She
captivated Pericles in fuch a manner, that he diimiffed
his own wife, in order to efpoufe her ; and, by her
univerfal knowledge, irrefiftibleelocution, and intrigu¬
ing genius, (lie in a great meafure influenced the admi-
niffration of Athens. She was accufed. of having
excited, from motives of perfonal refentment, the war
of Peloponnefus ; yet, calamitous as that long and
obftinate conflift proved to Greece, and particularly
to Athens, it may be fulpe£led that Afpafia occafion-
ed dill more incurable evils to both. Her example,
and (fill more her inftru£tfons, formed a fchool at A-
thens, by which her dangerous profeflion was reduced
into fyftem. The companions of Afpafia ferved as
models for painting and ftatuary, and themes for po¬
etry and panegyric. Nor were they merely the ob-
jefts, but the authors of many literary works, in which
they eftabliffied rules for the behaviour of their lovers,
particularly at table ; and explained the art of gain¬
ing the heart and captivating the affeiftions. The drefs,
behaviour, and artifices of this clafs of women, became
continually more fedudtive and dangerous; and A-
thens thenceforth remained the chief fchool of vice
and pleafure, as well as of literature and philofophy.
A^pasia, among ancient phyficians, a conftri&ive
medicine for the pudenda muliebria. It confided only
of wool, moiftened with an infufion of unripe galls.
ASPASTICUM, (from “ I falute,” in
ecclefiaftical writers), a place, or apartment, adjoining
to the ancient churches, wherein the bhhop and prefby
ters fat, to receive the falutations of the perfons who
came-tovifit them, defire their bleffing, or confult
them on bufinefs.—This is alfo called afpaticum dia-
conicttn?, receptoriurn, metatorium, or mefatorium, and A(pe&
falutatorium : in Englifli, “ greeting-houfe.” 11
ASPECT, in aflronomy, denotes' the fituation of. ~ 1 ^rus°
the planets and ftars with re(pe<ft to each other.
There are five different afpefts. i. Sextile afpedl is
when the planets or ftars are 6o° dillant and marked
thus *. 2. The quartile, or quadrate, when they are
90° diftant, marked □. 3. Trine, when 120° diftant,
marked A. 4. Oppofition, when 18c0 diftant, mark¬
ed °. And, 5. Conjundlion, when both in the fame
degree, marked d-
Kepler, who added eight new ones, defines afpeft
to be the angle formed by the rays of two ftars meet¬
ing on the earth, whereby their good or bad influence
is meafured : for it is to be obferved, that thefe afpefts
being firft introduced by aftrologers, were diftinguifh-
ed into benign, malignant, and indifferent; the quar¬
tile and oppofition being accounted malign ; the trine
and fextile, benign or friendly ; and the conjunction,
indifferent.
ASPEN-tr.ee, in botany; See Populus.
ASPER, in grammar, an accent peculiar to the
Greek language, marked thus (') ; and importing, that
the letters over which it is placed ought to be ftrong-
ly afpirated, or pronounced as if an h were joined with
them.
Asper, or dfpre, in commerce, a Turkifli coin,
three of which make a Medine.
ASPER A arteri a, in anatomy, the fame with the
windpipe or trachea. See Anatomy, n° 116.
ASPERIFOLIATE, or asperifolious, among
botanifts, fuch plants as are rough-leaved, having their
leaves placed alternately on their ftalks, and a mono-
petalous flower divided into five parts.—They confti-
tute an order of plants in the Fragmenta methodi na-
turalis of Linnaeus, in which are thefe genera, viz.
tournefortia, cerinthe, (ymphytum, pulmonaria, an-
chufa, lithofpermum, myoiotis, heliotropium, cyno-
gloffum afperugo, lycopfis, echium, borrago : magis
minufve olearceee, mucilaginofee, isf glutinoja: funt. Lin.
In the prefent fyftem, thele are among the pentandria
monogynia.
ASPER 1 FOLIiE plantae, rough-leaved plants.
The name of a clafs in Herrfiannus', Boerhaave, and
Ray’s methods, confiding of plants which have four
naked (eeds, and whole leaves are rough to the touch.
In Tournefort’s Syftem, thefe plants conftitute the
third feftion or order of the fecond clafs; and in Lin-
nseus’s Sexual method, they make a part of the pen¬
tandria monogynia.
ASPERITY, the inequality of the furface of any
body, which hinders the hand from pafling over it
freely—From the teftimony of fome blind perfon-, it
has been fuppofed that every colour hath its particular
degree of afperity : though this has been denied by
others. See the article Blind.
ASPEROSA, a town ofTurky, in Europe ; it is
a biftiop’s fee, fituated on the coaft of the Archipela¬
go. E. Long. 25. 20. N. Lat. 40. 58.
ASPERUGO, small wild dug loss, in botany:
A genus of the pentandria monogynia clafs; and in
the natural method ranking under the 49th order, Af-
perifoHce. The calyx of the fruit is comprefled, with
folds flatly parallel, and finuous. There are two fpe-
ciers, viz. the procumbens, or wild buglos, a native of
Britain j
ASP [ 398 1 ASP
Afpertila, Britain ; and the Egyptiaca, a native of Egypt. Hor-
Afphaltites pes^ gCatS) (heep, and fwine eat the firft fpecies j cows
v are not fond of it.
ASPERULA, woodroof : A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants}
and in the natural method ranking under the 47th or¬
der, Stellatce. The corolla is infundibuliform ; and the
capiule contains two globular feeds. There are two
ipecies, the cynanchica and the odorata. Both of them
grow wild in Britain, fo are feldom admitted into gar¬
dens. The firft is found on chalky hills. The latter is
a low umbelliferous plant, growing wild in woods and
copfes, and flowering in May. It has an exceeding
pleafant find I, which is improved by moderate exfic-
cation ; the tafte is fubfaline, and fomelvhat auftere.
It imparts its flavour to vinous liquors. Afperula is
fuppofed to attenuate vifcid humours, and ftrengthen
the tone of the bowels; it is recommended in obftruc-
tions of the liver and biliary duds, and by fome in e-
pilepfies and palfies ; modern pradice has neverthelefs
rejeded it. The fmell of it is laid to drive away ticks
and other xnfeds. The roots of the firft are ufed in
Sweden to dye red.
ASPHALT1TES, fo called from the great quan¬
tity of bitumen it produces; called alfo the Dead Sea;
and from its fituation, the Eajl Sea ; the Sa/t Sea, the
Sea of Sodom, the Sea of the Defart, and the Sea of the
Plain, by the facred writings : A lake of Judea.
Many things have beenfaid and written of this famed,
or, if they were indeed true, rather infamous lake ; fuch
as that it arofefrom thefubmerfionof thevaleofSiddim,
where once ftood, as is commonly reported, the three
cities which periftied in the miraculous conflagration,
with thofe of Sodom and Gomorrah, for their unna¬
tural and deteftable wickednefs: on which account this
lake has been looked upon as a lafting monument of
the juft judgment of God, to deter mankind from fuch
abominations. Hence it is added, that the waters of
the lake are fo impregnated with fait, fulphur and
other bituminous fluff, that nothing will fink or live in
it 5 and that it cafts luch ftench and fmoke, that the
very birds die in attempting to fly over it. The de-
fcription likewife of the apples that grew about it, fair
without, and only afhes and bitternefs within, were
looked upon as a farther monument of God’s anger.
So likewife the defcription which many travellers give
not only of the lake, but of all the country round
about, of the whole appearing dreadful to behold, all
fulphureous, bituminous, ftinking and fuffocating :
and laftly what hath been farther affirmed of the ruins
of the five cities being ftill to be feen in clear weather,
and having been aaually feen in thefe latter times 5 all
thefe furprifing things, and ill-grounded notions, tho’
commonly, and fo long, received among Chnftians,
have been of late fo much exploded, not only by the
teftimony of very credible witneffes, but even by argu¬
ments drawn from fcripture, that we muft give them
up as inventions, unlefs we will fuppofe the face and
nature of all thefe things to have been entirely chan¬
ged. Thofe, in particular, of bodies not finking in the
water, and of birds being ftifled by the exhalations of
it, appear now falfe in fadl. It is true, the quantity
of fait, alum and fulphur, with which it is impregna¬
ted, render it fo much fpecifically heavier (Dr Pococke
fays one-fifth) than frefli water, that bodies will not fo
eafily fink: yet that author, and others, aflure us, A/phalntH
they have fwam and dived in it; and, as to the —v-—^
birds, we are told-likewife, that they will fly over it
without any harm. To reconcile thefe things with
the experiments which Pliny * tells us had been made * Nat. Uif,
by Vefpafian, is impoflible, without fuppofing that!lb-v'caP'
thofe ingredients have been fince much exhaufted, I'5‘
which is not at all improbable ; fuch quantities of
them, that is, of the bitumen and fait, having been all
along, and being ftill taken off, and fuch ftreams of
frefh water continually pouring into it, as may reafon-
ably be fuppofed to have conliderably diminifhed its
gravity and denfenefs. For, withrefpedl to its fait, we
are told, the Arabs made quantities of it from that
lake, in large pits about the fhore, which they fill with
that water, and leave to be cryftallized by the fun.
This fait is in fome cafes much commended by Galen,
as very wholefome, and a ftrengthener of the flomach,
&c. on account of its unpleafant bitternefs.
What Likewife relates to the conftant fmoke afeend- \ Set. Jub
ing from the lake, its changing the colour of its water lib v- caP-'
three times a-day,foconfidently affirmed by Jofephusf
and other ancients, and confirmed by Prince Radziville
and other moderns, who pretend to have been eye-
witnefles of it, is all now in the fame manner exploded
by others of more modern date, and of at leaft equal
candour. The unhealthinefs of the air about the lake
was affirmed by Jolephus and Pliny, efpecially on the
weft : the monks }hat live in the neighbourhood con¬
firm the fame, and would have difluaded Dr Pococke
from going to it on that account; and, as he ventured
to go and bathe in it, and was, two days after, feized
with a dizzinefs, and violent pain in the ftomach
which lafted near three weeks, they made no doubt
but it was occafioned by it; and he doth not feem to
contradift them. As to the water, it is, though clear,
fo impregnated with falt> that thofe who dive into it
come out covered with a kind of faline matter. There
is one remarkable thing relating to this lake, general¬
ly agreed on by all travellers and geographers; viz,
that it receives the waters of Jordan, a confiderable
river, the brooks of Jabbok, Kiffion, Arnon, and other
fprings, which flow into it from the adjacent moun¬
tains, and yet never overflows, though there is no vifible
way to be found by which it difeharges that great in¬
flux. Some naturalifts have been greatly Cmbarrafled to
find a difeharge for thefe waters ; and have therefore
been inclined to fufpeifl the lake had a communication
with the Mediterranean But, befides that we know of
no gulph to corroborate this fuppofition, it has been
demonftrated by accurate calculations, that evapora¬
tion is more than fufficient to carry off the waters
brought by the river. It is, in fad, very confiderable ;
and frequently becomes feufible to the eye, by the fogs
with which the lake is covered at the rifing of the fun,
and which are afterwards difperfed by the heat. It is
inclofed on the eaft and weft with exceeding high
mountains, many of them craggy and dreadful to be¬
hold. On the north it has the plain of Jericho; or, if
we take in both fides of the Jordan, it has the Great
Plain, properly fo called, on the fouth ; which is o-
pen, and extends beyond the reach of the eye. Jo-
fephus gives this lake 580 furlongs in length, from the
mouth of the Jordan to the town of Segor, on the op-
pofite end, that is about 22 leagues; and about 150'
furlongs,
ASP [ 399 J ASP
Afphaliites. furlongs or 5 leagues, in its largeft breadth : but our
modern accounts commonly give it 24leagues in length,
and 6 or 7 in breadth. On the weft fide of it is a kind
of promontory, where they pretend to ftiow the remains
cif Lot’s metamorphofed wife. Jofephus fays it was
ftill ftanding in his time ; but when Prince I^adziville
inquired after it, they told him there was no fuch fait
pillar or ftatue to be found in all that part. However,
they have found means, about a century after him, to
recover, as they pretended to aflure Mr Maundrell, a
block or ftump of it, which may in time grow up, with
a little art, into its ancient bulk.
It is to be obferved here, that the name of Dead Sea
is not to be found in the facred writings; but hath been
given to this lake becaufe nocreature will live in it, on
account of its exceffive faltnefs, or rather bituminous
quality ; for the Hebrews rank fulphur, nitre, and bi¬
tumen, under the general name of fa/t. However,
fome late travellers have found caufe to fufpeft the com¬
mon report of its breeding no living creature ; one of
them having obferved, on the Ihore, two or three fhells
of filh like thole of an oyfter, and which he iuppofes
to have been thrown up by the waves, at two miles
diftance from the mouth of the Jordan, which he there
takes notice of, left they ftiould be fufpedled to have
been brought into the lake by that way. And Dr Po-
cocke, though he neither faw filh nor (hells, tells us, on
the authority of a monk, that fome fort of filh had been
caught in it j and gives us his opinion, that as fo many
forts live in falt-water, fome kind may be fotformed as
to live in a bituminous one. Mr Volney, however, af¬
firms, that it contains neither animal nor vegetable life.
We fee no verdure on its banks, nor are filh to be found
within its waters. But he adds, that it is not true
that its exhalations are peftiferous, fo as to deftroy
birds flying over it. “It is very common (fays he) to
fee fwallows fkimming its furface, and dipping for the
water neceflary to build their nefts. The real caufe
which deprives it of vegetables and animals is the ex¬
treme faltnefs of the water, which is infinitely ftronger
than that of the fea. The foil around it, equally im¬
pregnated with this fait, produces no plants ; and the
air itfelf, which becomes loaded with it from evapora¬
tion, and which receives alfo the fulphurious and bitu¬
minous vapours, cannot be favourable to vegetation :
hence the deadly afpeft which reigns around this lake.
In other refpe&s, the ground about it, however, is not
marlhy ; and its waters are limpid and incorruptible,
as muft be the cafe with a diflblution of fait. The
origin of this mineral is eafy to be difcovered ; for on
the fouth-weft fhore are mines of foflil fait, of which I
have brought away leveral fpecimens. They are fitu-
ated in the fide; of the mountains which extend along
that border ; and, for time immemorial, have fupplied
the neighbouring Arabs, and even the city of Jerufa-
lem. We find alfo on this Ihore fragments of fulphur
and bitumen, which the Arabs convert into a trifling
article of commerce ; as alfo hot fountains, and deep
crevices, which are difcovered at a diftance by little
pyramids built on the brink of them. We likewife
find a fort of ftone, which, on rubbing, emits a noxi¬
ous fmell, burns like bitumen, receives a polilh like
white alabafter, and is ufed for the paving of court¬
yards. At intervals, we alfo meet with unlhapen
blocks, which prejudiced eyes miftake for mutilated
ftatues, and which pafs with ignorant and fuperftitious Afphaltites,
pilgrims for monuments of the adventure of Lot’s Aiphaltnm.
wife ; though it is nowhere faid Ihe was metamorpho¬
fed into ftone like Niobe, but into fait, which muft
have melted the enfuing winter.”
It is on account of this bitumen that it hath had the
name of /Ifphaltite Lake, it being reported to have
thrown up great quantities of that drug, which was
much in ufe among the Egyptians, and other nations,
for embalming of dead bodies. Jofephus allures us, that
in his days it rofe in lumps as big as an ox without its
head, and fome even larger. But, whatever it may have
formerly done, we are aflured by Mr Maundrell and
others, that it is now to be found but in (mail quanti¬
ties along the Ihore, though in much greater near the
mountains on both fides the lake. But the contrary is
fince affirmed by two or more late* travellers; the one * Pococke's
of whom tells us, that it is obferved to float on the fur- Travels,
face of the water, and to come on the Ihore, after windy P- 5 '
weather, where the Arabians gather it, and put it to
all the ufes that common pitch is ufed for, even in
the compofition of fome medicines: and another f tells 1^*^*
us, he was there informed, that it was raifed at certain
times from the bottom, in large hemifpheres, which,
as foon as they touch the furface, and are adled upon by
the external air, burft at once, with great noife and
fmoke, like the pulvis fulminans of the chemifts, difper-
fing themfelves about in a thoufand pieces. From both
thefe judicious authors we may conclude the reafon of
Mr Maundrell’s miftake, both as to the lake’s throw-
in g it up only on certain feafons (that reverend gentle¬
man might chance to be there at the wrong time);
and likewife as to his not obferving it about thelhores,
feeing the Arabs are there ready to gather it as foon as
thrown up : all of them delcribe it as refembling our
black pitch, foas not to be diftinguilhed from it but by
its fulphurious fmoke and ftench when feton fire ; and
it hath been commonly thought to be the fame with
that which our druggifts fell under the name of bitumen
Judatcum, or Jewi/h pitch, though we have reafon to
think that this laft is fadlitious, and that there is now
none of the right afphaltum brought from Judea.
It hath, moreover, been confounded with a fort of
blackilh combuftible ftone thrown on the Ihore, and
called by fome Mofes’s Jione, which, being held in the
flame of a candle, will foon burn, and caft a fmoke
and intolerable ftench ; but with this extraordinary
property, that though it lofes much of its weight and
colour, it becoming in a manner white, yet it diminilh-
es nothing of its bulk. But thefb, Dr Pococke tells
us, are found about two or three leagues from the
fliore. He concludes, however, from it, that a Jlra-
tum of that ftone under the lake is probably one part
of the matter that feeds the fubterraneous fire, and
caufes the bitumen to boil up out of it.
ASPHALTUM, bitumen Judaicum, or Jews
pitch, is a light folid bitumen, of a dulky colour on
the outfide, and a deep fhining black within ; of very
little tafte ; and having fcarcely any fmell, unlefs heat¬
ed, when it emits a ftrong pitchy one. It is found in
a foft or liquid ftate on the iurface of the Dead Sea, and
by age grows dry and hard. The fame kind of bitu¬
men is met with likewife in the earth, in other parts of
the world, in China, America, and in fome places of
Europe, as the Carpathian hills, France, Neufchatel,
&cs
ASP [ 400 ] A S P
Afph V]tum» &c. There are feveral kinds of Jews pitch in the
Afphode- (hops : but none of them are the genuine fort, and have
, 118 little other title to their name than their being artifi-
“‘v’” dally compounded by Jews ; and as they are a medley
of we know not what ingredients, their medicinal ule
begins to be defervedly laid afide, notwithdanding the
dii'catient, refolvent, pectoral, and other virtues, attri¬
buted to this bitumen by the ancients. The true af-
phaltum was formerly uled in embalming the bodies of
the dead. The thick and folid afphalta are at prefent
employed in Egypt, Arabia, and Perfia, as pitch for
(hips ; as the fluid ones, for burning in lamps, and for
varnilhes. Some writers relate, that the walls of Ba¬
bylon, and the temple of Jerufalem, were cemented
with bitumen inftead of mortar. This much is cer¬
tain, that a true natural bitumen, that for inftance
which is found in the diflrid of Neufch&rel, proves an
excellent cement for walls, pavements, and other pur-
pofes, uncommonly firm, very durable in the air, and
not penetrable by water. The watch and clock makers
yfe a compofition of afphaltum, fine lamp black, and
oilof fpike or turpentine, for drawing the black figures
on dial-plates : this compofition is prepared chTefly by
certain perfons at Augfburg and Nuremberg. See
the preceding article.
ASPHODELUS, asphodel, or king’s spear :
A genus of the monogynia order, belonging to-the hex-
andria claft of plants. The calyx is divided into fix
parts ; and tire nedarium confifls of fix valves, cover¬
ing the nedarium.—The
Species are five. i. The luteus, or common yellow
afphodel, hath roots compoled of many thick flelhy
fibres, which are yellow, and joined into a head at the
top; from whence arifeftfong round (ingle flalks near
three feet high, garniflred on the upper part with yel¬
low fiar-fhaped flowers, which appear in June, and the
feeds ripen in autumn. 2. The ramofus, or branching
afphodel, hath roots compofed of flt ftiy fibres, to each
of which is faftened an oblong bulb as large as a fmall
potato ; the leaves are long and flexible, having (harp
edges ; between thefe come out the flower-(bilks, which
arile more than three feet high, fending forth many la¬
teral branches. The upper parts of thefe are adorned
with many white ftar lhaped flowers, which grow in
long fpikes flowering gradually upward. Th< y come
nut in the beginning of June, and the feeds ripen in
autumn. 3. The ramofus, or unbranched afphodel,
hath roots like the (econd, but the leaves are longer
and narrower; the (talks are Angle, never putting out
any fide-branches. The flowers appear at the fame
time with the former, are of a purer white, and grow
in longer fpikes. 4. The albus, with keel fhaped
leaves, hath roots compofed offmaller fibres t!han the
two lad, nor are the knobs at bottom half fo large ;
the leaves are long, almoft triangular, and hollow like
the! keel of a boat ; the (talks feldom rife above two
feet high, and divide into feveral fpreading branches ;
thefe are terminated by looie fpikes of white flowers
fmaller than thofe of the former. 5. The ftulofus, or
annual branching fpiderwort, hath roofs compofed of
many yellow flefliy fibres: the leaves are fpread out
from the crown of the root, clbfe to the ground, in a
large clufter ; thefe are convex on their under fide, but
plain above. TheBower (talks rife immediately from
♦he root, and grow about two feet high, dividing into
' No. 30,
three or four branches upward, which are adorned wit*h Afphuri-
white flarry flowers, with purple lines on the outfide.
Thefe flower in July and Augutt, and their feeds ri- Arpicucta
pen in October.
Culture. The way to increa<e thefe plants is by part¬
ing they- roots in Augult, before they (hoot up their
ft elh green leaves. I’hty may hlfo be railed from feeds
fown in Augult; and the Augufl following the plants
produced from thefe may he tranfplamed into beds,
and- will produce flowers the (econd year. They mud
not oe planted in Imalj borders, among tender flowers;
for they will draw away all the nourifhment, and (tarve
every thing elfe.
I he Eancaflure afphodel is tho-ught to be very noxi-
ous to fheep, whenever, through poverty of palture,
they are necefluated to eat it ; although they are faid
to improve much in their fle!h at firil, they afterwards
die with fymptoms of a difeafed liver. This is the
plant of which fuch wonderful tales have been told by
Pauli, Bartholme, and others, of its foftening the
bones of fuch animals as fwallow it ; and which they
thence called gra’uen offi/ragum. Horned cattle eat it
without any ill effedl.
A sPHUREL ATA, in natural hiftory, are ferni-
metallic foflils, fufible by fire, and not malleable in
their pureft date, being in their native date intimately
mixed with fulphur and other adventitious matter, and
reduced to what are called ores.
Of this feries of foffiis there are only’-five'bodies,
each of which- makes a didinft genus 5 vix. antimony,
bifmuthi cobalt, zinc, or quickfilver.
ASPICUETA (Martin de), commonly called the
Doctor of Navarre, or BoBor Navarrus, was de-
feended of a noble family, and born the 13th of De¬
cember 1491, at Varafyn, a (mail city of Navarre,
1 not far from Pampeluna. He ehtered very young into
the monadery of Regular canons at Roncevaux, where
he too-k the habit, which he continued to wear after he
left the convent. He dudied claflical learning, natural
and moral philofophy, and divinity at Alcala, in New
Caflile, .adopting chiefly the fyfiem of Petrus Lombar-
dus, commonly called the Majler of the Sentences. He
applied to rhe fludy of the law at Ferrara, and taught
it with applaufe at Touloufe and Tabors. After being
fird profeflbr of canon law at Salamanca for 14 years,
he quitted that place to be profeflbr of law at Coim¬
bra, with a larger falary. The duties of this office he
difeharged for the fpace of 20 years, and then refigned
it to retire into hb own country, where he took care of
his nieces, the daughters of his deceafed brothers. Ha¬
ving made a journey to Rome to plead the cau(e of
Bartholomeo de Caranza arehbifltop of Toledo, who
had been accufed of hereby before the tribunal of the
inquifition in Spain, and whofe caufe was, by the Pope’s
order, to be tried in that city, Afpicueta’s writings,
which were well known, procured him a mod honour¬
able reception. Pope Pius V. made him aflidant to
cardinal Francis Aciat, his vice penitentiary ; and Gre-
gory XIII. never pafled byhis door without calling'for
him, and dopped (bmetimes a whole hour to talk with
him in the dreet. His name became fo famous, that
even in his lifetime the higheff encomium on a learndd
man was to call him a Savarrus. He was eonfulted
as an oracle. By remperance he prolonged his life to
a great length. His oeconomy enabled him to give
ASS [ 4°i ] ASS
Afpirate fubftantiaVproofs of his charity. Being very old, he
i ufed to ride on a mule through the city, and relieved
* A r”'' Poor met 5 to w'I'‘c^ 4Vas wel! 3c-
cuftomed, that it flopped of its own accord at the fight
of every poor man till its mafter had relieved him. He
refufed feveral honourable pofts in church and ftate,
that he might have leifure to correct and improve the
works tie had already written, and compofe others. He
died at the age of 94, on the 21ft of June 1586. He
wrote a vaft number of treatifes, all which are.either on
morality or canon law'.
ASPIRATE, in grammar, denotes words marked
with the fpiritus afper. See Aspir^
ASPIRATION, among grammarians, is ufed to
denote the pronouncing a fyllable with fome vehe¬
mence.
ASPLENIUM, ceterach : A genus of the order
of filices, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants.
The parts of rruftification are fituated in the fmall
fparce line under the difle of the leaves. There are
24 fpecies. Two of thefe are natives of Britain, and
grow upon old walls or moift rocks ; one is called fco-
lopendrium, or hart's tongue ; the other is properly ce¬
terach, alfo called fpltetvwort. It has an herbaceous,
fomewhat mucilaginous, roughifh tafte : it is recom¬
mended as a pe&oral, and for promoting urine in ne¬
phritic cafes. The virtue which it has been moft cele¬
brated for, is that which it has the leaft title to, viz. di-
minilhing the fp'een.
ASS, in zoology, is ranked as a fpecies of equus,
or horfe. See Equus.
Coronation of the Ass, in antiquity, was a part of
the ceremony of the feafl of Vefta, wherein the bakers
put bread crowns on the heads of thefe quadrupeds ;
* Ovid Fajl. JlCCe coranatis pants dependet afeliis *. Hence, in an
Vl‘ 311’ ancient calendar, the ides of June are thu$ denoted ;
Fejlum eft Vejhe. Jtjtnus coronatur 1—This honour, it
feems, was done the bead, becaufe, by its braying,
it had faved Vefta from being ravifhed by the Lamp-
facan god. Hence the formula, Veflce deiicium ejl
aftmts.
ASSAI, in mufic, fignifies quick ; and, according
to others, that the motion of the piece be kept in a
middle degree of quicknefs or flownefs. As, ajfai al¬
legro, afiai prefo. See Allegro and Presto.
ASSANCALA, a ftrong town in Armenia, near
tlie river Arras, in the road between Erzerum and E-
rivan, and noted for its hot baths. It (lands on a high
hill; the walls are built in a fpiral line all round the
rock, and ftrengthened with fquare towers. The
ditches are about two fathoms over, cut out of hard
rock. E. Long. 41. 30. N. Lat. 39. 46.
ASSANCHIF, a town of Afia, in Diarbekir, feat-
ed on the river Tigris. E. Long. 43. 30. N.Lat. 37.
20.
ASSANS. SeeAssENS.
ASSARIUM, in antiquity, denotes a fmall copper
coin, being a part or diminutive of the as. The word
airtrapiov is ufed by Soidas indifferently with e/Sexo? and
vouHT/xK, to denote a fmall piece of money ; in which he
is followed by Cnjacius, who defines cur<rapun by Mini¬
mus tcris nummus. We find mention of the affarion
in the gofpel of bt Matthew, chap. x. verfe 29.
ASSARON, or Omer, a meafure of capacity, in
ufe among the Hebrews, containing five pints. It was
Vo l. II. Part II.
the meafure cf manna which God appointed for every Afiafin,
Ifraelite. ' ,A<laflilu-
ASSASIN, or Assassin, a perfon who kills ano- v
ther with the advantage either of an inequality in the
weapons, or by means of the fituation of the place,
or by attacking him at unawares.
The word ajfafm is faid by fome to have been brought
from the Levant, where it took its rife from a certain
prince of the family of the Arfacidee ; popularly called
AJfaftns, living in a caftle between Antioch and Da-
raafco, and bringing up a number of young men,
ready to pay a blind obedience to his commands ;
whom he employed in murdering the princes with whom
he was at enmity. But according to Mr Volney, the
word Hajfajfin (from the rooi hafs, “ to kill, to affaf-
finate,'to iiflen, to furprife,”) in the vulgar Arabic
fignifies “ Robbers of the night,” perfons who lie in
ambujh to kill; arid is very univerfally underftood in this
fenfe at Cairo and in Syria. Hence it was applied to
the Batenians, who flew by furprife. See the next ar¬
ticle.
There was a certain law of nations, an opinion re¬
ceived in all the republics of Gre4fee and Italy, where¬
by he that affalfinated an ufurper of the fupreme pow¬
er was declared a virtuous man. At Rome efpecially,
after the expulfion of the kings, the law was formal
and folemn, and inflances of it admitted. The com¬
monwealth armed the hand of any citizen, and created
him magiftrate for that moment.
Assassins, a tribe or clan in Syria, called alfo If
jnaelians and Batanifs. or Batenians. Thefe people
probably owed their origin to the Karmatians, a fa¬
mous heretical fedl among the Mahometans, who fettled
in Perfia about the year 1090; whence, in procefs of"
time, they fent a colony into Syria, where they be¬
came pofFefled of a confiderable trail of land among
the mountains of Lebanon,.extending itfelf from the
neighbourhood of Antioch to Damafcus.
The firft chief and legiflator of this remarkable tribe
appears to have been Haffan Sabah, a fubtle impoftor,
who by his artifices made fanatical and implicit flaves
of his fubjeits. Their religion was compounded of
that of the Magi, the Jews, the Chriftians, and the Ma¬
hometans : but the capital article of their creed was w
to believe that the Holy Ghoft .refided in their chief 5
that his orders proceeded from God himfdf, and were
real declarations of his divine pleai'ure. To this mo¬
narch ihe orientals gave the name oi'Scheik : but he is
better known in Europe by the name of the Old Man
cf the Mountain. Plis dignity, inltead of being here¬
ditary, was confirmed by elettion ; where merit, that
is, a fuperior multiplicity and enormity of crimes, was
the moft effc&ual recommendation to a majority of fuf-
frages,.
This chiefs from his exalted refidence on the fummit
of mount Lebanon, like a vindiftive deity, with the
thunderbolt in his hand, lent inevitable death to all
quarters of the world 5 fo that trom one end of the earth
to the other, khabfs, emperors, fultans, kings, prin¬
ces, Chriftians, Mahometans, and Jews, every nation
and people, execrated and dreaded his fanguinary power,
from the ftrokes of which there was no fecurity. At
the lead fuggeflion or whifper that he had threatened
the death of any potentate, all immediately doubled
their guards, and took every other precaution in their
3 power..
A S S [ 402 ] ASS
■ATallin;, power. It is known that Philip Augultus king of
Franc e on a premature advice that the Scheik intend¬
ed to have him aflaflinated, inftituted a new body-guard
of men diftinguifhed for their activity and courage,
caUcd ftrgerjf d'Armes, with brafs clubs, bows and ar¬
rows ; and he himfelf never appeared without a club,
fortified either with iron or gold. Moll fovereigns
paid fecret’y a penfion to the Scheik, however fcan-
dalous and derogatory it might be to the luftre of ma-
jefty, for the fafety of their perfons. The Knights
Templars alone dared to defy his fecret machinations
and open force. Indeed they were a permanent dif-
perfed body, not to be cut off by malfacres or affaffi-
. nations.
This barbarous prince was furnifhed with refources
unknown to all other monarchs, even to the moft ab¬
solute defpotic tyrant. His fubje&s would proftrate
themfelves at the foot of his throne, requefting to die
• by hh hand or order, as a favour by which they were
fure of palling into paradife. On them if danger
made any imp.effion, it was an emulation to prefs for¬
ward ; and if taken in any enterprife, they went to
the place of execution with a magnanimity unknown
to others. Henry count of Champaigne, who mar¬
ried Ifabella daughter of Amaury king of Jerufalem,
pafling over part of the territory of the Aflaffins in his
way to Syria, and talking highly of his power, their
'chief came to meet him, “ Are ycur fubje&$ (faid the
'old man of the mountain) as ready in their fubmifiion
jts mine?’' and without Haying for an anfwer, made a
.jign with his hand, when ten young men in white,
who were Handing on an adjacent tower, inflantly
threw themfelves down. On another occafion, Sultan
Malek-Shah fummoning the Scheik to fubmit himfelf
to his government, and threatening him with the power
of his arms, fhould he hefitate to comply ; the latter,
very compofedly turning himfelf towards his guards,
faid to one of them, “ Draw your dagger, and plunge it
into your breaH 5” and to another, “ Throw yourfelf
headlong from yonder rock.” His orders were no
fooner uttered than they were joyfully obeyed : and all
The anfwer he deigned to give the fultan’s envoy was,
“ Away to thy maHer, and let him know I have ma-
my thoufand fubjefts of the fame dirpofition.” Men
fo ready to deflrby themfelves were equally alert and
refolute in being the miniHers of death to others. At
the command of their fovereign, they made no diffi¬
culty of Habbing any prince, even on his throne.5 and
h>eing well verfed in the different dialedts, they con¬
formed to the drefs and.even the external religion of
the country, that they might with lefs difficulty flrike
the fatal blow required by their chief. With the Sa¬
racens they were Mahometans ; with the Franks, Chri-
itians : in one place they joined with the Mamaluks ;
in another, with the ecclefiaflics or religious; and un¬
der this difguife feized the firff opportunity of execut¬
ing their fanguinary commiffion. Of this we meet
with an inHance in the hiitory of Saladin, while he
was befieging Manbedge, the celebrated Hieropolis of
antiquity. Being one day, with a few attendants, and
they at fome diHance, reconnoitring the place for the
better difpofition of the attack, a man ruffied on him
with a dagger in his hand, and wounded him in the
bead ; but the fultan, as he was endeavouring to repeat
bis firoke, wreffed the dagger from him, and, after re-
ceiving feveral wounds, laid him dead at his feet. Be- Affaflrns.
fore the fultan had well recovered himfqlf, a fecond
encountered him to finiffi the treachery of the former ; ,
but he met with the fame fate : he was fucceeded with
equal fury by a third, who alfo fell by the hand of that
magnanimous prince whom he was fent to affaffinate.
And it was obferved, that thefe wretches dealt about
their fruitlefs blows as they lay in the agonies of death.
With fuch rapidity was this tranfafted, that it was.over
before Saladin’s guards could come to his affiHance.
He retired to his tent, and in great perturbation throw¬
ing himfelf on his fopha, ordered his fervants to take
a flri& view of his houfehold, and to caffiier all fuf-
:pedted perfons ; at the fame time alking with great
earneHnefs, “ Of whom have I deferved fuch treache¬
rous ufagei” But it afterwards appeared, that thefe
villains had been fent by the old man of the mountain;
of whom the vizir Kamfchlegin had purchafed the mur¬
der of Saladin, to free himlelf from fo great a war¬
rior, whom he could not meet in the field. To animate
them in their frantic obedience, the Scheik, before
their departure on fuch attempts, ufed to give them a
fmall foretafie of fome of the delights which he affur-
ed them would be their recoropence in paradife. De¬
licious foporific drinks were given them ; and while
they lay afleep, they were carried into beautiful gar¬
dens, where every allurement invited their fenfes to the
molt exquifite gratifications. From thefe feats of vo-
luptuoufnefs, inflamed with liquor and enthufiaflic
views of perpetual enjoyments, they fallied forth to
perform affaffinations of the blackefl dye.
This people once had, or at leaft they feigned to have,
an intention of embracing the Chriffiamreligion. They
reigned a long time in Perfia and on Mount Lebanon.
Hulaku, a khan of the Mogul Tartars, in the year 655
of the Hegira, or 1254 of the ChriHian aera, entered
their country and difpoffeffed them of feveral places;
but it was not till the year 1272 that they were total¬
ly conquered. This atchievement was owing to the
conduct and intrepidity of the Egytian forces fent a-
gainfi them by the fultan Bibaris. It has, however,
been thought, that the Drufes, who ftill refide among
the eminences of Mount Lebanon, and whofe religion
and cuftoms are fo little known, are a remnant of thofe
barbarians.
ASSAULT, in law, is an attempt to offer to beat
another, without touching him : as if one lifts up his
cane or his fill in a threatening manner at another ; or
Hrikes at him, but miffes him ; this is an affault, in-
fultus, which Finch defcribes to be “ an unlawful fet-
ting upon one’s pevfon.” This alfo is an inchoate vio¬
lence, amounting confiderably higher than bare threats;
and therefore, though no aClual fuffering is proved, yet
the party injured may have redrefs by a&ion of trefpafs
vi et armit, wherein he fliall recover damages as a com-
penfation for the injury.
Assault, in the military art, a furious effort made
to carry a fortified poll, camp, or fortrcfs, wherein
the affailants do not fcreen themfelves by any works ;
while the affault continues, the batteries ceafe, for fear
of killing their own men. The enfam perdus march
firft to the affault. See Enfans Perdus.
ASSAY, Essay, or Say, in metallurgy, the proof
or trial of the goodnefs, purity, value, 5{c. of metals
and metalline fubflances. See Essay.
In
ASS
A/Taying, Jn ancient flatutes this is called touch
, Affa>r- ^ who had the care cf it. Keepers of the touch.—Under
v_ Henry VI. divers cities were appointed to have touch
for wrought iilver-plate, 2 Hen. VI. c. 14. — By this,
one might imagine they had no better method of af-
faying than the fimple one by the touch-ftone ; but
the cafe is far otherwife. In the time of king Hen¬
ry II. the bifhop of Salifbury, then treafurer, confi-
dering that though the money paid into the king’s ex¬
chequer for his crown-rents did not anfwer numero etpon-
dere, it might neverthelefs be mixed with copper or
brafs : wherefore a conftitution was made, called the
trial by combufion •, which differs little or nothing from
the prefent method of affaying filver. See a deferip-
tion of it in the Black Book in the Exchequer, writ¬
ten by Gervafe of Tilbury, c. xxi. This trial is alfo'
there called effaium, and the officer who made it is
named fufor. The method dill in ufe of affaying gold
and filver was firft eftablifhed by an aft of the Englifh
parliament 1354-
Assaying, ars docimajlica, in its extent, compre¬
hends particular manners of examining every ore, or
mixed metal, according to its nature, with the bell-
adapted fluxes; fo as todifeover, not only what metals,
and what proportions of metal, are contained in ores ;
but likewife how much fulphur, vitriol, alum, arfenic,
fmelt, &c. may be obtained from every one refpec-
tively. See Blow-pipe, Metallurgy, and Miner¬
alogy. _
Affaying is more particularly ufed by moneyers and
goldfraiths, for the making a proof or trial by the cup-
pel, or left, of the finenefs or purity of the gold and filver
[ 403 ] ASS
and thofe The aflay-mafler of the goldfmiths company is a fort Afleiya
of affillant-warden, called alfo a touch-warden, appoint- ^
ed to furvey, aflay, and mark all the filver w’ork, &c. 1 cn^ iesl
committed to him. There are alfo aflay.mailers ap¬
pointed by flatute at York, Exeter, Briftol, Chefter,
Norwdch, Newcaflle, and Birmingham, for aflaying
wrought plate. The affay-malter is to retain eight
grains of every pound' Troy of filver brought to him ;
four whereef are to be put in the pix, or box of deal,
to be re-aflayed the next year, and the other four to
be allowed him for his walte and fpillings.
Note, - The number of penny weights fet down in the.
aflay-mafter’s report, is to be accounted as per pound,
or fo much in every pound of 12 ounces Troy. For
severy 20 pennyweight, or ounce Troy, the filver is
found by the aflay to be worfe than flandard, or fler-
ling, fixpence is to be deducted ; becaufe every ounce
will coll fo much to reduce it to flandard goodnefs, or
to change it for llerling.
In gold, for every carat it is fet down to be worfe
than llandard, you mull account that in the ounce
Troy it is worfe by fo many times 3 s. 8d. ; and for'
every grain it is fet down worfe, you mull account it
worfe by fo many times 11 d. in the ounce Troy ; and
for every half grain y^d. : for fo much it will coll to
make it of ftandard goodnefs, &c.
ASSELYN (John), a famous Dutch painter, was
born in Holland, and became the difciple of Ifaiah
Vandevelde the battle-painter. He diftinguilhed him-
felf in hiilory-paintingsj battles, landfcapes, animals,
and particularly horfes. He travelled into France and
Italy j and was fo pleafed with the manner of Bambo-
to be ufed in the coining of money, and manufa&ure of. chio, that he always followed it. He painted many
plate, &c. or that have been already ufed therein,
There are two kinds of allaying} the one before
metals are melted, in order to bring them to their pro¬
per finenefs ; the other after they are llruck, to fee that
the fpecies be llandard. For the firft aflay, the aflay-
ers ufe to take 14 or 15 grains of gold, and half a
dram of filver, if it be for money ; and 18 grains of
the one, and a dram of the other, if for other occa-
fions. As to the fecond aflay, it is made of one of
the pieces of money already coined, which they cut in
four parts. The quantity of gold for an afiay among
us is fix grains; in France, nearly the fame ; and in
Germany', about three.times as much.
The proper fpelling of that word, however, is es¬
say y under which article, therefore, the reader will
find the fubjedl more particularly treated.
Assay-Balance, or EJfay-Balance, the flat pieces of
glafs often placed under the feales of an aflay-balance,
feem, by their power of eleflricity, capable of attract¬
ing, and thereby making the lighter fcale preponderate,
where the whole matter weighed is fo very Imall. See
EJfay-B A L A.N.C £ .
The eledtricity of a flat furface of about three inches
fquare has been known to hold down one fcale, when
there were about 200 grains weight in the other.' See
Balance.
Asshy:-Mafler, or Ejfay-Mafer, an officer under cer¬
tain corporations entrufted with the care of making,
true touch, or aflay, of the gold and filver brought to
him : and giving a juft report of the goodnefs or bad-
nefs thereof. Such is the aflay-mafter of tltt- mint in
the Tower, called alfo ajfayer of tie king.
pidtures at Lyons, where he married-the daughter of a
merchant of Antwerp, and returned with her to Hol¬
land. Here he firft difeovered to his countrymen a
frelh and clear manner of painting landfcapes, like
Claude Lorraine ; upon which all the painters imi-•
tated his ftyle, and reformed the dark brown they had
hitherto followed. Aflelyn’s pidtures were fo much ad¬
mired at Amfterdam, that they fold there at a high
price. He died'in that city in 16Q0. Twenty-four
pieces of landfcapes and ruins, which he painted in
Italy, have been engraved by Pcrclle.
ASSEMBLAGE, the uniting or joining of things
together; or the things themfelves fo united or joined. .
It is alfo ufed, in a more general fenfe, for a collec¬
tion of various things fo difpofed and diverfified, that
the'whole produces fome agreeable efftdl.
ASSEMBLY, the meeting of feveral perfons, in.
the fame place, upon the fame defign.
Assembly, in the beau monde, an appointed meet¬
ing of fafhionable perfons of both fexes, for the fake of
play, dancing, gallantry, converfation, &c.
Assembly, in the military art, the fecond beating
of a drum before a march ; at which the foldiers ftrike
their tents, roll them up, and ftand to arms.
Assemblies of the clergy are called convocations,
fynods, councils. The annual meeting of the church of
Scotland is called a General Afemlly.; In this aflem-
bly his Majeily is reprefented by his Commiffioner, who
diffbives one meeting, and calls another, in the name of
the King, w"hi!e the Moderator does the fame in the.
name of the Lord Jefis Chri/l.
Assembl 1 es of the Roman people were called comitia,.
3 £ 3 Undejc
A- S S L 4°4 ] ASS
Allens Under the Gothic governments, the fupreme legifla-
li tive power was lodged in an affembly of the ftates of
^ts’ , the kingdom, held annually for the like purpofes as
our parliament. Some feeble remains of this ufageftill
fubfift in the annual afiemblies of the ftates of Langue¬
doc, Bretagne, and a few other provinces of France;
but thefe are no more than fhadows of the ancient af-
femblics. It is only in Great Britain, Sweden, and
Poland, that fuch alfetnblies retain their ancient powers
and privileges.
ASSENS, a fea-port town of Denmark, fituated
upon the Little Belt, a ftrait of the Baltic, which fe-
parates the ifle of Funen from the continent. It is the
-common pafi'age from the duchy of Slefwick to Copen¬
hagen. E. Long. 10. 30. N. Lat. 55. 15.
ASSENT, in a general fenfe, implies an agreement
to fomething propofed or affirmed by another.
Royal Assext, the approbation given by the king
to a bill in parliament, after which it becomes a law.
ASSEll (John), or Asserius Menevensis, that
is, Jfer of St David's, biftiop of Shirburn in the reign
of Alfred the Great. He was born in Pembrokeftiire
in South Wales ; and educated in the monaftery of St
David’s by the archbifhop Afferius, who, according to
Leland, was his kinfman. In this monaftery he be¬
came a monk, and by his affiduous application foon ac¬
quired univerfal fame as a perlon of profound learning
and great abilities. Alfred, the munificent patron of
genius, about the year 880, fent for him to court.
The king was then at Dean in Wiltfhire. He was fo
charmed with After, that he made him his preceptor
and companion. As a reward for his fervices, he ap¬
pointed him abbot of two or three different monafteries;
and at laft promoted him to the epifcopal fee of Shir-
burn, where he died and was buried in the year 910.
He was, fays Pits, a man of a happy genius, wonderful
modefty, extenfive learning, and great integrity of life.
He is faid to have been principally inftrumental in per-
fuading the king to reftore the univerfity of Oxford to
its priftine dignity and luftre.— He wrote, De vita et
rebus gejiis JUfredi, See. Lond. 1574, pubiifhed by
Archbifhop Parker, in the old Saxon charadter, at the
end of Walfnghami hiji. Francf. 1602, fol. Oxf.
1722, 8vo. Many other works are aferibed to this
author by Gale, Bale, and Pits; but all doubtful.
ASSEKIA. See Asisia.
ASSERTION, in the language of the fchools, a
propofition advanced by the affertor, who avows the
truth of it, and is ready to defend it.
ASSESSOR, an inferior officer of juftice, appointed
chiefly to affift the ordinary judge with his opinion and
advice.
Assessor is alfo one who afleffes, or fettles taxes and
other public dues.
ASSETS, in law, fignifiesgoods enough to dircharge
that burden which is caft upon the executor or heir, in
fatisfying the debts and legacies of the teftator or an-
-celtor. Affets are real or perfonal. Where a man
hath lands in fee Ample, and dies feifed thereof, the
lands which come to his heir are afters real;, and
where he dies poffefTed of any perfonal ellate, the
goods which come to the executors are afll-ts perfonal.
Affets are alfo divided into ajfets per defeent, and ajfets
inter maincs. Aftets by defeent is where a perfon is
bound in an obligation, and dies feifed of lands which
defeend to the heir, the land fhall be aflets, and the Aflevera-
heir fhall be charged as far as the land to him defeend- tionr
ed will extend. Ajfets inter maines is when a man in- A^Jnto
debted makes executors, and leaves them fufficiert to 1 ^
pay his debts and legacies ; or where fome commodity
or profit arifeth to them in right of the teftator, which
are called ajfets in their hands.
ASSEVERATION, a pofitive and vehement affir¬
mation of fomething.
ASSHETON (William), do&or of divinity, and
reftor of Beckenham, in Kent, was born in the year
1641, and was educated at Brazen-nofe college, Ox¬
ford. After entering into orders, he became chaplain
to the Duke of Ormond, and was admitted dodtor of
divinity in 1673. Soon after, he was nominated to a
prebend in the church of York, prefented to the living
of St Antholin, London, and to the reftory of Beck¬
enham in Kent. He was the firft projector of the
fcheme for providing for clergymens widows, and o*
thers, by a jointure payable out of the mercers com¬
pany. He wrote feveral pieces againft the Papifts and
Diffenters, and fome devotional tra&s. He died at
Beckenham in September 1711, in the 70th y^ar of ’■»/
his age.
ASSIDEANS, or Chasid/eans, (from the Hebrew
chafdim, “ merciful, pious”); thofe Jews who reforted
to Mattathias to fight for the law of God and the li¬
berties of their country. They were men of great ra-
lour and zeal, having voluntarily devoted themfelves to
a more ftridl obfervation of the law than other men. For,
after the return of the Jews from the Babylonifh cap¬
tivity, there were two forts of men in their church ;
thofe who contented themfelves with that obedience
only which was preferibed by the law of Mofes, and
who were called Zadikim, i. e. the righteous ; and thofe
who, over and above the law, fuperadded the confti-
tutions and traditions of the elders, and other rigorous
obfervances: thefe latter were called Chafidim, i. e. the
pitus. From the former fprung the Samaritans, Sad-
ducees, and Caraites; from the latter, the Pharifees and
the Effenes.
ASS1DENT signs, in medicine, are fymptoms
which ufually attend a difeafe, but not always; hence
differing from pathognomic figns, which are infeparable
from the difeafe: e. gr. In the pletirify, a pungent pain
in the fide ; in an acute fever, difficulty of breathing,
&c. colleftively taken, are pathognomic figns ; but
that the pain extends to the hypcchondrium or clavicle,
or that the patient lies with more eafe on one fide than
on the other, are afident figns.
ASSIDUUS, or Adsiduus, among the Romans,
denoted a rich or wealthy perfon. The word in this
fenfe is derived from as ajfis, q. d. a monied man.
Hence we meet with ajfiduous fureties, ajfidui fidejujjo-
ret', anfwering to what the French now call city lure-
ties or fecurities, cautions bourgeois.
When Servius Tullius divided the Roman people in¬
to five claffes, according as they were afftfied or tax¬
ed to the public, the richer fort who contributed afles
were denominated ajjidui t and as thefe were the chief
people of bufinefs who attended all the public concerns,
thofe who were diligent in attendances came to be de¬
nominated ajfidui.
ASSIlidMTO, a Spanifh word fignifying a farm, in
commerce, is ufed for a bargain between the king of
Spain
ASS [ 4°5 ] ASS
Affign Spain and other powers, for importing negroes into the
Affile Spaniih dominions in America, and particularly to
- Buenos Ayres. The firft affiento was made with the
French Guinea-company; and, by the treaty of Utrecht,
transferred to the Englifli, who were to furnifli 4800
negroes annually.
ASSIGN, in common law, a perfon to whom a
thing is afiigned or made over.
ASSIGNA 1TON, an appointment to meet. The
word is generally underftood of love-meetings.
ASSIGNEE, in law, a perfon appointed by another
to do an aft, tranfaft fome bufinefs, or enjoy a parti¬
cular commodity.
ASSIGNING, in a general fenfe, implies the mak¬
ing over the right of one perfon to another. In a par¬
ticular fenfe, it fignifies the pointing out of fomething ;
as, an error, falfe judgment, or walte.
ASSIGNMENT, the transferring the intereft one
has in a leafe, or other thing, to another perfon.
ASSIMILATION, in phyfics, is that motion by
which bodies convert other bodies related to them, or
at lead fuch as are prepared to be converted, into their
own fubftance and nature. Thus, flame multiplies it-
felf upon oily bodies, and generates new flame; air
upon water, and produces new air 5 and all the parts,
as well fimilar as organical, in vegetables and animals,
firft attraft with fome eleftion or choice, nearly the
fame common or not very different juices for aliment,
and afterwards aflimilate or convert them to their own
nature.
ASSISE, in old Englifh law-books, is defined to
be an affembly of knights, and other fubftantial men,
together with a juftice, in a certain place, and at a
certain time : but the word, in its prefent acceptation,
implies a court, place, or time, when and where the
writs and proceffes, whether civil or criminal, are de¬
cided by judge and jury.
All the counties of England are divided into fix
circuits; and two judges are afiigned by the king’s
^ommiffion, who hold their affifes twice a-year in e-
very county (except London and Middlefex, where
courts of niji prius are holden in and after every
term, before the chief or other judge of the feveral fu-
perior courts ; and except the four northern counties,
where the affifes are taken only once a-year) to try by
a jury of the refpeftive counties the truth of fuch mat¬
ters of faft as are then under difpute in the courts of
Weftminfter-hall. Thefe judges of affife came into ufe
in the room of the ancient juftices in tyrt, juJHciarii
* 4n itinere} who were regularly eftablifhed, if not firft
appointed, by the parliament of Northampton, A. D.
1176, 22 Hen. II. with a delegated power from the
king’s great court or aula regia, being looked upon as
members thereof: and they afterwards made their cir¬
cuit round the kingdom once in feven years for the pur-
pofe of trying caufes. They were afterwards direfted
by magna charts, c. !2. to be fent into every county
once a year to take or try certain aftions then called
recognitions ax a fifes; the moft difficult of which they
are direfted to adjourn into the court of common pleas
to be there determined. The itinerant juftices were
fiometirnes mere juftices of affife, or of dower, or of
gaol-delivery, and the like ; and they had fometimes a
more general commiffion, to determine all manner of
caufes, jufliciarii ad omnia plaeita: but the prefent
juftices of affife and nifi prius are more immediately Affile,
derived from the ftatute Weftm. 2. 13 Edw. I. c 30.'"“""v—-
explained by feveral other afts, particularly the ftatute
14 Edw. III. c. 16. and muft be two of the king’s
juftices of the one bench or the other, or the chief
baron of the exchequer, or the king’s fergeants fworn.
They ufually make their circuits in the refpeftive va¬
cations after Hilary and Trinity terms; affifes being
allowed to be taken in the holy time of Lent by confent
of the bilhops at the king’s requeft, as expreffed in
ftatute Weftm. j. 3 Edw. I. c. 51. And it was alfo
ufual, during the times of Popery, for the prelates to
grant annual licences to the juftices of affife to admini-
fter oaths in holy times : for oaths being of a facred
nature, the logic of thofe deluded ages concluded that
they muft be of ecclefiaftical cognizance. The pru¬
dent jealoufy of our anceftors ordained that no man of
law ftiould be judge of affife in his own country : and a
fimilar prohibition is found in the civil law, which has
carried this principle fo far, that it is equivalent to the
crime of facrilege, for a man to be governor of the
province in which he was born, or has any civil con-
neftion.
The judges upon their circuits now fit by virtue of
five feveral authorities. I. The commiffion of the peace,
in every county of the circuits; and all juftices of the
peace of the county are bound to be prefent at the af¬
fifes ; and Iheriffs are alfo to give their attendance on
the judges, or they fliall be fined. 2. A commiffiort
of oyer and terminer, direfted to them and many other
gentlemen of the county, by which they are empower¬
ed to try treafons, felonies, &c. and this is the largdl
commiffion they have. 3. A commiffion of general
gaol-delivery, direfted to the judges and the clerk of
affife affociate, which gives them power to try every
prifoner in the gaol committed for any offence what-
foever, but none but prifoners in the gaol ; fo that one
way or other they rid the gaol of all the prifoners in it.
4. A commiffion of affe, direfted to the judges and
clerk of affile, to take affifes 5 that is, to take the ver-
dift of a peculiar fpecies of jury called an affe, and
fummoned for the trial of landed difputes. The other
authority is, 5. That of niji prius, which is a confe-
quence of the commiffion of affe, being annexed to
the office of thofe juftices by the ftatute of Weftm. 2.
13 Edw. I. c. 30. And it empowers them to try all
queftiona of faft iffuing out of the courts of Weftmin-
(ter, that arc then ripe for trial by jury. The original
of the name is this: all caufes commenced in the courts
of Weftminfter-hall are by the courfe of the courts ap¬
pointed to be there tried, on a day fixed in fome Ealter
or Michaelmas term, by a jury returned from the
county wherein the caufe of aftion arifes ; but with
this provifo, niji prius jufliciarii ad affas capiendas
venerint ; unlefs before the day prefixed the judges of
affife come into the county in queftion. This they are
fore to do in the vacations preceding each Eafter and
Michaelmas term, and there difpofe of the caufe;
which faves much expence and trouble, both to the
parties, the jury, and the witneffes.
The word affe (from the French afis, feated, fettled,
or eftablilhed, and formed of the Latin verb afideo, I
fit by) is ufed in feveral different fenfes. It is fome¬
times taken for the fittings of a court ; fometimes for
its regulations or ordinances, efpecially thofe that fix
the
ASS [ 406 ] ASS
AfTifio the ftandard of weights and meafures; and fometimes
Aflbciation ^ a jury> either becanfe juries confided of a
1 ^ fixed determinate number, or becauie they continued
fitting till they pronounced their verditd. In Scots
law, an affife or jury confifts of fifteen fworn men
(juratores), picked out by the court from a greater
number, not exceeding 45, who have been fummoned
for that purpofe by the Iheriff, and given in lid to the
defender, at ferving him with a copy of his libel.
ASSISIO, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the duchy
of Spoleto, built on the fide of a very high mountain.
The cathedral cf St Francis is very magnificent, and
compofed of three churches, one above another. F.
Long. 13. 35. N. Lat. 43. 4.
ASS1THMFNT, a wiregeld, or compenfation, by
a pecuniary mulft ; from the prepofition ad, and the
Sux. JithcyVic'c : quod vice fupplicii ad expiandutu delidum
folvitur.
ASSOCIATION, the aft of affociating, or condi-
tuting a fociety, or partnerfhip, in order to carry on
fome fcheme or affair with more advantage.—The word
is Latin, ajjbciatio; and compounded of ad, to, and
focio, to join.
Association of Ideas, is where two or more ideas
condantly and immediately .follow or fucceed one ano¬
ther in the mind, fo that one {hall almod infallibly pro¬
duce the other, whether there be any natural relation
between them or not. See Metaphysics.
Where there is a real affinity or conneftion in ideas,
it is the excellency of the mind, to be able to colleft,
compare, and range them in order, in its inquiries: but
where there is none, nor any caufe to be alfigned for
their accompanying each other, but what is owing to
mere accident or habit ; this unnatural affociation be¬
comes a great imperfection, and is, generally fpeaking,
a main caufe of error, or wrong deduftions in reafoning.
Thus the ideas of goblins and fprights, it has been
obferved, has really no more affinity with darknefs than
with light; and yet let a foolifh maid inculcate thefe
ideas often on the mind of a child, and raife them there
together, it is polfible he {hall never be able to feparate
them again fo long as he lives, but darknefs {hall ever
bring with it thofe frightful ideas. With regard to
this inftance, however, it muft at the fame time be ob¬
ferved, that the conneftion alluded to appears far from
being either unnatural or abfurd. See the article Ap¬
parition.
Such w rong combinations of ideas, Mr Locke {hows,
are a great caufe of the irreconcileable oppofition be¬
tween the different fefts of philofophy and religion : for
we cannot imagine, that all who hold tenets different
from, and fcmetimes even contradiftory to, one another,
fliould wilfully and knowingly impofe upon themfelves,
and refufe truth offered by plain reafon : but fome loofe
and independent ideas are, by education, cuftom, and
the coniiant din of their party, fo coupled in their
minds, that they always appear there together: thefe
they can no more feparate in their thoughts, than if
they were .but one idea, and they operate as if they
were fo. This gives fenfe to jargan; clemonftration to
abfurdiiies, confiftency to nonfenfe, and is the foundation
of the gveateft, and almoft of all the errors in the world.
Affcciation forms a principal part of Dr Hartley’s
mechanical theory of the mind. He dillinguilhes it
into fynchronous and fuccefiivej and afcribes our iimple
and complex, ideas to the influence of this principle Affociado*
or habit. Particular fenfations refult from previous il
vibrations conveyed through the nerves to the medul- ,A 'll'T'r> ltV
lary fubftance of the brain ; and thefe are fo intimate¬
ly affociated together, that any one of them, when im-
preffed alone, fhall be able to excite in the mind the ideas
of all the reft. Thus we derive the ideas of natural
bodies from the affociation of the feveral fenfible qua¬
lities with the names that exprefs them, and with each
other. The fight of part of a large building fuggefta
the idea of the reft inftantaneoufly, by a fynchronous
affociation of the parts; and the found of the words,
which begin a familiar fentence, brings to remembrance
the remaining parts, in order, by fuccelfive aflbciation.
Dr Hartley maintains, that Ample ideas run into com¬
plex ones by affociation ; and apprehends, that by
purfuing and perfefting this doftrine, we may fome
time or other be enabled to analyfe thofe complex ideas,
that are commonly called the ideas of reflection, or intel¬
lectual ideas, into their feveral component parts, i. e.
intc the fimple ideas of fenfation of which they confift ;
and that this doftrine may beof confiderable ufe in the
art of logic, and in explaining the various phenomena
of the human mind.
Association of Parliament. In the reign of king
William III. the parliament entered into a folemn al-
fociation to defend his Majefty’s perfon and government
againft all plots and confpiracies ; and all perfons.bear-
ing offices civil or military, were enjoined to fublbribe
the affocialion to Hand by king William, on pain of
forfeitures and penalties, &c..by flat. 7 and'8 W. III.
c. 27.
ASSOILZIE, inlaw, to abfolve or free,
ASSONANCE, in rhetoric and poetry, a terns,
ufed where the words of a phraue or a verfe have the
fame found or termination, and yet make no proper
rhyme. Thefe are ufually accounted vicious in Engliflry
though the Romans fometimes ufed them with ele¬
gancy : as, Mililem comparavit, exercitum ordinavit%
aciem luflravit,
ASSONANT rhymes, is a term particularly ap¬
plied to a kind of verfes common among the Spaniards,
where a refemblance of found ferves initead of a natu¬
ral rhyme. Thus, ligera, cubierta, tierra, mefa, may
anfwer each other in a kind of ajfonant rhime, having
each an e in the penult fyllable, and an a in the laft.
ASSUAN. See Syene.
ASSUMPSIT, in the law of England, a voluntary
or verbal promife, whereby a perfon affumes, or takes
upon him to perform or pay any thing to another.
A promife is in the.nature of a verbal covenant, and
wants nothing but the folemnity of writing andfealing
to make it abfolutely the fame. If therefore it be to
do any explicit aft, it is an exprefs contraft, as much
as any covenant ; and the breach of it is an equal in¬
jury-. The remedy indeed is not exaftly the fame:
iince, inftead of. an aftion of covenant, there only lies
an aftion upon the cafe, for what is called an ajfump-
fit or undertaking of the defendant; the failure of per¬
forming which is the wrong or injury done to the
plaintiff, the damages whereof a jury are to eftimate
and fettle. As, if a builder promifes, undertakes,
or affumes to Caius, that he will build and cover his
boufe within a time limited, and fails to do it; Cains
has an aftion on the cafe againft the builder for this
breach
ASS [ 4°7 ] ASS
• breach of his exprefs promife, undertaking, or af-
' fumpfit; and (hall recover a pecuniary fatisfa&ion for
the injury fuftained by fuch delay. So alfo in the
cafe of a debt by Ample contract, if the debtor pro-
mifes to pay it and does not, this breach of promife
intitles the creditor to his action on the cafe, inftead
of being driven to an aftion of debt. Thus likewife a
promiflbry note, or note of hand not under feal, to
pay money at a day certain, is an exprefs affumpfit ;
and the payee at common law, or by cuftom and aft
of parliament the indorfee, may recover the value of
the note in damages, if it remains unpaid. Some a-
'greements indeed, though never fo exprefsly made, are
deemed of fo important a nature, that they ought not
to reft in verbairpromife only, which cannot be proved
but by the memory (which fometimes will induce the
perjury) of witneffes. To prevent which, the ftatute
of frauds and perjuries, 29 Car. II. c. 3, enafts, that
in the five following cafes no verbal promife fhali be
fufficient to ground an aftion upon, but at the leaft
fome note or memorandum of it (hall be made in
writing^ and figned by the party to be charged there¬
with : 1. -Where an executor or adminiftrator promifes
to anfwer damages out of his own eftate. 2. Where
a man undertakes to anfwer for the debt, default, or
mifcarmge, of another. 3. Where any agreement is
made upon confideration of marriage. 4. Where any
contraft or fale is made of lands, tenements, or here¬
ditaments, or any interfft therein. 5. And laftly, where
there is any agreement that is not to be performed
within a year from the making thereof. In all thefe
cafes, a mere verbal affumpfit is void.
From thefe exprefs contrafts the tranfition is eafy
to thofe that are only implied by law. Which arc
fuch as reafon and juftice diftate, and. which therefore
the law prefumes that every man has contrafted to per¬
form ; and, upon this prefumption, makes him anfwer-
able to fuch perfons as fuffer by his non-performance.
Thus, r. If I employ a perfon to tranfaft any bufi-
nefs for me, or perform any work, the law implies that
I undertook, or affumed, to pay him fo much as his
labour deferved : and if I negleft to make him amends,
he has a remedy for this injury by bringing his aftion
on the cafe upon this implied affumpfit ; wherein, he is
at liberty to fuggeft that I promifed to pay him fo
much as he reafonably deferved, and then to aver that
his trouble was really worth fuch a particular fum,
which,the defendant has omitted to pay. But this
valuation of his trouble is fubmitted to the determina¬
tion of a jury ; who will affefs fuch a fum in damages
as they think he really merited. This is called an af¬
fumpfit on a quantum meruit.
2. There is alfo an implied affumpfit on a quantum
valebat, which is very fimilar to the former ; being
only where one takes up, goods or wares of a tradef-
man, without exprefsly agreeing for the price. There
the law concludes, that both parties did intentionally
agree that the real value of the goods ftiould be paid ;
and an aftion on the cafe may be brought accordingly,
if the vendee refufes to pay that value.
3. A third fpecies of implied affumpfit is when one
has had and received money belonging to another with¬
out any valuable confideration given on the receiver’s
part : for the law conftrues this to be money had and
received for the ufe of the owner only ; and implies
that the perfon fo, receiving, promifed and undertook Affumplit.
to account for it to the true proprietor. And, if hev™” ‘
unjuftly detains it, an aftion on the cafe lies againft
him for the breach of fuch implied promife and under¬
taking ; and he will be made to repair the owner in
damages, e’quivalent to what he has detained in fuch
violation of his promife. This is a very extenfive and
beneficial remedy, applicable to almoft every cafe where
the defendant has received money which ex xquo et bono
he ought to refund. It lies for money paid by miftake,
or on a confideration which happens to fail, or through
impofition, extortion, or oppreflton, or where undue
advantage is taken of the plaintiff’s fituation.
4. Where a perfon has laid out and expended his
own money for the ufe of another at his recpieft, the
law implies a promife of repayment, and an aftion will
lie on this affumpfit.
5. Likewife, fifthly, upon a dated account between
two merchants, or other perfons, the law implies that
he againft whom the balance appears has engaged to
pay it to the other ; though there be not any aftual pro¬
mife. And from this implication it is frequent for ac¬
tions on the cafe to be brought, declaring that the
plaintiff and defendant had fettled their accounts toge¬
ther, infimul eempufajjent, (which gives name to this
fpecies of affumpfit) ; and that the defendant engaged
to pay the plaintiff the balance, but has fince negleft-
ed to do it. But if no account has been made up,
then the legal remedy is by bringing a writ of account
de compute ; commanding the defendant to render a juft
account to the plaintiff, or fhew the court good caufe
to the contrary. In this aftion, if the plaintiff fuc-
ceeds, there are two judgments ; the firft is, that the
defendant do account (quod computet) before auditors
appointed by the .court; and when fuch account is fi-
nifiied, then the fecond judgment is, that he do pay the
plaintiff fo much as he is found in arrear.
6. The laft clafs of contrafts, implied by reafon and
conftruftion of law, arifes upon this fuppofition, that e-
very one who undertakes any office, employment, truft,
or duty, contrafts with thofe who employ or entruft
him, to perform it with integrity, diligence, and fkill :
and if by his want of either of thofe qualities any
injury accrues to individuals,''they have therefore their
remedy in damages, by a fpecial aftion on the cafe.
A few inftances will fully illuftrate this matter. If an
officer of the public is guilty of negleft of duty, or a
palpable breach of it, of non-feafance, or of mif-feafance j
as, if the fheriff does not execute a writ fent to him, or
if he wilfully makes a falfe return thereof; in both
thefe cafes, the party aggrieved fhall have an aftion on
the cafe, for damages to be affeffed by a jury. If a
fheriff or gaoler fuffers a prifoner who is taken upon
mefne procefs (that is, during the pendency of a fuit)
to efcape, he is liable to an aftion on the cafe. But if,
after judgment, a gaoler or a (heriff permits a debtor
to efcape, who is charged in execution for a certain
fum ; the debt immediately becomes his own, and he
is compellable by aftion of debt, being for a fum li¬
quidated and afeertained, to fatisfy the creditor in his
whole demand. An advocate or attorney that betray
the caufe of their client, or, being retained, negleft
to appear at the trial, by which the caufe mifearries,
are liable to an aftion on the cafe, for a reparation to
their injured clien!. There is alfo in law always an
. implied
ASS ( 408 1 ASS
AfTumptioa implied contraft with a common inn keeper, to fecure
Ajj, his gueft’s goods in his inn ; with a common carrier or
1 yH5' _- barge-mafter, to be anfwerable for the goods he car¬
ries ; with a common farrier, that he flioes a horfe well,
without laming him ; with a common taylor, or other
workman, that he performs bis bnfinefs in a workman¬
like manner : in which if they fail, an a&ion on the
cafe lies to recover damages for fuch breach of their
general undertaking. Alfo if an inn-keeper, or other
viftualler, hangs out a lign and opens his houfe for tra¬
vellers, it is an implied engagement to entertain all
perfons who travel that way ; and upon this univerfal
afumpfit an a6tion on the cafe will lie againlt him for
damages, if he without good reafon refufes to admit a
traveller. In contract* likewife for fales, if the feller
doth upon the fale warrant it to be good, the law an¬
nexes a tacit contraft to this warranty, that if it be
not fo, he fhall make compenfation to the buyer : elfe
it is an injury to good faith, for which an adtion on
the cafe will lie to recover damages.
ASSUMPTION, a feflival in the Romifh church,
in honour of the miraculous afccnt of the Virgin Ma¬
ry into heaven : the Greek church, who alio obferve
this feftival, celebrate it on the 15th of Auguft with
great ceremony.
Assumption, in logic, is the minor or fecond pro-
pofition in a categorical fyllogifin.
Assumption is aifo ufed for a confequence drawn
from the propofitions whereof an argument is compo-
fed.
Assumption, an ifland of North America, in the
gulph of St Laurence, at the mouth of the great river
of the fame name. It is covered with trees. W. Long.
60. 40. N. Lat. 49. 30.
Assumption, a large and handfome town of Pro¬
per Paraguay, on the river of the fame name in South
America. It is a bilhop’s fee, is well peopled, and
feated in a country fruitful in corn and fruits, whofe
trees are always green. There is likewife a quantity of
pafture, and the air is temperate and falutary. W. Long.
60. 40. S. Lat. 34. 10.
ASSUMPTIVE arms, in heraldry, are fuch as a
perfon has a right to afrume, with the approbation of
his fovereign, and of the heralds : thus, if a perfon,
who has no right by blood, and has no coat of arms,
fhall captivate, in any lawful war, any gentleman,
nobleman, or prince, he is, in that cafe, intitled to
bear the fhield of that prifoner, and enjoy it to him and
his heirs for ever.
ASSURANCE, or Insurance, in commerce. See
Insurance.
ASSUROR, a merchant, or other pevfbn, who
makes out a policy of affurance, and thereby infures a
fhip, houfe, or the like.
ASSUS, or Assos (anc. geog.), a town of Troas
(though by others fuppofed to be of Myfia), and the
fame with Apollonia (Pliny) ; but different from the
Apolionia on the river Rhyndacus. Ptolemy places it
on the fea-coaft, but Strabo more inland ; if he does
not mea.. the head of an inland bay, as appears from
Diodorus Siculus. It was the country of Cleanthes
the ftoic philofopher, who fucceedcd Zeno. St Luke
and others of St Paul’s companions in his voyage
(Adts xx 13, 14.), went by fea from Troas to Affos:
but St Paul went by land thither, and meeting them
N0 31.
at AITos, they all went together to Mytelene. It is Aflyna.
ftill called Affos^ E. Long. 27. 30. Lat. 38. 30.
ASSYRIA, an ancient kingdom of Afia, concern¬
ing the extent, commencement, and duration of which,
hiftorians differ greatly in their accounts. Several an¬
cient writers, in particular Ctefias and Diodorus Sicu¬
lus, have affirmed, that the Affyrian monarchy, un¬
der Ninus and Semiramis, comprehended the greater
part of the known world. Had this been the cafe, it
is not likely that Homer and Herodotus would have
omitted a fa& fo remarkable. The facred records in¬
timate, that none of the ancient dates or kingdoms
were of confiderable extent; for neither Chederlaomer,
nor any of the neighbouring princes, were tributary or
fubjedf to AfTyria ; and we find nothing'of the greatnefs
or power of this kingdom in the hiffory of the Judges
and fucceeding kings of Ifrael, though the latter king¬
dom was opprefled and enflaved by many different pow¬
ers in that period. It is highly probable, therefore,
that Affyria was originally of fmall extent. Accord¬
ing to Ptolemy, it was bounded on the north by Ar¬
menia Major ; on the weft by the Tigris; on the fouth
by Sufiana 5 and on the call by Media.,
It is probable, that the origin and revolutions of the
AfTyrian monarchy were as follows The founder of
it was Afliur, the fecond fon of Shem, who went out
of Shinar, either by the appointment of Nimrod, or
to elude the fury of a tyrant; conduced a large body
of adventurers into AfTyria, and laid the foundation of
Nineveh (Gen. x. 11.) Thefe events happened not;
long after Nimrod had eflablifhed the Chaldaean mo¬
narchy, and fixed his refidence at Babylon. The Per- Playfair’s
fian hiftorians fuppofe that the kings of Perfra of Chronology.
firft dynafty were the fame with the kings of Afiyria,
of whom Zohah, or Nimrod, was the founder of Babe',
( Hcrbelot Orient. Bib!, v. Bagdad). It does not, how¬
ever, appear, that Nimrod reigned in Affyria, The
kingdoms of Babylon and Affyria were originally di-
ftinft and feparate (Micah v. 6.) ; and in this ftate
they remained until Ninus conquered Babylon, and -
made it tributary to the AfTyrian empire. Ninus, the-
fucceffor of Afhur (Gen. x. u., Diod. Sic. L. i.),
feized on Chaldaea, after the death of Nimrod, and
united the kingdoms of Affyria and Babylon. This
great prince is faid to have fubdued Afia, Perfia, Me¬
dia, Egypt, &c. If he did fo, the effe&s of his
conquefts were of no duration ; for, in the days of A- "
braham, we do not find that any of the neighbour¬
ing kingdoms were fubjeft to Affyria. He was fuc-
ceeded by Semiramis ; a princefs of an heroic mind j
bold, enterprifing, fortunate ; but of whom many fa¬
bulous things have been recorded. It appears, how¬
ever, that there were two princeffes of the fame namc>
who flourifhed at very different periods. One of them
was the confort of Ninus ; and the other lived five ge¬
nerations before Nitocris queen of Nebuchadnezzar
(Eufeb. Chron. p. 58. Herod. L. i. c. 184.) This
fa£t has not been attended to by many, writers.
Whether there was an uninterrupted feries of kings
from Ninus to Sardanapalus, or not, is ftill a queftion.
Some fufpicion has ariien, that the lift which Ctefias
has given of the Affyrian kings is not genuine ; for
many names in it are of Perfian, Egyptian, and Gre¬
cian extraction.
Nothing memorable has been recorded concerning the
fuc*
AST [ 409 ] AST
Aflyria fucceflbrs of Ninus and Semirami*. Of that effemi-
Aj|a rate race of princes it is barely faid, that they afcend-
. ed the throne, lived in indolence, and died in their pa¬
lace at Nineveh. Diodorus (L. ii.) relates, that, in the
reign of Teutames, the Affyrians, folicited by Priam
their vaffal, fent to the Trojans a fupply of 20,000
foot and 200 chariots, under the command of Mem-
non, fon of Tithonus prefident of Perfia : But the truth
of this relation is rendered doubtful by the accounts of
other writers.
Sardanapalus was the Jaft of the ancient Aflyrian
kings. Contemning his indolent and voluptuous courfe
of life, Arbaces, governor of Media, withdrew his al¬
legiance, and rofe up in rebellion againft him. He was
encouraged in this revolt by the advice and affiftance
of Belefis, a Chaldean prieft, who engaged the Baby¬
lonians to follow the example of the Medes. Thefe
powerful provinces, aided by the Perfians and other al¬
lies, who defpifed the effeminacy, or dreaded the ty¬
ranny of their AfFyrian lords, attacked the empire on
all fides. Their moll vigorous efforts were, in the be¬
ginning, unfuccefsful. Firm and determined, how¬
ever, in their oppofition, they at length prevailed, de¬
feated the Affyrian army, befieged Sardanapalus in
his capital, which they demolifhed, and became mailers
of the empire, B. C. 821.
After the death of Sardanapalus, the Aflyrian empire
was divided into three kingdoms, viz. the Median, Af¬
fyrian, and Babylonian. Arbaces retained the fupreme
power and authority, and fixed his refidence at iicba-
tana in Media. He nominated governors in Affyria
and Babylon, who were honoured with the title of
kings> while they remained fubje& and tributary to
the Median monarchs. Belefis received the government
of Babylon as the reward of his fervices ; and Phul
was entrufled with that of Affyria. The Affyrian go¬
vernor gradually enlarged the boundaries of his king¬
dom, and was fucceeded by Tiglath-pilefer, Salmana-
far, and Sennacherib, who afferted and maintained
their independency. After the death of Affat-haddon,
the brother and fucceffor of Sennacherib, the kingdom
of Affyria was fpltt, and annexed to the kingdoms of
Media and Babylon. Several tributary princes after¬
wards reigned in Nineveh; but no particular account
of them is found in the annals of ancient nations. We
hear no more of the kings of Alfyria, but of thofe of
Babylon. Cyaxares king of Media, affifted Nebu¬
chadnezzar king of Babylon, in the fiege of Nineveh,
which they took and deftroyed, B. C. 6c6. The
Chaldean or Babylonilh kingdom was transferred to
the Medes, after the reign of Nabonadius, fon of Evil-
merodach, and grandfon of Nebuchadnezzar. He is
ftyled Belfhazzar in the facred records, and was con¬
quered by Cyrus, B. C. 538.
ASSYTHMENT. Sec Assithment.
ASTA, an inland town of Liguria, a colony (Pto¬
lemy) on the river Tanarus : Now JJli. E. Long.
8.. 15. Lat. 44. 40.
Asta Regia, a town of Baetica, (Pliny) ; fitdated
at that mouth of the Bastis which was choaked up with
mud, to the north of Cadiz ; 1 6. miles dillant from the
port of Cadiz, ( Antonine). Its ruins fhow its former
greatnefs. Its name is Phoenician, denoting a frith ox
arm of the fea, on which it flood, it is faid to be the
fame with Xera; which fee.
Yoi. II. Part XL
ASTABAT, a town of Armenia, in Afia, fituated Aflabat
near the river Aras, 12 miles fouth of Nakfhivan. The Jj ^
land about it is excellent, and produces very good, c ,
wine. There is a root peculiar to this country, called
ronas j which runs in the ground like liquorice, and
ferves for dyeing red. It is very much tiled all over
the Indies, and for it they have a great trade. E. Long.
46. 30. N. Lat. 39. o.
ASTANDA, in antiquity, a royal courier or mef-
fenger, the fame with angarus.—King Darius of
Perfia is .faid by Plutarch, in his book on the for¬
tune of Alexander, to have formerly been an ajianda.
ASTAROTH, or Ashtaroth, in antiquity, a
goddefs of the Sidonians.—The word is Syriac, and.
fignifies Jheept efpecially when their udders are turgid
with milk. From the fecundity of thefe animals, w'hich
in Syria continue to breed a long time, they formed
the notion of a deity, whom they called JJlarothy or
ylfarte. See Astarte.
Astaroth, (anc. geog.) the royal refidence of Og
king of Balkan ; whether the fame with Allaroth Car-
naim, is matter of doubt: if one and the fame, it fol¬
lows from Eufebius’s account, that it lay in Balkan,
and to the call of Jordan, bepaufe in the confines of
Arabia.
ASTARTE, in Pagan mythology (the Angular of
Aftaroth,) a Phoenician goddefs, called in Scripture
the queen of heaven, and the goddefs of the Sidonians.
-—Solomon, in compliment to one of his queens, erec¬
ted an altar to her. In the reign of Ahab, Jezebel cau-
fed her worfhip be performed with much pomp and
ceremony Ihe had 400 priells; the women were em¬
ployed in weaving hangings or tabernacles for her; and
Jeremiah obferves, that “ the children gathered the
“ wood, the fathers kindled the fire, and the women
M kneaded the dough, to make cakes for the queen of
“ heaven.”
Astarte, (anc. geog.) a city on the other fide Jor¬
dan ; one of the names of Rabbath Ammon, in Arabia.
Petraea, (Stephanus).
ASTEISM, in rhetoric, a genteel irony, or hand-
fome way of deriding another. Such, e. gr. is that of.
Virgil :
Shii Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina, Mavi, &c.
Diomed places the charadterillic of this figure, or fpe-
cies of irony, in that it is not grofs and rullic, but in¬
genious and polite.
ASTELL (Mary), the great ornament of her fex
and country, was the daughter of AHell, an opu¬
lent merchant at Newcallle upon Tyne, where fhe was
born about the year 1668. She was educated in a man¬
ner fuitable to her llation ; and, amongft other accom-
plilhments, was millrefs of: the French, and had fome
knowledge of the Latin tongue.. Her uncle, a clergy¬
man, obferving in her fomc marks of a promifing gc--
nius, took her under his tuition, and taught her ma¬
thematics, logic, and philofophy. She left the place-
of her nativity when Ihe was about 20 years ofage, and;
fpent the remaining part of her life at London and at
Chelfea. Here. Ihe purfued her fludies with great afii-.
duity, made great proficiency in the abovementioned
fciences, and acquired a more complete knowledge of
many clafiic authors. Among thefe Seneca, Epidle-
tus, Hierocles, Antoninus, Tully, Plato, and Xeno*.
ghon, were her principal favourites.,
i E LUft
AST [ 410 ] A S T
-Aftcll Her life was fpent in writing for the advancement
ll of learning, religion, and virtue; and in the pra&ice
A/brabad. o£ tjj0fe reljg;ous duties which (lie fo zealoufly and pa-
~ thetically recommended to others, and in which per¬
haps no one was ever more fincere and devout. Her
fentiments of piety, charity, humility, and other
Chriftian graces, were uncommonly refined and fub-
"lime ; and religion fat gracefully upon her, unattend¬
ed with any forbidding airs of fournefs or of gloom.
Her mind was generally calm and ferene ; and her
converfation was innocently facetious, and highly en¬
tertaining. She would fay, “ The good Chriftian
only hath reafon, and he always ought, to be cheer-
.ful and, “ That deje&ed looks and melancholy airs
were very unfeemly in a Chriftian.” But thefe fub-
je&s fhe hath treated at large in fome of her excellent
writings.
She was remarkably abftemious ; and feemed to en¬
joy'an uninterrupted ftate of health till a few years be¬
fore her death ; when, having one of her breafts cut
Tiff, it fo much impaired her conftitution, that fhe did
not. long furvive it. This painful operation fhe under¬
went without difeovering the leaft timidity, or fo much
as uttering a groan ; and ifhowed the fame refolution
and refipnation during her whole illnefs. When fhe
<vas confined to her bed by a gradual decay, and the
time of her diflblution drew near, fhe ordered her
Throud and coffin to be made and brought to her bed-
fide ; and there to remain in her view, as a conftant
memento of her approaching fate, and to keep her
.mind fixed on proper contemplation. She died in
the year 1731, in the 63d year of her age, and was
buried at Chelfea. She wrote, I. A Serious Propofal
to the Ladies. 2. An Eflay in Defence of the Fe¬
male Sex. 3. Letters concerning the Love of God.
4. Refledtions upon Marriage. 5. Moderation truly
ftated. 6. The Chriftian Religion, as profeffed by a
Daughter of the Church of England ; and fome other
works.
ASTER, starwort : A genus of the polygamia
fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Compofitue difeoides. The receptacle is
naked; the pappus is fimple; the rays of the corolla are
10; and the calyx is imbricated. There are above30fpe-
cies. All of them may be raifed from feed fown either
in autumn or fpring : but the greateft part of them
being perennial plants, and increafing greatly at the
roots, are generally propagated by parting their roots
early in the fpring, and they will grow in almoft any
foil or fituation ; and the larger forts increafe fo faft,
that, if not prevented, they will in. a little time run
over a large fpace of ground. They grow beft in the
fhade : the lower kinds do not run fo much at the root,
but fhould be taken up and tranfplanted every other year;
which will make them produce much fairer flowers.
Some few forts, which are natives of warm climates,
will require artificial heat to raife them, if not to pre-
ferve them.
Aster, or Stella Marina, in zoology. See Aste-
RI AS.
ASTERABAD, a province in the north-eaft part
of Pcrfia, having Tabriftan on the eaft, part of the
"Cafpian Sea and part of Jorjan on the north, Korafan
jdh the weft, and Koumas on the fouth. It is a moun¬
tainous country, except near the banks of the rivers Aftem
that almoft furround it, where it is pleafant and fruit- Afterias.
ful, producing grapes of a prodigious-fize. In other yr"“"
parts the foil is fandy and barren. Afterabad is the
chief town, which gives name to a gulph in the Per-
fian Sea, at the bottom of which it Hands. E. Long.
54- 35* Lat. 36. 50.
ASTERIA, in zoology, a name by which fome au¬
thors have called the falco palumbarius, or go/hawk.
See Falco.
Asteria is alfo the name of a gem, ufually called
the cat's eye, or oculus cats. It is a very lingular and
very beautiful ftone, and fomewhat approaches to the
nature of the opal, in having a bright included colour,
which feems to be lodged deep in the body of the ftone,
and Ihifts about, as it is moved, in various diredlions :
but it differs from the opal in all other particulars,
efpecially in its want of the great variety of colours feen
in that gem, and in its fuperior hardnefs. It is ufually
found between the fize of a pea and the breadth of a
fixpence ; is almoft always of a femicircular form, broad
and flat at the bottom, and rounded and convex at the
top ; and is naturally fmooth and polilhed. It has only
two colours, a pale brown and a white ; the brown feem-
ing the ground, and the white playing about in it, as
the fire colour in the opal. It is confiderably hard, and
will take a fine polilh, but is ufually worn with its na¬
tive fhape and fmoothnefs. It is found in the Eaft and
Weft Indies, and in Europe. The ifland of Borneo
affords fome very fine ones, but they are ufually fmall;
they are very common in the fands of rivers in New
Spain ; and in Bohemia they are not unfrequently found
immerfed in the fame maffes of jafper with the opal.
Asteria is alfo the name of an extraneous foffil,
called in Engliih the Jlar-Jlone. Thefe foffils are fmall,
fhort, angular, or fulcated columns, between one and two
inches long, and feldom above a third of an inch in di¬
ameter : compofed of feveral regular joints ; when fepa-
rated, each refembles a radiated ftar. They are, not
without reafon, fuppofed to be a part of fome fea-fifti
petrified, probably the afterias or fea-ftar. The afte-
ria is alfo called ajlrites, ajlroites, and ajlerifcus. They
may be reduced to two kinds ; thofe whofe whole bo¬
dies make the form of a ftar ; and thofe which in the
whole are irregular, but are adorned as it were with
conftellations in the parts. Dr Lifter, for diftin&ion’a
fake, only gives the name ajleria to the former fort,
diftinguifhing the latter by the appellation of ajlroi-
tes ; other naturalifts generally ufe the two indiferimi-
nately. The afteria fpoken of by the ancients appears
to be of this latter kind. The quality of moving in
vinegar, as if animated, is fcarce perceivable in the
aftroites, but is fignal in the afteria. The former mufti
be broken in fmall pieces before it will move ; but the
latter will move, not only in a whole joint, but in two
or three knit together. The curious frequently meet
with thefe ftones in many parts of England: at Cley-
don in Oxfordfhire they are found rather larger than
common, but of a fofter fubflance ; for, on being left a
fmall fpace of time in a ftrong acid, they may eafily be
feparated at the joints in fmall plates.
ASTERIAS, Star-fish, or Sea-star, in zoolo¬
gy, a genus of infe£ts of the order of vermes mollufca.
It has a depreffed body, covered with a coriaceous coat;
is compofed of five or more fegments, running out from
AST [ 411 ] AST
Afterias. a central part, and furnifhed with numerous tentacula:
   ' anj has the mouth in the centre.—The conformation
of the mouth is this : The under part of each lobe runs
towards a point with the reft at the centre of the body ;
and thefe feveraljjrodu&ions of the rays make a. fort
of lips, the ends of each of which are armed with a
number of ftiarp teeth, which ferve to take and convey
the food into the body. From this mouth there goes
a feparate canal to all or many of the rays, which
runs through their whole length, and becomes gradual¬
ly narrower as it approaches the extremity. The ten¬
tacula refemble the horns of fnails, but ferve the ani¬
mal to walk with. They are capable of being con¬
tracted or (hortened : and it is only at the creature’s
moving that they are feen of their full length ; at o-
ther times, no part of them is feen but the extremity of
each, which is formed like a fort of button, being
fbmewhat larger than the reft of the horn.
Moft of the fpecies of afterias are found in the Britifli
leas. 1. The glacialis, with five rays, deprefled, broad
at the bafe, yellow, and having a round ftriated oper¬
culum on the back, is the moft common ; it feeds on
oyfters, and is very deftruffive to the beds. 2. The
clathatra, or cancellated fea-ftar, with five ftiort thick
rays, hirfute beneath, cancellated above, is found with
the former, but mere rare. 3. The oculata, with five
fmooth rays, dotted or pun&ured, is of a fine purple
colour, and is found about Anglefea. 4. The hifpida,
with five rays, broad, angulated at top, and rough-
with fhort briftles, is of a brown colour, and likewife
found about Anglefea. 5. The placenta, with five
very broad and membranaceous rays, extremely thin
and flat, is found about Weymouth. 6. The fpheru-
lata, with a pentagonal indented body ; a fmall glo¬
bular bead between the bafe of each ray ; the rays
flender, jointed, taper, and hirfute on their udes; found
off Anglefea. 7. The caput medufae, or arborefeent
fea-ftsr, with five rays ifiuing from an angular body ;
the rays dividing into innumerable branches, growing
flender as they recede from the bafe. Thefe the animal,
in fwimming, fpreads like a net to their full length ;
and when he perceives any prey within them, draws
them in again, thus catching it with all the dexterity of a
fifherman. It is an inhabitant of every fea; and is called
by fome the Magellanic Jlar-fiJh and lajket-fijh. When
if extends its rays fully, it forms a circle of near three
feet in diameter. The fragments of thefe rays furnifh
the foflile entrochi. If we drown this animal in bran¬
dy or fpirits of wine, and keep the rays flat and ex¬
panded in the execution, it is eafy to extraft by means
of a pair of forceps the ftomach of the animal whole
and entire through the mouth. 8. The decacnemos, has
ten very flender rays, with numbers of long beards on
the fides : the body is fmall, and furrounded beneath
with ten fmall filiform rays. It inhabits the weftern
coafts of Scotland.—There are feveral other fpecies
mentioned by authors ; fome of them of 10, 12, 13,
or even 14 rays.
Ariftotle and Pliny called this genus and Jlella.
marina, from their refemblance to the pictured form
of the ftars of heaven ; and they aflerted that they were
fo exceedingly hot, as inftantly to confume whatfoever
they touched.
The fulfil world has been greatly enriched by the-
fragments and remains.of the feveral pieces of ilar-fifti..
which have been converted into Hones. See Aste- Arterias^
RIA. _ !!
Asterias, the ancient name of the bittern. See,A
Ardea.
ASTERISK, a mark in form of a ftar (*), placed
over a word or fentence, to refer the reader to the mar¬
gin, or elfewhere, for a quotation, explanation, or the
like.
ASTERIUS, or Asturius, a Roman conful, in
449. We have under Isis name, A Conference on the
Old and New Tejlament, in Latin verfe : in which each
ftrophe contains, in the firft verfe, an hiftorical faft iir
the Old Teftament ; and in the fecond, an application
of that fa& to fome point in the New.
ASTERN, a fea-phrafe, ufed to fignify any thing
at fome diftance behind the fhip } being the oppofite*
of Ahead, which fignifies the fpace before her. See
Ahead.
ASTEROPODIUM, a kind of extraneous folfil,
of the fame fubftance with the afteriae or ftar-ftones, ter
which they ferve as a bafe. See Asxeria and Star-
stone.
ASTHMA. See the Index fubjoined to Medicine.
ASTI, a city of Montferrat in Italy, feated on the
Tanaro, and capital of the county of the fame name.
It is a bilhop’s fee, and w^ell fortified with ftrong walls
and deep ditches 5 and is divided into the city, borough,
citadel, and caftle. There are a great many churches'
and convents, as well as other handfome buildings; and
its territory is well watered, abounding with groves, •
pleafant hills, and fpacious fields. It was taken by the
French in 1745, and retaken by the king of Sardinia .
in 1746. E. Long. 8. 15. ,N. Lat. 54. 50.
ASTIGI (anc. geog.), a colony, and conventus ju- -
ridicus, of Baetica, furnamed Angufa Firma, fituated
on the Singulus, which falls into the Bsetis ; called al-
fo Colonia AJligitana (Pliny) : Now Ecya, midway be¬
tween Seville and Corduba. W. Long. j0. Lat. 37. 20. -
ASTOMI, in anthropology, a people feigned with^
out mouths. Pliny fpeaks of a nation of Aftomi in In¬
dia, who lived only by the fmell or effluvia of bodies
taken in by the nofe.
ASTORGA, a very ancient city of Spain, in the
kingdom of Leon, with a biftiop’s lee, is feated on the
river Tuerta, and well fortified both by art and nature.
It Hands in a moft agreeable plain, about 150 miles
north-weft of Madrid. There are excellent trouts in
the river. W. Long. 6. 2®. N. Lat. 42. 20.
ASTRACAN, a province of Ruflia, and the moft
eafterly part of Europe ; bounded on the north by
Bulgaria and Bafkiria ; on the fouth, by the Cafpian
Sea ; on the weft, by the Volga, which divides it from
the Nagayan Tartars and Don Coflacks ; and on the •
eaft, by the great ridge of mountains whicli part it from
Great Tartary. The province extends from the 46th to
the y2d degree of latitude. The fummer is long, and '•
intenfely hot: the winter continues about three months *.
fo fevere, that the Volga is frozen hard enough to bear ■
loaded fledges. The foil is rich and fertile ; but the •
Tartars who inhabit it are ftrangers to agriculture. On ’
the weftern and fouthern fides> of the Volga, are heaths >
of a prodigious extent, fandy, delart, and uncuhiva- -
ted : thefe, however., produce vaft quantities of fins
tranfparent fait in pits, where the fun bakes and incru--
ftates it to the thicknefs of an inch on the.furface of •
3 P ^ - tbs >-
AST
ARraean. the water. There are pits in the neighbourhood of
Aftracan which yield this excellent fait in fuch abun¬
dance, that any perfon may carry it off, paying at the
rate of one farthing a pooft. which is equal to forty
pounds. The metropolis, Aftracan, is fituated with¬
in the boundaries of Afia, on an ifland called Dolgoi,
about 60 Englifh miles above the place where the Vol¬
ga difembogues itfelf into the Cafpian fea. The city
derives its name from Hadgee Tarken, a Tartar, by
■whom it was founded. It was conquered by Iwan Ba-
filowitz, recovered by the Tartars in the year 1668,
and retaken by the Czar, who employed for this pur-
pofe a great number of flat-bottomed veffels, in which
he trarrfported his forces down the Volga from Cafan.
The city of Aftracan is about two miles and a half in
circumference, furrounded by a brick-wall, which is
now in a ruinous condition: but, if we comprehend
the fuburbs, the circuit will be near five miles. The
number of inhabitants amounts to 70,000, including
Armenians and Tartars, as well as a few Perfians and
Indians. The garrifon confifts of fix regiments of the
heft Ruffian troops, who, when this place was alarm-
ed from the fide of Perfia, had in the adjacent plain e-
re&ed a great number of fmall batteries, to fcour the
fields, and obftrudl the approach of the enemy. The
houfes of Aftracan are built of wood, and generally
mean and inconvenient. The higher parts of the city
command a profpeft of the Volga, which is here about
three miles in breadth, and exhibits a noble appear¬
ance. The marfhy lands on the banks of it render the
place very fickly in the fummer : the earth, being im¬
pregnated with fait, is extremely fertile, and produces
• abundance of fruit, the immoderate ufe of which is at¬
tended with epidemical diftempers. Sicknefs is likewife
the confequence of thofe annual changes in the atmo-
fphere produced by the floods in fpring and autumn.
All round the city of Aftracan, at the diftance of two
miles, are feen a great number of gardens, orchards,
and vineyards, producing all forts of herbs and roots.
The grapes are counted fo delicious, that they are
preferved in fand, and tranfported to court by land-
carriage at a prodigious expence : yet the wine of
Aftracan is very indifferent. The fummer being ge¬
nerally dry, the inhabitants water their gardens by
means of large wheels worked by wind or horfes,
which raife the water to the higheft part of the garden,
from whence it runs in trenches to refrelh the roots of
every Angle tree and plant. The neighbouring coun¬
try produces hares and partridges, plenty of quails in
fummer, with wild and wates-fowl of all forts in abun¬
dance.
About ten miles below Aftracan is a fmall ifland
called Bofmaife, on which are built large ftorehoufes
for the fait, which is made about twelve miles to
the eaftward, and, being brought hither in boats,
is conveyed up the Volga, in order to fupply the
country as far as Mofcow and Twere. The quantity
of fait annually dug for thefe purpofes amounts to fome
millions of pounds, the exclufive property of which is
claimed by the crown, and yields a confiderable reve¬
nue ; for the foldiers and bulk of the people live almoft
[ 1
AST
to the fouth-eaft as far as Yack, and even 100 miles Aftraeas.
above Zaritzen. The principal fifh here caught are J
fturgeon and belluga. Thefe, being failed, are put
on board of veffels, and fent away in the fpring, for
the ufe of the whole empire, even as far as Peterf*
burg : but as fifli may be kept frefh as long as it
is frozen, the winter is no fooner fet in than they
tranfport great quantities of it by land through all
the provinces of Ruffia. Of the roes of the fifh called
belluga, which are white, tranfparent, and of an agree¬
able flavour, the fifhers here prepare the caviare, which
is in fo much efteem all over Europe. Thefe fiftieries
were firft eftablifhed by one Tikon Demedoff, a car¬
rier, who fettled in this place about 60 years ago,
his whole wealth confifting of two horfes. By dint
of /kill and induftry, he foon grew the richeft merchant
in this country : but his fuccefs became fo alluring to
the crown, that of late years it hath engroffed fome of
the fifheries as well as the falt-works.
From the latter end of July to the beginning of Oc¬
tober, the country about Aftracan is frequently infeft-
ed with myriads of locufts, which darken the air in their
progreffion from the north to the fouthward ; and,
wherever they fall, confume the whole verdure of the
earth. Thefe infefts can even live for fome time un¬
der water : for when the wind blows acrofs the Volga,
vaft numbers of them fall in clufters, and are rolled
afhore ; and their wings are no fooner dry, than they
rife and take flight again.
Heretofore the inhabitants of Aftracan traded to
Khuva and Bokhara ; but at prefent thefe branches are
loft, and their commerce is limited to Perfia and the do¬
minions of Ruffia. Even the trade to Perfia is much
diminifhed by the troubles of that country : neverthe-
lefs, the commerce of Aftracan is ftill confiderable.
Some years ago, the city maintained about 40 veffels,
from too to 200 tons burden, for the Cafpian traffic.
Some of thefe belong to the government, and are com¬
manded by a commodore, under the dire&ion of the
admiralty. This office is generally well flocked with
naval ftores, which are fold occafionally to the mer¬
chants. The trading (hips convey provifions to the
frontier towns of Terkie and Kiflar, fituated on the
Cafpian fea; and tranfport merchandize to feveral
parts of Perfia. The merchants of Aftracan export
to Perfia, chiefly on account of the Armenians, red
leather, linens, woollen cloths, and other European
manufa&ures. In return, they import the com¬
modities of Perfia, particularly thofe manufa&ured
at Cafan ; fuch as filk fafties intermixed with gold,
for the ufe of the Poles ; wrought filks and fluffs
mixed with cotton ; rice, cotton, rhubarb, and a
fmall quantity of other drugs ; but the chief com¬
modity is raw filk. The government has engroffed the
article of rhubarb, the greater part of which is brought
into Ruffia by the Tartars of Yakutfki, bordering on
the eaftern Tartars belonging to China. They travel
through Siberia to Samura, thence to Cafan, and laft*
ly to Mofcow. The revenue of Aftracan is computed
at 150,000 rubles, or 33,000 pounds, arifing chiefly
from fait and fifh. The city is ruled by a governor,
entirely on bread and fait. The neighbourhood of under the check of a chancery. He is neverthelefs a
thefe falt-works is of great advantage to the fifheries, bitrary enough, and exercifes oppreffion with impunity,
which extend-from hence to the Cafpian fea, and reach The officers of the admiralty and cuftom-houfe having
very
Aftf-sa
Aftrantia.
AST [ 4iJ ] AST
very fmall falarles, are open to corruption, and extreme¬
ly rapacious. At chriftening-feafts, which are attend¬
ed with great intemperance, the guefts drink a kind of
cherry-brandy out of large goblets ; and every perfon
invited throws a prefent of money into the bed of the
mother, who fits up with great formality to be faluted
by the company.
The Indians have a Pagan temple at Aftracan, in
which they pay their adoration, and make offerings of
fruit to a very ugly deformed idol. The priefts of this
pagod ufe incenfe, beads, cups, and proftrations. The
Tartars, on the contrary, hold idol-worlhip in the ut-
moft abomination.
ASTR^EA, in aftronomy, a name which fome give
to the fign Virgo, by others called Efigone, and fome-
times I/is. The poets feign that juttice quitted hea¬
ven to refide on earth, in the golden age; but, grow¬
ing weary of the iniquities of mankind, fhe left the earth,
and returned to heaven, where ihe commenced a con-
ilellation of ftars, and from her orb ftill looks down on
the ways of men.
ASTRAGAL, in architefture, a little round mould¬
ing, which in the orders furrounds the top of the (haft
or body of the column. It is alfo called the talon and
tondim ; it is ufed at the bottoms as well as tops of co¬
lumns, and on other occafions: it properly reprefents a
ring, on whatever part of a column it is placed ; and
the original idea of it was that of a circle of iron put
round the trunk of a tree, ufed to fupport an edifice to
prevent its fplitting. See Plate XXXIV. fig. 2. The
aftragal is often cut into beads and berries, and is ufed
in the ornamented entablatures to feparate the feveral
faces of the architrave.
Astragal, in gunnery, a round moulding encom-
pafling a cannon, about half a foot from its mouth.
ASTRAGALOMANCY, a fpecies of divination
performed by throwing fmall pieces, with marks cor-
refponding to the letters of the alphabet; the acci¬
dental difpofition of which formed the anfwer required.
This kind of divination was pra&ifed in a temple of
Hercules, in Achaia. The word is derived from
urpayxxez, and /itcvruu, divination.
ASTRAGALUS, Milk-vetch, or Liquorice-
vetch : A genus of the decandria order, belonging
to the diadelphia clafs of plants; and in the natural
method ranking under the 3id order, Papilionacea.
The pod is gibbous and bilocular. Of this genus
there are 39 fpecies* The common fort grows wild
upon dry uncultivated places, and is recommended
by Mr Anderfon to be cultivated as proper food
for cattle (fee Agriculture, n° 60, 61.) The
other fpecies deferving notice is the tragagantha, a
thorny bufh growing in Crete, Afia, and Greece, which
yields the gum tragacanth. This is of fo ftrong a
body, that a dram of it will give a pint of water the
confidence of a fyrup, Which a whole ounce of gum
Arabic is fcarce fufficient to do* Hence its ufe for
forming troches, and the like purpofes, in preference
to the other gums.
Astragalus, in anatomy. See there n® 65,
ASFRANTIA, MasterworT: A genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
45th order, Umbellate. The involucrum is lanceo-
lated, open, equal, and coloured. The fpecies are two.
the major and minor, both natives of the Alps, and Aftti&ioa
poffefling no remarkable properties. - R
ASTRICTION, in law. See Thirlage. Attroiogy^
Astriction, among phyficians, denotes the opera¬
tion of aftringent medicines.
ASTRINGENTS, in the materia medica, fub-
ftances diftinguifhed by a rough auftere tafte, and
changing folutions of iron, efpecially thofe made in
the vitriolic acid, into a dark purple or black colour ;
fuch are galls, tormentil root, biftort root, balauftine®,
terra japanica, acacia, &c. See Materia Medica.
ASTROGNOSIA, the fcience of the fixed ftars,
or the knowledge of their names, conftellations, mag¬
nitudes, &c. See Astronomy.
ASTROITES, or Star-stone, in natural hiftory.
See the articles Asteria and Star-stone ; and Plate
ASTROLABE, the name for a ftereographic pro-
je&ion of the fphere, either upon the plane of the e-
quator, the eye being fuppofed to be in the pole of the
world ; or upon the plane of the meridian, when the
eye is fuppofed in the point of the interfe&ion of the
equino&ial and horizon.
Astrolabe is alfo the name of an inftrumeot for¬
merly ufed for taking the altitude of the fun or ftars
at fea.
Astrolabe, among the ancients, was the fame as
our armillary fphere.
ASTROLOGY, a conje&ural fcience, which teach¬
es to judge of the effedts and influences of the ftars,
and to foretel future events by the fituation and differ¬
ent afpefts of the heavenly bodies.
This fcience has been divided into two branches,
natural and judiciary. To the former belongs the
predifling of natural effefts ; as, the Changes of wea¬
ther, winds, ftorms, hurricanes, thunder, floods, earth¬
quakes, &c* This art properly belongs to natural
philofophy ; and is only to be deduced a pojleriori,
from phenomena and obfervations. Judiciary or judicial
aftrology, is that which pretends to foretel moral events ;
i* e. fuch as have a dependence on the free will and
agency of man ; as if they were direfled by the ftars*
This art, which owed its origin to the praflices of
knavery on credulity, is now univerfally exploded by
the intelligent part of mankind.
The profeffors of this kind of aftrology maintain,
“ That the heavens are one great volume or book,
wherein God has written the hiftory of the world ;
and in which every man may read his own fortune,
and the tranfaflions of his time. The art, fay they,
had its rife from the fame hands as aftronomy itfelfl
while the ancient Affyrians, whofe ferene unclouded
flty favoured their celeftial obfervations, were intent on
tracing the paths and periods of the heavenly bodies,
they difeovered a conftant fettled relation of analogy
between them and things below ; and hence were led
to conclude thefe to be the Parcse, the Deftinies, fo
much talked of, which prefide at our births, and dif-
pofe of our future fate.
“ The laws therefore of this relation being afeer-
tained by a feries of obfervations, and the {hare each
planet has therein ; by knowing the precife time of any
perfon’s nativity, they were enabled, from their know¬
ledge in aftronomy, to erefl a fcheme or horofeope of
the fituation of the planets at that point of time; and
hence)
AST 414 1 AST
Aerology, hence, by confidering their degrees of power and in-
Aftromony. fluence< anc] each was either ftrengthened or
tempered by fome other, to compute what muft be the
refult thereof.”
Thus the aftrologers.—But the chief province now
remaining to the modern profeffors, is the making of
calendars or almanacks.
Judicial aftrology is commonly faid to have been in¬
vented in Chaldea, and thence tranfmitted ro the
Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans ; though fome will
have it of Egyptian origin, and afcribe the invention
to Cham. But it is to the Arabs that we owe it. At
Rome the people were fo infatuated with it, that the
aftrologers, or, as they were then called, the mathema¬
ticians, maintained their ground in fpite of all the
edicts of the emperors to expel them out of the city.
See Genethliaci.
Add, that the Bramins, who introduced and praftifed
this art among the Indians, have hereby made them-
felves the arbiters of good and evil hours, which gives
them great authority : they are confultedas oracles; and
they have taken care never to fell their anfwers but at
good rates.
The fame fuperftition has prevailed in more modern
ages and nations. The French hiftorians remark, that
in the time of queen Catharine de Medicis, aftrology
was in fo much vogue, that the mod inconfiderable
thing was not to be done without confolting the ftars. Aftroniusa
And in the reigns of king Henry III. and IV. of II
France, the predi&ions of aftrologers were the com- Aftronomy.
mon theme of the court converfation. This predomi¬
nant humour in that court was well rallied by Bar¬
clay, in his Argents, lib. ii. on occafion of an aftrologer,
who had undertaken to inftruft king Henry in the event
of a war then tnreatened by the fadtion of the Guifes.
ASTRONIUM, in botany : A genus of the pen-
tandria order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants.
The male calyx conftlls of fitfe leaves, and the corolla
is quinquepetalous : Of the female the calyx and cor
rolla are the fame as in the male; the ftyli are three,
and the feed is fingle. There is but one fpecies, the
graveolens, a native of Jamaica.
ASTRONOMICAL, fomething relating to A-
STRONOMY.
Astronomical Calendar, an inftrument engraved
on copper plates, printed on paper, and pafted on a
board, with a brafs Aider carrying a hair : it fltows by
infpedUon the fun’s meridian altitude, right afcenfion,
declination, rifing, fetting, amplitude, &c. to a greater
degree of exadtnefs than the common globes.
Astronomical Setter, a very ufefu! mathematical'
inftrument, made by the late ingenious Mr Graham ;
a defeription of which is given in the courfe of the fo!-.
lowing article.
A S T R O N O M Y,
IS a knowledge of the heavenly bodies, with regard
to their magnitudes, motions, diftances, &c. whether
veal or apparent; and of the natural caufes on which
their phenomena depend.
Hijlory of AJlronomy.
The antiquity of this fcience may be gathered from
what was fpoken by the Deity at the time of creating
the celeftial luminaries^- “ Let them be for figns and
feafons,” &c.; whence it is thought probable that the
human race never exifted without fome knowledge of
aftronomy among them. Indeed, befides the motives
of mere curiofity, which of themfelves may be fuppofed
to have excited people to a contemplation of the glo¬
rious celeftial canopy, as far as that was poffible, it is
eafily to be feen that fome parts of the fcience anfwer
fuch effential purpofes to mankind, that they could not
1 poftibly be difpenfed with^
Aftronomy By fome of the Jewifh rabbins, Adam, in his ftate
tuppofed to 0f innocence, is fuppofed to have been endowed with a
flood I^' fcnowledge of the nature, influence, and ufes of the
Adam and heavenly bodies; and Jofephus aferibes to Seth and his
the Antedi-pofterity an extenfive knowledge of aftronomy. But
luvians. whatever may be in this, the long lives of the Antedi¬
luvians certainly afforded fuch an excellent opportunity
for obferving the celeftial bodies, that we cannot but
fuppofe the icience of aftronomy to have been confide-
rably advanced before the flood. Jofephus fays, that
longevity was beftowed upon them for the very purpofe
of improving the fciences of geometry and aftronomy.
The latter could not be learned in lefs than 600 years:
** for that period (fays he) \s tiiz grand year." By
which it is fuppofed he mearit the period wherein th& •
fun and. moon came again into the fame fituation as
they were in the beginning thereof, with regard to the •
nodes, apogee of the moon, &c. “ This period (fays
Caffini), wherein we find no intimation in any monu¬
ment of any other nation, is the fifteft period that ever
was invented : far it brings out the folar year more
exaftly than that of Hipparchus and Ptolemy; and
the lunar month within about one fecond of what is
determined by modern aftronomers. If the Antedilu¬
vians had fuch a period of 600 years, they muft have
known the motions of the fun and moon more exadliy
than their defeendants knew them fome ages after the
flood.” 1
On the building of the tower of Babel, Noah is fup- Aftronomi-
pofed to have retired with his children horn after the cal know-
flood, to the north-eaftern part of Alia, where his de-"J1?6 lhe
feendants peopled the vaft empire of China. “This line e*
(fays Dr Long) may perhaps account for the Chinefe
having fo early cultivated the ftudy of aftronomy ;
their being fo well fettled in an admirable police, and
continuing fo many hundred years as they did in the,
worftiip of the true God.” The vanity of that people
indeed has prompted them to pretend a knowledge of •
aftronomy almolt as early as the flood itfelf. Some of
the Jefuit mifiionaries have found traditional accounts
^mong the Chinefe, of their having been taught this
fcience by their firft emperor Fo-hi,fuppofed to be Noah ;
and Kempfer informs us, that this perfonage difeovered
the motions of the heavens, divided time into years
and months, and invented the twelve figns into which
(hey divide the zodiac, which they diltinguifh by the
following
Hiftory. ASTRO
3 following names, t. The moufe. 2. The ox or cow.
Their 3. The tiger. 4. The hare. 5. The dragon. 6. The
thefigns^fkrPent' 7* r^'^e 8. The Iheep. 9. The monkey,
the zodiac. IO' The cock or hen. 11. The dog 5 and, 12. The
boar. They divide the heavens into 28 conftellations,
four of which are affigned to each of the fevqn planets ;
fo that the year always begins with the fame planet:
and their conllellations anfwer to the 28 manfions of
the moon ufed by the Arabian aftronomers. Thefe
conftellations in- the Chinefe books of aftronomy, are
not marked by the figures of animals, as was in ufe
among the Greeks, and from them derived to the
other European nations, but by connedting the ftars
by ftraight lines : and Dr Dong informs us, that in a
Chinefe book in thin 410, fhown him by Lord Pem¬
broke, the ftars were reprefented by fmall circles joined
by lines; fo that the great bear would be marked thus:
To the emperor Hong-ti, the grandfon of Noah,
they attribute the difeovery of the pole-ftar, the inven¬
tion of the mariner’s compafs, of a period of 60 years,
and fome kind of fphere. This extraordinary antiqui¬
ty, however, is with good reafon fufpedled, as is like-
wife their knowledge in the calculation of eclipfes 5 of
which Du Halde affures us, that 36 are recorded by
Confucius himfelf, who lived 551 years before Chrift:;
and P. Trigault, who went to China in 1619, and read
more than too volumes of their annals, fays, “ It is
certain that the Chinefe began to make aftronomical
obfervations foon after the flood 5 that they have ob-
ferved a great number of eclipfes, in which they have
noted down the hour, day, month, and year, when they
happened, but neither the duration nor the quantity 5
and that thefe eclipfes have been made ufe of for re¬
gulating their chronology.”
“ But out of this abundance (fays Dr Long), it is
much to be regreted, that fo very few of their obfer¬
vations have been particularized ; for befide what has
been mentioned above, we meet with no very ancient
obfervations of the Chinefe, except a winter folftice in
the year 11 x 1, and a fummer folftice in the year 882, be¬
fore Chrift. Martini indeed fpeaks of a fummer fol¬
ftice 2342 years before that period. But M. Caflini,
who calculated it, found that there muft have been an
error in the Chinefe computation, of 50© years at leaft.
An error of equal magnitude appears to have been
committed in the conjunftion of the five planets, which
it is pretended they obferved between the years 2513
and 2433 before Chrift. In ftiort, fome have fuppo-
fed, that none of thefe are real obfervations, but the
refult of bungling calculations: and it has been hinted,
but furely on too flight a foundation, that even thofe
good fathers themfelves were greatly to be fufpe&ed.
But let us come to things which are not contetted.
“ P. Gaubil informs us, that at leaft 1 20 years before
Chrift, the Chinefe had determined by obfervation the
number and extent of their conftellations as they now
ftand ; the fituation cf the fixed ftars with refpeft
to the equino&ial and folftitial points ; and the ob¬
liquity of the ecliptic. He farther lays, he cannot tell
by what means it is that they foretel eclipfes : but this
is ceitain, that the theory by which they do preditft
N O M y. 415
them, was fettled about the fame time; and that they
were acquainted with the true length cf the folar year,
the method of obferving meridian altitudes of the fun
by the ftiadow of a gnomon, and of learning from
thence his declination and the height of the pole, long
before. We learn, moreover, from the fame miffiona¬
ry, that there are yet remaining among them fome
treatifes of aftronomy, which were written about 200
years before Chrift ; from which it appears, that the
Chinefe had known the daily motion of the fun and
moon, and the times of the revolutions of the planets,
many years before that period.
“ We are informed by Du Halde, that, in the province
of Honan, and city Teng-foang, which is nearly in the
middle of China, there is a tower, on the top of which
it is faid that Tcheou-cong, the moft (kilful aftronomer
that ever China produced, made his obfervations. He
lived 1200 years before Ptolemy, or more than icco
years before Chrift, and paffed whole nights in obfer¬
ving the celeftial bodies, and arranging them into con¬
ftellations. He ufed a very large brafs table placed
perfectly horizontal, on which was fixed a long upright
plate of the fame metal, both of which were divided
into degrees, &c. By thefe he marked th.e meridian al¬
titudes ; and from thence derived the times of the fol-
ftices, which were their principal epocha.”
Dr Long reprefents the ftate of aftronomy in China
as at prefent very low 5 occafioned, he fays, prin¬
cipally by the barbarous decree of one of their em¬
perors*, to have all the books in the empire burnt, • See Cfen*.
excepting fuch as related to agriculture and medicine.
We are informed, however, by the Abbe Grofier, in
his defeription of China, that aftronomy is cultivated
in Peking in the fame manner as in#moft of the
capital cities in Europe. A particular tribunal is e-
ftabliftied there, the jurifdiffion of which extends to
every thing relating to the obfervation of eeleftial phe¬
nomena. Its members are, an infpeftor; two prelV*
dents, one of them a Tartar and the other a Chinefe;
and a certain number of mandarins who perform the
duty of afieflbrs ; but for near a century and an half
the place of the Chinefe prefident has been filled by au
European. Since that time particular attention has
been paid to the inftrudlionof the aftronomical pupils;
and the prefidents have always confidered it as their
duty to make them acquainted with the fyftem and
method of calculation made ufe of in Europe. Thus
two-thirds of the aftronomical pupils, maintained at
the emperor’s expence, in all about 200, have a tole¬
rable notion of the ftate of the heavens, and underftand
calculation fo well as to be able to compofe ephemeri-
des of fufficient exa&nefs. The miffionaries have
never been the authors of any of thefe ephemeri-
des : their employment is to revife the labours of the
Chinefe mathematicians, verify their calculations, and
cprredt any errors into which they have fallen. The
Portuguefe miffion ftill continues to furnilh aftronomers
for the academy as it did at the firft.
1 he aftronomical tribunal is fubordinate to that of
ceremonies. When an eclipfe is to be obferved, in¬
formation muft be given to the emperor of the day and
hour, the part of the heavens where it will be, &c, and
this intelligence muft be communicated fome months
before it happen: the ecliple muft aifo be calculated
for the longitude and latitude of the capital city of
every
4i6 ASTRO
every province of the empire. Thefe obfervations, as
well as the diagram which reprefents the eclipfe, are
preferved by the tribunal of ceremonies, and another
called the calaoy by whom it is tranfmitted to the dif¬
ferent provinces and cities of the empire. Some days
before the eclipfe, the tribunal of ceremonies caufes to
be fixed up in a public place, in large chara&ers, the
hour and minute when the eciipfe will commence ; the
quarter of the heavens in which it will be vifible, with
the other particulars relating to it. The mandarins are
fummoned to appear in ftate at the tribunal of aftronomy,
and to wait there for the moment in which the pheno¬
menon will take place. Each of them carries in his
hand a (heet of paper, containing a figure of the
eclipfe and every circumftance attending it. As foon
as the obfervation begins to take place, they throw
themfelves on their knees, and knock their heads a-
gainft the earth, and a horrid noife of drums and cymbals
immediately commences throughout the whole city : a
ceremony proceeding from an ancient fuperllitious no¬
tion, that by fuch noife they prevented the luminary
from being devoured by the celeftial dragon 5 and tho’
this notion is now exploded in China, as well as every
where elfe, fuch is the attachment of the people to an¬
cient cuftoms, that the ceremonial is ftill preferved.
While the mandarins thus remain proftrated in the
court, others, ftationed on the obfervatory, examine,
with all the attention pofiible, the beginning, middle,
and end of the eclipfe, comparing what they obferve
with the figure and calculations given. They then
write down their obfervations, affix their feal to them,
and tranfmit them to the Emperor ; who on his part
has been no lefs affiduous to obferve the eclipfe with
accuracy. A ceremonial of this kind is obferved
throughout the whole empire.
The Japanefe, Siamefe, and inhabitants of the Mo¬
gul’s empire, have alfo, from time immemorial, been ac¬
quainted with aftronomy ; and the celebrated obferva¬
tory at Benares, is a monument both of the inge-
4 nuity of the people and of their fkill in this fcience.
fndian Mr Bailly has been at great pains to inveftigate the
aftronomy. progrefs of the Indians in aftronomical knowledge,
and gives a fplendid account of their proficiency in the
fcience, as well as of the antiquity of their obferva¬
tions. He has examined and compared four different
aftronomical tables of the Indian philofophers. 1. Of
the Siamefe, explained by M. Caffini in 1689. 2. Thofe
brought from India by M. le Gentil of the Academy
of Sciences. 3. and 4. Two other manufcript tables
found among the papers of the late M. de Lifle. All
of thefe tables have different epochs, and differ in
form, being alfo conftrufted in different ways ; yet
they all evidently belong to the fame aftronomical fy-
ftem : the motions attributed to the fun and the moon
are the fame, and the different epochs are fo well con-
nedled by the mean motions, as to demonftrate that
they had only one, whence the others were derived by
calculation. The meridians arc all referred to that of
Benares above-mentioned. The fundamental epoch of
the Indian aftroncmy is a conjundlion of the fun and
moon, which took place at no lefs a diftance of time
than 3102 years before the Chriltian aera. Mr Bailly
informs us, that, according to our moft accurate aftro¬
nomical tables, a conjunftion of the fun and moon ac¬
tually did happen at that time. But though the bra-
N* 31.
N O M Y. Hiftory,
mins pretend to have afcertained the places of the two
luminaries at that time, it is impoffible for us at this time
to judge of the truth of their affertions, by reafon of the
unequal motion of the moon ; which, as fhall after¬
wards be more particularly taken notice of, now per¬
forms its revolution in a fhorter time than formerly.
Onr author informs us, that the Indians at prefent cal¬
culate eclipfes by the mean motions of the fun and moon
obferved yeoo years ago ; and with regard to the folar
motion, their accuracy far exceeds that of the beft Gre¬
cian aftronomers. The lunar motions they had alfo
fettled by computing the fpace through which that lu¬
minary had pa fled in 1,600,984 days, or fomewhat
more than 4383 years. They alfo make ufe of the
cycle of 19 years attributed by the Greeks to Meton ;
and their theory of the planets is much better than
that of Ptolemy, as they do not fuppofe the earth to be
the centre of the celeftial motions, and they believe that
Mercury and Venus turn round the fun. Mr Bailly
alfo informs us, that their aftronomy agrees with the
moft modern difcoveries of the decreafe of the obli¬
quity of the ecliptic, the acceleration of the motion of
the equinodfial points, with many other particulars too
tedious to enumerate in this place. s
It appears alfo, that even the Americans were not Aftronomy
unacquainted with aftronomy, though they made ufe of the
only of the folar, and not of the lunar motions, in their Amer‘caBt*
divifion of time. The Mexicans have had a ftrange
predile&ion for the number 13. Their fhorteft pe¬
riods confifted of 13 days; their cycle of 13 months,
each containing 20 days ; and their century of four
periods of 13 years each. This excefiive veneration
for the number 13, according to Siguenza, arofe from
its being fuppofed the number of their greater gods.
What is very furprifmg, though afferted as a faS by
Abbe Clavigero, is, that having difcovered the excefs of
a few hours in the folar above the civil year, they
made ufe of intercalary days, to bring them loan equa¬
lity : but with this difference in regard to the method
eftabliftied by Julius Caefar in the Roman kalendar,
that they did not interpofe a day every four years, but
13 days (making ufe here even of this favourite num¬
ber) every 52 years, which produces the fame regula¬
tion of time. 6
Among thofe nations who firft began to make any Of the
figure in ancient hiftory, we find the Chaldeans and c*1<?1^eans
Egyptians moft remarkable for their aftronomical8yp'
knowledge. Both of them pretended to an extrava¬
gant antiquity, and difputed the honour of having the
firft cultivators of the fcience. The Chaldeans boaft-
ed of their temple of Belus ; and of Zoroafter whom
they placed 50CO years before the deftru&ion of Troy :
the Egyptians boafted of their colleges of Priefts, where
aftronomy was taught; and of the monument ofOfyman-
dyas, in which we are told was a golden circle 365 cu¬
bits in circumference and one cubit thick. The upper
face was divided into 365 equal parts, anfwering to
the days of the year ; and on every divifion were writ¬
ten the name of the day, and the heliacal rifing of the
feveral liars for that day, with the prognottications
from their riling, principally, as Long conjedtures,
for the weather.
The Chaldeans certainly began to make obferva¬
tions very foon after the confufion of languages ; for
when Alexander the Great took Babylon, Callifthenes,
by
Hiftory. ASTRO
by his order, inquired after the aflronomical obferva-
tions recorded in that city, and obtained them for
1903 years back. Nothing, however, now remains
of the Chaldean aftronomy, excepting fome periods of
years which they had formed for the more ready com¬
putation of the heavenly bodies. But though they
mud have laboured under great difadvantages, for
want of proper inftruments, in thofe early ages, Ge-
mina, as quoted by Petavius in his Uranologion, in¬
forms us, that they had determined, with tolerable
exadtnefs, the length both of a fynodical and periodi¬
cal month. They had alfo difeovered, that the mo¬
tion of the moon was not uniform, and even attempt¬
ed to aflign thofe parts of her orbit in which it was
quicker or flower. Ptolemy alfo affures us, that they
were not unacquainted with the motion of the moon’s
nodes, and that of her apogee, fuppofing that the for¬
mer made a complete revolution in 6585-^- days, or
18 years 15 days and 8 hours ; which period, con¬
taining 223 complete lunations, is called the Chal¬
dean Saros. The fame author alfo gives us, from
Hipparchus, feveral obfervations of lunar eclipfes
which had been made at Babylon about 720 years be¬
fore Chrift ; but though he might very probably meet
with many of a more ancient date, it was impoffible
to mention them particularly, on account of the im-
perfedl ftate of the Chaldean chronology, which com¬
menced only with the sera of Nabonaffar, 747 years be¬
fore Chrift. Ariftotle likewife informs us, that they
had many obfervations of the occultations of fixed
ftars and planets by the moon 5 and from hence, by a
very natural and eafy inference, they were led to con¬
clude that the eclipfes of the fun were occafioned alfo
by the moon, efpecially as they conftantiy happened
when the latter was in the fame part of the heavens
with the fun. They had alfo a confiderable {hare in
arranging the ftars into conftellations. Nor had the
comets, by which aftronomers in all ages have ov. fo
much perplexed, efcaped their obfervation : for both
Diodorus Siculus and Appollinus Myndius, in Seneca,,
inform us, that many of the Chaldeans held thefe to
be lading bodies, which have ftated revolutions as
well as the planets, but in orbits vaftly more extenfive;
on which account they are only feen by us while near
the earth, but difappear again when they go into the
higher regions.. Others of them were of opinion, that
the comets were only meteors railed very high in the
air, which blaze for a while, and difappear when the
matter of which they confift is confumed or difperfed.
Dialling was alfo known among them long before the
Greeks were acquainted with any fuch thing.
It is evident, indeed, that the countries both of
Chaldea and Egypt were exceedingly proper for aftro-
nomical obfervatrons, on account of the general puri¬
ty and ferenity of the air. The tower or temple of
Belus, which was of an extraordinary height, with
flairs winding round it up to the top, is fuppofed
to have been an artronomical obfervatory; and the
lofty pyramids of Egypt, whatever they were ori¬
ginally defigne.l for, might poflibly anfwer the fame
purpofe. Indeed thefe very ancient monuments ftiow
the fkill of this people in practical aftronomy, as
they are all fituated with their four fronts exadtly
facing the cardinal points. Herodotus aferibes the
Egyptian knowledge in aftronomy to Sefoftris, whom
Vox,. U. Part IL.
N O M Y. 417
Sir Ifaac Newton makes cotemporary with Solo¬
mon : but if this was the cafe, he could not be the
inftru&or of the Egyptians in aftronomical mat¬
ters, fince we find that Mofes, who lived 500 years be¬
fore Solomon, was fkilled in all the wifdom of the
Egyptians, in which we are undoubtedly to include
aftronomy.
From the teftimony of fome ancient authors, we learn
that they believed the earth to be fpherical, that they
knew the moon was eclipfed by falling into its fhadow,
and that they made their Qbfervations with the great-
eft exadnels. They even pretended to foretcl the ap¬
pearance of comets, as well as earthquakes and inun¬
dations ; which extraordinary knowledge is likewife
aferibed to the Chaldeans. They attempted to mea-
fure the magnitude of the earth and fun ; but the me¬
thods they took to find out the latter were very erro¬
neous. It does not indeed appear with certainty that
they had any knowledge of the true fyftem of the uni-
verfe; and by the time of the Emperor Auguftus, their
aftcapomical knowledge was entirely loft. ^
From Chaldea the fcienceof aftronomy moft probably of thcPlit»
paffied into Phenicia ; though fome are of opinion thatnicians.
the Phenicians derived their knowledge of this fcience
from the Egyptians. They feem, however, to have
been the firft who applied aftronomy to the purpofes
of navigation ; by which they became maflers cf the
fea, and of almoft all the commerce in the world. They
became adventurous in their voyages, fteering their
{hips by one of the ftars of the Little Bear; which being
near the immoveable point of the heavens called the
Pole, is the moft proper guide in navigation. Other
nations made their obfervations by the Great Bear;
which being too diftant from the pole could not guide
them in long voyages ; and for this reafon they never
durft venture far from the coafts. g
The firft origin of aftronomical knowledge among
the Greeks is unknown. Sir Ifaac Newton fuppofesof the
that moft of the conftellations were invented aboutGlfeel4S'-
the time of the Argonautic expedition: but Dr Long
is of opinion that many of them muft have been of a
much older date; and that the fhepherds, who were
certainly the firft obfervers, gave names to them ac¬
cording to their fancy ; from whence the poets invent¬
ed many of their fables. Several of the conftellations
are mentioned by Hefiod and Homer, the two moft
ancient writers among the Greeks, who lived about
870 years before Chrift ; Hefiod defiring the farmer
to regulate the time of fowing and harveft by the ri¬
ling and fetting of the Pleiades; and Homer inform¬
ing us, that obfervations from the Pleiades, Orion, and
Arfturus,. were ufed in navigation. Their aftronomi- Improved'
cal knowledge, however, was greatly improved by by Thaler.
Thales the Milefian, who travelled into Egypt, and
brought from thence the firft. principles of the fcience.
He is faid to have determined the height of the pyra¬
mids by meafuring their (hadows at the time the fun
was 45 degrees high,, and when of confequence the-
lengths of the fhadows of obje&s are equal to their
perpendicular heights. But his reputation was raifed:
to the higheft pitch among his countrymen, by the
prediction of an eciipfe, which happened juft at the
time that the armies of Alyattes king of Lydia,; ancL
Cyaxares the Mede, were about to engage ; and beings
regarded as an evil omen by both parties, inclined them.
4i§ A S T R (
to peace. To him Callimachus attributes the form¬
ing of the corifteliation of the Little Bear ; the know¬
ledge of which he certainly introduced into Greece.
-He alfo taught the true length of the year 5 determined
the cofmical fetting of the Pleiades in his time to have
Been 25 days after the autumnal equinox ; divided the
earth into five zones by means of the polar circles and
tropics; taught the obliquity of the ecliptic ; and fhow-
ed that the equino&ial is cut by the meridians at right
angles, all of which interfeft each other at the poles.
He is alfo faid to have obferved the exadt time of the
folftices, and from thence to have deduced the true
-length of the folar year; to have obferved eclipfes of
-the fun and moon ; and to have taught that the moon
had no light but what fhe borrowed from the fun.
According to Stanley, he alfo determined the diameter
-of the fun to be pne-yaoth part of his annual orbit.
•“ But (fays Dr Long) thefe things fhould be received
with caution. There are fome reafons which might
be affigued for fuppofing that the knowledge of Thales
in thefe matters was much more circumfcribed : and
indeed it is not unreafonable to fuppofe, that that ve¬
neration for the ancients which leads authors to write
profeffedly on the hiftory of ancient times, may have
induced them to afcribe full as much knowledge to
them who lived in them as was really their due.”
*By Anaxi- '^ie fucceff°r8 Thales, Anaximander, Anaxima-
tnander &c neE> an^ Anaxagoras, contributed confiderably to the
advancement of aftronomy. The firft is faid to have
invented or introduced the gnomon into Greece; to
have obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic ; and taught
that the earth was fpherical, and the centre of the
univerfe, and that the fun was not lefs than it. He
is alfo faid to have made the firft globe, and to have
■fet up a fun-dial at Lacedemon, which is the firft we
hear of among the Greeks ; though fome are of opi¬
nion that thefe pieces of knowledge were brought from
Babylon by Pherycides, a cotemporary of Anaximan¬
der. Anaxagoras alfo predicted an eclipfe which hap¬
pened in the fifth year of the Peloponnefian war ; and
taught that the moon was habitable, confifting of hills,
TI valleys, and waters, like the earth. His cotemporary
Doftrines Pythagoras, however, greatly improved not only aftro-
«f Pytha- nomy and mathematics, but every other branch of phi-
igoras. lofophy. He taught that the univerfe was compofed
of four elements, and that it had the fun in the centre;
that the earth was round, and had antipodes ; and that
the moon reflefted the rays of the fun ; that the ftars
were worlds, containing earth, air, and ether; that the
moon was inhabited like the earth ; and that the comets
were a kind of wandering ftars, difappearing in the
fuperior parts of their orbits, and becoming viiible on¬
ly in the lower parts of them. The white colour of
the milky-way he afcribed to the brightnefs of a great
number of fmall ftars; and he fuppofed the diftances
of the moon and planets from the earth to be in cer¬
tain harmonic proportions to one another. He is faid
■aifo to have exhibited the oblique courfe of the fun in
the ecliptic and the tropical circles, by means of an
artificial fphere; and he firft taught that the planet
Venus is both the evening and morning ftar. This
philofopher is faid to have been taken prifoner by
Cambyfes, and thus to have become acquainted with
all the myfteries of the Perfian magi; after which he
fettled at Crotona in Italy, and founded the Italian fed.
> N O M Y. Hi fiery.
About 440 years before the Chriftian tera, Philolaus*
a celebrated Pythagorean, afierted the annual motion
of the earth round the fun ; and foon after Hicetas, a
Syracufan, taught its diurnal motion on its own axis.
About this time alfo flourifhed Melon and Eu&emon at
Athens, who took an exad obfervation of the fummer
folftice 432 years before Chrift ; which is the oldeft;
obfervation of the kind we have, excepting what is de¬
livered by the Chinefe. * Melon is faid to have com¬
pofed a cycle of 19 years, which ftill bears his name;
and he marked the rifings and fettings of the ftars, and
what feafons they pointed out: in all which he was af-
fifted by his companion Eu&emon. The fcience,
however, was obfeured by Plato and Ariftotle, who,
embraced the fyftem afterwards called the Ptolemaic^
which places the earth in the centre of the univerfe.
Eudoxus the Cnidian was a cotemporary with A-
riftotle, though confiderably older, and is greatly cele¬
brated on account of his Ikill in aftronomy. He was
the firft who introduced geometry into the fcience, and
he is fuppofed to be the inventor of many propofitions
attributed to Euclid. Having travelled into Egypt
in the earlier part of his life, and obtained a recom¬
mendation from Agefilaus to Nedianebus king of
Egypt, he, by his means, got accefs to the priefts,
who had the knowledge of aftronomy entirely among
them, after which he taught in Afia and Italy. Se¬
neca tells us that he brought the knowledge of the
planetary motions from Egypt into Greece ; and Ar¬
chimedes, that he believed the diameter of the fun to
be nine times that of the moon. He was alfo well
acquainted with the method of drawing a fun-dial up¬
on a plane; from whence it may be inferred that he
underftood the dodtrine of the projedlion of the fphere ;
yet, notwithftanding what has been faid concerning the
obfervations of Eudoxus, it is not certain that his
fphere was not taken from one much more ancient,
afcribed to Chiron the Centaur. The reafon given
for this fuppofition is, that had the places of the ftars
been taken from his own obfervations, the conftella-
tions muft have been half a fign farther advanced than
they are faid to be in his writings.
Soon after Eudoxus, Calippus flouriftied, whofe fy¬
ftem of the celeftial fphere is mentioned by Ariftotle;
but he is better known from a period of 76 years, con¬
taining four corredled metonic periods, and which had
its beginning at the fummer folftice in the year 330,
before Chrift. But about this time, or rather earlier,
the Greeks having begun to plant colonies in Italy,
Gaul, and Egypt, thefe became acquainted with the
Pythagorean fyftem, and ahe notions of the ancient
Druids concerning aftronomy. Julius Csefar informs
us, that the latter were /killed in this fcience ; and that
the Gauls in general were able failors, which at that
time they could not be without a competent know¬
ledge of aftronomy : and it is related of Pytheas, who
lived at Marfeilles in the time of Alexander the Great,
that he obferved the altitude of the fun at the fummer
folftice by means of a gnomon. He is alfo faid to
have travelled as far as Thule to fettle the climates. I4
After the death of Alexander the Great, fciences State of
flouriftied in Egypt more than in any other part of theaftronoiny
world ; and a famous fchool was fet up at ■^^exan^r'aIaft^gtytu:t
under the aufpices of Ptolemy Philadelphus, a Prince death of
inftru&ed ip all kinds of learning, and the patron of Aiexander.
all
Kiflory., ASTRO
all thofe wlio cultivated them; and this fchool conti¬
nued to be the feminary of all hinds of literature, till
the invafion of the Saracens in 650. Tfmocharis and
Aryftillus, who firft cultivated the aftronomical fcience
in this fchool, began to put it on a new footing; being
much more careful in their obfervations, and exadi in
noting down the times when they were made, than
their predeceflbrs. Ptolemy affures us, that Hippar¬
chus made ufe of their obfervations, by means of
which he difcovered that the ftars had a motion in lon¬
gitude of about one degree in an hundred years; and
he cites many of their obiervations, the oldeft of which
is before the eredlion of this fchool, in the year 295,
when the moon juft touched the northern ftar in the
forehead of the feorpion : and the laft of them was
in the 13th year of Philadelphus, when Venus hid the
former ftar of the four in the left wing of Virgo.
From this time the fcience of aftronomy continued
greatly to advance.- Ariftarchus, who lived about 270
years before Chrift, ftrenuoufiy aflerted the Pathago-
rean fyftem, and gave a method of determining the di-
flance of the fun by the moon’s dichotomy. Eratof-
thenes, born at Gyrene in 271 B. C. determined the
meafure of a great circle of the earth by means of a
gnomon. His reputation was fo great, that he was
invited from Athens to Alexandria by Ptolemy Euer-
getes, and made by him keeper of the royal library at
that place. At his intiigation the fame prince fet up
thofe armiilas or fpheres, which Hipparchus and Ptole¬
my the aftronomer afterwards employed fo fuceefsfully
in obferving the heavens. He alfo found the diftance
between the tropics to be eleven fueh parts as the
whole meridian contains eighty-three. About the fame
time Berofus, a native of Chaldea, flouriftied at A-
thens. He is by fome faid to have brought many ob¬
fervations from Babylon, which are afcribed to the
Greeks ; while others contend, that the latter owe
I3 little or nothing of their aftronomical knowledge to
Difcoveries the Babylonians. The celebrated Archimedes, who
of Archi- next to Sir Haac Newton holds the firft place among
tnedes. mathematicians, was nothing inferior as an aftronomrr
to what he was as a geometrician. He determined
the diftance of the moon from the earth, of Mercury
from the moon, of Venus from Mercury, of the fun
from Venus, of Mars from the fun, of Jupiter from
Mars, and of Saturn from Jupiter ; as likewife the di-
itance of the fixed ftars from the orbit of Saturn. That
he made aftronomical obfervations, is not to be doubt¬
ed ; and it appears from an epigram of the poet Clau-
dian, that he invented a kind of planetarium, or orrery,
to reprefent the phenomena and motions of the hea-
T4 venly bodies.
Of Hippar- Hipparchus was the firft who applied himfelf to the
ftudy of every part of aftronomy, his predeceffors ha¬
ving chiefly confidered the motions and magnitudes of
the fun and moon. Ptolemy alfo informs us, that he
firft difcovered the orbits of the planets to be-eccen¬
tric, and on this hypothefis wrote a boc^ againft Eu¬
doxus and Calippus. He gives many of h:s obferva-
ftions; and fays, that by comparing one of his with
another made by Ariftarchus 145 years before, he
was enabled to determine the length of the year with
great precifion. Hipparchus alfo firft found out the
anticipation of the moon’s nodes, the eccentricity of
her orbit, and that fhe moved flower.in her apogee
N O M Y. 415
than in her perigee. He col!e&ed the accounts of
fuch ancient eclipfes as had been obferved by the Chal¬
deans and Egyptians. He formed hypothefes con¬
cerning the celeftial motions, and conftrudled tables of
thofe of the fun and moon, and would have done the
fame with thofe of the other planets, if he could have
found ancient obfervation fi.fficient for the purpofe ;
but, thefe being wanting, he was obliged to content him¬
felf with colleding fit obfervations for that purpofe*
and endeavouring to form theories of the five planets.
By comparing his own obfervations on the fpica Virginia
with thofe of Timochares at Alexandria made too years
before, he difcovered that the fixed ftars changed their
places, and had a flow motion of their own from weft:
to eaft. He corre&ed the Calippic period, and point¬
ed out fome errors in the method laid down by Era-
tofthenes for meafuring the circumference of the earth.
By means of geometry, which was now greatly impro-
ved^ie was enabled to attempt the calculation of the
fun’s diftance in a more corredl manner than any of his
predeceflbrs ; but unhappily it required fo much accu¬
racy in obfervation as was found impra&icah’e. His 15
greateft work, however, was his catalogue of the fixed Matas the.
flars, which he was induced to attempt by the ap-cata*
pearance of a new ftar. The catalogue is preferred by _ X"
Ptolemy, and contains the longitudes and latitudes of
1022 ftars, with their apparent magnitudes. He wrote
alfo concerning the intervals between eclipfes both fo»
lar and lunar, and is faid to have calculated all that
were to happen for no lefs than 600 years from his
time. i6
Little progrefs was made in aftronomy from the timesyftem of
of Hipparchus to that of Ptolemy, who flourifhedPtolemy,.
in the firft century. The principles on which his fy-
ftem is built are indeed erroneous ; but his work will
always be valuable on account of the number of ancient
obfervations it contains. It was firft tranflated out of
the Greek into Arabic in the year 827, and into Latin
from the Arabic in 1230. The Greek original was
unknown in Europe till the beginning of the 15th
century, when it was brought from Conftantinople,
then taken by the Turks, by George a monk of
Trapezond, who tranflated it into Latin. . Various
editions were afterwards publifhed ; but little or no im¬
provement was made by the Greeks in this fcience. ^ .
During the long period from the year 800 to the Aftronomy
beginning of the t4th century, the weftern parts ofof the Ara*- -
Europe were immerfed in deep ignorance and b&rbari-b*aBS*
ty. However, feveral learned men arofe among the
Arabians. The caliph Al Manfur was the firft who
introduced a tafte for the fciences in his empire. His
, grandfon Al Mamun, who afeended the throne in 814,
was a great encourager of the fctences, and devoted
much of his own time to the ftudy cf them. He made .
many aftronomical obfervations himfelf, and determined •
the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 230 35'. He em¬
ployed many able mechanics in conftru&ing proper
inftruments, which he made ufe of for his obfervations;
and under his aufpices a degree of the earth was mea-
fured a fecond time in the plain of Singar, on the bor¬
der oLthe Red Sea.^ From this-time aftronomy was-
ftudioufly cultivated by the Arabians ; and Elements.-
of Aftronomy were written by Aiferganus, who was
partly cotemporary with the caliph Al Mamun. But
the. moft. celebrated of al! their aftrpnomers is Albateg--
3. G. 2_ niusy.
•420
A S T R <
nius, wfio lived about the year of Chrift 880. He
greatly reformed aftronomy, by comparing his own ob-
fervations with thofe of Ptolemy. Thus he calculated
the motion of the fun’s apogee from Ptolemy’s time
to his own $ determined the proceflion of the equinoxes
to be one degree in 70 years ; and fixed the fun’s
greateft declination at 23.35'. Finding that the tables
of Ptolemy required much corre&ion, he compofed
new ones of his own fitted to the meridian of Arafta,
which were long held in eftimation by the Arabians.
After his time, though feveral eminent aftronomers ap¬
peared among the Saracens, hone made any very va¬
luable obfervations for feveral centuries, excepting Ebn
Younis aftronomer to the caliph of Egypt; who ob-
ferved three eclipfes with fuch care, that by means of
them we are enabled to determine the quantity of the
moon’s acceleration fince that time.
Other eminent Saracen aftronomers were, Arzachel
a Moor of Spain, who obferved the obliquity of the
eclipfes, and conftrufted tables of fines, or half chords
of double arcs, dividing the diameter into 300 parts ;
and Alhazen, his cotemporary, who firft (hawed the
importance of the theory of refradlions in aftronomy ;
writing alfo upon the twilight, the height of the clouds,
and the phenomenon of the horizontal moon,
Ulug Beg, a grandfon of the famous Tartar prince
Timur Beg, or Tamerlane, was a great proficient in
pra&ical aftronomy. He is faid to have had very large
inftruments for making his obfervations ; particularly
a quadrant as high as the church of Sandta Sophia at
Conftantinople, which is 180 Roman feet. He com¬
pofed aftronomical tables from his own obfervations for
the meridian of Samarcand his capital, fo exadt as to
differ very little from thofe afterwards conftrudied by
Tycho Brahe ; but his principal work is his catalogue
of the fixed ftars, made from his own obfervations in
the year of Chrift 1437. The accuracy of his obfer¬
vations may be gathered from his determining the height
of the pole at Samarcand to be 39® 37' 23".
Befides thefe improvements, we are indebted to the
Arabians for the prefent form of trigonometry. Ma-
nelaus, indeed, an eminent Greek aftronomer who
flouriftied about the year 90, had publiftied three books
of Spherics, in which he treated of the geometry ne-
ceffary to aftronomy, and which (how great (kill in the
fciences; but his methods were very laborious, even
after they had been improved and rendered more Ample
by Ptolemy: but Geber the Arabian, inftead of the
ancient method, propofed three or four theorems,
which are the foundation of our modern trigonometry.
The Arabians alfo made the pradlice dill more fimple,
by ufing fines inftead of the chords of double arcs.
jjj The arithmetical characters they had from the Indians.
Revival of During-the greateft part of this time, almoft all Eu-
aftronomy rope continued ignorant not only of aftronomy but of
in Europe, every other fcience. The emperor Frederick II. firft
began to encourage learning in 1230; reftoring fome
univerfities, and founding a new one in Vienna. He
alfo caufed the works of Ariftotle, and the Aimageft
or Aftronomical Treatife of Ptolemy, to be tranflated
into Latin ; and from the tranflation of this book we
may datethe revival of aftronomy in Europe. Two years
after its publication, John de Sacro Bofco, or of Ha¬
lifax, an Englifhman, wrote his four books De Sphara,
which he compiled from Ptolemy, Albategnius, Alfer-
D N O M Y. Hiftory.
ganus, and other Arabian aflronomers : this work
was fo much celebrated, that for 300 years it was pre¬
ferred in the fchools to every other 5 and has been
thought worthy of fevera! commentaries, particularly
by Clavius in 153 1. In 1240, Alphonfo king of Ca-
ftile caufed the tables of Ptolemy to be corrected : for
which purpofe he affembled many perfons fkilled in
aftronomy, Chrillians, Jews, and Moors; by whom
the tables called Alphonfme were compofed, at the ex¬
pence of 40,coo, or according to others 400,000 du¬
cats. About the fame time Roger Bacon, an Englifh
monk, publiftied many things relative to aftronomy;
particularly of the places of the fixed ftars, folar rays,
and lunar afpeCts. Vitellio, a Polander, wrote a trea¬
tife on Optics about 1270, in which he (bowed the
ufe of refraClions in aftronomy.
From this time to that of Purbach, who was born improve
in 1423, few or no improvements were made in aftro-mentsof
nomy. He wrote a commentary on Ptolemy’s Al-P"113^111*
mageft, fome- treatifes on Arithmetic and Dialling,
with tables for various climates. He not only ufed
fpheres and globes, but conftruCted them himfelf; and
farmed new tables of the fixed ftars, reduced to the
middle of that age. He compofed alfo new tables of
fines for every ten minutes; which Rigiomontanus af¬
terwards extended to every Angle minute, making the
whole fine 60, with 6 cyphers annexed. He likewife
corre&ed the tables of the planets, making new equa¬
tions to them, btcaufe the Alphonfine tables were very
faulty in this refpeCt. In his folar tables he placed the
fun’s apogee in the beginning of Cancer; but retained
the obliquity of the ecliptic 230 33-J', to which it had
been reduced by the lateft obfervations. He made
new tables for computing eclipfes, of which he obfer¬
ved fome, and had juft publilhed a theory of the planets,
when he died in 1461.
John Muller of Monteregio (Coningfberg), a town0f Regj^
of Franconia, from whence he was called Regiomt)ntanustmoni?inw.
was the fcholar and fucceffor of Purbach. He com¬
pleted the epitome of Ptolemy’s Aimageft which Pur¬
bach had begun; and after the death of the latter,
went to Rome, where he made many aftronomical ob¬
fervations. Having returned to Nuremberg in 1471,
he was entertained by a wealthy citizen named Bernard
IVzither, who having a great love for aftronomy, caufed
feveral inftruments to be made under the direction of
Regiomontanus, for obferving the altitude of the fun
and ftars, and other celeftial phenomena. Among
thefe was an armillary aftrolabe, like that which had
been ufed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy at Alexandria,
and with which many obfervations were made. He
alfo made ephemerides for 30 years to come, {bowing
the lunations, eclipfes, &c. He wrote the Theory of
the Planets and Comets, and a Treatife of Triangles
yet in repute for feveral extraordinary cafes. He is
faid to have been the firft who introduced the ufe of
tangents into trigonometry ; and to have publiflied in
print (the art of printing having been lately invented)
the works of many of the moft celebrated ancient
aftronomers. After his death, which happened at
Rome, Walther made a diligent fearch for all his in¬
ftruments and papers which could he found ; and con¬
tinued his obfervations with the inftruments he had till
his death. The obfervations of both were colle&ed
by order of the feuate of Nuremberg, and publifhed
there
Plate LXI.
A s rr k o a c > xnr.
■
Hiftory, ASTRONOMY.
there by John Scboner in 1544; afterwards by Snellius
at the end of the obfervations made by the Landgrave
of Heffe in 16185 and laftly, in 1666, with thofe of
Tycho Brahe. Walther, however, as we are told by
Snellius, found fault with his armilla, not being able
to give any obfervation with certainty to lefs than ten
minutes. He made ufe of a good clock, which alfo
21 was a late invention in thofe days.
Of Werner. John Werner, a clergyman, fucceeded Walther as
aftronomer at Nuremberg ; having applied himfelf with
great affiduity to the ftudy of that fcience from his in¬
fancy. He obferved the motion ef the comet in 1500 ;
and publiflied feveral tradts, in which he handled many
capital points of geometry, aflronomy, and geography,
in a mafterly manner. He publiftied a tranflation of
Ptolemy’s Geography, with a commentary, which is
ftill extant. In this he firfl propofed the method of
finding the longitude at fea by obferving the moon’s
diftance from the fixed ftars ; which is now fo fuc-
cefsfully put in pradice. He alio published many
other treatifes on mathematics and geography ; but
the moft remarkable of all his treatifes, are thofe
concerning the motion of the eighth fphere or of
the fixed (lars, and a (hort theory of the fame. In
this he (bowed, by comparing his own obfervations
of the ftars regulus, fpica virginis, and the bright
ftar in the fouthern fcale of the balance, made in
1514, with the places affigned to the fame ftars by
Ptolemy, Alphonfus, and others, that the motion of
the fixed ftars, now called the precejfion ef the equinoc¬
tial points, is one degree ten minutes in too years, and
not one degree only, as former aftronomers had made
it. He made the obliquity of the ecliptic 230 28', and
the firft ftar of Aries 26° diftant from the equino&ial
point. He alfo conftru&ed a planetarium reprefenting
the celeftial motions according to the Ptolemaic hypo-
thefis, and made a great number of meteorological ob¬
fervations with a view towards the predi&ion of the
weather. The obliquity of the ecliptic was fettled by
Dominic Maria, the friend pf Copernicus, at 230 29',
which is ftill held to be juft.
Pythago- The celebrated Nicolaus Copernicus next makes his ap-
rean iyftem pearance,and is undoubtedly the great reformer of the a-
rei ored by ftronom|ca] fcience. He was originally bred to the prac-
’ tice of medicine, and had obtained the degree of Do£tor
in that faculty : but havingconceived a great regard for
the mathematical fciences, efpecially aftronomy, he
travelled into Italy, where he for fome time was taught
by Dominic Maria, or rather afiifted him in his aftro-
nomical operations. On his return to his own country,
being made one of the canons of the church, he applied
himfelf with the utmoft affiduity to the contemplation
of the heavens, and to the ftudy of the celeftial mo¬
tions. He foon perceived the deficiency of all the hy-
pothefes by which it had been attempted to account
for thefe motions ; and for this reafon he fet himfelf to
fludy the works of the ancients, with all of whom he
alfo was diffatisfied excepting Pythagoras ; who, as
has been already related, placed the fun in the cen¬
tre, and fuppofed all the planets, with the earth it-
fe’f, to revolve round him. He informs us, that he
began to entertain thefe notions about the year 1507 ;
but not being fathfied with dating the general nature
of his hypothefis, he became defirous of determining
the feveral periodica! revolutions of the planets, and
thence of conftru&ing tables of their motions which
might be more agreeable to truth than thofe of Ptole¬
my and Alphonfus. The obfervations he was enabled
to make, however, muft have been extremely inaccu¬
rate ; as he tells us, that if with the inftruments he made
ufe of he Ihould be able to come wifhin ten minutes
of the truth, be would rejoice no lefs than Pythagoras
did when he difcovered the proportion of the hypothe-
nufe to the other two fides of a right-angled triangle.
His work was completed in the year 1530; but he
could not be prevailed upon to publifti it till towards
the end of his life, partly through diffidence, and part¬
ly through fear of the offence which might be taken
at the fingularity of the dodrines fet forth in it. At
laft, overcome by tiie importunities of his friends, he
fuffered it to be publiftied at their expence, and under
the infpe&ion of Scboner and Ofiander, with a dedi¬
cation to Pope Paul III. and a preface, in which it
was attempted to palliate as much as poffible the extra¬
ordinary innovations it contained. During the time
of its publication, the author himfelf was attacked by
a bloody flux, fucceeded by a palfy ; fo that he recei¬
ved a copy only a few hours before his death, which
happened on the 23d of May '<$4.3.
After the death of Copernicus, the aftronomical
fcience was greatly improved by Schoner, Nonius, Ap-
pian, and Gemma Frifius. Schoner furvived Coper¬
nicus only four years : however, he greatly improved
the methods of making celeftial obfervations, reformed
and explained the kalendar, and publiftied a treatife of
cofmography. Nonius had applied himfelf very early
to the ftudy of aftronomy and navigation ; but finding
the inftruments at that time in ufe exceffively inaccu¬
rate, he applied himfelf to the invention of others
which (hould be lefs liable to inconvenience. Thus he
invented the aftronomical quadrant, in which he divid¬
ed the degrees into minutes by a number of concentric
circles. The firft of thefe was divided into 90 equal
parts, the fccond into 89, the third into 88, and fo
on, as low as 46; and thus, as the index of the qua¬
drant would always fall upon one or other of the divi-
fions, or very near it, the minutes might be known
by computation. He publiftied many treatifes on ma¬
thematical fubjefts, particularly one which dete&ed
the errors of Orontius, who had imagined that he
could fquare the circle, double the cube, See. by find¬
ing two mean proportionals betwixt two right lines.
Appian’s chief work was intitled The Casfarean AJlro-
mmy ; and was publiftied at Ingoldftadt in 1540, de¬
dicated to the emperor Charles V. and his brother
Ferdinand. In this he (bowed how to refolve aftrono¬
mical problems by means of inftruments, without either
calculations or tables ; to obferve the places of the
ftars and planets by the aftrolabe; and to foretel
eclipfes and deferibe the figures of them ; the whole
illuftrated by proper diagrams. In his fecond book
he deferibes the method of dividing an aftronomi¬
cal quadrant, and of ufing it properly. His trea¬
tife concludes with the obfervation of five comets.
Gemma Frifius wrote a commentary on a work of Ap-
pian, intitled his Cofmography, with many obfervations
of eclipfes. He invented alfo the aftronomical ring,
and feveral other inftruments, which, though they
could not boaft of much exatlnefs fuperior to others,
were yet of confiderable utility in taking obfervations
at
421
422
ASTRO
at fea 5 and lie is alfo memorable for being the firft
who propofed a time keeper for determining the lon¬
gitude at fea.—George Joachim Rheticus was a fcho-
lar of Copernicus, to attend whofe le&ures he gave up
his profeflbrlhip of mathematics at Wittemberg. For
the improvement of aftronomical calculations, he began
to conftrufit a table of fines, tangents, and fecants, for
every minute and ten feconds of the quadrant. In this
work he firft fhowed the ufe of fecants in trigonometry,
and greatly enlarged the ufe of tangents, firft invented
by Regiomontanus ; but he afligned for the radius a
much larger number of places than had been done be¬
fore, for the greater exaftnefs of calculation. This
great work he did not live to accomplifti ; but it was
completed by his difciple Valentine Otho, and publifti-
ed at Heidelberg in 1594.
Several il- During this century, the lift of aftronomers was dig-
luftrious nified bj fome very illuftrious names. About the
perfons ap- year 1561, William IV. Landgraveof Heffe! Caffe], ap-
Ply-the p];ecl himfelf to the ftudy of aftronomy. With the af-
ftronom ^ance Rothman and Burgius, the former an aftro-
nomer, the latter an excellent mathematical inftrtiment
maker, he ere&ed an obfervatory on the top of his pa¬
lace at Caffel, and furnifhed it with fuch inftrumeots
as were then in ufe, made in the bell manner the artifts
of that age could execute. With thefe he made a great
number of obfervations, which were by Hevelius pre¬
ferred to thofe of Tycho- Brahe, and which were pob-
liftied by Snellius in 1618. From thefe obfervations
he determined the longitudes and latitudes of 400
ftars, which he inferted in a catalogue where their
places are reftified to the beginning of the year
u 1593-
Obferva- Tycho-Brahe began his obfervations about the fame
tions of t;me ti,e Landgrave of Heffe, already mentioned.
Brahe0" 0^^ervc^ t*ie great conjunction of Saturn and Ju¬
piter in 1563; and finding the inftrutnents he could
procure very inaccurate, he made a quadrant capable
of ftiowing Angle minutes, and likewife a fextant four
cubits radius. In 1571, he difeovered a new liar in
the chair of Caffiopeia ; which induced him, like Hip¬
parchus, to make a catalogue of the ftars.. This con¬
tained the places of 777 ftars, rectified to the year »6oo ;
but inftead of the moon, which was ufed by the ancients
to conned the places of the fun and ftars, Tycho fub-
llituted Venus as having little or no parallax, and yet
being like the moon vifible both day and night. By
the recommendation of the Landgrave of Heffe, he
obtained from the king of Denmark the ifland of Hu-
enna, oppofite to Copenhagen, where an Obfervatory
Account of was built. The firft ftone of this building, afterwards
Uraniburg called Uraniburg, was laid in the year 1576. It was
his Obferva-0f a fquare form, one fide of it being about 60 feet in
tory* length ; and on the eaft and weft fides were two round
towers of 32 feet diameter each. The inftruments
were more large and folid than had ever been feen be¬
fore by any altronomer. They confifted of quadrants,
fextants, circles, femicircles, armiilae both equatorial and
zodiacal, parallaftic rulers, rings, aftrolabes, globes,
clocks, and fun-dials. Thefe inftruments were fo di¬
vided as to fhow fingle minutes 5 and in fome the arch
might be read off to to feconds. Moft of the divifions
were diagonal : but he had one quadrant divided ac¬
cording to the method invented by Nonius ; that is, by
47 concentric circles. The whole expence is faid to
N O M Y. Hiftorr,
have amounted to 200,000 crowns. The method of
dividing by diagonals, which Tycho greatly admired,
was the invention of Mr Richard Chanceler, an Eng-
lilhman : Tycho, however, (hows that it is not accu¬
rately true when ftraight lines are employed, and the
circles at equal diftances from each other ; but that it
may be corre&ed by making circular diagonals, which
if continued would pafs through the centre.
Tycho employed his time at Uraniburg to the beft
advantage ; but falling into diferedit on the death of
the king, he was obliged to remove to Holftein, and at
laft found means to get himfelf introduced to the em¬
peror, with whom he continued to his death. He is
well known to have been the inventor of a fyttem
of aftroromy, which bears his name ; and which he
vainly endeavoured to eltablifii on the ruins of that
of Copernicus : but the fimplicity and evident con.fo-
nancy to the phenomena of nature, difplayed in aH
parts of the Copernican fyftem, foon got the better of
the unnatural and complicated fyftem of Tycho. His
works, however, which are very numerous, difeover him
to have been a man of vaft abilities. After his death
the caftle of Uranibfirg quickly fell to decay, and in¬
deed leems to have been purpofely pulled down ; for,
in 1652, when Mr Fluet went to Sweden, it was almoll
level with the ground, and few traces of the walls could
be difeerned. None of the neighbouring inhabitants
had ever heard of the name of Tycho or Uraniburg,
excepting one old man, whom Mr Huet found out
with great difficulty, and who had been a fervant in
the family. All the difeoveries of Purbach, Regiomon¬
tanus, and Tycho, were colledled and publifhed in the
year 162 r, by Longomontanus, who had been Tycho’s,
favourite fcholar.
While Tycho refided at Prague with the emperor, Difeoveries
he invited thither John Kepler, afterwards fo famous °^cP*er*
for his difeoveries. Under the tuition of fo great
an aftronomer, the latter quickly made an amazing
progrefs. He found that his predeceffors had er¬
red in fuppofing the orbits of the planets to be circu¬
lar, and their motions uniform : on the contrary, he
perceived from his own obfervations, that they were
elliptical, and their motions unequal, having the fun in
one of the foci of their orbits ; but that, however they,
varied in abfolute velocity, a line drawn from the cen¬
tre of the fun to the planet, and revolving with it,
would always deferibe equal areas in equal times. He
difeovered, in the year 1618, that the fquares of the
periodical times are as the cubes of the diftances of the
planets ; two laws which have been of the greateft im¬
portance to the advancement of aftronomy. He feems
to have had fome notion of the extenfive power of the
principle of gravity : for he tells us, that gravity is a
mutual power betwixt two bodies ; that the moon and
earth tend towards each other, and would meet in a
point nearer the earth than the moon in the proportion
of the fuperior magnitude of the former, were they not
hindered by their projedlile motions. He adds alfo,
that the tides ai ife from the gravitation of the waters to¬
wards the moon : however, he did not adhere fteadily
to thefe principles, but afterwards fubftituted others
as the caufes of the planetary motions.
Cotemporary with Kep'er were Mr Edward Wright,
and Napier baron of Merchifton. To the former we
owe feveral very good meridional obfervations of the
fun’g
Hiftory. ASTRO
fun’s altitude, made with a quadrant of fix feet radius,
in the years 1594, 1595> and 1596; from which he
greatly improved the theory of the fun’s motion, and
computed more exact tables of his declination than
had been done by any perfon before. He publiihed
alfo, in I599> an excellent Treatife, intitled, “ Cer¬
tain Errors in Navigation difcovered and detefted.”
To the latter we are indebted for the knowledge of
logarithms; a'difcovery, as wasjuftly oblerved by Dr
Halley, one of the moft. ufeful ever made in the art of
numbering. John Bayer, a German, who lived about
the fame time, will ever be memorable for his work,
intitled, Uranometria, 'which is a very complete ce-
leftial atlas, or a colle&ion of all the conftellations vifi-
ble in Europe. To this he adde’d a nomenclature, in
which the. ftars in each conftellation are marked with
the letters of the Greek alphabet; and thus every ftar
in the heavens may be referred to with the utmoft pre-
cilion and exaftnefs. About the fame time alfo, agro¬
nomy was cultivated by many other perfons ; abroad,
by Maginus, Mercator, Maurolycus, Homelius, Schul-
tet, Stevin, &c.; and by Thomas and Leonard Digges,
John Dee, and Robert Flood, in England : but none
of them made any confiderable improvement.
Invention The beginning of the 14th century was diftinguifh-
oftelefcopesed not only by the difcovery of logarithms, but by
and confe- that of telefcopes 5 a fort of inftruments by which a-
quent dif- ftronomy was brought to a degree of perfe&ion utterly
covenes. ,jnconceivable by thofe who knew nothing of them.
The queftion concerning the inventor is difcuffed under
the article Optics ; but whoever was entitled to this
merit, it is certain that Galileo was the firft who
brought them to fuch perfedtion as to make any con¬
fiderable difcoveries in the celeftial regions. With in-
ftruments of his own making, Galileo difcovered the
inequalities in the moon’s furface, the fatellites of Ju¬
piter, and the ring of Saturn ; though this laft was
unknown to him after he had feen it, and the view he
got made him conclude that the planet had a threefold
body, or that it was of an oblong fhape like an olive.
He difcovered fpots on the fun, by means of which he
found out the revolution of that luminary on his axis ;
and he difcovered alfo that the milky way and nebulse
were full of fmall ftars. It was not, however, till
fome time after thefe difcoveries were made, that Ga¬
lileo and others thought of applying the obfervations
on Jupiter’s fatellites to the purpofe of finding the lon¬
gitude of places on the furface of the earth ; and even
after this was thought of, aftronomeis found it fo dif¬
ficult to conftruft tables of their motions, that it was
not till after many obfervations had been made in
diftant places of the world, that Caffini was able
to determine what pofitions of the fatellites were
moft proper for finding out the hmgitude. At lafl;
he perceived that the entrance of the firft fatellite
into the fhadow of Jupiter, and the exit of it from
the fame, were the moft proper for this purpofe; that
next to thefe the conjundtion of the fatellites with Ju¬
piter, or with one another, may be made ufe of, efpe-
cially when any two of them, moving in contrary di-
redfions, meet with each other; and laftly, that obfer¬
vations on the ftiadows of the fatellites, which may be
feen on the dilk of Jupiter, are ufeful, as aifo the fpots
which are feen upon his face, and are carried along it
with greater velocity than has hitherto been difcovered
in any of the other heavenly bodies.
N O M Y. 423
While aftronomers were thus bufy in making new 28
difcoveries, the mathematicians in different countriesLo^n':|''
were no lefs earned!y employed in conftru&ing loga-
rithmic tables to facilitate their calculations. Benja¬
min Urfwus, an excellent mathematician of Branden¬
burg, calculated much larger tables of logarithms than
had been done by their noble inventor, and publilhed
them in 1625. They were improved by Henry Briggs,
Savilian profiffor of Oxford; who by making unity the
logarithm of ten, thus rendered them much more con¬
venient for the pnrpofes of calculation. Logarithmic
tables of fines and tangents were alfo compofed by Mr
Briggs and Adrian Vlacq at Goude, fo that the bufi-
nefs of calculation was now rendered nearly as eafy as
pofiible. 39
In 1633, Mr Horrox, a young aftronomer of very Trasfit of
extraordinary talents, difcovered that Venus would pafs Vemis
over the difk of the fun on the 24th of November
1639. This event he announced only to one friend,
a Mr Crabtree ; and thefe two were the only perfons
in the world who obferved this tranfit the firft time it
had ever been viewed by human eyes. Mr Horrox
made many ufeful obfervations at the time; and had
even formed a new theory of the moon, fo ingenious
as to attraft the notice of Sir Ifaac Newton : but the
hopes of aftronomers from the abilities of this excel¬
lent young man were blafted by his death in the begin¬
ning of January 1640. 30
About the year 1638 many learned men began to Foundation
aflemble at Paris in order to hold conferences on dif- ot t*'ie ^ca*
ferent fcientific fubjedts, which was the firft; f°untlat>°n ^^5
of the Royal Academy of Sciences in that capital. r;s an(i
This pradtice was introduced in France by Merfennus, Royal So-
and foon after at London by Oldenburg; which laid defy at
the foundation of the Royal Society there. AboutLon<ion*
this time alfo the celebrated aftronomer Hevelius flou-
rifhed at Dantzic, building an obfervatory in his own
houfe, and furnifhing it with excellent inftruments of
his own Conftrudfion ; particularly odlants and fextants
of brafs, of three and four feet radius, as well as te¬
lefcopes, with which he conftantly obferved the fpots
and phafes of the moon, and from which obfervations
he afterwards compiled his excellent and beautiful work
intitled Sele?2ograpbia. This noble building, together
with all the books and inftruments it contained, was
confumed by -fire on the 26th of September 1679;
but the memory, as well as the form and conftru&ion
of the inftruments, is preferved in a curious work of
theingenious inventor, intitled Machina CoeleJHs; though
almoft the whole imprefiion of this book was involved
in the fame fate with the inftruments it deferibes. The
damage fuftained on this occafion was eftimated at
30,000 crowns.
The celebrated Engliih mechanic Dr Hooke, who
was cotemporary with Ilevelius, had in the mean time
invented inftruments witli telefcopic fights, which he
preferred to thofe ufed by Hevelius fo much, that a
dilpute commenced, which procured Hevelius a vifit
from Dr Halley. The latter had at that time taken
a voyage to St Helena at the delire of the Royal So¬
ciety, in order to obferve and form a catalogue of the
ftars in the fouthern hemifphere. The refult of his
obfervations with Hevelius’s inftruments was, that
three fevcral obfervations on the Spica Virginia and
Regulus differed bnly a'few feconds from each other.
They were the invention of Tycho Brahe, and are
deferibed
424 ASTRONOMY. Hiftorr.
defcrlbed under the article Optics. At this vifit Hal¬
ley and Hevelius obferved an occultation of Jupiter by
the moon, and determined the diameter of the latter
to be 30' 33".
In 1671, the Royal Obfervatory in Paris was finifh-
ed, and the ufe of it affigned to Mr Caffini, after it
bad been furnifhed with inftruments at a very great
expence : and the obfervatory at Greenwich being
Jikewife built five years after, Mr Flaniilead was ap¬
pointed aftronomer-royal. The obfervations in both
thefe places, however, have been fo numerous, that it
31 is in vain to attempt any account of them.
Improve- Before the middle of the 17th century the conftruc-
xnents in tJon 0f telefcopes had been greatly improved, particu-
telefcopes. ]ar]y ^ jrontana ancj Huygens. The latter conftrud-
ed one of 123 feet, which is ftill preferved in the mu-
fcum of the Royal Society at London. With this
he obferved the moon and planets for a long time,
and difcovered that Saturn was encompaffed with a
ring. The French, however, ftill outdid the Eng-
lilh artifts; and by means of telefcopes of 200 and 300
feet focus, Mr Caflini was enabled to fee all the five
fatellites of Saturn, his belts, and the ftiadows of Ju¬
piter’s fatellites paffing over his body. In 1666, Mr
Azout applied a micrometer to telefcopes for the pur-
pofe of meafuring the diameters of the planets, and fmall
diftances in the heavens : however, an inftrument of
this kind had been before invented by Mr Gafcoigne,
though it was but little known abroad.
Notwithftanding all thefe difcoveries by means of
telefcopes, it was evident that they ftill continued in
a very imperfeA ftate, and their imperfe&ions at
the time appeared to be without remedy. One de¬
left was the enormous length requifite to admit of any
very confiderable magnifying power ; and another was
the incorreftnefs of the image, arifing from the aberration
of the rays, as was then fuppofed, by the fpherical figure
of the glafs. To obviate thefe inconveniences, Mer-
fennus is faid to have firft propofed, in a letter to
Defcartes, the ufe of refieftors inftead of lenfes in
the conftruftion of telefcopes ; but this he did in fuch
an obfcure manner, that the latter laboured to perfuade
him of the falfehood of the principle on which his
fcheme was founded. In 1663, however, James Gre¬
gory of Aberdeen (bowed how fuch a telefcope might
be conftrufted. He (bowed alfo, that, in order to
form a perfeft image of an objeft in this manner, the
figure of the fpeculum ought to be parabolic ; but Sir
Ifaac Newton, who applied himfelf to the framing of
telefcopes of the reflefting kind, found it imprafticable
to grind them of the defired figure. Laying afide the
idea of reflefting telefcopes, therefore, he applied him¬
felf to the execution of a fcheme formed by Defcartes,
•viz. that of grinding lenfes of the figure of one of the
conic feftions. In profecuting this plan, he difcover¬
ed, that the greateft errors to which telefcopes were
fubjeft arofe from the different refrangibility of the
rays of light, for which he could not then find any re¬
medy. Fie therefore returned to the fcheme he had
juft abandoned ; and, in the year 1672, prefented to
the Royal Society two refleftors which were conftruc-
ted with fpherical fpeculums, as he could not procure
any other. The inconveniences arifing from the dif¬
ferent refrangibility of the rays of light, have fince been
N* Jl.
in the fulleft manner correfted by Mr Dolland, the ex¬
cellency of whofe achromatic telefcopes are too well
known to need any encomium.
About the beginning of the prefent century, the
praftical part of aftrcnomy feemed to languifh for want
of proper inftruments. Roemer, indeed, had invented
fome new ones, and Dr Hook had turned bis atten¬
tion towards this fubjeft in a very particular manner ;
but either through want of drill in the artifts, or fome
other unfortunate circumftance, it happened that no¬
thing effeftual was done. But at the very time when
this was the cafe with praftical aftronomy, the fpecu-
lative part was carried in a manner to its utmoft
pitch by the labours of the immortal Newton, whofe
Principia gave an entire new face to the fcience.
It w'as not, however, for many years relifhed by the
foreign philofophers, though almoft immediately a-
dopted at home, and has continued ever fince to
fpread its reputation farther and farther, fo that now it
is in a manner eftabliftied all over the world. “ But
(fays Dr Long) that, after Newton’s fyftem had for fo
long a time been neglefted, it (hould all at once be
univerfally received and approved of, is not to be attri¬
buted to chance, or the caprice of faftiion, as fome who
are ignorant of it are apt to think, and from thence
to expeft that fome other fyftern will hereafter take its
place, and bury it in oblivion. The fyftem of New¬
ton, like that of Copernicus, is fo agreeable to the
phenomena of nature, and fo well put together, that
it muji laft as long as truth and reafon endure, altho*
time may perhaps bring the word attraftion into difufe j
and though it may no longer be thought inherent in
matter, yet the laws of gravitation, as they are now
called, and on which this fyftem is founded, will never
be forgotten.” ^
It was alfo in Britain that the firft improvements in Aftronomi-
aftronomical inftruments took place. The celebrated cal inftru-
mechanic and watchmaker Graham, carried the accu-P1'1115
racy of his inftruments to a degree which furprifed every 1",Prov«lin
one. He alfo greatly improved the principles of watch- nsan *
work, and made clocks to go with much greater regu¬
larity than before. The old eight feet mural arch at
Greenwich was alfo conftrufted by him ; as was a
fmall equatorial feftor for making obfervations out of
the meridian : but he is chiefly remarkable for con¬
triving the zenith feftor of 24 feet radius, and after,
wards one of 124. feet, by which Dr Bradley difcover¬
ed the aberration of the fixed ftars. The reflefting
telefcope which had been invented by Gregory, and
executed by Newton, was greatly improved by Mr Had¬
ley, and a very complete and powerful inftrument of
that kind was prefented to the Royal Society in 1719.
The fame gentleman has alfo immortalized his memory
by the invention of the reflefting .quadrant, which he
prefented to the Society in 1731, which is now in uni-
verfal ufe at fea ; and without which all improvements
of the lunar theory would have been ufelefs for deter¬
mining the longitude, through the want of an inftru¬
ment proper to make the obfervations with. It how¬
ever appears, that an inftrument, exaftly fimilar to this
in its principles, had been invented by Sir Ifaac New¬
ton ; and a defcription of it, together with a drawing,
given by the inventor to Dr Halley, when he was pre¬
paring for his voyage to difcover the variation of the
needle
4rS.
Hiftory.. ASTRO
needle in 1701. Aboot the middle of this century,
the conftrudfing and dividing of large ailronomical in-
ftruments was carried to a great degree of perfection
by Mr John Bird ; reflecting telefcopes were equally
improved by Mr Short, who firft executed the divided
o'bjeCt-glafs micrometer. This had indeed been thought
of by M. Louville, and feveral other perfous long be¬
fore ; and a defcription of one nearly agreeing with
that of Mr Short had been publifhed in the Pniiofo-
phica! TranfaCtions for 1753 : but had it not been for
the great {kill of Mr Short in figuring and centering
glafles of this kind, it is very probable the fcheme
might never have bt*n executed. About this time
alfo Mr Doilond brought refraCting telelcopes to fuch
perfection, that they became luperior to refleClors of
equal length ; though all of them are now excelled by
thofe of Mr Herfchel, whofe Telefcopic difcoveries have
been far more numerous and furprifing than thofe of
^ any other aflronorcer.
Improve- We flial! clofe this hiftory with a fhort account of the
ments laboursof the principal aftronomers fincethe building the
within this Xloyal Obfervatories at Paris, Greenwich, and the ap-
turyCCn* pointtnent of Mr Flamftead to the office of aftronomer
royal. This gentleman not only madeoLfervations on the
fun, moon, planets, and comets which appeared in his
time, but on the fixed ftars alfo, of which he gave a cata¬
logue of 300c ; many.of them fo fmall that they cannot
be difcerned without the help of a telefcope : he alfo
publifhed new folar tables, and a theory of the moon ac¬
cording to Horrox. Me publifhed a very curious traCf
en the doCfrine of the fphcre, in which he fhowed how¬
to conftruCf eclipfes of the fun and moon, as well as
occultations of the fixed ftars by the moon geometri¬
cally ; and it was upon his obfervations that Halley’s
tables and Newton’s theory of the moon were con-
ftruCfed. Mr Caffini alfo diftinguifhed himfelf very
cOnfiderably. He erefted the gnomon, and drew the
famous meridian line in the church of Petronia at Boru-
nia. He enjoyed his office more than 40 years, making
many obfervations on the fun, moon, planets, and co¬
mets, and greatly amended the dements of their mo¬
tions ; though the refult of his labours was much in¬
ferior to Mr Hamftead’s. The office was continued in
his family, and his grandfon ftill enjoys it. Roemer, a
celebrated Dartifti aftronomer, firft difeovered the pro-
greffive motion of light by obferving the eclipfes ot Ju¬
piter, and read a differtation upon it before the Roval
Academy of Sciences at Paris in the year 1675. He
was alfo the firft who made ufe of a meridional tele¬
fcope.
Mr Flamftead was fucceeded in 1719 by Dr Halley*
“ the greateft aftronomer (fays M. de la Lande)
without contradi&ion in Fnglandand, adds Dr
Long, “ I believe he might have faid in the whole
world.” He had been fent, at the age of 21, by
King Charles II. to the ifland of St Helena, in order
to make a catalogue of the fouthern ftars, which was
publifhed in 1679. 1° t7°5y he pubhfhed his Synop-
Jis djlrcnomiie Comet tea, in which, after immenfe cal¬
culation, he ventured to predict the return of one in
1758 or 1759* He alfo publifhed many learned dif-
fertations in the Philofophical Tranfadtions concerning
the ufe that might be made of the next tranfit of Ye
nus in determining the diftance of the lun from the
earth. He was the firft who difeovered the accelera-
Vol. II. Part XL
N O M Y.
tion of the moon, and gave a very ingenious method
of finding her parallax by three obferved phafes tf
a folar eclipfe. He compofed tables of the fun, moon,
and all the planets; and, in the nine years in which he
was at Greenwich, made near 150© obfervations of the
moon : all which he compared with the tables, and no¬
ted the differences ; and thefe, he thought, would re¬
turn in about iS ye; rs. He recommended the method
of determining the longitude by means of the moon’s
diftaace from the fun and certain fixed ftars. He was
convinced of its fuperior excellence ; and it has fince
been adopted by all the moft eminent aftronomers in
Europe. It is at prefent the only fure guide to. the ma¬
riner ; and the great perfeftion to which it is now
brought is much owing to the induftry and exertions_
of Dr Mafkelyne, the prefent aftronomer-royal, to
whom we are indebted for the publication of the Nau¬
tical Almanac, the Requifite Tables, and other works
of the utmoft fervice to practical aftronomy. 34
In the mean time an attempt was made in France townie figure
meafure a degree of the earth, which occafioned a very redv*
warm difpute concerning the figure of it.. Caffini, 1 C0Ver! *'
from Picart’s mealure, concluded that the earth was
an oblong fpheroid ; but New ton, from a confidera-
tion of the laws of gravity and the diurnal motion of
the earth, had determined the figure of it to be an ob¬
late fpheroid, and flatted at the poles. To determine
this point, Lewis XV. refolved to have two degrees
of the meridian meafured : one under, or very near the
equator ; and the other as near the pole as poffible.
for this purpofe the Royal Academy of Sciences fent
M. Maupertuis, Clairaitlt, Camus, and Le Monier, to
Lapland. They were accompanied by the Abbe Ou-
thier, a correfpondent of the fame academy. They
were joined by M. Celfius profeffur of anatomy at Up-
fal ; and having fet out from France in the fpring of
the year 1736, returned to it in 1737, after having
fully accomplifhed their errand. On the fouthern ex¬
pedition were difpatched M. Godin, Condamine, and :
Bouguer, to whom the king of Spain joined Don
George Juan and Don Anthony de Ulloa, two very
ingenious gentlemen and officers of the marine. They
leh Europe in 1735 < and after enduring innumerable -
hardfhips and difficulties in the execution of their com-
miffion, returned to Europe at different times, and by
different ways, in the years 1744, I745> and I746*
The refult of this arduous tafli was a confirmation of f
Newton’s inveftigation. Picart’s meafure w-as reviled
by Caffini and de la Caille ; and, after his errors were
corrected, it was found to agree very well with the
other two. On this occafion too it was difeovered, that
the attra&ion of the great mountains of Peru had an
effcA on the plumb-line of one of their largeft inftru-
ments, drawing it feven or eight feconds from the true
perpendicular.
Dr tialley, dying in 1742, was fucceeded by Dr
Bradley, who, though inferior as a mathematician,
greatly exceeded him as a pra&ical aftronomer. He
was the firft who made obfervations with an accuracy
fufficient to deleft the leffer inequalities in the motions
of the pknets and fixed liars. Thus he difeovered the
aberration of light, the nutation of the earth’s axis, and 1
was able to make the lunar tables much more perfeft :
than they h.ad ever been. He alfo obferved the places, ,
and computed the elements of the comets which ap- •
3.H peared.1
*426 A S T Pv O
pjaret! in the years 1723, 1736, 1743, and 1757. He
made new and moft accurate tables of the motions of
Jupiter’s fateibtes, from his own obfervations and
thofe of Dr Pound ; and from a multitude of obferva¬
tions of the fun, moon, and ftars, was enabled to give
the moft accurate table of mean refraflions yet extant,
as well as the beft methods of computing the variations
of thofe refractions arifing from the different ftates of
the air as indicated by the thermometer and barome¬
ter. In 1750, having procured a very large tranfit
inftrument made by Mr Bird, and a new mural qua¬
drant of brafs eight feet radius, he began to make ob¬
fervations with redoubled induftry ; fo that betwixt
t Ids time and his death, which happened in 1762, he
made obfervations for fettling'the places of all the ftars
in the Britilh catalogue, together with near 1500 pla¬
ces of the moon, much the greater part of which he
compared with the tables of Mr Mayer.
'Improve- In the mean time the French aftronomers Were affl¬
uents by duous in their endeavours to promote the fcience of
the French aftronomy. The theory df the moon, which had been
;«icrs.n0 given in a general way by Sir Ifaac Newton, began to
be particularly confidered by Meffrs Clairault, D’A¬
lembert, Euler, Mayer, Simpfon, and Walmfly ; tho*
Clairault, Euler, and Mayer, diftinguilhed themfelves
beyond any of the reft, and Mr Euler has been particu¬
larly happy in the arrangement of his tables for the eafe
and expedition of computation. He was excelled in
exaCtnefs, however, by Mayer, who publifhed his
tables in the Gottingen Ads for 1753- In thefe the
errors in longitude never exceeded two minutes; and
having yet farther improved them, he fent a copy to
the lords of the Britifh admiralty in 1753 ; and it
was this copy which Dr Bradley compared with his
obfervations, as already mentioned. His laft corrections
of them were afterwards fent over by his widow ; for
which (he and her children received a reward of L. 3000.
Accurate tables for Jupiter’s fatellites were alfo com-
pofed by Mr Wargentin a moft excellent Swedifti aftro-
nomer, and publifhed in the Upfal ACts in 1741 ; which
have fince been corrected by the author in fuch a man¬
ner as .to render them greatly fuperior to any ever pub-
36 lifhed before.
‘Of M. de Amongft the many French aftronomers who contri-
4a .Caille. jjUtec] to ^ advancement of the fcience, we are parti-
culatTy indebted to M. de la Cable, for a moft excel¬
lent fet of folar tables, in which he has made allowan¬
ces for the attractions of Jupiter, Venus, and the moon.
In 1750 he went to the Cape of Good Hope, in order to
make obfervations in concert with the moft celebrated
aftronomers in Europe, for determining the parallax of
the moon, as well as of the planet Mars, and from
thence that of the fun ; from whence it appeared that
the parallax of the fun could not greatly exceed 10 fe-
conds.. Here he re-examined and adjufted the places
of the fouthern ftars with great accuracy, and mea-
fured a degree of the meridian at that place.’ In Italy
the fcience was cultivated with the greateft affiduity by
Signior Bianchini, father Bofcovich, Frifi, Manfredi,
Zanotii, and many others; in Sweden by Wargen¬
tin already mentioned, Bltngenftern, Mallet, and Plan-
man j and in Germany, by Euler elder and younger,
Mayer, Lambert, Grifchow, &c. In the year 1760
all the learned focieties in Europe began to prepare for
N O M Y. Hiftory.
obferving the tranfu of Venus over the fun, foretold by
Dr Halley upwards of 80 j ears before it happened,
fhowing at the fame time the important ule which
might be made of it. Unfortunately, however, for
the caufe of fcience, many of the aftronomers fent out
to obferve this phenomenon were prevented by una¬
voidable accidents from reaching the places of their
deftination, and others were difappointed by the bad-
nefs of the weather. It happened alfo, that the cir-
cumftances of the phenomenon were much lefs favour¬
able for the purpofe of determining the fun’s parallax
than had been expeCted by Dr Halley, owing to the
faults of the tables he made ufe of; fo that, notwith-
ffandiug all the labours of aftronomers at that time,
they were not able to determine the matter ; and even
after their obfervations in 1769, when the circumftan-
ces of the tranfit were more favourable, the parallax of
the fun remained ftill uncertain.
Dr Bradley was fucceeded in his office of aftronomer*
royal by Mr Blifs, Savilian profcffor of aftronomy at
Oxford ; who being in a very declining ftate of health
at the time of his acceffion to the office, did not enjoy
it long. He was fucceeded by the learned Nevll
Mafkelyne, D. D. the prefent aftronomer-royal, whofe
name will be rendered immortal by his affiduity and
fuccefs in bringing the lunar method of determining
the longitude at fea into general pra6tice.
Such was the general ftate of aftronomy, when Mr
Herfchel’s great difcovery of augmenting the power of
telefcopes, beyond the moft fanguine hopes of aftrono¬
mers, opened at once a fcene altogether unlocked for.
By this indefatigable obferver we are made acquainted
with a new primary planet attended by two feconda-
ries belonging to our folar fyftem j fo that the latter
now appears to have double the bounds formerly affign-
ed to it; this new planet being at leaft twice the di-
ftance of Saturn from the fun. In the ftill farther di-
ftant celeftial regions, among the fixed ftars, his obfer¬
vations are equally furprifing ; of which we fhall only
fay with Dr Prieftley *, “ Mr Herfchel’s late difeo-# Expcrim.
veries in and beyond the bounds of the folar fyftem,
the great views that he has given of the arrangementvo1, vi*
of the ftars, their revolutions, and thofe of the im- re *
menfe fyftems into which they are formed, are pecu¬
liarly calculated to infpire an ardent defi'-e of feeing fo
great a fcene a little more unfolded. Such difeoveries
as thefe give us a higher idea of the value of our be-
jng,^by raifing our ideas of the fyftem of which we
are a part; and with this an earneft wilh for the con¬
tinuance of it.”
Sect. I. Of the apparent Motionst Magnitudest
and Changes, in the celeJUal Bodies, as feen by
the naked eye.
As the true motions of bodies at a great diftance are
to be gathered only from a careful observation of their
apparent ones, it is abfolutely neceffary for thofe who
want to become acquainted with the true motions of
the heavenly bodies, to know perfe&ly the different
changes which take place in the heavens as feen from
this earth, the only place from which any oblervnion
can be made. By carefully attending to thefe, a little
knowledge of optics will enable us to underftand with
great
Sea. r. AST R O N 0 M Y.
427-
Apparent
Motion,
&c.
37
Apparent
motion of
the fun.
Of the
Of tiie
ftari
great certainty not only the true fyftem of nature, but
aifo what appearance the heavens would make to a
fpe&ator placed in any part of the vifible creation.
The firil and moft obvious phenomenon is the daily
rifing of the fun in the eaft, and his fetting in the weft ;
after which the moon and ftars appear, ftifl keeping the
fame wefterly courfe, till we lofe fight of them al¬
together. This cannot be long taken notice of, be¬
fore we muft likewife perceive that neither the fun nor
moon always rifes exadhiy in the fame point of the hea¬
vens. If we begin to obferve the fun, for inftance, in
the beginning of March, we will find that he teem, to
rife almoft every day fenfibly more to the northward
than he did the day before, to continue longer above
the horizon, and to be more vertical at mid-day. This
continues till towards the end of June, when he is ob-
ferved to rtlove backward in the fome manner; and this
retrograde motion continues to the end of December,
or near it, when he begins again to move forwards,
and fo on.
The motion of the moon through the heavens, as
well as her appearance at different times, is ftill more
remarkable than thofe of the fun. When fhe firft be¬
comes vifible at the time fhe is called the moon,
fhe appears in the weftern part of the heavens, and
feems to be at no great diftance from the fun himfclf.
Every night fhe not only increafes in fize, but removes
to a greater diftance from the fun ; till at laft (he ap¬
pears in the ealfern part of the horizon, juft at the time
the fun difappears in the weftern. After this fhe gra¬
dually moves farther and farther eaftward, and there¬
fore rifes every night later and later, till at laft fhe
feems to approach the fun as nearly in the eaft as fhe
did in the weft, and rifes only a little before him in
the morning, as in the firft part of her courfe fhe fet in
the weft not long after him. All thefe different appear¬
ances are completed in the fpace of a month ; after
which they begin in the fame order as before. They
are not, however, at all times regular ; for at fome fea-
fons of the year, particularly in harveft, the moon ap¬
pears for feveral days to be ftationary in the heavens,
and to recede no farther from the fun, in confequence
of which fhe iifes for that time nearly at the fame hour,
every night;
In contemplating the ftars, it is obferved that fome
of them have the Angular property of neither rifing in
the eaft nor fetting in the weft ; but feem to turn
round one immoveable point, near which is placed a
Angle ftar called the pole, ox pole-jlar. This point Ts
more or lefs elevated according to the different parts
of the earth from which we take our view. The inha¬
bitants of Lapland, for inftance, fee it much more
elevated above the horizon, or more vertical, than we
do; we fee it more vertical than it appears to the inhabi¬
tants of France and Spain ; and they, again, fee it more
elevated than the inhabitants of Barbary. By continu¬
ally travelling fouth, this ftar would at length feem de-
preffed in the horizon, and another point would appear
diretlly oppofite to it, round which the ftars in the
fouthern part of the horizon would feem to turn. In
this part of the heavens, however, there is no ftar fo
near the pole as there is in the northern part 5 neither
is the number of ftars in the fouthern part of the hea¬
vens fo great as in the northern. Suppofing us ftill to
travel fouthvvard, the north-pole would then entirely
difappear, and the whole hemifphere 'would appear to Appsrfut
turn round a fingle point in the fouth, as the northern rfotlon>
hemifphere appears to us to turn round the pole-ftar.— ^
The general appearance of the heavens, therefore,
is that of a vaft concave fphere, turning round two
points (fixed in the north and fouth parts of it, once in
24 hours. 40
When we further confider the ftars, we will find the Fixed ftars,.
greatefi part of them to keep their places with refpgft and planets,-
to one another ; that is, if wc obferve two ftars having
a certain apparent diftance from each other this night,
they will feem to have the fame to-morrow, and every
other fucceeding night ; but we will by no means ob¬
ferve them to have the fame places either with refpeft
to the fun or moon, as muft be eafily underftood from
what we have already faid. Neither do all the ftars
in the heavens appear to be of this fixed kind : Some
of them, on the contrary, change their places very re¬
markably with regard to the fixed ftars, and with re¬
gard to one another. Of thefe, five were only obferved
formerly j bm Mr Herfchel has now diicovered a (ixth.
They are diftinguifhed by the appellation of planets,
(from jrxavo, to err or ’wander) ; and called by the
names of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and
the Georgium Sidus. i'he fixed liars are hkewile di¬
ftinguifhed from the planets by their continually exhi¬
biting that appearance which is called the fcintillation
ox twinkling of the fars. This is faid to arife from
the exceeding minutenefs of their apparent diameter ;
fo that the interpolition of any little fubftance, of which
there are many floating in the atmofphere, continually
deprives us of the fight of them ; but the interpofing
body foon changing its place, we again fee the ftar, .
and thus the twinkling is produced.
Mercury is a fmall ftar, but emits a very bright
white light : though, by reafon of his always keeping
near the fun, he is feldom to be feen j and when he
does make his appearance, his motion towards the fuu
is fo fwift, that he can only be difcerned for a ftiort time. .
He appears a little after funfet, and again a little be¬
fore funrife.
Venus, the moft beautiful ftar in the heavens, known
by the names of the morning and evening far, like¬
wife keeps near the fun, though fhe recedes from him
almoft double the diftance of Mercury. She is never
feen in the eaftern quarter of the heavens when the fun
is in the vveftern ; but always feems to attend him in
the evening, or to give notice of his approach in the
morning.
Mars is of a red fiery colour, and alw-ays gives a
much duller light than Venus, though lometimes he
equals her in fize. He is not fubjedl to the fame li¬
mitation in his motions as Mercury or Venus ; but ap¬
pears fometimes very near the fun, and fometimes at
a great diftance from him $ fometimes rifing when the
fun fets, or fetting when he riles. Of this planet it
is remarkable, that when he approaches any of the fix¬
ed ftars, which all the planets frequently do, thefe ftars
change their colour, grow dim, and often become to¬
tally invifible, though at fome little diftance from the
body of the planet : but Mr Herfchel thinks this has
been exaggerated by former aftronomers.
Jupiter and Saturn likewife often appear at great
diftances from the fun. The former fhiues with a bright
white light, and the Jatter with a pale faint one ; and l
3 H 2 the.-
ASTRO
tire raotion of Saturn among the fixed ftars is fo fl.w,
that, unlefs catefully ohfeived, he will not be thought
j to move at all.
Befides the motions which we obferve in all thefe
planets, their apparent magnitudes are very different
s at different times. Every perfon muft have obferved
■ that Venus, though (he conftantly appears with great
fplendor, is not always equally big ; and this apparent
difference of magnitude is fo remarkable, that fhe ap¬
pears no lefs than 32 times larger at fome feafons than
at others. This increafe of magnitude is likewKe very
remarkable in Mars and Jupiter, but lefs fo in Saturn
4a and Mercury.
‘Their irre- Though we have thus defcribed the motions of the
pillar mo- p]anets w;th refpedf to their apparent diftances from
-tion. they by no means appear to us to move regu¬
larly in the heavens, but, ou the contrary, in the moll
complex and confufed manner that can be imagined,
fometimes going forward, fometimes backward, and
fometimes feeming to be fiationary. They all fetm
to defcribe looped curves ; but it is not known when
any of thefe curves would return into themfelves, ex¬
cept that of Venus, which returns into itfelf every
•eighth year. On each fide of the loops they appear
flationary ; in that part of each loop near the earth,
retrograde 5 and in every other part of their path, di*
43 re^-
Comets. Thefe, however, are not the only moving bodies which
are to be obferved in the celeftial regions. The fix
abovementioned are indeed the only ones which appear
almoft conftantly, or difappear only at certain intervals,
and then as certainly return. But there are others
which appear at uncertain intervals, and with a very
different afpeft from the planets. Tbefe are very nu¬
merous, and no fewer than 450 are fuppofcd to belong
to our folar Jyftem. They are called Comets, from
their having a long tail, fomewhat refembling the ap¬
pearance of hair. This, however, is not always the
cafe ; for fome comets have appeared which were as
well defined and as round as planets : but in general
they have a luminous matter diffufed around them, or
projecting out from them, which to appearance very
much refembles the Aurora Borealis. When thefe
appear, they come in a direCt line towards the fun, as
if they were going to fall into his body ; and after ha¬
ving difappeared for fome time in confequence of their
proximity to that luminary, they fly off again on the
other fide as fall as they came, projecting a tail much
greater and brighter in their recefs from him than
■when they advanced towards him 5 but, getting daily
at a farther diftance from us in the heavens, they con¬
tinually lofe of their fplendor, and at laft totally dif¬
appear. Their apparent magnitude is very different :
fometimes they appear only of the bigndfs of the fixed
flarsj.at other times they will equal the diameter
of Venus, and fometimes even of the fun or moon.
So, in 1652, Hevelius obferved a comet which feem-
cd not inferior to the moon in fize, though it had
not fo bright a fplendor, but appeared with a pale
and dim light,-and had a difraal afpeCt. Thefe bodies
will alfo foinetimes lofe their fplendor fuddenly, while
their apparent bulk remains unaltered. With refpeCt
to their apparent motions, they have all the inequa-
Uties of the planets; fometimes feeming to go forwards,
N o M y. Sea. I.
fometimes backwards, and fometimes to be station-Apparent
ary. Motion,
Though the fixed fiars are the only marks by which fcc~ r
aftronorners are enabled to judge of the courfes of the
moveable ones, and though they have never been ob-Fixed^ar3
ferved to change their places ; yet they feem not to befecmingly
endued with the permanency even of the earth anddeftru£tibi«
planets, but to'be periftiable or deftruCtible by accident,aIld. sene'
and likewife generable by fome natural caufi . Severalra e*
ftars obferved by the ancients are now no more to be
feen, but are deftroyed ; and new ones have appeared,
which were unknown to the ancients. Some of them
have alfo difappeared for fome time, and again become
vifible.
We are alfo affured from the obfervations of aftrono-
mers, that fome fiars have been obferved which never
were feen before, and for a certain time they have di-
ftinguiflied themfelves by their fuperlative luftre 5 but
afterwards decreafing, they vanifhed by degrees, and
were no more to be feen. One of thefe ftars'being firfl
feen and obferved by Hipparchus, the chief of the an¬
cient aflronomers, fet him upon compofing a catalogue
of the fixed ftars, that by it pofterity might learn
whether any of the ftars periflt, and others are produ¬
ced afrefh.
After feveral ages, another new ftar appeared to Ty¬
cho Brahe and the aftronomers who were cotemporary
with him ; which put him on the fame defign with
Hipparchus, namely, the making a catalogue of the
fixed ftars. Of this, and other ttars which have ap¬
peared fince that time, we have the following hiftory A$
by Dr Halley : “ The firft new ftar in the chair ofDr Hal-
Caffiopeia, was not feen by Cornelius Gemma on theley’shi"
8th of November 1572, who fays, he that night con-ftory^
fidered that part of the heaven in a very ferene fky,neW
and faw it not: but that the next night, November 9,
it appeared with a fplendor furpaffing all the fixed
ftars, and fcarce lefs bright than Venus. This was not
feen by Tycho Brahe before the t ith of the fame month:
but from thence he affures us that it gradually decrea-
fed and died away, fo as in March 1574, after fixteen
months, to be no longer vifible ; and at this day no
figns of it remain. The place thereof i-’. the fphere of
fixed ftars, by the accurate obfervations of the fame
Tycho, was c* 9® 1 7' « im* * qpis, with 53° 43' north
latitude.
“ Such another ftar was feen and obferved by the
fcholars of Kepler, to begin to appear on Sept. 30. J}.
vc*. anno i 604, which was not to be feen the day be¬
fore : but it broke out at once with a luftre furpaffing
that of Jupiter ; and like the former, it died away gra¬
dually, and in much about the fame time difappeared
totally, there remaining no footfteps thereof in Janu¬
ary i6o|- This was near the ecliptic, following the
right leg of Serpentarius ; and by the obfervations of
Kepler and others, was in 7s 20° co' a tmi*cy?»
with north latitude i° 56'. Thefe two feem to be of
a diftindt fpecies from the reft, and nothing like them
has appeared fince.
“ But between them, viz. in the year 1596, we have
the firft account of the wonderful ftar in Collo Ceti,
feen by David Fabricius on the third of AuguiCJi. vet.
as bright as a ftar of the third magnitude, which has
been fince found to appear and difappear periodically.
its
Plate LXTl
Sea. I. ASTRO
Apparent its period being precifeiy enough feven revolutions in fix
Motion, years, though it returns not always with the fame luftrc.
^c’ Nor is it ever totally extinguifned, but may at all times
v be feen with a fix*feet cube. This was fingular in its
kind, till that in'Collo Cygni Was difcovered. It pre¬
cedes the fir ft ftar of Aries i ^ 40', with 15 ^ 57' fouth
latitude.
“ Another new ftar was firft difcovered by William
Janfoniu*s in the year 1600, in peftore, or rather in
vduftime, Colli Cygni, which exceeded not the third
magnitude. This having continued fome years, became
at length fo fmall, as to be thought by fome to have
difappeared entirely : but in the years 1657, 1658, and
1659, it again arofe to the third magnitude; tho’ foon
after it decayed by degrees to the fifth or fixth magni¬
tude, and at this day is to be feen as fuch in 9s iS^ 38'
a jma * with 550 29' north latitude.
“ A fifth new ftar was firft feen by Hevelius in the
year 1670, on July vet. as a ftar of the third
magnitude, but by the beginning of Odlober was fcarce
to be perceived by the naked eye. In April following
it was again as bright as before, or rather greater than
of the third magnitude, yet wholly difappeared about
the middle of Auguft. The next year, in March 1672,
it was feen again, but not exceeding the fixth magni¬
tude : fince when, it has been no further vifible, though
we have frequently fought for its return ; its place is
9s 3° I7/ « i,ls* * CY’> ar,d has lat. north 47® 28'.
“ The fixth and laft is that difcovered by Mr G. Kirch
in the year 168O, and its period determined to be of
404-I- days ; and though it rarely exceeds the fifth mag¬
nitude, yet it is very regular in its returns, as we found
in the year 17 14. Since then we have watched, as the
abfence of the moon and clearnefs of the weather would
permit, to catch the firft beginning of its appearance
in a fix feet tube, that, bearing a very great aperture,
difcovers mod minute ftars. And on June 15. laft, it
was firft perceived like one of the very lead telefcopi-
cal ftars ; but in the reft of that month and July, it
gradually increafed, fo as to become in Auguft vifible
to the naked eye ; and fo continued all the month of
September. After that, it again died away by degrees ;
and on the eighth of December, at night, was fcarce
difcernible by the tube ; and, as near as could be guef-
fed, equal to what it was at its firft appearance on June
25th : fo that this year it has been feen in all near fix
months, which is but little lels than half its period ;
and the middle, and confequently the greateft bright-
nefs, falls about the 10th of September.”
Mr Monta Concerning the changes which happen among the
ncre’s ac-1 ftars, Mr Montanere, profefibr of mathematics at
count of Bononia, gave the following account, in a letter to the
changes a- Royal Society, dated April 30th 1670. “ There are
mong the now wanting in the heavens two ftars of the fecond
xed 1 ars. magnjtu(je jn the ftern of the ftiip Argo, and its yard ;
Bayerus marked them with the letters P> and x* I and
others obferved them in the year 1664, uPon the oc-
cafion of the comet that appeared that year : when
they difappeareJ firft, I know not: only I am fure that
in the year ,668., upon the toth of April, there was
not the leaft glimpfe of them to be feen ; and yet the
reft about them, even of the third and fourth magni¬
tudes, remained the fame. I have obferved many more
changes among the fixed ftars, even to the number of
N O M Y. 429
an hundred, though none of them are fo great as thofe Apparent
I have ftiowed.” Motion,
The late improvements in aftronomy, and particu-■
larly thofe in the conftrudion of telefcopes, have now
given aftronomers an opportunity of obferving the
changes which take place among the ftars with much
greater accuracy than could be formerly done. In a
paper in the 76th volume of the Philofophical Tranf- Mr Pigot’s
aftions, Mr Edward Pigot gives a difiertation om theremarks
ftars fufpedled by the aftronomers of laft century to be
changeable. For the greater accuracy in the i>lvefti-variaj4e0
gation of his fubjedt, he divides them into two clafles ; ftars.
one containing thofe which are undoubtedly change¬
able, and the other thofe which are only fufpedted to
be fo. The former contains a lift of 12 ftars, from the
firft to the fourth magnitudes ; including the new one
which appeared in Cafiiopeia in J572, and that in Ser-
pentarius in 1604: the other contains the names of 38
ftars of all magnitudes, from the firft to the feventh.
He is of opinion, that the celebrated new ftar in Caffio"
peia is a periodical one, and that it returns once in
150 years. Mr Keill is of the fame opinion : and Mr
Pigot thinks, that its not being obferved at the expi¬
ration of each period is no argument againft the truth
of that opinion; “ fince (fays he), perhaps, as with
moft of the variables, it may at different periods have
different degrees of luftre, fo as fometimes only to in-
creafe to the ninth magnitude; and if this (hould he
the caie, its period is probably much ftiorter.” For
this reafon, in September 1782, he took a plan of the
fmall ftars near the place where it formerly appeared,
but in four years had obferved no alteration. 4£
The ftar in the neck of the Whale had alfo been ex- Star in Col-
amined by Mr Pigot from the end of 178210 1786,!°
but he never found it exceed the fixth magnitude ;
though Mr Goodricke had obferved it on the 9th of
Auguft to be of the fecond magnitude, and on the 3d
of September the fame year it was of the third magni¬
tude. Mr Pigot deduced its period from its apparent
equality with a fmall ftar in the neighbourhood, and
thence found it to be 320, 328, and 337 days.
The moft remarkable of thefe changeable ftars is Algol,
that called in^the head of Medufa. It had long
been known to be variable ; but its period was firft
afeertained by Mr Goodricke of York, who began to
obferve it in the beginning of 1783. It changes con¬
tinually from the firrt to the fourth magnitude ; and
the time taken up from its greateft diminution to its
leaft is found, at a mean, to be 2 days 20 hours 49
minutes and 3 teconds. During four hours it gradu¬
ally diminifiies in luftre, which it recovers during the
fucceeding four hours ; and in the remaining part of
the period it invariably preferves its greateft luftre, and
after the expiration of the term its diminution again
commences. According to Mr Pigot, the degree of
brightnefs of this ttar when at its minimum is variable
in different periods, and he is of the fame opinion with
regard to its brightnefs when at its full ; but whether
thefe differences return regularly or not, has not been
determined.
The 420th of Mayer’s catalogue, in Leo, has lately
been fhown to be variable by Mr Koch. Some years
before 1782, that gentleman perceived it undoubtedly
fmaller than the 419th of the lame catalogue. In Fe¬
bruary
43°
ASTRONOMY. Sefl. I.
Apparent bruary that year, it was of the fame brigbtnefs with
Motion, ^jpth, that is, of the feventh magnitude. In
. c~ , April 17^3, it was of the ninth magnitude; and in
the fame month 1784, it was of the tenth. Mr Pigot
could never obferve this ftar, though he frequently
looked for it with a nighi-glafs, and on the fifth of
April 1785 with a three-feet achromatic tranfit inftru-
50
Variable In 1704, Maraldi obferved a variable ftar in Hydra,
ftar in Hy-whofe period he fettled at about two years, though
l*ra• with confiderable variations: but from the obfervations
even of Maraldi, Mr Pigot concludes, that its period
was then only 494 days ; and from fome others made
by himfelf, he thinks that now it is only 487 days; fo
that fince the time of Maraldi it has fhortened feven
days. The particulars relating to this ftar are as fol¬
low. 1. When at its full brightnefs it is of the fourth
magnitude, and does not perceptibly change for a fort¬
night. 2. It is about fix months in increafing from
the tenth magnitude and returning to the fame ; fo
that it may be confidered as invifible during that time.
3. It is confiderably more quick, perhaps one half
more fo, in its increafe than in its decreafe. 4. Though
when at its full it may always be ftyled a ftar of the
fourth magnitude, it does not conftantly attain the
fame degree of brightnefs, but the differences are very
fmall. This ftar is the 30th of Hydra in Hevelius’s
catalogue, and is marked by him of the lixth magni-
51 tude.
Swan’s The new ftar in Serpentarius, obferved by Kepler,
head. feems to have been of the fame nature with that of
Caffiopeia ; and Mr Pigot therefore looks upon it alfo
to be a periodical one, though, after taking a plan of
the neared ftars in that part of the heavens, in the year
1782, he could, in four years time, perceive no altera¬
tion.
The variation of the ftar £ Lyras was difcovered by
Mr Goodricke above mentioned, who fufpeds its pe¬
riod to be fix days nine hours ; which coincides with
the opinion of Mr Pigot.
The new ftar near the Swan’s Head, obferved by Don
Anthelme in December 1669, foop became of the third
magnitude, and difappeared in 1672. Mr Pigot has
conftantly looked for it fince November 1781, but.
without fucc^fs. He is of opinion,, that had it only
increafed to the 10th or nth magnitude, he w:ould
have feen it, having taken a plan of all the. neighbour¬
ing fraail ftars.
The next variable ftar in Mr Pigot’s catalogue is
the » Antinoi, whofe variation and period he difco¬
vered in 1785. From his corre&ed obfervaiions, he
concludes that it continues at its greateft brightnefs
40 hpurs without decreafing ; it is 66 hours after it
begins to decreafe before it comes to its full diminu¬
tion ; after which it continues ftationary for 30 hours
more, and then increafes for 36 hours. In every pe¬
riod it feems to acquire its full brightnefs, and to be
equally decreafed.
Swan’s The variable ftar in the Swan’s Neck was obferved
neck. for three years. The period of this ftar had been
fettled by Maraldi and Caflini at 405, and by M. Le
Gentil at 405.3 days ; but from a mean of the ob¬
fervations of Mr Pigot, it appears to be only 392.
“ Perhaps (fays he) its period is irregular; to deter¬
mine which feveral intervals of 15 years ought to be
taken : and I am much inclined to believe that it will Apparent
be found only 396 days 21 hours.” The particulars^,otlon»
relating to this ftar are: t. When at its full bright-fcc'
nefs it undergoes no perceptible change for a fortnight.
2. It is about three months and an half in increafing
from the 11th magnitude to its ful) brightnefs, and
the fame in decreafing ; for which reafon it may be
confidered as invifible during fix months. 3. It does
not always attain the fame degree of luftre, being
fometimes of the fifth and fometimes of the feventh
magnitude. ^3.
In 1600, G. Janfonius difcovered a variable ftar in Swan *
the bread of the Swan, which was afterwards obfervedbrea!^
by different aftronomers, and fuppofed to have a period
of about ten years. The refults of Mr Pigot’s calcu¬
lations from the obfervations of former aftronomera
are, 1. That it continues in full luftre for five years.
2. It decreafes rapidly for two years. 3. It is invifible
to the naked eye for four years. 4. It increases flovvly
during feven years. 5. All thefe changes are com¬
pleted in j8 years. 6. It was at its minimum at the
end of the year 1663. 7. It does not always increafe
to the fame degree of brightnefs, being fometimes of
the third, and at others only of the fixth magnitude.
“ F am entirely ignorant (fays Mr Pigot) whether it
is fubjeft to the fame changes in this century, having
not met w ith any feries cf obfervations on it ; but if
the above conje&ures are right, it will be at its mini¬
mum in a very few years. Since November 1781 I
have conftantly feen it of the fixth magnitude. Some¬
times I have fufpedled that it has decreafed within
thefe two laft years, though in a very frnall degree.”
The laft ftar in Mr Pigot’s firft clafs is the & Cephei,
whofe variation was difcovered by Mr Goodricke. Its
changes are very difficult to be feen, unlefs it is obfer¬
ved at the times of its greateft and leaft brightnefs. ,
The refult of the obfervations hitherto made upon it .
are, that its period confifts of 5 days 8 hours 37 on ■
a mean. The following obfervations relate to fome
ftars of the fecond clafs. ^
1. Hevelius’s 6th Caffiopese was miffing in 1782, stars the
nor’could Mr Pigot find it in 1783 and 1784. variation
2. §.or 46th Andromeda:, faid to be variable, but the0* which is
evidence is not convincing to Mr Pigot. ^efs ccr"
3. Flamftead’s 50, 52, r Andromeda?, and Hevelius’s
41 Andromedse. The pofition and charaClers of thefe
ftars differ corlfiderably in different catalogues, and
fome of them are faid by Caffini to have difappeared ,
and re-appeared. Mr Pigot therefore gives their com¬
parative brightnefs as obferved in the years 1783, 1784,,,
and 1785, during which time he does not mention any
particular change.
4. Tycho’s zoth Ceti. “ This (fays Mr Pigot)
mull be the ftar which Hevelius faid had difappeared,
being Tycho’s fecond in the Whale’s Belly. There
can hardly be any doubt that it is the mifplaced by
Tycho. This x's °f th6 fourth or fifth magnitude.”
5. c, or the jyth Eridani of Ptolemy and Ulug
Beigh. Flamftead fays he could not fee this ftar in
1691 and 1692; but in 1782, 1783, and 1784, Mr
Pigot observed in that place one of the feventh magni¬
tude, which appeared always of the fame luftre.
6. Flamftead’s 41 Tauri was fuppofed by Caffini to
be either a new or variable ftar; but Mr Pigot thinks
there is no reafon to be of that opinion. “ That it is
not
Sea. I. ASTRO
Apparent not new (fays he) is evident, fince it is Ulug Beigh’s
Motion, 26th and Tycho’s 43d.
. 7. A ftar about 2^ north of 53 Eridani, and 47
, Eridani. Caffioi fuppofed the firft of thefe ft^rs to be
a new one, and that it was not vifible in 1664. He
mentions another ftar thereabouts, which he alfo
efteemed a new one.
8. y Canis Majoris. Maraldi could not fee this ftar
in 1670; but in 1692 and 1693 it appeared of the
fourth magnitude. Mr Pigot made frequent obferva-
tions upon it from 1782 to 1786, but could perceive
no variation.
9. «, Geminorum. “ If any of thefe ftars (fays
our author) have changed in brightnefs, it is probable
the fi. In 1783, 1784,and 1785, the fl was undoubt¬
edly brighter than
10. 5 Leonk. According to Montanan', this ftar
was hardly vifible in 1693. In 1783, 1784, and 1785, it
was of the fifth magnitude. By Tycho, Flamftead,
Mayer, Bradley, &c. it is marked of the fourth.
11. J. Leonis. This ftar is faid to have difappeared
before the year 1667 ; but according to Mr Pigot’s
obfervations, was conftantly of the iifth or lixth mag¬
nitude fince 1783.
12. 25th Leonis. In 1783 our author firft per¬
ceived that this ftar was miffing, and could not per¬
ceive it in 1784 and 1785, even with a tranfit inftru-
ment.
13. Bayer’s / Leonis, or Tycho’s 16 Leonis, was
not vifible in 1709, nor could it be feen in 1785. It
is a different ftar from the i Leonis of the other cata¬
logues, though Tycho’s defcription of its place is the
fame.
14. J Urfae Majoris. This ftar is fufpe&ed ttr
change in brightnefs, on account of its being marked
by Tycho, the prince of Heffe, &c. of the fecond
magnitude, while Hevelius, Bradley and others have
marked it of the third. In 1786, and for three years
before, it appeared as a bright ftar of the fourth mag¬
nitude.
15. „ Virginis. This is fuppofed to be variable, be-
caufc Flamftead, on the 27th of January 1680, could
not fee it; but he obferved it in 1677, an(^ foine years
afterwards. Mr Pigot obferved it frequently in 1784
and 1785, and found it a ftar of the fixth magnitude
without any perceptible change.
16. Bayer’s ftar of the fixth magnitude i° fouth of
g Virginis. “ This ftar (fays Mr Pigot) is not in any
of the nine catalogues that 1 have. Maraldi looked
for it in vain ; and in May 1785 I could not fee the
leaft appearance of it. It certainly was not of the
eighth magnitude.
17. A ftar in the northern thigh of Virgo, marked
by Ricciolus of the fixth magnitude, could not be feen
by Maraldi in 1709-, nor was it of the ninth magni¬
tude, if at all viliblc in 1785.
18. The 91 and 92 Virginis. In 1785, one of
thefe ftars, probably the 91, was miffing: the remain¬
ing one is of the fixth or feventh magnitude.
19. * Draconis. Mr Pigot coincides in opinion with
Mr Kerfchel, that this ftar is variable. Bradley, Flam¬
ftead, &c. maik it of the fecond magnitude, but in
1786 it was only a bright fourth. It was frequently
examined by Mr Pigot from the 4th of Odtober 1782,
but without any alteration being perceived.
N O M Y. 431
20. Bayer’s ftar in the weft fcale of Libra. Maral-Apparent
di could not fee this ftar, and it was likewife inviiible j^otlou>
to Mr Pigot in 1784 and 1785. , c'
21. Nc’ 6 of Ptolemy and Ulug Beigh’s unformed in
Libra. I bis ftar is not mentioned in any other cata¬
logues than the above. Mr Pigot frequently obferved
a little ftar of the feventh magnitude very near its
place.
22. * Libras. This ftar is thought to be variable;
but Mr Pigot is not of that opinion, though “ certainly
(fays he) it is rather Angular, that Hevelius, whofe at¬
tention was dire&ed to that part of the heavens to
find Tycho’s 1 ith, did not find the * ; and the more fo,
as he has noticed two much fmaller ftars not far from
it. During thefe three years I have found the * con¬
ftantly of the fifth magnitude.”
23. Tycho’s nth Librae. Mr Pigot is of opinion
that no fuch ftar as this ever exifted ; and that it is no
other than the * with an error of 2 degrees of longi¬
tude.
24. 33 Serpentis. This ftar was miffing in 17845
nor could it be perceived with a night-glafs in 1785.
25. A ftar marked by Bayer near « urfae majoris.
This ftar could not be feen by Caffiui ; nor was Mr
Pigot able to difeover it with a night-glafs in 1782.
26. The />, or Ptolemy and Ulug Beigh’s 14th Ophi-
uchi, or Flamftead’s 36th. Mr Pigot has no doubt
that this is the ftar which is faid to have difappeared
before the year 1695 » and ^ *8 evident that it was
not feen by Hevelius. In 1784 and 1785 Mr Pigot
found it of the fourth or fifth magnitude : but he is
far from being certain of its having undergone any
change, efpecially as it has a fouthern declination of
26 degrees ; for which reafon great attention inuft be
paid to the ftate of the atmofphere.
27. Ptolemy’s 13th and 18th Ophiuchi, fourth magi
nitude. Mr Pigot is of opinion that thefe ftars are
mifplaced in the catalogues. The 18th of Ptolemy
he thinks ought to be marked with a north latitude
inftead of a fouth, which would make it agree near¬
ly with Flamftead’s 58th; and he is alfo of opinion
that the 13th of Ptolemy is the 40th of Flamftead.
28. <r Sagittarii. Mr Herfchel, as well as Mr Pi¬
got, is of opinion, that this liar has probably changed
its magnitude, though the reafon feems only to be the
great difagreement concerning it among the different
catalogues of ftars.
29. 0 Serpentis. This ftar, according to Mr Mon¬
tanan", is of variable magnitude; but Mr Pigot never
could perceive any alteration.
30. Tycho’s 27th Capricorni was miffing in Heve-
lius’s time, and Mr Pigot could not find it with a
tranfit inftrument.
31. Tycho’s 2 2d Andromedae, and 0 Andromeda:.
Mr Caffini informs us, that in his time the former had
grown fo fmall that it could fcarcely be feen ; and Mr
Pigot, that no ftar was to be feen in its place in 1784
and 1785 : but he is of opinion that Caffini may have
miftaken the • Andromeda: for the 2zd ; for which
reafon he obferved this ftar three years, but without
any alteration in its brightnefs.
32. Tycho’s 19th Aquarii. Hevelius fays that this
ftar was miffing, and that Flamftead could not fee it
with his naked eye in 1679. Mr Pigot could not fee
it in 1782 ; but is perfuaded that it is the fame with
Flamfteau’s
43 2 ASTRO
Apparent Flamftead’s 56th marked f by Bayer, from which it
Motion, js on]y a (3egree, anf} an lla]f c)jftant. The 53d of
r . Fiamftead. marked /"in Ptolemy’s catalogue, is a dif¬
ferent ftar.
33. La Caille’s 483 Aqnarii was firft difeovered to
be miffing in 1778, and was not vifible in 1783 and
1784.
Befides vbefe there are feveral others certainly vari¬
able, but which cannot be feen in this country. There
are fome alfo fufpe&ed to be variable, but for which
Mr Pigot thinks there is no reafon^ Mr Herfchel alfo
gives llrong reafons for not laying great ftrefs on all
the obfervations by which new ftars have been faii to
be difeovered. Mr Pigot affures us from repeated ex¬
perience, that even more than a ilngle obfervation, if
not particularifed and compared with neighbouring
liars, is very little to be depended upon ; different
llreaks of the clouds, the flate of the weather, &c. ha¬
ving often caufed him err a whole magnitude in the
SS brightnefs of a ftar.
Wollafton’s As thefe changes to which the fixed ftars are liable
difeoverin^ n0t ^eem to fubjedl to any certain rule, Mr Wol-
variations5 laft°n has given an eafy method of obferving whether
among the they do take place in any part of the heavens or not,
fixed ftars. and that without much expence of inftrutnents or wafte
of time, which are great o’ jeClions to aftronomical ob¬
fervations in general. His firft idea was, that the
work fhould be undertake!) by aftronomers in general ;
each taking a particular diftri£t of the heavens, and
from time to time obferving the right afeenfion and
declination of every ftar in that fpace allotted to him,
framing an exadt map of it, and communicating their
obfervations to one common place of information.
This method, however, being too laborious, he next
propofes the noting do^n at the time, or making a
drawing of what one fees while they are obferving. A
drawing of this kind once made, would remain, and
could be confulted on any future occafion ; and if done
at firft with care, a tranfient review would difeover
whether any fenfible change had taken place fince it
was laft examined, which could not fo well be done by
catalogues or verbal defeription. For this purpofe he
recommends the following method : “ To a night-glafs,
but of Dollond’s conftru&ion, which magnifies about
fix times, and takes in about as many degrees of a
great circle, I have added crofs wires interfering one
another at an angle of 45 degrees. More wires may
be croffed in other dire6tions ; but I apprehend thefe
will be fufficient. This telefcope I mount on a polar
axis. One coarfely made, and without any divifions
on its circle of declination, will anfwer the purpofe, as
.there is no great occafion for accuracy in that refpe6l;
but as the heavenly bodies are more readily followed
by an equatorial motion of the telefcope, fo their re¬
lative pofitions are much more eafily difeerned when
they are looked at conftantly as in the fame diredlion.
An horizontal motion, except in the meridian, w’ould
be apt to miflead the judgment. It is fcarcely necef-
fary to add, that the wires muft Hand fo as for one to
deferibe a parallel of the equator nearly ; another will
then be a horary circle, and the 'whole area will be
divided into eight equal fe&crs.
“ Thus prepared, the telefcope is to be pointed to a
known ftar, which is to be brought into the centre or
common interfedicn of all the wires. The relative po-
.N° 31.
N O M Y, Sea. r.
fitions of fuch other (tars as appear within the field are Apparent
to be judged of by the eye ; whether at f, or ~ fromMotion>
the centre towards the circumference, or vice verfa ; f<c"
and fo with regard to the neareft wire refpedtively. ' v
1 hefe, as one fees them, are to be nofed down with a
black-lead pencil upon a large mtfTage-card held in the
hand, upon which a circle fimilarly divided is ready
drawn. One of three inches diameter feems moft con¬
venient. The motion of the heavenly bodies in inch
a telefcope is fo flow, and the noting down of the ftars
fo quickly done, that there is commonly full time for
it without moving the telefcope. When that is want¬
ed, the principal ftar is eafily brought back again into
the centre of the field at pleafure, and the work re¬
fumed. After a little practice, it is aftomftiing how
near one can come to the truth in this way : and tho’
neither the right afeenfions nor the declinations are
laid down by it, nor the diftances between the ftars
meafured ; yet their apparent fituations being preferved
dh black and white, with the day and year, and hour,
if thought neceffary, written underneath, each card,
then becomes a regifter of the then appearance of the
heavens ; which is eafily re-examined at any time with
little more than a tranfient view ; and which will yet
fliow, on the firft glance, if there ftiould have happened
in it any alteration of confequence.”
Fig. 3 5. (hows part of the corona borealis delineated in Plat-
this manner, and which was afterwards fully taken down LXVI.
by making the ftars *, /b y, «, ?, 9, <, *, f, <r, and
t fucceffively central ; and thefe were joined with fome
of the ftars of Bootes, for the fake ot connefting the
whole, and united into one map, as reprefented fig. 36.,.
In obferving in this way, it. is evident, that the
places of fuch ftars as happen to be under or very
near any of the wires, are more to be depended upon
than thofe which are in the intermediate (paces, efpe-
cially if towards the edges of the fields ; fo alfo thofe
which are neareft to the centre, becaufe better defined,
and more within the reach of one wire or another. For
this reafon, different ftars of the fame fet muft fuc¬
ceffively be made central, or brought towards one of
the wires, where any fufpicion arifes of a miftake, in
order to approach nearer to a certainty ; but if the
(land of the telefcope be tolerably well adjufted and
fixed, this is foon done.
In fuch a glafs it is feldom that light fufficient for
difeerning the-wires is wanting. When an illuminator
is required, a piece of card or white pafteboard project-,
ing on one fide "beyond the tube, and which may be
brought forward occafionally, is better than any other.
By cutting acrofs a fmall fegment of the objeft-glafs,
it throws a fufficient light down the tube though the
candle be at a great diftance, and one may lofc fight of
the falfe glare by drawing back the head, and moving
the eye a little to one fide, when the fmall ftars will be
feen as if no illuminator was there. See a delineation
of the principal fixed ftars, with the apparent path of
the fun among them, on Plate LXIV. and LXV.
A very remarkable appearance ir the heavens is that Galaxy, or
called the galaxy, or milky-way. This is a broad circle, milky-way.
fometimes double, but for the moft part fingle, fur¬
rounding the whole celeftial concave. It is of a whitifti
colour, fomewhat refembling a faint aurora borealis ;
but Mr Brydone, in his journey to the top of mount
iEtna, found that phenomenon to make a glorious ap¬
pearance,
Astros o my . Hate rxir
Sea. II. A S T R (
Appearan- pearance, being, as be exprefles it, like a pure flame
Ir* i°R^e" t^at ^10t acr°fs t^ie heavens.
. Ul ^ ies.' The only appearance, befides thofe already men-
tioned, which are very obfervable by the unaflifted eye,
Eclipfes. are thofe unexpefted obfcurations of the fun and moon,
commonly called eclipfes* Thefe are too well known,
and attraft the attention too much, to need any par¬
ticular defcription. We have, however, accounts very
well authenticated, of obfcurations of the fun continu¬
ing for a much longer time than a common eclipfe pof-
fibly can do, and likewife of the darknefs being much
greater than it ufually is on fuch occafions : and that
thefe accounts are probably true, we fhall afterwards
have cccafion to obferve.
Sect. II. Of the Appearances of the Celejlial Bo'
dies as fen through Telefcopes.
t. The fun, tho’ to human eyes fo extremely bright
and fplendld, is yet frequently obferved, even through a
telefcope of but very froall powers, to have dark fpots
on his furface. Thefe were entirely unknown before
the invention of telefcopes, though they are fometimes
of fufficient magnitude to be difcerned by the naked
eye, only looking through a fmoked glafs to prevent
58 the brightnefs of the luminary from detlroying the
Solar fpots fight. The fpots are faid to have been firft difcovered
when firfl ;n year jfii t ; and the honour of the difeovery is
di covered, betwixt Galileo and Scheiner, a German Jefuit
at Ingolftadt. But whatever merit Scheiner might
have in the priority of the difeovery, it is certain that
Galileo far exceeded him in accuracy, though the work
of Scheiner has confiderable merit, as containing ob-
fervations felefted from above 3000, made by himfelf.
Since his time the fubjeft has been carefully fludied by
all the aftronomers in Europe; the refult of whofe obfer-
vations, asgivenby Dr Long, is to thefollowing purpofe.
Dr Long's There is great variety in the magnitudes of the
account of folar fpots; the difference is chiefly in fuperficial cxt
them. tent 0f length and breadth ; their depth or thicknefs
is very fmall : feme have been fo large, as by compu¬
tation to be capable of covering the continents of Alia
and Africa; nay, the whole furface of the earth, or
even five times it furface. The diameter of a fpot,
when near the middle of the dilk, is meafured by com¬
paring the time it takes in palling over a crofs hair in
a telefcope, with the time wherein the whole difk of
the fun paffes over the fame hair; it may alfo be mea¬
fured by the micrometer ; and by either of thefe me¬
thods we may judge how many times the diameter of
the fpot is contained in the diameter of the fun. Spots
are fubjedl to increafe and diminution of magnitude,
and feldom continue long in the fame ftate. 1 hey are
of various fhapes; meft of them having a deep black
nucleus furrounded by a dufky cloud, whereof the in¬
ner parts near the black are a little brighter than the
outfkirts. They change their fhapes, fomething in the
manner that our clouds do ; though not often fo fud-
denly : thus, what is of a certain figure to-day, fhall,
to-morrow, or perhaps in a few hours, be of a diffe-
.rent one; what is now but one fpot, fhall in a little
time be broken into two or three; and fometimes two
or three fpots fhall coalefce, and be united into one.
Dr Long, many years fince, wiihe he was viewing
the image of the fun through a telefcope call upon
white paper, faw one roundiih fpot, by eftimation
Vpl. II. Part IL.
) N O M Y. 433
not much lefs than the diameter of our earth, break Appearan-
into two, which receded from one another with of Cele-
prodigious velocity. This obfervation was fingular at *'ocll(:S,‘'
the time ; for though feveral writers had taken notice
of this after it was done, none of them had been ma¬
king any obfervation at the time it was adlually doing.
The number of fpots on the fun is very uncertain ;
fometimes there are a great many, fometimes very few ;
and fometimes none at all. Scheiner made obferva-
tions on the fun from 1611 to 1629; and fays he ne¬
ver found his difk quite free of fpots, excepting a few
days in December 1624. At other times he frequent¬
ly faw 20, 30, and in the year 1625 he was able to
count 50 fpots on the fun at a time. In an interval af-
teiwards of 20 years, from 1650 to 1670, fcarce any
fpots were to be feen, and fince that time fome years
have furnifhed a great number of fpots, and others
none at all; but fince the beginning of the laft century,
not a year pafled wherein fome were not feen ; and at
prefent, fa; s Mr Caffini, in his Elemens cPAflronomie ■
publifhed in 1740, they are fo frequent, that the fun
is feldom without fpots, and often fhows a good num¬
ber of them at a time.
From thefe phenomena, it is evident, that the
fpots are not endowed with any permanency, nor are
they at all regular in their fhape, magnitude, number,
or in the time of their appearance or continuance.
Hevelius obferved one that arofe and vanilhed in 16 or
17 hours; nor has any been obferved to continue
longer than 70 days, which was the duration of one in
the year 1676 : thofe fpots that are formed gradually,
are gradually difiblved ; while thofe that arife fuddenly,
are for the moll part fuddenly diflblved. When a fpot
difappears, that part where it was generally becomes
brighter than the reft of the fun, and continues fo for
feveral days ; on the other hand, thofe bright parts
(called facula, as the others are called macula) fome¬
times torn to fpots.
The folar fpots appear to have a motion which The folar^
carries them acrofs the fun’s difli. Every fpot, if it fpots moY®e
continues long enough without being diffblved, appears from weli ,:
to enter the fun’s difk on the call fide, to go fromto ea
thence with a velocity continually increafing till it has
gone half its way ; and then to move flower and flower,
till it goes off at the weft fide, after which it difap¬
pears for about the fame fpace of time that it fpent m
crofliiig the difk, and then enters upon the eaft fide
again, nearly in the fame place, and croffes it in the
fame traft, and with the fame unequal motion as
before. This apparent inequality in the motion of the •
fpots is purely optical, and is in fuch proportion as de-
monftrates them to be carried round equably or in a
circle, the plane of which continued pafles through or
near the eye of a fpedtator upon the earth.
Befides the real changes of the fpots already men¬
tioned, there is another which is purely optical, and is,
owing to their being feen on a globe differently turned ;
towards us. If we imagine the globe of the fun to
have a number of circles drawn upon its fuiface, all
paffing through the poles, and cutting his equator at
equal difiances, thefe circles which we may call meri¬
dians, if they were vifible, would appear to us at un¬
equal diftances, as in fig. 2, Now, fuppofe a fpot Plata
were round, and fo large as to reach from one meri-(LVIII. orj)
dian to another, it would appear round only at whenLX*
it was in the middle of that ha'f of the globe which is to-
3 I_ wards=
434 ASTRO
Appearan- wards cwr earth ; For then we view the full extent of it
in length and breadth ; in ev.ery other place it turns
ia o ies. away from us> anc] appears narrower, though of the
fame length, the farther it is from the middle ; and on
its coming oil at *?, and going off at n, it appears as
fmall as a thread, the thin edge being then all that
we fee.
The motion of the fpots is in the order of the figns
(the fame way that all motions' in the folar fyftem,
thofe of the comets alone excepted, are performed) ;
and therefore, as the earth revolves round the fun the
fame way with the folar fpots, one of thefe will appear
to remain longer on the difk than it would otherwife
do if the earth remained at reft. . Thus, in fig. 3. let
•Plate A B C D be the orbit of the earth, abed the equa-
(LVIII. or) tor o£ t^e fun . ]et ^ be a fpot feen in the middle of
the diftt by a fpedator upon the earth at A. The
fpot being carried round through bed, according to
the order of the letters, will in about 25 days bring it
again to a: but during that interval, the earth will be
got to B, and the middle of the dilk at b ; fo that
about two days more will intervene before a fpedator
upon the earth at C will view it in the middle of re
then apparent diftc at c. There are, however, but few
inftances of fuch returning fpots; fo that Scheiner, out
of his multitude of obfervations, found only three or
four of this kind.
As fig. 2. is an orthographic projedion of meridians
on the fun’s diftt, it may be thought that they would
(how the apparent diurnal motion of the fpots; fo that,
for example, a fpot which to-day at noon is in the me¬
ridian marked a, would to-morrow at noon be in that
marked b, the next day in that marked c, and fo on :
but Scheiner fays, that, calling the fun’s pidure on
paper through a telefcope, the diftance between the
place of a fpot at noon any given day and the place at
noon the day immediately preceding, or the day imme¬
diately following, will be greater when the fpot is near
the circumference of the dilk than accprding to the or-
thograhic projedion it ought to be. This deviation
of fpots he thought owing to the refradion of the
glaffes in the telefcope being greater near the circum¬
ference than in the middle ; and he was confirmed in
this opinion, by finding, that if fpots were obferved by
letting the fun (bine through a fmall hole without a
glafs, upon white paper held at a good diftance from
the hole in a dark room, their places would then be
every day according to the orthographic projedion.
But he found this method of obferving the folar fpots
attended with great difficulties. Another proof that
this deviation of the folar fpots is occafioned by the
different refradion of the glaffes of the telefcope, is
deduced from the following experiment. Our author
pierced with a needle 12 fmall holes at equal dillances
in a thin plate of brafs ; and placing the plate before
the glaffes of a fhort telefcope, let the fun (hine through,
receiving 12 bright fpots upon a white paper placed in
fuch a manner that the light might fall perpendicularly
upon it. Here alfo he found the diftances between
the fpots near the outfide greater than between thofe
in the middle ; whereas, when he received them upon
paper without any glaffes, the fituation of the bright
:fpots exadly correfponded to that of the fmall holes in
:the plate.
The face of the fun, when dear of fpots, feen by
N O M Y, Sea. IT,
the naked eye through a fmoked or coloured glafs, orAppearan-
through a thin cloud, or the vapours near the horizon,
appears all over equally luminous: hut when viewed,13
thro’ the telefcope, the glaffes being fmoked or colour¬
ed, belides the difference between the faculae and the
other parts, the middle of the dilk appears brighter
than the outlkirts ; becaufe the light is darted more
dire&ly towards us from the middle than from any
other part, and the faculae appear more diftin&ly near
the fides, as being on a darker ground than in the
middle. <;r
The phenomena of the folar fpots, as delivered by Account of
Scheiner and Hevelius, may be fummed up in thed1^1" P!le-
following particulars. I. Every fpot which hath
nucleus, or confiderably dark part, hath alfo an umbra, oljrervers>
or fainter lhade, furrounding it. 2. The boundary
betwixt the nucleus and umbra is always diftindl and
well defined. 3. The increafe of a fpot is gradual, the
breadth of the nucleus and umbra dilating at the fame
time. 4. In like manner, the decreafe of a fpot is gra¬
dual, the breadth of the nucleus and umbra contradk’ng
at the fame time. 5. The exterior boundary of the
umbra never confifts of (harp angles ; but is always cur¬
vilinear, how irregular foever the outline of the nucleus
may be. 6. The nucleus of a fpot, whilit on the de¬
creafe, often changes its figure by the umbra encroach¬
ing irregularly upon it, inlomuch that in a fmall fpace
of time new encroachments are difeernibie, whereby the
boundary betwixt the nucleus and umbra is perpetually
varying. 7. It often happens, by thefe encroachments,
that the nucleus of a fpot is divided into two or more
nuclei, 8. The nuclei of the fpots vanifti fooner than
the umbra. 9. Small umbras are often feen without
nuclei. 10. An umbra of any confiderable fize is feldom
feen without a nucleus in the middle of it. 11. When
a fpot which confided of a nucleus and umbra is about
to difappear, if it is not fucceeded by a facula, or fpot
brighter than the reft of the dilk, the place -where it
was is foon after not diftinguilhable from the reft.
In the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, Vol. LXIV. Dr
Wilfon, profelfor of aftronomy at Glafgow, hath given
a differtation on the nature of the folar fpots, and men¬
tions the Following appearances. I. When the fpot is
about to difappear on the weftern edge of the fun’s limb,
the eaftern part of the umbra firft contrafls, then vanilh-
es, the nucleus and weftern part of the umbra remain¬
ing ; then the nucleus gradually contra&s and vanilhes
while the weftern part of the umbra remains. At lalt
this difappears alfo ; and if the fpot remains long enough
to become again vifible, the eaftern part of the umbra
firft becomes vifible, then the nucleus; and when the
fpot approaches the middle of the dilk, the nucleus
appears environed by the umbra on all fides, as already
mentioned. 2. When two fpots lie very near to one
another, the umbra is deficient on that fide which lies
next the other fpot: and this will be the cafe, though
a large fpot Ihould be contiguous to one much fmaller ;
the umbra of the large fpot will be totally wanting on
that fide next the fmall one. If there are little Ipots
on each fide of the large one, the umbra does not to¬
tally vhnilh ; but appears flattened, or preffed in to¬
wards the nucleus on each fide*. When the little fpots
difappear, the umbra of the large one extends itfelf as
ufua). This circumftance, he obferves, may fometimes
prevent the difappearance of the umbra in the manner
above-
Sea. II. ASTRO
Appearan- abovementioned; fo that the weftcrn umbra may dif-
aPPe3r ^e^orc t^ie nuc^eus> if a fmall fpot happens to
■ ^ break out on that fide.
‘ In the fame volume, p. 337. Mr Wollafton obferves,
that the appearances mentioned by Dr Wilfon ar-e not
conftant. He pofitively affirms, that the faculae or
bright fpots on the fun are often converted into dark
ones. “ 1 have many times (fays he) obferved, near
the eaftern limb, a bright facuia juft come on, which
has the next day (hewn itfelf as a fpot, though I do
not recolleft to have feen fuch a facuia near the weftern
one after a fpot’s difappearance. Yet, I believe, both
thefe circumftances have been obferved by others ; and
perhaps not only near the limbs.. The circumftance
of the faculae being converted into fpots I think I may
be fare of. That there is generally (perhaps always)
a mottled appearance over the face of the fun, when
carefully attended to, I think I may be as certain. It
is moft vifible towards the limbs, but I have undoubt¬
edly feen it in the centre 5 yet I do not recolleft to
have obferved this appearance, or indeed any fpots, to¬
wards his poles. Once I faw, with a twelve-inch re-
fle&or, a fpot burft to pieces while I was looking at it.
I could not expeft fuch an event, and therefore cannot
be certain of the exaft particulars : but the appearance,
as it ftruck me at the time, was like that of a piece of
ice when dalhed on a frozen pond, which breaks to
pieces and Aides in various directions.” He alfo ac¬
quaints us, that the nuclei of the fpots are not always
in the middle of the umbrae; and gives the figure of one
6s feen November 13th 1773, which is a remarkable in-
Mr Dunn’s ftance to the contrary. Mr Dunn, however, in his new
account. Atlas of the Mundane Syftem, gives fome particulars
very different from the above. “ The face of the ftin
(fays he) has frequently many large black fpots, of va¬
rious forms and dimenfions, which move from eaft to
weft, and round the fun, according to fome obferva-
tions in 25 days, according to others in 26, and accord¬
ing to fome in 27 days. The black or central part
of each fpot is in the middle of a great number of
very fmall ones, which permit the light to pafs be¬
tween them. The fmall fpots are fcarce ever in con-
taft with the central ones : but what is moft remark¬
able, when the whole fpot is near the limb of the fun,
the furrounding fmall-ones form nearly a ftraight line,
and the central part projeCts a little over it, like Sa¬
turn in his ring.”
The fpots are by no means confined to one part of"
the fun’s dilk ; though we have not heard of aoy be¬
ing obferved about his polar regions ; and though their
direftion is from eaft to weft, yet the paths they de-
feribe in their courfe over- the difti are exceedingly
different ; fometimes being ftraight lines, fometimes
curves, fometimes defeending from the northern to the
fouthern part of the difk, fometimes afeending from
the fouthern to the northern, &c. This was obferved
by Mr Dtrham (Philof; Tranf. N° 330) who hath
given figures of the apparent paths of many different
fpots, wherein the months in which thejr appeared, and
63 their particular progrefs each day, are marked.
Mercury Befides thefe fpots, there are others which fometimes
and Venus appcar very r0und and black, travelling overthe difkof
ioroetunes fr . ’ 0
appear as t^ie *un in a *ew hour8, I hey are totally unlike the o-
fpats. thers, and will be ftiown toproceed from an interpofition
of the planets Mercury and Venus between the earth
N O M Y. 43f
and the fun. Excepting the two kinds of fpots above-Appearan-
mentioned, however, no kind of objeft is difcoverable^e.s c^le"
on the furface of the fun, but he appears like an im- .lhal ^odles:
menfe ocean of elementary fire or light. ^
2. With the moon the cafe is very different. Many-Tdefcopic
darki/h fpots appear in her to the naked eye; and,view of the*,
through a telefcope, their number is prodigiouAy in-1150011'
creafed : Aie alfo appears very plainly to be more pro¬
tuberant in the middle than at the edges, or to have
the figure of a globe, and not a flat circle. When the
moon is horned or gibbous, the one fide appears very-
ragged and uneven, but the other always exactly de¬
fined and circular. The fpots in the moon always keep
their places exaCtly; never vanifhing, or going from
one fide to tire other, as thofe of the fun do. We-
forr.etimes, fee more or lefs of the northern and fouthern,
and eaftern and weftern part of the difle or face; but
this is owing to what is called her libration, and will
hereafter be explained.
The aftronomers Florentius, Langrenus, John Here-
lius of Dantzic, Grimaldus, Ricciolus, Caffini, and M.
de la Hire, have drawn the face of the moon as Ihe is
feen through telefcopes magnifying between 200 and
300 times. Particular care has been taken to note all
the Ihining parts in her fnrface ; and, for the better
diftinguifhing them, each has been marked with a pro-
per name. Langrenus and Ricciolus have divided the
lunar regions among the philofophers, aftronomers, and
other eminent men ; but Hevelius and others, fearing
left the philofophers ffiould quarrel about the divifion of
their lands, have endeavoured to fpoil them of their
property, by giving the names belonging to different
countries, iflands, and Teas on earth, to different parts
of the moon’s furface, without regard to fituation or
figure. The names adopted by Riccioli, however, are
thofe which are generally followed, as the names of
Hipparchus, Tycho, Copernicus, &c. are more pleafing
to aftronomers than thofe of Africa, the Mediterranean*
Sea, Sicily, and Mount iEtna. On Plate LXIII. is a
tolerably exaft reprefentation of the full moon in her
mean libration, with the numbers to the principal fpots
according to Riccioli, Caffini, Mayer, &c. The afterifle
refers to one of the volcanoes difeovered by Dr Her-
fchel, to be afterwards more particularly noticed. The.
names are as follow :
* HerfchePs Volcano. 20 Pitatus.;
1 Grimaldus. 2.1 Tycho.
2' Galileos. 22 Eudoxus.
3 Ariftarchus. 23 Ariftoteles.
4 Keplerus. 24 Manilius.
5 Gaffendus.. 25 Menelaus..
6 Shikardus. 26 Hermes.
7 Harpalus. 27 Poffidonius.
8‘ Heraclides. 28 Dionyfius.
9 Lanfbergius. 29 Plinius.
10 Reinoldus. C Calharina Cyrillus-
11 Copernicus.. 3° ^ Theophilus.
12 Helicon. 31 Fracaftorius.
13 Capuanns. C Promontorium acutum
14 Bullialdus. 32 ^ Cenforinus.
15 Eratofthenes. 33 Meffala.
16 Timocharis. 34 Pfomontorium Somnin-
17 Plato. 35 Pfoclus.
j8 Archimedes. 36 Cieomedes.
19 Infula Sinus Medii. 37 SuellLus et Furnerius.,,
3.1 2
38 Paaviuasr,
A S T R
D Jvfare Neman's.
E Mare Ttanquiflitatis.
F Mare Serenitatis.
G Mare Foecunditatis.
H Mare Criiium.
Plate
LXIX.
64
Mercury
436
Appearan. 33 PetaviuS.
Langrenus.
^ n laruntius. .
A Mare Humorum.
B Mare Nubium.
C Mare Imbrium.
We have already obferved, that when the planet
Mars approaches any of the fixed ftars* they lofe their
light, and fometimes totally difappear before he feems
to touch them : but it is not fo with the moon ; for
though fhe very often comes in betwixt us and the liars,
they preferve their lufire till immediately in feeming
contadh with her, when they fuddenly difappear, and
as fuddenly re-appear on the oppofite fidei When Sa¬
turn, however, was hid by the moon in June 1762,
Mr Dunn, who watched his appearance at the emerlion,
obferved a kind of faint Ihadow to follow him for a
little from the edge of the moon’s dilk. This appear¬
ance is reprefented fig. 88.
3, Mercury, when looked at through telefcopes
appears al- magnifying about 200 or 300 times, appears equally
ways equal-luminous throughout his whole furface, without the
ly lumi- }caft dark fpot. He appears indeed to have the fame
nous. difference cl phafes with the moon, being fometimes
horned, fometimes gibbous, and fometimes finning al-
moft with a round face, though not entirely full, be-
caufe his enlightened fide is never turned diredtly to¬
wards us 5 but at all times perfcdlly well defined with-
gy out any ragged edge, and perfe&ly bright.
Spots, when 4- Hr Long informs us, that the earlieft account
lirft dilco- he had met with of any fpots feen by means of the te-
j . .. ]cfCOpe oa ^ dffk 0f yenus was Jn a collection of let¬
ters printed at Paris in 1665, in one of which Mr
Auzout relates his having received advice from Poland
that Mr Burratini had, by means of large telefcopes,
66, feen fpots upon the planet Venus fimilar to thofe up-
■fcrvations^"°n ^ l:n00n• '^®7> Caffini, in a letter to Mr Pe¬
tit, mentions his having for a long time carefully ob¬
ferved Venus through an excellent telefcope made by
Campani, in order to know whether that planet re¬
volved on its axis or not, as he had before found Jupi¬
ter and Mars to do. But though he then obferved
fome fpots upon her, he fays, that even when the air
was quiet and clear, they appeared faint, irregular,
and not well defined ; fo that it was difficult to have
fuch a diftinCf view of any of them as to be certain
that it was the fame fpot which was feen again in any
i'ubfequent obfervation 5 and this difficulty was increa-
fed, in the firft place, when Venus was in her inferior
femicircle ; becaufe at that time file mud be viewed
through the thick vapours near the horizon ; though
otherwife it was mod proper, on account of her being
then neared to us. In the fecond place, if we would
obferve her at fome height above thofe vapours, it
could only be for a fiiort time ; and, thirdly, when fhe
is low in her inferior circle, and at that time neared
the earth, the enlightened part of her is too fmall to
difcover any motion in it. He was therefore of opi¬
nion, that he fliould fucceed better in his obfervations
when the planet was about its mean didance from us,
ffiowing about one-half of her enlightened hemifphere ;
at which time alfo he could obferve her for a much
longer time above the grofs atmofpherical vapours.
His fird appearance of fuccefs was OClober 14. 1666,
at three-quarters pad five in the evening j when he faw
the diflc of t
O N O M Y. Sea. It,
a bright fpot (fig. 37.), but could not then view that Appearac-
fpot long enough to draw any inference concerning the c?le‘
planet’s motion. He had no farther fuccefs.till the
20th of April the following year} when, about a piate
quarter of an hour before funrife, he began again topxYI.
perceive on the dific of Venus, now about half en¬
lightened, a bright part near the fe&ion, didant from
the fouthern horn a little more than a fourth part of
the diameter of the diik, and near the eaftern edge.
He took notice alfo of a darkifii oblong fpot nearer
to the northern than the fouthern horn : at funrife the
bright part was advanced further from the fouthern
horn than when he fird obferved it ; but though he
was pleafed to find that he had now a convincing proof 5^
of the planet’s motion, he was fttrprifed that the fpots Why the
moved from fouth to north in the lower part of thefi5015
diflt, and from north to fouth in the upper part} atonlove
kind of motion of which we have no examole, except
in the librations of the moon. This, however, was &c, *
occafioned by the fituation of the planet’s axis. Caf¬
fini expe&ed to have found the rotation of Venus fi¬
milar to that of Jupiter and Mars, both of which have
their axes perpendicular to their refpe&ive orbits, and
turn round according to the order of the figns ; fo
that, in each of them, the motion of the inferior half
of their refpe&ive globe, or that part next the fun,
is from ead to wed 5 in the fuperior half from wed to
ead } but in Venus, whofe axis is inclined 75 degrees
towards her orbit, the coincidence is fo near, that one-
half of her dific appears to move from fouth to north,
the other from north to fouth.
On the 2id of April, at funrife, the bright partpartic.uiar
was a good way off the fe&ion, and about a fourth account of
part of the diameter didant from the fouthern horn, the appear-
When the fun was eight degrees fix minutes high, itances°f the
feemed to be got beyond the centre, and was cut ferent*1 ^
through by the fe&ion. At the time the fun was fe-
ven degrees high, the fe&ion cut it in the middle, which
(bowed its motion to have fome inclination towards the
centre.
May 9; a little before funrife, the bright fpot was
feen near the centre, a little to the northward, with
two obfcure ones fituated between the fe£tion and the
circumference, at a didance from each other, equal to
that of each of them from the neared angular point
or horn of the planet. The weather being at that
time clear, he obferved for an hour and half a quarter
the motion of the bright fpot, which feemed to be
exadtly from fouth to north, without any fenfible de¬
clination to ead or wed. A variation was at the fame
time perceived in the darkifii fpot too great to be a-
fcribed to any optical caufe. The bright fpot was al¬
fo feen on the 10th and 13th days of May before fun¬
rife between the northern horn and the centre, and the
fame irregular change of darkifh fpots was taken no¬
tice of} but as the planet removed to a greater didance
from the earth, it became more difficult to obferve
thefe appearances. The above phenomena are repre¬
fented as they occurred, in fig. 37—43.
But though, from the appearances jud now related,Caffid’s
M. Caffini was of opinion that Venus revolved on herconclufiowr
axis, he was by no means fo pofitive in this matter as concernins
with regard to Mars and Jupiter. “ The fpots on^ rcvolu'
thefe (fays he) I could attentively obferve for a whole^°sn°^
night, when the planets were in oppofition to the fun : ^[5°" *
I
Sea. It. ASTRO
Appearan- I could fee them return to the fame fituation, and con-
tes c^e'fider their motion during fome hours, and judge whe-
ItUBodies. tj)er tj]ey were tjie fatIle fp0t3 Gr not, and what time
they took in turning round: but it was not the fame
with the fpots of Venus ; for they can be obferved on-
ly for fo fhort a time, that it is much more difficult to
Difficulties know with certainty when they return into the fame
attending fituation. I can, however, fuppofing that the bright
thefe sbfer-fpot which I obferved on Venus, and particularly this
vations. year, was the fame, fay that five finifhes her motion,
whether of rotation or libration, in lefs than a day ;
fo that, in 23 days nearly, the fpot comes into the
fame fituation on nearly the fame hour of the day,
though not without fome irregularity. Now (fuppo¬
fing the bright fpot obferved to be always the fame)
whether this motion is an entire turning round, or on¬
ly a libration, is what I dare not pofitively affirm.”
In i66(j Mr Caffini again obferved Venus through
a telefcope, but could not then perceive any fpots up*
on her furface; the reafon of which Du Hamel con-
jeftures to have been the fluftuation of the vapours
near the horizon, which prevented them from being
vifible. However, we hear nothing more of any fpots
„ being feen on her diflc till the year 1726; when, on
tobferva-”1 * t^ie February, Bianchini, with fome of Cam-
tions. pani’s telefcopes of 90 and 10® Roman palms, began
to obferve the planet at the altitude of 40° above the
horizon, and continued his obfervationa till, by the
motion of feveral fpote, he determined the pofition of
her axis to be inclined as above mentioned, that the
north pole pointed at a circle of latitude drawn through
the 20th degree of Aquarius, elevated 15 or 20® above
the orbit of Venus. He delineated alfo the figures of
feveral fpots which he fuppofed to be feas, and com¬
plimented the king of Portugal and fome other great
men by calling them by their names. Though none
of Bianchini’s obfervations were continued long enough
to know whether the fpots, at the end'of the period
affigned for the rotation of the planet, would have
been in a different fituation from what they were at
the beginning of it 5 yet, from obfervations of two
and of four days, he concluded the motion of the fpots
Doubts con-be at the rate of 150 per day; at which advance
terning the the planet muff turn round either once in 24 days or
time ihe ;n 23 hours; but without farther obfervation it could
takes up in not be determined which of the two was the period of
round her revolution : for if an obferver fhould at a particular
axis. lioufy fuppofe feven in the evening, mark exactly the
place of a fpot, and at the fame hour next evening
find the fpot advanced 150, he would not be able to
determine whether the fpot had advanced only 150, or
had gone once quite round with the addition of 15^
more in part of another rotation. Mr Bianchini,
however, fuppofes Venus to revolve in 24 days eight
hours ; the principal proof adduced for which is an
obfervation of three fpots, A B G, being fituated as
Plate in fig. 44. when they were viewed by himfelf and fe-
XXVI. veral perfons of diftin&ion forabout an hour, during
which they could not perceive any change of place.
The planet being then hid behind the Barbarine palace,
they could not have another view of her till three
hours after, when the fpots ftill appeared unmoved.
“ Now (fays Mr Bianehini) if her rotation were fo
fwift as to go round in 23 hours, in this fecond view,
three hours after the former) the fpots mult have ad-
N O M Y. 437
vanced near 50 degrees; fo that the fpot C would-Appearan-
have been gone off at R, the fpot B would have fuc-^ ex¬
ceeded into the place of C, the fpot A into the plac , la ^ ’ 1S,’
of B, and there would have been no more but two
fpots, A and B, to have been feen.” 73
Calfini, the fon, in a memoir for 1732, denies the Dif’ utc be-
conclufion of Bianchini to be certain. He lays, that,tW!xr (-'afli-
during the three hours interval, the fpot C might be
gone off the difk, and the fpot B got into the place
thereof, where, being near the edge, it would appear
lefs than in the middle. That A, fucceeding into the
place of B, would appear larger than it had done near
the edge, and that another fpot might come into the
place of A; and there were other fpots befides thefe
three on the globe of the planet, as appears by the fi¬
gures of Bianehini himfdf, particularly one which
would naturally come in the place of A. That if the
rotation of Venus be fuppofed to be in 23 hours, it
will agree with Bianchini’s obfervations, as well as with
thofe of his father ; but that, on the other fuppofition,
the latter muff be entirely rejefted as erroneous: and
be concludes with telling us, that Venus had frequent¬
ly been obferved in the moft favourable times by Mr
Maraldi and himfelf with excellent telefcopes of 80 and
loo feet focus, without their being able to fee any di-
flinft fpot upon her difk. “ Perhaps, (fays Dr Long))
thofe feen by Bianchini had difappeared, or the air in
France was not clear enough ; which lafl might be the
reafon why his father could never fee thofe fpots in
France which he had obferved in Italy, even when he
made ufe of the longeft telefcopes.” Neither of thefe
aftronomers take notice of any indentings in the curve
which divides the illuminated part from the dark in the
difk of Venus, though in fome views of that planet by
Fontana and Ricciolus, the curve is indented ; and it
has from thence been concluded, that the furface of the
planet is mountainous like that of the moon. This
had alfo been fuppofed by Burratini, already mention¬
ed ; and a late writer has obferved, that ‘‘when the
air is in a good ftate for obfervation, mountains like
thofe of the moon may be obferved with a very power¬
ful telefcope.” 74
Caffini, befides the difeovery of the fpots on the diflc CalTini diP
of Venus by which he was enabled to afeertain her re-cov^.s her
volution on an axis, had alfo a view of her fatellite orla e lte*
moon, of which he gives the following account.-—-
“ A. D. 1686, Aug. 28th, at 15 minutes after four
in the morning, looking at Venus with a teleicope of
34 feet, I faw, at the diftance of one third of her dia¬
meter eaftward, a luminous appearance, of a fhape not
well defined, that feemed to have the fame phafe with
Venus, which was then gibbous on the wetttrn fide.
The diameter of this phenomenon was nearly equal to
a fourth part of the diameter of Venus. 1 obferved it
attentively for a quarter of an hour, and having left off
looking at it for four or five minutes, 1 faw it no more ;
but day-light was then advanced. I had ieen a like
phenomenon which refembled the phafe of Venus»
Jan. 25th, A. D. 1672, from 52 minutes after fix in
the morning to two minute? after ieven, when the
brightnefs of the twilight made it ditappear. Venus
was then horned, and this phenomenon, the diameter
whereof was nearly a fom thpartif the diameter of
Venus, was of the fame fhape. It was diffaut from
the fouthern horn of VenuS) a diameter of the planet,
os
43$
R
N
M Y.
Sea. II.
Appearan- on the weftern fide. In thefe two obfervations, I was
-ofCelc;, doubt whether it was not a fatelliteof Venus of fuch
, ia Bo ics. a conf,^ence as not to be very well fitted to refleft the
light of the fun ; and which, in magnitude, bore near¬
ly the fame proportion to Venus as the moon does to
the earth, being at the fame diftance from the fun and
the earth as Venus was, the phafes whereof it refem-
bled. Notwithftanding all the pains I took in looking
for it after thefe two obfervations,''and at divert other
times, in order to complete fo confiderable adifcovery,
I was never able to fee it. I therefore fufpend my
judgment of this phenomenon. If it fhould return of¬
ten, there will be thefe two epochas, which, compared
with other obfervations, may be of ufe to find out the
periodical time of its return, if it can be reduced to
any rule.”
Difcovercd A fimilar obfervation was made by Mr Short on the
plfo hy Mr 23d of Odlober 1740, about funrife. He ufed at this
Short. a refle£ing telefcope of about 16.5 inches, which
magnified between 50 and 60 times, with which he
perceived a fmall ftar at about 10' diftance from Ve¬
nus, as meafured by the micrometer ; and, putting on
a magnifying power of 240 times, he found the ftar
put on the fame appearance with the planet herfelf.
Its diameter was fomewhat lefs than a third of that of
the primary, but its light was lefs vivid, though ex¬
ceedingly fharp and well defined. The fame appear¬
ance continued with a magnifying power of 140 times.
A line, paffing through the centre of Venus and it,
made an angle of 18 or 20 degrees with the equator :
lie faw it feveral times that morning for about the fpace
of an hour, after which he loft fight of it, and could
never find it again.
From this time the fatellite of Venus, though very
frequently looked for by aftronomers, could never be
perceive^ which made it generally believed that Caffi-
ni and Mr Short had been miftaken ; but as the tran-
fits of the planet over the fun in 1761 and 1769 feem-
ed to promife a greater certainty of finding it, the fa¬
tellite was very carefully looked for by almoft every
one who had an opportunity of feeing the tranfit, but
generally without fuccefs. Mr Baudouin at Paris had
provided a telefcope of 25 feet, in order to obferve the
paffage of the planet over the fun, and to look for its
M^ne^tellite ; but he did not fucceed either at that time or
at the tran-in the months of April and May following. Mr Mon-
fit in 1761. taigne, however, one of the members of the Society of
.Limoges, had better fuccefs. On the 3d of May
1761, he perceived, about half an hour after nine at
night, at the diftance of 20' from Venus,, a fmall cref-
oent, with the horns pointing the fame way as thofe
of the planet 5 the diameter of the former being about
one-fourth of that of the latter; and a line drawn from
Venus to the fatellite making an angle with the verti¬
cal of about 20^ towards the fouth. But though he
repeated this obfervation feveral times, fome doubt re¬
mained whether it was not a fmall ftar. Next day he
faw the fame ftaj at the fame hour, diftant from Venus
about half, a minute, or a minute more than before,
and making with the vertical an angle of io° below
on the north fide ; fo that the fatellite feemed to have
defcribed an arc of about 30°, whereof Venus was the
centre, and the radius 20'. The two following nights
v»ere hazy, fo that Venus could only be feen ; but on
the 7th of. May, at the fame hour, as before, be faw
the fatellite again above Venus, and on the north fide,-Appearan-
at the diftance of 25 or 26' upon a line which made an”s of c<;le*
angle of about 450, with the vertical towards the right, 13 ^odies;
hand. The light of the fatellite was always very weak,
but it had the fame phafis with its primary, whether
viewed together with it in the field of his telefcope or
by itfelf. The telefcope was nine feet long, and mag¬
nified an objeft between 40 and 50 times, but had no
micrometer; fo that the diftances above mentioned are
only from eftimation.
Fig. 4. reprefents the three obfervations of Mr Mon- .
taigne- V is the planet Venus; ZN the vertical.^ ‘or'
FC, a parallel to the ecliptic, making then an angle
with the vertical of 45° ; the numbers 3, 4, 7, mark
the fituations of the fatellite on the refpedlive days.
From the figure it appears that the points 3 and 7-
would have been diametrically oppofite, had the fatel¬
lite gone i5t’ more round the point V at the laft obfer¬
vation ; fo that in four days it went through lyy0.
Then, as 155° is to four days or 96 hours, fo is 360
to a fourth number, which gives y days 7 hours for
the whole length of the fynodical revolution. Hence
Mr Baudouin concluded, that the diftance of this fa¬
tellite was about 60 of the femidiameters of Venus
from its furface; that its orbit cut the ecliptic nearly
at right angles; had its afcending node in 22c of Vir¬
go ; and was in its greateft northern digrdfion on the
7th at nine at night; and he fuppofed, that at the tran¬
fit of the primary the fatellite would be feen accom¬
panying it. By a fubfequent obfervation, however,
on the nth of May, he corredfed his calculation of
the periqdical time of the fatellite, which he now en¬
larged to 12 days ; in confequence of which he found
that it would not pafs over the difk of the fun along
with its primary, but go at the diftance of above 2d
from his fouthern limb ; though if the time of its revo¬
lution Ihould be 15 hours longer than 12 days, it might
then pafs over the fun after Venus was gone off. He why this-
imagined the reafon why this fatellite was fo difficult fatellite is ^
to be obferved might be, that one part of its globe was*® difficult
crufted over with fpots, or other wife unfit to refledt thet0 be^een”
light of the fun. By comparing the periodical time
of this fatellite with that of our moon, he computed
the quantity of matter in Venus to be nearly equal to
that in our earth ; in which cafe it muft have confider¬
able influence in changing the obliquity of the eclip¬
tic, the latitudes and longitudes of liars, &c.
.This is all the evidence which has yet been publifh-
ed concerning the exiftence of the fatellite of Venus
as it does not appear that, during the tranfit of
any of the obfervers had the good fortune to perceive
it. In the Philofophica! Tranfadtions for 1761, Mr
Hirft gives an account of his having obferved an at-
mofphere round the planet Venus. The obfervations
were made at Fort St George; and locking atten- Obfcrva—
lively at that part of the fun’s diflt where he expedtedduns con-
the planet would enter, he plainly perceived a faint C£rni“g the'
(hade or penumbra ; on which he called out to his two
afiiftants, “’Tis a coming i” and two or three feconds
after, the firft external contadt took place, in the mo¬
ment whereof all the three agreed ; but he could not
fee the penumbra after the egrefs : and of the other
two gentlemen, one had gone home, and the other loft
the planet out of the field of his telefcope. Mr Dunn
at Chdfea fitw a genumbra, or fmall diminution ofi
light,.
Sea. IT. A S T R
Appearan- light, that grew darker and darker for about five fe¬
ces of Cele-conjs before the internal contact preceding the egrefs;
ftial Bodies. frorn whence be determines that Venus is furrounded
~y ~ with an atmofphere of about 50 geograhical miles
high. His observations, he tells us, were made with
an excellent fix-feet Newtonian refle&or, with a mag¬
nifying power of 110, and of 220 times : he had a
clear dark glafs next his eye, and the fun’s limb ap¬
peared well defined 5 but a very narrow waterilh pe¬
numbra appeared round Venus. The darkeft part of
the planet’s phafis was at the diftance of about a iixth
part of heV diameter from its edge; from which an
imperfe£t light increafed to the centre, and illuminat¬
ed round about.
In the northern parts of Europe this penumbra
could not be feen. Mr Wargentin, who communica¬
ted feveral obfervations of the firft external contaft,
fays, that he could not mark the time exa&ly, becaufe
of the undulation of the limb of the fun ; but thought
it very remarkable that, at the egrefs, the limb of Ve¬
nus that was gone off the fun fhowed itfelf with a faint
light during almoft the whole time of emerfion. Mr
Bergman, who was then at the obfervatory at Upfal,
begins his -iccount at the time when three fourths of
the difk of the planet was entered upon that of the
fun ; and he fays, that the part which was not come
upon the fun was vifible, though dark, and furrounded
Plate LXT. by a crefcent of faint light, as in fig. 7. : but this ap¬
pearance was much more remarkable at the egrefs ; for
as foon as any part of the planet was got off the fun,
that part was viiible with a like crefcent, but brighter,
fig. 8. As more of the planetary difk went off that
of the fun, however, that part of the crefcent which was
farthefl from the fun grew fainter, and vanifhed, until
at laft only the horns could be feen, as in fig. 9. The
total ingrefs was not inftantaneous: but, as two drops
of water, when about to part, form a ligament between
them ; fo there was a dark fwelling flretched out be¬
tween Venus and the fun, as in fig. ro. ; and when this
ligament broke, the planet appeared to have got about
an eighth part of her diameter from the nearell limb of
the fun, fig. 11. ; he faw the like appearance at going
off, but not fo diflinifl, fig. 12. Mr Chappe likewife
took notice, that the part of Venus which was not
upon the fun was vifible duringpart of the time of ingefs
and egrefs ; that it was farther furrounded by a fmall
luminous ring of a deep yellow near the place that ap¬
peared in the form of a crefcent, which was muck
brighter at the going off than coming upon the fun ;
and that, during the whole time the difk of Venus was
upon the fun, he faw nothing of it. The time of
.total ingrefs was ipftantaneous like a flafh of light¬
ning ; but at the egrefs the limb of the fun began to be
oblcured three feconds before the interior conta&.
Some of the French aftronomers attributed this lu¬
minous ring round Venus to the inflexion of the fun’s
rays, as they alfo do the light feen round the moon in
foiar eclipfes ; but Mr Chappe fuppofes it to have been
owing to the fun enlightening more than one half of
the planetary globe, though he owns this caufe not
to be altogether fufficient. Mr Fouchy, who obferved
the tranfit at La Muette in France, perceived, during
*he whole time, a kind of ring round Venus, brighter
than the reff of the fun, which became fainter the far¬
ther it went from the planet, but appeared more vivid
O N O M Y. 439
in proportion as the fun was clearer. Mr Ferner, Appearan-
who obferved at the fame place, confirms the tefti-“s
mony of Mr Fouchy. “ During the whole time (fays , 0 iea;
he) of my obferving with the telefcope, and the blue
and green glaffes, 1 perceived a light round about Ve¬
nus, which followed her like a luminous atmofpherc
more or lefs lively, afccording as the air was more or
kfs clear. Its extent altered in the fame manner ; nor
was it well terminated, throwing out, at it were, fome
feeble rays on all fides.”
“ I am not clear, (fays Dr Long) as to the mean-Dr Long’s
ing of the luminous circle here mentioned, whether, 0pini0n on
when the whole planet was upon the fun, they faw athefe obfer-
ring of light round it, diftinfl: from the light of thevad°ns*
fun ; or whether they mean only the light which fur¬
rounded that part of Venus that was not upon the
fun.” Mr Chappe takes this and other accounts of
the obfervations made in France in this latter fenfe ;
and though he fometimes called the luminous part of
the crefcent that furrounded the part of the planet not
upon the fun a ring, he explains himfelf that he did
fo, becaufe at the coming upon the fun he perceived
it at one fide of the planet, and on the oppofite fide
on its going off: for which reafon he fuppofed that
it furrounded it on all fides. See fig. 13. 14.
5. Much larger and more remarkable fpots have been
perceived on the difk of Mars than that of any other
primary planet. They were firft obferved in 1666 by
Calfini at Bologna with a telefcope of Campani about
16’ feet long; and continuing to obferve them for aMars,
month, he found they came into the fame fituation in
24 hours and 4c1) minutes. The planet was obferved
by fome aftronomers at Rome with longer telefcopes
made by Euttachio Divini ; but they affigned to it a
rotation in 13 hours only. This, however, was af¬
terwards fhown by Mr Caflini to have been a mif-
take, and to have arifen from their not diftinguifning
the oppofite fides of the planer, which it feems have
fpots pretty much alike. He made further obferva¬
tions ou the fpots of this planet in 1670; from whence
he drew an additional confirmation of the time the
planet took to revolve. The fpots were again obfer¬
ved in fubfequent oppofitions ; particularly for feveral
days in 1704 by Maraldi, who took notice that they
were not always well defined, and that they not only
changed their fhape frequently in the fpace between
two oppofitions, but even in the fpace of a month.
Some of them, however, continued of the fame form
long enough to afcertain the time of the planet’s revo¬
lution. Among thefe there appeared this year an ob¬
long fpot, refembling one of the belts of Jupiter when
broken. It did not reach quite round the body of
the planet ; but had, not far from the middle of it, a
fmall protuberance towards the north, fo well defined
that he was thereby enabled to fettle the period of its
revolution at 24 hours 39 minutes ; only one minute
lefs than what Cafiini had determined it to be. Set Plate
fig. 45. lxvij;
The near approach of Mars to the earth in 1719,
gave a much better opportunity of viewing him than
-had been obtained before; as he was then within 2%
deg. of his perihelion, and at the fame time in oppofition
to the fun. His apparent magnitude and bright;;efs
were thus fo much increafed, that he was by the ul-
gar taken for a new liar. His appearance at that
timej
4/j.o ASTRO
Appearan- time, as feen by Maraliii through a telefcope of 34
^.s °^fIe*feet long, is represented fig. 46. There was then a
■ la ° les.‘ long belt that reached half way round, to the end of
which another Ihorter belt was joined, forming an ob-
Plate tufe angle with the former, as in fig. 47. This angu-
J.XV1I. ]ar point was obferved on the 19th and 20th of Au-
guft, at 11 hours 15 minutes, a little eaft of the middle
of the diflc; and 37 days after, on the 25th and 26th
of September, returned to the fame fituation. 'I his
interval, divided by 36, the number of revolutions con¬
tained in it gives 24 hours 40 minutes for the period
of one revolution ; which was verified by another Ipot
of a triangular fliape, one angle whereof was towards
the north pole, and the bafe towards the fouth, which
on the 5th and 6th of Auguft appeared as in fig. 48.
and after 72 revolutions returned to the fame fitua¬
tion on the i6lh and 17th of October. The appear¬
ances of Mars, as delineated by Mr Hook, when view-
Plate ed through a 36 feet telefcope, are reprefented fig. .28.
LX1V. J-Je appeared through this inftrument as big as the full
moon. Some of the belts of this planet are faid to be
parallel to his equator; but that feen by Maraldi was
81 very much inclined to it.
jBright Befides thefe dark fpots, former aftronomers took
fpots about not;ee that a fegment of his globe about the fouth
Mars.° P°'e exceeded the reft of his diflc fo much in bright-
nefs, that it appeared beyond them as if it were the
fegment of a larger globe. Maraldi informs us, that
this bright fpot had been taken notice of for 60 years,
and was more permanent than the other fpots on the
planet. One part of it is brighter than the reft, and
the lead bright part is fubjeft to great changes, and
has fometimes difappeared.
A fimilar brightnefs about the north pole of Mars
was alfo fometimes obferved ; and thefe obfervations
are now confirmed by Mr Herfchel, who hath viewed
nl t^le P'anet w't^ much better inftruments, and much
‘ 'of higher magnifying powers than any other aftronomer
thefe fpots. ev’er was in poffelfion of. His obfervations were made
with a view to determine the figure of the planet, the
pofition of his axis, &c. A very particular account of
them is given in the 74th volume of the Philofophical
Tranfadtions, but which our limits will not allow us to
Plate infert. Fig. 49—72. (how the particular appearances
liXVII. of Mars, as viewed on the days there marked. The
magnifying powers he ufed were fometimes as high as
932 ; and with this the fouth polar fpot was found to
be in diameter 41'".. Fig. 73 (hows the connexion of the
other figures marked 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, which
complete the whole equatorial fuccefiion of fpots on
the diflc of the planet. The centre of the circle
marked 65 is placed on the circumference of the inner
circle, by making its diftance.from the circle marked
67 aufwer to the interval of time between the two
obfervations, properly calculated and reduced to fide-
real meafure. The fame is done with regard to the
circles marked 66, 67, See. ; and it will be fdund by
placing any one of thefe -xonneckd circles in fuch a
manner as to have its contents in a fimilar fituation
with the figures in the fingle reprefentaticn, which
bears the fame number, that there is a fufficient refem-
bjance between them ; though fome allowance muft
undoubtedly be made for the diftorlions occafioned by
tjiis kind of projeftlon.
With regard to the bright fpots themfelves, Mr Her-
£i\ ’ 3 j •.
N O M Y. Sea. ir.
fchel informs us, that the poles of the planet areAppearan-
not exadfly in the middle of them, though nearly fo. ce.s of Cek-
“ From the appearance and difappearance (fays he) cfpial
the bright north polar fpot in the year 1781, we col- v~'
ledf that the circle of its motion was at fome confider- ^
able diftance from the pole. By calculation, its lat*’ qfe'appear-
tude muft have been about 76 or 770 north ; for I findance arui
that, to the inhabitants of Mars, the declination of the difappear-
fun, June 25th, 12 hours 15 minutes of our time wasanceof
about 90 56'fouth ; and the fpot muft have been fothefe fpotSl,
far removed from the north pole as to fall a few de¬
grees within the enlightened part of the diflc to be¬
come vilible to us. The fouth pole of Mars could not
be many degrees from the centre of the large bright
fouthern fp6t of the year 1781 ; though this fpot was
of luch a magnitude as to cover all the polar regions
farther than the 70th or 65th degree; and in that
part which was on the meridian, July 3d, at 10 hours
54 minutes, perhaps a little farther.
“ From the appearances of the fouth polar fpot in
1781, we may conclude that its centre was nearly po¬
lar. We find it continued vifible all the time Mars
revolved on his axis; and to prefent us generally with
a pretty equal fhare of the luminous appearance, a
fpot which covered from 45 to 6o° of a great circle
on the globe of the planet, could not have any confi-
derable polar diftance. From the obfervations and
calculations made concerning the poles of Mars, wc
may conclude, that his north pole muft be dire&ed to- of theexaft
wards fome point of the heavens, between 9s 24^ 35'pofition of
and cs 70 15'; becaufe the change of the fituation ofthe poles of.
the pole from left to right, which happened in theMars*
time the planet paffed from one place to the other,
is a plain indication of its having gone through the
node of its axis. Next, we may alfo conclude, that
the node muft be confiderably nearer the latter point
•of the ecliptic than the former; for, whatever be the
inclination of the axis, it will be feen under equal angles
at equal diftances from the node. But by a trigono¬
metrical prccefs of folving a ’ few triangles, we foon
difeover both the inclination of the axis, and the place
where it interfefts the ecliptic at redangles (which,
for want of a better term, I have perhaps improperly-
called its node). Accordingly I find by calculation,
that the node is in 170 47' of Pifces, the north pole of
Mars being dire&ed towards that part of the heavens;
and that the inclination of the axis to the ecliptic is
590 40'. By further calculations we find that the
pole of Mars on the 17th of April 1777, was then
adually 8i° 27' inclined to the ecliptic, and pointed
towards the left as feen from the fun.
“ The inclination and fituation of the node of the
axis of Mars, with refped to the ecliptic, being found,
may be thus reduced to the orbit of the planet him-plate
felf. Let E C (fig. 74.) be a part of the ecliptic,LXVIl.,
O M part of the orbit of Mars, P E O a line drawn
from P, the celeftial pole of Mars, through E, that
point which has been determined to be the place of
the node of the axis of Mars in the ecliptic, and con¬
tinued to O, where it interfe&s his orbit. Now, if,
according to Mr de La Laude, we put the node of
the orbit of Mars for 1783 in is I7° 58', we have
from the place of the node of the axis, that is, 11s
170 47' to the place ofthe node of the orbit, an arch
E N of 6©9 I F. In the triangle N E O, right-angled
at.
Sea. II.
ASTRO
Appearan- at E, there is alfo given the angle E N O, according
Celeftial*6 to t^ie ^ame aut^or> l05l'> which is the inclination of
Bodies thro’or^‘t ^ars t0 t^le echptic* Hence we find the
Tclcfcopes. angle EON 89° 5', and the fide ON 6o° 12'. A-
'——Y--—' gain, when Mars is in the node of its orbit N, we have
by calculation the angle P N E 63® 7'; to which
adding the angle E N O = i° 5 1', we have P N O
64° 58': from which two angles, PON and P N O,
with the diltance O N, we obtain the inclination of the
axis of Mars, and place of its node with refpe& to its
own orbit ; the inclination being 61® 18', and the
place of the node of the axis 58® 31' preceding the in-
terfeftton of the ecliptic with the orbit of Mars, or in
our 19° 28' of Pifces.”
8$ Our author next proceeds to ihew how the feafons
in this planet may be calculated, &c. Which con-
^jarSj jedlures, though they belong properly to the next fec-
tion, yet are fo much connected with what has gone
before, that we (hall infert here what he fays upon the
fubjeft.
“ Being thus acquainted with what the inhabitants
of Mars will call the obliquity of their ecliptic,, and
the fituation of their equino&ial and folftitial points,
we are furnifhed with the means of calculating the fea¬
fons on that planet, and may account, in a manner which
I think highly probable, for the remarkable appear¬
ance about its polar regions.
“ But firft, it may not be improper to give an in-
ftance how to refolve any query concerning the Mar¬
tial feafons. Thus, let it be required to compute the
declination of the fun on Mars, June 25. 1781; at
midnight of our time. ]f H, 05, See. (fig. 75.)
reprefent the ecliptic of Mars, and Y* htf the
ecliptic of our planet, A a, b B the mutual interfe&ion
of the Martial and terreftrial ecliptics, then there is
given the heliocentric longitude of Mars, Y m —
9^ 10° 30'; then taking away fix figns, and >Tu b or
fy1 « = is 17° 58', there remains b rn —• is 22° 32'.
.From this arch, with the given inclination, ic 51' of
the orbits to each other, we have cofine of inclination
to radius, as tangent ei b m to tangent of B M =;
is 22° 33'. And taking away By — lS i° 29',
which is the complement to B (or 25 A, already
fiiown to be is 28° 3 i'), there will remain Y M —
Cs 2 10 4', the place of Mars in its own orbit ; that is,
on the time above mentioned, the fun’s longitude on
Mars will be 6S 21° 4'; and the obliquity of the Mar¬
tial ecliptic, 28° 42', being alfo given, we find, by,
86 the ufual method, the fun’s declination 90 56' fouth.
[Confider- “ The analogy between Mars and the earth is per--
able refem-haps by far the greateft in the whole folar fyftem.
tvdxtthe" ^heir diurnal motion is nearly the fame; the obliqui-
earthand ty of their refpeftive ecliptics not very different: of
Mars. all the fuperior planets, the diftance of Mars from the
fun is by far the neared alike to that of the earth
nor will the length of the Martial year appear very
different from what we enjoy, when compared to the
furprifing duration of the years of Jupiter, Saturn,
»Whkefpotsand the Georgium Sides. If then we find that the
[about the globe we inhabit has its polar regions frozen and co-
poles of vered with mountains of ice and fnow that only part-
^ofed toPbcly rT‘C't wh6" alternately expofed to the fun, I may
Bccafioned'^11 be Perm‘tted to furmife, that the fame caufes may
by fnow. probably have the fame effeft on the globe of Mars ;
that the bright polar fpots are owing to the vivid, re-
YfiVHi Part Id,.
N O M Y. 44*
fle&ion of light from frozen regions; and that the re-Appcaran-
duftion of thofe fpots is to be aferibed to their being
expofed to the fun. In the year 1781, the fouth P0_t},ro*
lar fpot was extremely large, which we might well'i'eicfCOj,es.
expedl, as that pole had but lately been involved in a'
whole twelvemonth’s darknefs and abfence of the fun ;
but in 1783, I found it confiderably fmaller than be¬
fore, and it decreafed continually from the 20th of
May till about the middle of September, when it feem-
ed to be at a dand. During this lad period the fouth
pole had already been above eight months enjoying the
benefit of fummer, and dill continued to receive the
fun-beams, though, towards the latter end, in fuch an
oblique diredlion as to be but little benefited by them.
On the other hand, in the year 1781, the north polar
fpot, which had then been its twelvemonth in the fun-
Ihine, and was but lately returning into darknefs, ap¬
peared fmall, though undoubtedly increaling in fize.
Its not being vifible in the year 1783, is no objettion
to thefe phenomena, being owing to the pofition of
the axis, by which it was removed out of fight. 88
“ That a planetary globe, fuch as Mars, turning ,
an axis, (hould be of a fpheroidical form, will eafily findform of*
admittance, when two familiar indances in Jupiter and Mars,
the earth, as well as the known laws of gravitation and
the centrifugal force of rotatory bodies, lead the way
to the reception of fuch doftrines. So far from creating
difficulties, or doubts, it will rather appear Angular,
that the fpheroidical form of this planet has not al¬
ready been noticed by former adronomers ; and yet,
refleding on the general appearance of Mars, we foon
find, that opportunities of making obfervations on its
real form cannot be very frequent; for when it is near
enough to view it to an advantage, we fee it generally
gibbous, and its appofitions are fo fcarce, and of fo.
fhort a duration, that in more than two years time,
we have not above three or four weeks for fuch obfer¬
vations. Befides, adrenomers being generally accuf-
tomed to fee this planet didorted, the fpheroidical
form might eafily be overlooked. s
“ September 25. 1783. At 9h 5°', the equatorialDiffcrence-
diameter of Mars meafured 2 1" 53'" •, the polar diame- betwixt the*
ter 21" ij'", full meafure ; that is certainly not tooe9uatol'!al
fmall. This difference of the diameters was fhewn, ana?d pplar
the 28th of the fame month, to Mr Wilfon of Glafgow,
who faw it perfe&ly well, fo as to be convinced that
,it was not owing to any defedt or diltortion occafioned
by the lens; and becaufe 1 wifhed him to be fatisfied
of-the reality of the appearance, I. reminded him of
feveral precautions ; fuch as caufing the planet to pafs
diredtly through the centre of the field of view, and
judging of its figure when it was mod didindt and bed
defined, &c. Next day the difference between the
two diameters was fhown to Dr Blagden and Mr Au~
bert. The former not only faw it immediately, but
thought the flattening almod asunuch as that of JupM-
ter. Mr Aubert alfo faw it very plainly, fo as to en¬
tertain no manner of doubt about the appearance.
“ September 30th", toil 52', the equatorial diameter
was witli a magnifying power of 278.. By a
fecond meafure it was 22" 31"', full large; the polar
diameter, very exaft, was 21" 2&'/.- On the id of.
O&ober, at iCh 5c/, the equatorial diameter meafured
103 by the micrometer, and the polar 9$ ; the value
of.the divlfions in feconds and thirds not being well
3 K.. deiemiacd^
442 A S T R O
Xpp.earan- determined, on account of fome changes lately made
Celeftiaf6 'n t^ie ^oca^ °f the objedl metals of the tele-
iodiesthro’^coPc‘ l^e tSth* the equatorial diameter was ex-
Tclefcopes. a<^!y 22" 35'" ; the polar diameter 2I"33,".,, In a
great number of fucceeding obfervations, the fame ap¬
pearance occurred; but on account of the quick
changes in the appearance of this planet, Mr Herfchel
thought proper to fettle the proportion betwixt the
equatorial and polar diameters from thofe which were
■made on the very day of the appofition, and which
were alio to be preferred oh account of their being re¬
peated with a Very high power, and in a fine clear air,
with two different inftruments of an excellent quality.
From thefe he determined the proportions to be as
103 to 98, or 1355 to 1272.
96 It has been commonly related by aftronomers, that
3t" atm°fphere of this planet is ■poflefTed of fuch Itrong
Mars, refra&ive powers, as to render the fmall fixed ftars
near which it paffes invifible. Dr Smith relates an ob-
fervation of Caffini, where a ftar in the water of Aqua¬
rius, at the diltance of fix minutes from the diflc of
Mars, became fo faint before its occultation, that it
could not be feen by the naked eye, nor with a three-
feet telefcope. This would indicate an atmofphere of
a very extraordinary fize and denfity ; but the follow¬
ing obfervations of Mr Herfchel feem to fhew that it
is of much fmaller dimenfions. “ 1783, Oft. 26th,
There are two fmall ftars preceding Mars, of different
fizes ; with 460 they appear both duflcy red, and are
pretty unequal ; with 278 they appear confiderably
unequal. The diftance from Mars of the neareft, which
is alfo the largeft, with 227 meafured 3' 26" 20">.
Some time after, the fame evening, the diftance was
3' 8" 53"', Mars being retrograde. Both of them
were feen very diftinftly. They were viewed with a
new 20 feet refleftor, and appeared very bright. Oc¬
tober 27th, the fmall ftar is not quite fo bright in pro¬
portion to the large one as it was laft night, being a
good deal nearer to Mars, which is now on the fide of
the fmall ftar ; but when the planet was drawn afide, or
out of view, it appeared as plainly as ufual. The di¬
ftance of the fmall liar was 2' 5" 25'". The largeft of
the two ftars, (adds he), on which the above obfer¬
vations were made, cannot exceed the 12th, and the
fmalleft the 13th or 14th magnitude ; and I have no
reafon to fuppofe that they were any otherwife affefted
by the approach of Mars, than what the brightnefs of
its fuperior light may account for. From other pheno¬
mena it appears, however, that this planet is not with¬
out a confiderable atmofphere ; for befides the perma¬
nent fpots on its furface, I have often noticed occafion-
al changes of partial bright belts, and alfo once a dark-
jfh one in a pretty high latitude ; and thefe alterations
we can hardly aferibe to any other caufe than the va¬
riable difpofuion of clouds and vapours floating in the
atmofphere of the planet.”
91 6. Jupiter has the fame general appearance with
S39eltsof Ju-Mars, only that the belts on his furface are much
^lt*r 'vhen larger and more permanent. Their general appear-
vftwt * C°" ance, as deferibed by Dr Long, is reprefented fig.
96-79. ; by Mr Dun, fig. 18.; by Mr Wollafton,
fig. 21. 12, 23. ; and by Mr Fergufon, fig. 153. But
they are not to be feen but by an excellent tele¬
fcope. They are faid to have been firft difeovered
by Fontana and two other Italians ; but Caffiui was
N O M Y. Sea. II.
the firft who gave a good account of thettt. Their Appearan-
number is very variable, as fometimes only one, and at ceS of.the
others no fewer than eight, may be perceived. They
are generally parallel to one another, but not always fo j Telefcopes.
and their breadth is likewife variable, one belt having L—y—J
been obferved to grow narrow, while another in its
neighbourhood has increafed in breadth, as if the one
had flowed into the other : and in this cafe Dr Long
obferves, that a part of an oblique belt lay between
them, as if to form a communication for this purpofe.
The time of their continuance is very uncertain, fome¬
times remaining unchanged for three months ; at
others, new belts have been formed in an hour or two.
In fome of thefe belts large black fpots have appeared, c 9*
which moved fwiftly over the diflc from eaft to weft, a°™C'
and'returned in a fhort time to the fame place; from pear in
whence the rotation of this planet about its akis has them,
been determined. On the 9th of May 1664, Dr Hook,
with a good 12 feet telefcope, obferved a fmall fpot in
the biggeft of the three obfeure belts of Jupiter ; and
obferving it from time to time, found that in two hours
it had moved from eaft to weft about half the vifible
.diameter of the planet. In 1665, Caffini obferved a
fpot near the largeft belt of Jupiter which is moft fre¬
quently feen. It appeared round, and moved with the
greateft velocity when in the middle, but appealed
narrower, and moved flower, the nearer it was to the
circumference. “ Thefe circumftances (fays Dr Long),
fhowed that the fpot adhered to the body of Jupiter,
and was carried round upon it. It continued there¬
on till the year following; long enough to determine
the periodical time of Jupiter’s rotation upon his axis
to be nine hours 56 minutes.” This principal, or an- Acc^u3nt af
cient fpot as it is called, is the largeft, and of thdoneof tiiepe
longeft continuance of any hitherto known, and has ap-fpots.
peared and vanifhed no fewer than eight times be¬
tween the years 1663 and 1708 : from the year lafl
mentioned it was invifible till 1713. The longeft time
of its continuing to be vifible was three years ; and the
longeft time of its difappearing was from 1708 to 1713:
it feems to have fome cbnneftion with the principal fou-
thern belt ; for the fpot has never been feen when that
difappeared, though that belt has often been vifible
without the fpot. Befides this ancient fpot, Caffini, in
the year 1699, faw one °f liability that did not
continue of the fame fhape or dimenflons, but broke
into feveral fmall ones, whereof the revolution was but
nine hours 31 minutes; and two other fpots that re¬
volved in nine hours 52 minutes and a half. The fi¬
gure of" Jupiter is evidently an oblate fpheroid, the
longeft diameter of his difk being to the fhorteft as 13
to 12. His rotation is from weft to eaft, like that of
thp fun, and the plane of his equator is very nearly 94
coincident with that of his orbit; fo that there can No difler-
fcarce be any difference of feafons in that planet. His ence ,of ^ea*
rotation has been obferved to be fomewhat quicker in i?nsin Ju*
his aphelion than his perihelion, p
The moft remarkable circumftance attending that 95
planet is his having four moons, which conftantly revolve Is atten< e<*
round him at different diftances. See fig. 18. and 186.
Thefe are all fuppofed to move in ellipies ; though the
eccentricities of all of them are too fmall to be mea¬
fured, excepting that of the fourth ; and even this r-
mounts to no more than 0.007 ’ts niean diftance
from the primary. The orbits cf thefe planets were
thought
Sea. II.
RON
M Y.
Appearan- thought by Galileo to be in the fame plane with that
Celeftial*6 l^e'r Pr‘mary : ^llt Mr Caffini has found that their
•Bodiesthro’orM^s make a fmall angle with it ; and as he did not
Telefcopes. bi'd any difference in the place of their nodes, he con-
■ y—.—1 eluded that they were all in the fame place, and that
their afeending nodes were in the middle of Aquarius.
After obferving them for more than 36 years, he
found their greateft latitude, or deviation from the
plane of Jupiter’s orbit, to be 2° 55'. The firft of
Diftances thefe fatellites revolves at the diftance of 5.697 of Ju-
and perio- piter’s femidiameters, or i' 51" as meafured by proper,
dical times inftruments ; its periodical time is id. t8h. 27' 34".
of Jupiter s •pjjg next fate]]ite revolves at the diflance of 9.017 fe-
msdiameters, or 2' 50", in 3d. 13b. 13' 42"; the
third at the diflance of 14.384 femidiameters, or 4' 42'',
in 7 d. 3 h. 42' 36" ; and the fourth at the diftance of
25.266, or 8' 16", in 16 d. i6h. 32' 09".
Since the time of Caflini, it has been found that the
nodes of Jupiter’s fatellites are not in the fame place ;
and from the different points of view in which we have
an opportunity of obferving them from the earth, we
fee them fometimes apparently moving in ftraight
lines, and at other times in elliptic curves. All of
them, by reafon of their immenfe diftance, feem to keep
near their primary, and their apparent motion is a kind
of ofcillation like that of a pendulum, going alternate¬
ly from their greateft: diftance on one fide to the
greateft diftance on the other, fometimes in a ftraight
line, and fometimes in an elliptic curve. When a fa-
tellite is in its fuperior femicircle, or that half of its
orbit which is more diftant from the earth than Jupiter
is, its motion appears to us diredt, according to the
order of the figns ; but in its inferior femicircle, when
it is nearer to us than Jupiter, its motion appears re-
v trograde ; and both thefe motions feem quicker the
nearer the fatellites are to the centre of the primary,
flower the more diftant they are, and at the greateft db
fiance of all they appear for a fliort time to be ftationary.
97 From this account of the fyftem of Jupiter and his
Occulta- fatellites, it is evident, that occultations of them muft
ecUpfesTof fre<luentbr happen by their going behind their primary,
Jupiter’s fa-or coming in betwixt us and it. The former takes
telfites. place when they proceed towards the middle of their up¬
per femicucle ; the latter, when they pafs thro’ the farce
part of their inferior femicircle. Gceultations of the
former kind happen to the firft and fecond fatellite : at
every revolution, the third very rarely efcapes an ocr
cultation, but the fourth more frequently by reafon of
its greater diftance. It is feldom that a fatellite can be
difeovered upon the difk of Jupiter, even by, the beft
telefcop.es, excepting at its firft entrance, when by rear
fon of its being more diredUy illuminated by the rays,of
the fun than the planet itfelf, it appears like a lucid
98 .fpot upon it. Sometimes, however, a fatellite in paf-
Thcfttcl- fiug over the difk, appears like a dark, fpot, and is
timesT16" e ■ Y t0 diftinguifhed. This is f ippofed to be ow.-
pearasadaik,’nS t0 *Pots cn t^e body of thefe fecondary planets ;
Ipots.. ancl it is.remarkable, that the fame fatellite has been
known to pafs over the diik at one time as a dark fpot,
and at another fo luminous that it could not be diitiu-
guifhed from Jupiter himfelf, except at its coming on
and going off. To account for this, we muft fay, that ei¬
ther the ipots are fubj.tl to change ; or if they be perma¬
nent like thofe of Our moon, that the fatellites at dif-
fe-snt timest turn different parts of their globes to-
443
wards us. Poflibly both thefe caufes may contribute Appearan-
to produce the phenomena juft mentioned. For thefe ^
reafons alfo both the light and apparent magnitude 0iCBodiestf^o7
the fatellites are variable : for the fewer fpqts there are >relefcopes.
upon that fide which is turned towards us, the brighter .. 1
it will appear ; and as the bright fide only can be feen, 99
a fatellite muft appear larger the more tf its bright Why they
fide it turns towards the earth, and the Ids fo tho^^^
more it happens to be covered with foots. The fourth anj appa_
fatdlite, though generally the fmalleft, forcetimes ap-rent magn;.
pears bigger than any of the reft: the third fometimes tude.
feems leaft, though ufually the larged ; nay, a fatellite
may be fo covered with fpots as to appear Ids than its
fhadow paffing over the difk of the primary, tho’ we
are certain that the fhadow muft be fmallcr than the
body which cafts it. To a fpeflator placed on the fur-
face of Jupiter, each of thefe,fatellites would put on
the phafes of the moon ; but as the diftance of any o£
them from Jupiter is but fmall when compared with the
'diftance of that planet from the fun, the fateliites are
therefore illuminated by the fun very nearly in the
fame manner with the primary itfelf; hence they ap¬
pear to us always round, having conftantly the greateil
part of their enlightened half turned towards the.
earth : and indeed they are fo final], that were they to ■
put on the phafes of the moon, thefe phafes could :
fcarce be difeerned through the beft telefcopes. Theirfta
When the fatellites pafs through their inferior ^emj-,]owsrfor^g^.
circles, they may call a fhadow upon their primary, times viti-
and thus caufe an eclipfe of the fun to his inhabitants ble on the
if there are any ; and in fome fituations this fhadowAjlk of Ju--
may be obferred going before or following the fatel-Pltcr*
lite. On the other hand, in paffing through their
fuperior femicircles, the fatellites may be eclipfed in ipr
the fame manner as our moon by paffing through theT'^6'^
fhadow of Jupiter : and this is adlually the cafe with"^^” s
the firft, fecond, and third of thefe bodies; but the cci;pfe(j
fourth, by reafon of the largenefs of its orbit, paffesevery revo--
fometimes above or below the fhadow, as is the cafelvtlon.
with our moon, ,'1’he beginnings and endings of thefe
eclipfes are eafily feen by a telefeope when the earth
is in a proper fituation with regard to Jupiter and the
fun ; but when this or any other planet is in conjunc¬
tion with the fun, the fuperior brightnefs of that lu¬
minary renders both it and the fatellites inviiible, From tee¬
the time of its firft appearing after a conj mdlion until4^ wl‘rlt
near the appofition, only the immerfions of the fatel-
lites into his fhadow, or the beginnings of the eclipfes, cukaticY.s,
are vifible ; at the appofition, only the occultations of&c. of Ju-
the fatellites, by going behind or coming before their piter’sfutd-
primary, are obiervable ; and from the appofition to ji^arev^‘‘
the conjun&ion, only the immerfions, or end of the
eclipfes, are to be.feen. This is exaclly true in the
firft fatellite, of which we can never fee an immerfion
with its immediately fubfequent emer Don : and it is but
rarely that they can be both feen in the ficond ; as in
order to their being fo,. that fatellite muft be‘near one
of its limits, at the fame time that the. planet. is near
his perihelion and quadrature with the fun. With re¬
gard to the third, when Jupiter is more, than 46 de¬
grees from. co: junction with, or oppofition to,, the fun,,
both its immerfious and immediately fubfequent emer-
fions are vifib’e ; as they like wile are in the fourth.,
when the diiiance of Jupiter from conjunction or appu-
fiiion is 24 degrees.
3 ,*v 3
Whca.i
-444 A S
.Appearan- When Jupiter is in quadrature with the fun, the earth
CeS|°<vt|'e ** out t^le l*ne t^iat Pafles through the centres
Bodies thro’t^e ^un anc^ JuP‘ter» anc^ therefore the Hiadow of
Telefcopes. t^e planet is then moft expofed to our view : but even
t—y——j then the body of the planet will hide from us one fide
of that part of the fhadovv which is neareft to it, through
which the firft fatellite pafies ; which is the reafon
that, though we fee the entrance of that fatellite into
the fhadowj or its coming out from thence, as the
earth is fituated on the call or weft fide thereof, we
cannot fee them both ; whereas the other fateliites go*
ing through the fiiadow at a greater diftance from Ju¬
piter, their ingrefs and egrefs are both vifible.
Teldiopic 7* Saturn, when viewed through a good telefcope,
appearance niakes a more remarkable appearance than any of the
ef Saturn, other planets* Galileo firft difcovered his uncommon
fliape, which he thought to be like two fmall globes,
one on each fide of a large one : and he publifhed his
difcovery in a Latin fentence ; the meaning of which
was, that he had feen him appear with three bodies ;
though, in order to keep the difcovery a fecret, the
letters were tranfpofed. Having viewed him for two
years, he was furprifed to fee him become quite round
without thefe appendages, and then after fome time to
IdisHncr afl’ame them as before. Thefe adjoining globes were
firft difco- what are now called the anf# of his ring, the true
vered by fliape of which was firft difcovered by Huygens about
Huygens. 40 years after Galileo, firft with a telefcope of 1 2 feet,
and then with one of 23 feet, which magnified objects
100 times. From the difcoveries made by him and
other aftronomers, it appears that this planet is fur-
rounded by a broad thin ring, the edge of which re¬
flects little or none of the fun’s light to us, but the
planes of the ring refledt the light in the fame manner
that the planet itfelf does ; and if we fuppofe the dia¬
meter of Saturn to be divided into three equal parts,
the diameter of the ring is about feven of thefe parts*
The ring is detached from the body of Saturn in fuch
a manner, that the diftance between the innermoft part of
the ring and the body is equal to its breadth. If we had
a view of the planet and his ring, with our eyes, per¬
pendicular to one of the planes of the latter, we fliould
fee them as in fig. 80. i but our eye is never fo much ele*
vated above either plane as to have the vifual ray ftand
at right angles to it, nor indeed is it ever elevated more
than about 30 degrees above it; fo that the ring, be¬
ing commonly viewed at an oblique angle, appears of
an oval form, and through very good telefcopes double,
as reprefented fig. 18. and 153. Both the outward
and inward rim is projefted into an ellipfis, more or
lefs oblong according to the diff’ercnt degrees of obli¬
quity with which it is viewed. Sometimes our eye is
in the plane of the ring, and then it becomes invifiblej
either becaufe the outward edge is not fitted to refleft
the fun’s light, or more probably becaufe it is too thin
to be feen at fuch a diftance. As the plane of this
ring keeps always parallel to itfelf, that is, its fituation
in one part of the orbit is always parallel to that in any
other part, it difappears twice in every revolution of the
planet, that is, about once in 15 years 5 and he fome-
times appears quite round for nine months together.
At other times, the diftance betwixt the body of the
planet and the ring is very perceptible ; infomuch that
Mr Whifton tells us of Dr Clarke’s father having feen
* flar through the opening, and fappofed him to have
R o n 0 M
Se& If,
been the only perfon who ever faw a fight fo rare, as Appearan-
the opening, though certainly very large, appears verytes of>the
fmall to us. When Saturn appears round, if our eye nCle.^'a! ,
be in the plane of the ring, it will appear as a darkpei,!”,,1
line acrofs the middle of the planet’s difk ; and if ^ < ' "‘t
eye be elevated above the plane of the ring, a fhadowy
belt will be vifible, caufed by the fhadow of the ring
as well as by the interpofition of part of it betwixt the
eye and the planet. The fliadow of the ring is broad-
eft when the fun is moft elevated, but its obfcure parts
appear broadeft when our eye is moft elevated above
the plane of it. When it appears double, the ring
next the body of the planet appears brighteft ; when
the ring appears of an elliptical form, the parts about
the ends of the largeft axis are called the anf*, as has
been already mentioned. Thefe, a little before and
after the difappearing of the ring, are of unequal mag¬
nitude : the largeft anfa is longer vifible before the pla¬
net’s round phafe, and appears again fooner than the iojr
other. On the ift of Oftober 1714, the largeft anfa R!nS of
was on the eaft fide, and on the 12th on the weft fide ^y a
of the difk of the planet, which makes it probable that revolution
the ring has a rotation round an axis : but whether or on its axis*
not this is the cafe with Saturn himfelf has not been
difcovered, on account of the deficiency of fpots by
which it might be determined. He has indeed two I0^r
belts, difcovered with very long telefcopes, which ap-CoVeredoa
pear parallel to that formed by the edge of the ring Saturn,
abovementioned j but thefe are redlilinear when the
ring appears elliptic, as in fig. 81. and feem to be
permanent. In 1683, however, Dom* Caffini and
Fatio perceived a bright ftreak upon Saturn, which
was not permanent like the dark belts, but was vifible
one day and difappeared the next, when another came
into view near the edge of his difk. This induced
Caffini to fuppofe, that Saturn might have a rotation
round his axis ; but the diftance of this planet is fo
great, that we can fcarce hope to determine his revo¬
lution fo accurately as that of the others. It will
difappear in May 1789; the earth being about topafs
from its northern fide, which is enlightened, to the
fouthern, which is obfcure.
The aftronomer-royal (Dr Mafkelyne) informs us
of this difappearance in 1789, and reappearance in
1790, in the following manner : “ On May 3d and
Auguft 26th 1789, the plane of Saturn’s ring will
pafs through the earth 5 on Odlober nth it will pafs
through the fun ; and January 29th 1790 it will again
pafs through the earth. Hence, and fuppofing with
M. de la Lande that the ring is but juft vifible with
the beft telefcopes in common life, when the fun is ela-
vated 3' above its plane, or 3 days before the plane paflea
through the fun, and when the earth is elevated 2^' a-
bove the plane, or one day from the earth’s paffing ir,
the phenomena of difappearance and reappearance may
be expedted to take place as follows.
** May 2d 1789, Saturn’s ring will difappear j
the earth being about to pafs from its northern fide,
which is enlightened, to its fouthern fide, which is ob¬
fcure.
“ Auguft 2 7th^ the earth having repafled to the
northern or enlightened fide, the ring will reappear.
“ Odtober 8th, the ring will difappear ; its plane
being near palling through the fun, when it will change
its enlightened fide from the northern to the fouthern
«nef
Sea. 11 ASTRO
Appearan- one, ccnfcquently the dark fide will be then turned to
5fs o^.the the earth.
Bodiesthro’ “ January 3oth earth having patted from
Telelcopes. l^e northern or dark fide of the ring, to the fouthern
v——y——' or enlightened one, the ring will become vifible, to
continue fo until the year 1803.”
In the diagram, fig. 159. are delineated the phafes
of the ring from its full appearance in the year 1782
to its difappearance in ly’Sj, and its full reappearance
107 1796.
His five Saturn is flill better attended than Jupiter (fee fig.
fatellitcs. j g. an(j j gg J. having, befides the ring abovementioned,
no fewer than five moons continually circulating round
him. The firit, at the diftance of 2.097 femidiameters
of his ring, and 4.893 of the planet itfelf, performs its
revolution in 1 d. 21 h. 18' 27"; the fecond, at 2.686
femidiameters of the ring, and 6.268 of Saturn, re¬
volves in 2d. 17b. 41' 22"; the third, at the di¬
ftance of 8.754 femidiameters of Saturn, and 3.752 of
the ring, in 4d. 12 h. 25' 12''; the fourth, called
the Huygenian fatellite, at 8.698 femidiameters of the
ring, and 20.295 of Saturn, revolves in 15 d. 22 h. 41'
12"; while the fifth, placed at the vaft diftance of
59.154 femidiameters of Saturn, or 25.348 of his ring,
does not perform its revolution in lefs than 79 d. yh.
47' oc". The orbits of all thefe fatellites, except the
fifth, are nearly in the fame plane, which makes an
angle with the plane of Saturn’s orbit of about 310 5
and by reafon of their being inclined at fuch large
angles, they cannot pafs either acrofs their primary or
behind it with rcfpeft to the earth, except when very
near their nodes ; fo that eclipfes of them happen much
more feldom than of the fatellites of Jupiter. There
is, however, an account in the Philof. Tranfaft. of an
occultation of the fourth fatellite behind the body of
Saturn ; and there is a curious account by Cafllni, in
the Memoirs of the Royal Academy for 1692, of a
fixed ftar being covered by the fourth fatellite, fo that
for 13 minutes they appeared both as one ftar. By
log reafon of their extreme fmallnefs, thefe fatellites cannot
Jifth fa- be feen unlefs the air is very clear ; and Dom. Caffini
ielhte for feveral years obferved the fifth fatellite to grow lefs
an^ 33 weilt through the eaftern part of its or-
sa^why?’ b*1 until it became quite invifible, while in the weftern
part it gradually became more and more bright until
it arrived at its grcateft fplendor. — “ This phenomenon
(fays Dr Long) cannot be better accounted for than
by fuppofing one half of the furface of this fatellite to
be unfit to refleft the light of the fun in fufficient
quantity to make-it vifible, and that it turns round its
axis nearly in the fame time as it revolves round its
primary ; and that, by means of this rotation, and
keeping always the fame face toward Saturn, we upon
the earth may, during one half of its periodical time,
be able to fee fucceflively more and more of its bright
fide, and during the other half of its period have more
and more of the fpotted or dark fide turned toward us.
In the year 1705, this fatellite unexpectedly became
vifible in all parts of its orbit through the very fame
telefcopes that were before often made ufe of to view
it in the eaftern part without fuccefs : this ftlows the
fpots upon this fatellite, like thofe upon Jupiter and
feme other of the primary planets, are not permanent,
but fubjedt to change.”-
4b With regard to the Georgjum Sidus, ftill left is
N O M Y. 44£
known than of Saturn. Its apparent magnitude is fo Appearan.
fmall, that it can feldom be feen with the naked eye ;
and even with the telefcope it appears but of a few fe- Bodfesthro*
conds diameter. It is attended by two fatellites at Xelefcopes.
the proportional diftances marked in fig. 82. according 1 
to the obfervations of Mr Herfchel; but he had not 109
an opportunity of obferving them long enough to de- Georgium
termine their periodical times with exaftnefs; t^ough
he fuppofes the innermoft to perform its revolution intwofatei^
about eight days and three quarters, the other in thir- htes.
teen days and a half. IIO
9. The. Comets, viewed through a telefcope, have a Of the co«
very different appearance from any of the planets, mets.
The nucleus, or ftar, feems much more dim. Sturmius
tells us, that obferving the comet of 1680 with a te¬
lefcope, it appeared like a coal dimly glowing ; or a
rude mafs of matter illuminated with a dufky fumid
light, lefs fenfible at the extremes than in the middle 5
and not at all like a ftar, which appears with a round
dilk and a vivid light.
Hevelius obferved of the comet in 1661, that it*
body was of a yellowilh colour, bright and confpicu-
ous, but without any glittering light. In the middle
was a denfe ruddy nucleus, almoft equal to Jupiter,
encompaffcd with a much fainter, thinner matter.—■
Feb. 5th. The nucleus was fomewhat bigger and
brighter, of a gold colour, but its light more dulky
than the reft of the ftars j it appeared aifo divided in¬
to a number of parts.—Feb. 6th. The nuclei ftill ap¬
peared, though lefs than before. One of them on the
left fide of the lower part of the dilk appeared to be
much denfer and brighter than the reft ; its body
found, and reprefenting a little lucid ftar 5 the nuclei ftill
encompaffed with another kind of matter.—Feb. 10th.
The nuclei more obfeure and confufed, but brighter
at top than at bottom.—Feb. 13th. The head dimi-
nilhed much both in brightnefs and in magnitude.—-
March 2d. Its roundnefs a little impaired, and the
edges lacerated.—March 28th. Its matter much dif-
perfed; and no diftinft nucleus at all appearing.
Wiegelius, who faw through a telefcope the comet
of 1664, the moon, and a little cloud illuminated by
the fun, at the fame time, obferved that the moon ap¬
peared of a continued luminous furface, but the comet
very different, being perfe&ly like the little cloud en¬
lightened by the fun’s beams. I**
The comets, too, are to appearance furrounded withat'
atmofpheres of a prodigious fize, often rifing ten times ^jPphafcSt,
higher than the nucleus* They have often likewife
different phafes, like the moon. 11%
“ The head of a comet (fays Dr Long) to the eye,DrLons’s
unaffifted by glaffes, appears fometimes like a cloudy a£count
ftar ; fometimes Ihines with a dull light like that 0fthein*
the planet Saturn : fome comets have been faid to
equal, fome to exceed, ftars of the firft magnitude ;
fome to have furpaffed Jupiter, and even Venus; and
to have caft a ftiadow as Venus fometimes does.
“ The head of a comet, feen through a good tele¬
fcope, appears to confift of a folid globe, and an at-
mofphere that furrounds it. The folid part is fre¬
quently called the nucleus ; which through a telefcope
is eafily diftinguilhed from the atmofphere or hairy ap¬
pearance.
“ A comet is generally attended with a blaze or
tail, whereby it is diflinguiftied from a ftar or planet ;
M
446
ASTRONOMY. Sea. II.
Appearan- as it is alfo by its motion. Sometimes the tail only of
cfso^.t^ie a comet has been vifible at a place where the head has
Bodiesthro’keen a" ^ w^‘'e the horizon ; fuch an appear-
Telefcopes. ance is called a bearn.
u-—“ The nucleus of the comet of 1618 is faid, a few
113 days after coming into view, to have broken into three
Appearan- or four parts of irregular figures. One obferver com-
comet of6 Pares them to fo many burning coals ; and fays they
X618. changed their fituation while he was locking at them,
as when a perfon ftirs a fire ; and a few days after were
broken into a great number of fmaller pieces. Another
account of the fame is, that on the id and 4th of De¬
cember, the nucleus appeared to be a round, folid, and
luminous body, of a dulky lead colour, larger than any
ftar of the firft magnitude. On the 8th of the fame
month it was broken into three or four parts of irre¬
gular figures ; and on the 20th was changed into a
114 clufter of fmall ftars.
Phenome- « As the tail of a comet is owing to the heat of the
tails^^uo, grows larger as the comet approaches near to,
and fhortens as it recedes from, that luminary. If
the tail of a comet were to continue of the fame length,
it would appear longer or fhorter according to the dif¬
ferent view's of the fpe&ator 5 for if his eye be in a line
drawn through the middle of the tail lengthwife, or
nearly fo, the tail will not be difiinguifhed from the
reft of the atmofphere, but the whole will appear
round ; if the eye be a little out of that line, the tail
will appear fliort as in fig. 83.5 and it is called a bearded
eomet when the tail bangs down towards the horizon,
as in that figure. If the tail of a comet be viewed fide-
wife, the whole length of it is feen. It is obvious to
remark, that the nearer the eye is to the tail, the great¬
er will be the apparent length thereof.
“ The tails of comets often appear bent, as in fig.
84 and 85, owing to the refiftance of the asther ; which,
though extremely fmall, may have a fenfible effeft on
fo thin a vapour as the tails confift of. This bending
is feen only when the earth is not in the plane of the
orbit of the comet continued. When that plane pafies
thro’ the eye of the fpe&ator, the tail appears ftraight,
as in fig. 86, 87.
“ Longomontanus mentions a comet, that, in 161.8,
Dec. loth, had a tail above ico degrees in length ;
which {hows that it muft then have been very near the
earth. The tail of a comet will at the fame time ap¬
pear of different lengths in different places, according
as the air in one place is clearer than in another. It
need not be mentioned, that in the fame place, the dif¬
ference in the eyes of the fpe&ators will be the caufe
of their drfagreeing in their eftimate of the length of
the tail of a comet.
“ Hevelius is very particular in telling us, that he
obferved the comet of 1665 to caft- a fhadow upon the
the obferva-tajj . for jn middle thereof there appeared a dark
velhistLule”^ne* ^ ‘s fomewhat furprifing, that Hooke fnould
Hooke. be pofttive in affirming, on the contrary, that the
place where the fhadow of that comet fhould have been,
if there had been any (hadow, was brighter than any
other part of the tail. He was or opinion that comets
have fome light of their own : His obfervations were
snade^n a hurry ; he owns they were ftiort and tranfito-
ry. Hevelius’s w-ere made with fo much care, that
fcbere is more reafon to depend upon them. Dom. Caf-
yb/srvsd, in the tail ofthe comet, of i68q, a da.rk-
US:
Difference
between
nefs in the middle 5 and the like was taken notice ofAppearan-
by a curious obferver in that of 1744. ccsof the
“ There are three comets, viz. of 1680, 1744, and Self/*lal ,
, , r . r , > Bodies thro
J759> that deterve to have a tanner account given or'i’e[efCOpes-
them. The comet of 1680 was remarka-ble for its l——y 
near approach to the fun ; fo near, that in its perihe- n6
lion it was not above a fixth part of the diameter of Account of
that luminary from the furface thereof. Fig. 85, ta-tl’e
ken from Newton’s Pripcipia, reprefents fo much ofot 1
the traje&ory of this comet as it paffed through while
it was vifible to the inhabitants of our earth, in going
from and returning to its perihelion. It {hows alfo
the tail, as k appeared on the days mentioned in the
figure. The tail, like that of other comets, increafed
in length and brighthefs as it came nearer to the fun ;
and grew fhorter and fainter as it went farther from
him and from the earth, till that and the comet were
too far.off to be any longer vifible. uj
“ The comet of 1744 was firft feen at Laufanne in Of that of
Switzerland, Dec. J3th, 1743, From that time1?44,
it increafed in brightnefs and magnitude as it was co¬
ming nearer to the fun. The diameter of it, when at
the diftance of the fun from us, meafured about one
minute 5 which brings it out equal to three times the
diameter of the earth. It came fo near Mercury, that,
if its attraffion had been proportionable to its magni¬
tude, it was thought probable it would have difturbed
the motion of that planet. Mr Betts of Oxford, how¬
ever, from fome obfervations made there, and at Lord
Macclesfield’s obfervatory at Sherburn, found, that
when the comet was at its leaft diftance from Mercury,
and almoft twice as near the fun as that planet was, it
was ftill diftant from him a fifth part of the diftance
of the fun from the earth ; and could therefore have no
effedf upon the planet’s motions. He judged the co¬
met to be at leaft equal in magnitude to the earth. He
fays, that in the evening of Jan. 23, this comet ap¬
peared exceedingly diftinft and bright, and the diame¬
ter of.its nucleus nearly equal to that of Jupiter. Its
tail extended above 16 degrees from its body ; and was
in length, fuppofing the fun’s parallax 10", no lefs than
23 millions of miles. Dr Bevis, in the month of May
1744, made four obfervations of Mercury, and found
the places of that planet, calculated from correct
tables, differed fo little from the places obferved, as to
{how that the comet had no influence upon Mercury’a
motion.
“ The nucleus, which had before been always round,
on the ictb of February appeared oblong in the di-
re&ion of the tail, and feemed divided into two parts
by a black ftroke in the middle. One of the parts
had a fort of beard brighter than the tail ; this beard
was furrcunded by two unequal dark ftrokes, that fe-
parated the beard from the hair of the comet. The
odd phenomena difappeared the next day, and nothing
w'as feen but irregular obfcure fpaces like fmoke in the
middle of the tail ; and the head refumed its natural
form. Feb. 15th, the tail was divided into two branches ;
the eaftern part about feven or eight degrees .long, the
weftern 24. On the z^d, the tail began to be bent 5 it
{bowed no tail till it was as near to the fun as the or¬
bit of Mars; the tail grew longer as it approached
nearer the fun.; and at its greateft length was com¬
puted to equal a third part of the diftance of the earth,
from the fun. Fig.. 84. is a view of this comet, taken
Sea. II. A
Appearan- by an obferve? at Cambridgt
cesof the viewing it 1 thought the tail feemed to fparkle, or vi-
Ccleftial i . i • _ u   V»o IIIta
S T R O N O M Y. 447
I remember that in nomers could only reckon 103; but Dr Herfchel has Conclufion's
,. , .brate luminous partich
Teleftopes! in other comets 5 and that their tails lengthen and
v——/ fhorten while we are viewing. This is probably ow-
118 t0 t^le mot‘cn our a'r*
©f the co- “ The comet of 1^59 did not make any confidera-
met of ble appearance by reafon of the unfavourable fituation
*759’ of the earth all the time its tail might otherwife have
been confpicuous; the comet being then too near the
fun to be feen by us ; but deferves our particular con-
fideration, as it was the firft that ever had its return
foretold.” See the following Section.
Hevelius gives piftures of comets of various (hapes;
as they are deferibed by hiftorians to have been like a
fword, a buckler, a tun, &c. Thefe are drawn by
fancy only, from the defeription in words. He gives,
however, alfo pidures of fome comets, engraved by
his own hand from the views he had cf them through
a very long and excellent telefcope. In thefe we find
changes in the nucleus and the atmofphere of the fame
comet. The nucleus of the comet of 1661, which in
One obfervation appeared as one round body, as it
is reprefented in fig. 87. in fubfequent views feemed
to confift of feveral fmaller ones feparated from one
another, as in fig. 86. The atmofphere furround¬
ing the nucleus, at different times, varied in the extent
thereof; as did alfo the tail in length and breadth.
The nuclei of other comets, as has alteady been ob-
ferved, have fometimes phafes like the moon. Thofe
of 1744 and 1769 had both this kind of appearance.
difeovered upwards of 1250. He has alfo difeovered a{rom fhe
Hevelius mentions the like fpecies of them, which he calls planetary nebula;, on Appearan-
account of their brightnefs and fhining with a well-ces<
defined difk, being alfo capable of being magnified
more than the fixed ftars.
See fig. 34.
1 o. The fixed ftars, when viewed through the beft te-
by tele-
fcopes.
119
Number of    . w
fixed ftars lefcopes, appear not at all magnified, but rather dimi-
increated ;n ku]k . by reafon, as is thought by fome, that
the telefcope takes off that twinkling appearance they
make to the naked eye ; but by others more probably,
that the telefcope tube excludes a quantity of the rays of
light, which are not only emitted from the particular
ftars themfelves, but by many thoufands more.which fall¬
ing upon our eye-lids and the aerial particles about us,
are refletled into our eyes fo ftrongly as to excite vi¬
brations, not only on thofe points of the retina where
the images of the ftars are formed, but alfo in other
points at the fame diftance round about. 1 his with¬
out the telefcope makes us imagine the ftars to be
much bigger than when we fee them only by a few
rays coming.direftly from them, fo as to enter our
eyes without being intermixed with others. The num¬
ber of flats appears increafed prodigioufly through the
•telefcope; ; 70 ftars have been counted in the conftel*
lation called Pleiades, and no fewer than 2000 in that
of Orion. The late improvements of Mr Herfchelj
however, have fhown the number of ftars to be ex¬
ceedingly beyond even what the difeoveries of former
aftronomers would induce us to fuppofe. He has alfo
fhown, that many which to the eye, or through ordi¬
nary glaffes, appear fingle, do in fadl confift of two
or more ftars ; and that the galaxy or milky-way owes
its light entirely to multitudes of fmall ftars placed fo
clofe, that the naked eye, or even ordinary telefcopes,
cannot difeover them.
Iio j-[e bas fhown alfo, that the nebulae, or fmall whitifh
nC" fpec^3> difcoverable by telefcopes in various parts of the
heavens, are owing to the fame caufe. Former aftro-
Sect. III. Concluftons from the foregoing Appear*
The conje&ures which have been formed concern¬
ing the nature of the celeftial bodies are fo numerous,
that a recital of them would fill a volume ; while at the
fame time many of them are fo ridiculous, that abfur-
dity itfelf would feem almoft to have been exhaufted
on this fubjeft. izr
1. As a fpecimen of what were the opinions of the°Piniofls °f
ancient philofophers concerning the nature of the fun, eancients
it may fuffice to mention, that Anaximander and Anaxi-
menes held, that there was a circle of fire all along the
heavens, which they called the circle of the fun ; be¬
tween the earth and this fiery circle was placed another
circle of fome opaque matter, in which there was a hole
like the mouth of a German flute. Through this hole
the light was tranfmitted, and appeared to the inhabi¬
tants of this earth as a round and diftinft body of firei
The eclipfes of the fun were occafioned by flopping
this hole.
We muft not, however, imagine, that the opinions
of all the ancients were equally abfurd with thofe of
Anaximander and Anaximenes. Many of them had
more juft notions, though very imperfedl and obfeure.
Anaxagoras held the fun to be a fiery globe of fome
folid fubftance, bigger than Peloponnefus; and many
of the moderns have adopted this notion, only increa-
fing the magnitude of the globe prodigioufly. S‘r of sir Ifaac
Ifaac Newton has propofed it as a query, Whether the Newton,
fun and fixed ftars are not great Earths made vehe¬
mently hot, whofe parts are kept from fuming away
by the vaft weight and denfity of their fuperincumbent
atmofpheres, and whofe heat is preferved by the pro¬
digious adlion and reaftion of their parts upon one
another? But though Sir Ifaac has propofed this as a Of the ex¬
query, and taken the exiftence of a folar atmofphere foriftence of a
granted, there have yet been no proofs adduced in favour f°lar atmo-
of that opinion befides thofe of analogy and probability. ^erc*
There is, however, an appearance in the heavens term-
ed the femita luminfa, or zodiacal light, which is now gcm;ta iu.
generally fuppofed to be owing to the fun’s atmofphere. minofa, o*
This was firft difeovered by Dorn. Cafiini in 1683. It zodiacal
is fomething like the milky-way, a faint twilight, or light-
the tail of a comet, thin enough to let ftars be feen
through it, and feems to furround the fun in the form
of a lens, the plane whereof is nearly coincident with
that of the fun’s equator. It is feen ftretched along
the zodiac, and accompanies the fun in his annual mo¬
tion through the twelve figns. Each end terminates
in an angle of about 21® : the extent of it in length
from either of the angular points varies from 50 to too0;
it reaches beyond the orbit of Venus, but not fo far
as that of the earth. The breadth of it near the ho¬
rizon is alfo various; from 12 almoft to 30° ; near the
fun, where it may reafonably be fuppofed to be broad-
eft, it cannot be feen. This light is weakeft in the
morning and ftrongeft at night } difappearing in full
44^ ASTRO
Conclufionsmoonliglit or in ftrong twilight, and therefore is not
from the at a^j v;f,b]c about midfummer in places fo near either
Appearan- t^ie P0'es as to ^ave t^eir twilight all ^e night long,
ccs. but may be feen in thofe places in the middle of win-
v—-'ter both morning and evening, as it may in places un¬
der and near the equator all the year round. In north
latitude it is moil confpicuous after the evening twi¬
light about the latter end of February, and before the
morning twilight in the beginning of October ; for at
thofe times it (lands mod ere£t above the horizon, and
is therefore cleared from the thick vapours of the twi¬
light. Befides the difference of real extenfion of this
light in length and breadth at different times, it is di*
miniflied by the nearnefs of any other light in the Iky ;
not to mention that the extent of it will be differently
determined by different fpeftators according to the
goodnefs of their eyes.
Caffini’sex- Caffini, inquiring into the caufe of this light, fays
P;“ fird, that it might be owing to a great number of
nomenon. planets furrounding the fun within the orbit
of Venus; but foon reje&s this for what he thinks a
more probable folution, viz. that as by the -rotation
of the fun fome grofs parts are thrown up on his
furface, whereof fpots and nebulodties are formed ;
fo the great rapidity wherewith the equatorial parts
are moved, may throw out to a confiderable diffance
a number of particles of a much finer texture, of fuf-
ficient denfity ^o refleft light: now, that this light
was caufed by an emanation from the fun, fimilar to
116 that of the fpots, he thought probable from the fol-
Suppofes lowing obfervation : That after the year 1688, when
aomeanalo-jim light began to grow weaker, no fpots appeared
^upon the fun ; whereas, in the preceding years, they
fpots and were frequently feen there ; and that the great inequa-
iodiacal lity in the intervals between the times of the appear-
%ht. ances of the folar fpots has fome analogy to the irre¬
gular returns of weaknefs and ftrength in this light,
in like circumftances of the conftitution of the air,
and of the davknefs of the Iky. Cafiini was of opi¬
nion that this light in the zodiac, as it is fubjeft to
great increafe at one time and diminution at another,
may fometimesbecomequiteimperceptible; and thought
this was the cafe in the years 1665, 1672, and i68f,
when he faw nothing of it, though he furveyed with
great attention thofe parts of the heaven where, ac¬
cording to his theory, it mud have appeared if it had
been as vifib-le then as it was in others. He cites alfo
paffages out of feveral authors both ancient and mo¬
dern, which make it probable that it had been feen
both in former and latter ages, but without being fuf-
ficiently attended to, or its nature inquired into. It had
been taken for the tail of a comet, part of the twilight,
or a meteor of (hort continuance ; and he was fully
convinced of its having appeared formerly, from a paf-
fage in an Englifh book of Mr Ghildrey’s, printed in
1661. This paffage is as follows :•
“ There is fomething more that we would recom¬
mend to the obfervation of the mathematicians, name¬
ly, that in the month of February, and a little before
and after it (as I have obferved for feveral years), about
ftx o’clock in the evening, when the twilight has en¬
tirely left the horizon, a path of light tending from
the twilight towards the Pleiades, and touching them
as it were, prefented itfelf very plainly to my view.
This path is to be feen when the weather is clear;, but
S' !=•
N O M Y. Sea. III.
bed of all when the moon does not fiiine." The fame Conclufions
appearance is taken notice of in Gregory’s adronomy, fr0™
and there exprcfsly attributed to the fun’s atmofphere. *°rce°'n*
With regard to the folar fpots, Dr Long informs ce^earan
us, that “ they do not change their places upon theu—-y—j
fun, but adhere to his furface, or float in his atmo- 127
fphere, very near his body ; and if there be 20 fpots Dr Long’s
or faculse upon him at a time, they all keep in the fame°Pin!on of
fituation with refpeft to one another; and, as long asl*16 folar
they lad, are earned round together in the fame man- ^
ner : by the motion of the fpots therefore we learn,
what we (hould not otherwife have known, that tie
fun is a globe, and has a rotation about his axis.” Not-
withdanding this he tells us afterwards, “ The fpots,
generally fpeaking, may be faid to adhere to the fun,
or to be fo near him as to be carried round upon him
uniformly 5 neverthelefs, fometimes, though rarely, a
fpot has been feen to move with a velocity a little dif¬
ferent from the red ; fpots that were in different pa¬
rallels have appeared to be carried along, not keeping
always the fame didance, but approaching nearer to
each other ; and when two fpots moved in the fame
parallel, the hindmod has been obferved to overtake
and pafs by the other. The revolution of fpots near
the equator of the fun is (horter than of thofe that
are more didant from it.” *28
The apparent change of (hape in the fpots, as they s
approach the circumference of the di(k, according to „n 1T;C.
our author, is likewife a proof of the fun’s rotation
round his axis, and that they either adhere 1.0 the fur¬
face of the luminary, or are carried round his atmo¬
fphere very near his furface.
“ The rotation of the fun (fays Dr Long) being
known, we may confider his axis and poles, and their
fituation ; as alfo his equator, or a circle imagined to
be drawn upon that luminous globe equally didant
from his poles; we may alfo imagine leffer circles
drawn thereon, parallel to his equator.
“ The rotation of the fun is according to the or¬
der of the figns ; that is, any point on the furface of
that vad globe turns round fo as to look fucceflively
at Aries, Taurus, Gemini, &c. which is alfo the way
that all the primary planets are carried round him,
though each of them in a plane a little different from
that of the red. We mud likewife obferve, that the
plane of the fun’s equator produced, does not coincide
with the heliocentric orbit of any of the planets, but
cuts every one of them at a fmall angle : it is neareft.
to coincidence with the orbit of Venus.
“ The fun being a globe at a great didance from
us, we always fee nearly one half of that globe at a
time ; but the vifible half is continually changing, by
the rotation of the fun, and the revolution of the earth
in her orbit. To fpeak accurately, we do not fee Vifible part,
quite half the fun’s globe at a time ; we want fo much of the fun’s
of it as the fun’s apparent diameter amounts to, which, S^ke fefs,
at his mean didance, is about 32 minutes- fo much is
the diameter of the invifible part of the fun greater
than that of the vifible part; for this reafon a fpot may
be about two hours longer invifible than vifible-.
“ The time between the entrance of a fpot upon
the di(k and its exit therefrom, gives us nearly half
the apparent period of the fun’s rotation, which is u-
fually in about 13 days; a fpot that, after pafling the
difk.and.difappearing, returns again, gives the wholes
S T R O N
becaufe the fpot may the limits.
Sea. III. A
Couclufions time, but not with precifion
from the perhaps not keep all the while exadtly in the fame
foregoing^ p]ace# fornc floating motion of its own upon
ces< the furface cf the fun. Dorn, Gaffini, taking notice
t—V—; that feveral fpots had often appeared in the fame pa¬
rallel, thought that fome particular places of the fun
might be more difpofed than others to fupply the mat¬
ter of thefe fpots; and if fo, that they would not move
far from the place of their origin, juft as the fmoke cf
mount iEtna, if it could be feen from the fun, would
appear always to return to the fame place of the dilk
of the earth once every 24 hours, very nearly ; fome-
times a little fooner, fometimes a little later, according
as the fmoke
O M Y.
449
Immediately after, the apparent curvatureCondufions
of the fun’s equator and parallels continually decreafes £rom 4®
to the 19th of November, when they again appear as Appearan-
ftraight lines, the earth being then in the other node. ces.
From that time the equator of the fun and parallels >—y—J
become elliptical, convex towards the north ; their
curvature continually increafmg to the 15th of Febru¬
ary, when the earth is arrived at the other limit ; and
their curvature then decreafes continually to the j8th
of May, when they again appear as ftraight lines. li¬
very fpot is carried round the fun in his equator, 1
a parallel; therefore the apparent motion cf the fpots
^ upon the fun is re&ilinear every year in May and No-
as driven by the wind from the place of vember, at all other times elliptical.” See fig. 16, 17.
its eruption. In confequence of this fuppofition, he where the paths of fome folar fpots are delineated by
compared feveral large intervals between the appear- Mr Dunn, in a manner feemingly inconfiftent with
ances of fpots carried'in the fame parallel, which he what is juft now delivered from Dr Long. From a
judged to be returns of the fame fpots arifing out of farther confideration of the nature of the paths deferi-
the fame place on the furface of the fun, and found bed by the folar fpots, the Doftor concludes that their
appearance may be retarded about four hours by the
unequal motion of the earth in its orbit. 13a
The nature and formation of the folar fpots have been Oftile n
that 27 days 22 hours and 20 feconds was a common
meafure of thofe intervals very nearly : this, therefore,
he thought the moft proper period to be taken for an
apparent revolution of the folar fpots, and confequent-
]y of the fun himfelf as feen from the earth. Thefe
obfervations were made in April and May, nearly in
the fame time of the year, and therefore are not much
affe&ed by the inequality of the earth’s motion,
fame period is confirmed by Dom. Caflini.
Howto find r^^ie t'me °f apparent revolution of a fpot being
the true known, the true time of its going round upon the fun
timeofare-may be thus found : In fig. 3, the arc AC, which in
volution of tj,e month of May, the earth goes through in her or-
Fig 3°tS' k'1 *n 27 days 12 hours and 20 minutes, is 26^ 22';
the arc a c being equal to AC : the apparent revolution
of a fpot is the whole circle a b c d, ov 360°, with the
addition of the arc « c of 26° 22', which makes 386°
22': then fay, as 386.22 is to 27 d. 12 b. 2C/; fo is
360* to 25 d. 15 b. 16'; the true time of the rotation
of the fun, as it would be feen from a fixed ftar.
The angle of interfe&ion of the fun’s equator with
the ecliptic is but fmall, according to Scheiner being
never more than 8°, nor lefs than 6° ; for which rea-
fon he fettled it at 70, though Caffini makes it 74-
Sun^nodes^T’8 |dane continued cuts the ecliptic in two oppofite
and limits. P°'nls» which are called the fun's nocks, being 8° of u
and 8° of : and two points in the ecliptic, 90° from
the nodes, may be called the limits, Thefe arc 8° of
X and 8° of tl£. When the earth is in either of thefe
nodes, the equator of the fun, if vifible, would appear
as a ftraight line; and, by reafon of the vaft diftance
of the fun from us,, all his parallels would likewife ap¬
pear as ftraight lines ; but in every other fituation of
the earth, the equator and parallels of the fun would,
if vifible, appear as ellipfes growing wider the farther
the earth is from the nodes, and wideft of all when
the earth is in one of her limits.
“ In the prefent age (fays Dr Long)* on the 18th
of May, the earth is in the B*’ of +4, one of the nodes
of the fun, and confequently the fun’s equator and pa¬
rallels, if vifible, would appear as ftraight lines, .fig. 92.
From that time the fun’s equator, and every parallel,
begin to appear as half of an ellipfis convex, or fwell-
ing towards the fouth, and growing wider every day
to the 20th of Auguft, where it is at the wideft, as in
fig. 93, the earth being then in the 8° of Xi one of:
Vm. II. Part II.
have thought that the fun is an opaque body, moun-of the
tainous and uneven, as our earth is, covered all overfp0ts.
with a fiery and luminous fluid ; that this fluid is fub-
The je£t to ebbing and flowing, af:er the manner cf our
tides, fo as fometimes to leave uncovered the tops of
rocks or hills, which appear like black fpots; and that
the nebulofities about them are caufed by a kind of
froth. Others have imagined, that the fluid which
fends us fo much light and heat, contains a nucleus or
folid globe, wherein are feveral volcanoes, that, like
uE:na or Vefuvius, from time to time caft up quantities
of bituminous matter to the furface of the fun, and
form thofe fpots which are feen thereon 5 and that as
this matter is gradually confumed by the luminous fluid,
the fpots difappear for a time, but are feen to rife a-
gain in the fame places when thofe volcanoes caft up
new matter. A third opinion is, that the fun confifts
of a fiery luminous fluid, wherein are immerfed feveral
opaque bodies of irregular fhapes ; and that thefe bo¬
dies, by the rapid motion of the fun, are /ometimes
buoyed or raifed up to the furface, where they form
the appearance of fpots, which feem to change their
fhapes according as different fides of them are prefent-
ed to the view'. A fourth opinion is, that the fun con-
fifts of a fluid in continual agitation; that, by the ra¬
pid motion of this fluid, fome parts more grofs than
the reft are carried up to the furface of the luminary,
like the feum of melted metal rifing up to the top in a
furnace: that thefe feums, as they are differently agi¬
tated by the motion of the fluid, form themfelves into
thofe fpots we fee on the folar difk; and, befides the
optical changes already mentioned, grow larger, are
diminifhed in their apparent magnitude,, recede a little
from, or approach nearer to, each other, and are at laft
entirely diffipated by the continual rapid motion of the
fluid, or are otherwife confumed or abforbed. .
In the 64th volume of’the Phitofophical Tranfac-Spots ofth».
tions, Dr Wilfon advances a new opinion concerning fun fuppo-
the folar fpots, viz.' that they are hollows in the fur-^e<i.by t)r
face of the luminary. “ All the foregoing appearances
(fays he), when taken together, and u'hen duly con-
fidered, feem.to provein the moft convincing manner,
3.L. that.
4.P
ASTRO
tliat the nucleus of this fpot (December 1769) was
honi the confi.itrabiy beneath the level of the fun’s fpherical fur>-
*es^ai8n il next t^,ng which I took into confideration
■j ^ 1 was, to think of fome means whereby I could form an
e'iimate of its depth. At the time of the obfervation
I had, on December 12th, remarked that the breadth
, -of the fide of the umbra next the limb was about 14" ;
but, for determining the point in queftion, it was alfo
rt quifite to know the inclination of the fhelving fide of
the umbra to the fun’s fpherical furface. And here it
occurred, that, in the cafe of a large fpot, this would
in fome meafure be deduced from obfervation. For, at
the time when the fide of the umbra is juft hid, or be¬
gins fir ft to come in view, it is evident, that a line join¬
ing the eye and its obferved edge, or uppermoft limit,
coincides with the plane of its declivity. By meafuring
therefore the diftance of the edge from the limb, when
this change takes place, and by reprefenting it by a
proje&ion, the inclination or declivity may in fome
meafure be afcertained. For in fig. 27. let ILDK be
a portion of the fun’s limb, and A B C D a fe&ion
'His method °f ^ S L the fun’s femidiameter, L G the ob-
«of meafu- ferved diftance from the limb, when the fide of the
Ang their umbra changes ; then will the plane of the umbra C D
adepth. coincide with the line E D G drawn perpendicular to
S L at the point G. Let F H be a tangent to the
limb at the point D, and join S D.
“ Since GL, the verfed fine of the angle LSD, is
given by obfervation, that angle is given, which by
the figure is equal to F D E or G D H ; which angle
is therefore given, and is the angle of inclination of the
plane of the umbra to the fun’s fpherical furface. In
the fmall triangle therefore C M D, which may be con-
fidered as redlangular, the angle M D C is given, and
the fide D C equal to A B is given nearly by obferva¬
tion ; therefore the fide M C is given, which may be
regarded as the depth of the nucleus without any ma¬
terial error.
“ I had not an opportunity, in the courfe of the
foregoing obfervations, to meafure the diftance G L,
not having feen the fpot at the time when either of the
fides of the umbra changed. It is, however, certain,
that when the fpot came upon the dilk for the fecond
time, this change happened fome time in the night be¬
tween the nth and 12th of December, and I judge
that the diftance of the plane of the umbra, when in a
line with the eye, muft have been about 1' 55" from the
fun’s eaftern limb ; from which we may fafely conclude,
that the nucleus of the fpot was, at that time, not lefs
than a femidiameter of the earth below the level of the
fun’s fpherical furface, and made the bottom of an
amazing cavity, from the furface downwards, whofe
other dimenfions were of much greater extent.”
His con'ec Having thus demonftrated that the folar fpots are
threscon- 'va^; cavil>es in the fun, the Doftor next proceeds to
ceming the offer fome queries and conjectures concerning the na-
natureoftheture of the fun himfelf, and to anfwer fome objections
to his hypothefis,. He begins with aiking, Whether
it is not reafonable to think, that the vaft body of the
lun is made up of 'two kinds of matter very different
in their qualities ; that by far the greateft part is folid
and dark ; and that this dark globe is encompaffed
with a thin covering of that refplendent fubftance, from
which the fun would feem to derive the whole of his
fun.
N O M Y. Sea. III.
vivifying heat and energy ?—This, if granted, will af-Conclufions
fjord a fatisfadory folution of the appearance of fpots ;from the
becaufe, if any part of this refplendent furface (hall be^reE0’”^
by any means difplaced, the dark globe muft neceffari-ces> ea'an
ly appear; the bottom of the cavity correfponding to u—y—/
the nucleus, and the fhelving fides to the umbra. The
fhining fubftance, he thinks, may be difplaced by the
aCfion of fome elaftic vapour generated within the fub¬
ftance of the dark globe. This vapour, fwelling into
fuch a volume as to reach up to the furface of the lu¬
minous matter, would thereby throw it afide in all di¬
rections : and as we cannot expeCt any regularity in
the production of fuch a vapour, the irregular appear¬
ance and difappearance of the fpots is by that means ac¬
counted for ; as the reflux of the luminous matter muft
always occafion the dark nucleus gradually to decreafe,
till at laft it becomes indiftinguifhable from the reft of
the furface.
Here an objection occurs, viz. That, on this fuppo-
fition, the nucleus of a fpot whilft on the decreafe fhould
always appear nearly circular, by the gradual defcent
of the luminous matter from all fides to cover it. But
to this the DoCtor replies, that in all probability the
furface of the dark globe is very uneven and moun¬
tainous, which prevents the regular reflux of the ftii-
ning matter. This, he thinks, is rendered very proba¬
ble by the enormous mountains and cavities which are
obferved in the moon ; and why, fays he, may there
not be the fame on the furface of the fun ? He thinks
his hypothefis alfo confirmed by the dividing of the nu¬
cleus into feveral parts, which might arife from the lu¬
minous matter flowing in different channels in the bot¬
tom of the hollow.—The appearance of the umbra af¬
ter the nucleus is gone, he thinks, may be owing to a
cavity remaining in the luminous matter, tho’ the dark
globe is entirely covered.
As to a motion of the fpots, diftinCt from what they
are fuppofed to receive from the rotation of the fun
round his axis, he fays he never could obferve any, ex¬
cept what might be attributed to the enlargement or
diminution of thern when in the neighbourhood of one
another. “ But (fays he) what would farther con¬
tribute towards forming a judgment of this kind, is the
apparent alteration of the relative place, which muft a-
rife from the motion acrofs the difk on a fpherical fur¬
face ; a circumftance which I am uncertain if it has been
fufficiently attended to.”
The abovementioned hypothefis, the Doftor thinks,
is further confirmed by the difappearance of the umbrae
on the fides of fpots contiguous to one another; as
the adftion of the elaftic vapour muft neceffarily drive .
the luminous matter away from each, and thus as it„
were accumulate it between them, fo that no umbra
can be perceived. As to the luminous matter itfelf,
he conje&ures, that it cannot be any very ponderous
fluid, but that it rather refembles a denfe fog which
broods on the furface of the fun’s dark body. His ge¬
neral conclufion we fhall give in his own words.
“ According to the view of thirtgs given in the fore¬
going queries, there would feem to be fomething very
extraordinary in the dark and unignited ftate of the
great internal globe of the fun. Does not this feem
to indicate that the luminous matter that encompaffes
it derives not its fplendor from any intenfity of heat ?
For, if this were, the cafe, would not the parts under-
Sea. III. ASTRO
Conclufionsneath, which would he perpetually in contaft with that
from the glowing matter, be heated to fuch a degree as to be¬
foregoing come luminous and bright ? At the fame time it mult
Appearan- ^ confeffed, that although the internal globe was in
1 \ reality much ignited, yet when any part of it forming
the nucleus of a fpot is expofed to our view, and is
feen in competition with a fubftance of fuch amazing
fplendor, it is no wonder that an inferior degree of light
, (hould, ip thefe cafes, be unperceivable.
Experiment “ ^rder to obtain fome knowledge of this point,
propofed'inl think an experiment might be tried, if we had an
order to opportunity of a very large fpot, by making a contri-
confirm hisvance jn the eye-piece of a telefcope, whereby an ob-
ypotnelis. perver could look at the nucleus alone with the naked
eye, without being in danger of light coming from any
other part of the fun. In this cafe, if the obferver found
no greater fplendor than what might be expefted from
a planet very near the fun, and illumined by as much
of his furface as correfponds to the fpot's umbra, we
might reafonably conclude, that the folar matter, at the
depth of the nucleus, is in reality not ignited. But
from the nature of the thing, doth there feem any ne-
ceffity for thinking that there prevails fuch a raging and
fervent heat as many have imagined ? It is proper here
to attend to the diftindtion between this fhining matter
of the fun and the rays of light which proceed from it.
It may perhaps be thought, that the readtion of the
rays upon the matter, at their emiflion, may be pro-
dudtive of a violent degree of heat. But whoever would
urge this argument in favour of the fun being intenfely
heated, as arifing from the nature of the thing, ought
to confider that all polifhed bodies are lefs and lefs dif-
pofed to be heated by the adtion of the rays of light,
in proportion as their furfaces are more poliffted, and
as their powers of refledtion are brought to a greater
degree of perfedfion. And is there not a ftrong ana¬
logy betwixt the readlion of light upon matter in cafes
where it is refledled, and in cafes where it is emitted ?”
To this account of the folar fpots, fome objedtions
have been made, particularly by Mr Wollafton, in the
Philofophical Tranfadtions, and M. de la Lande in
the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences and to thefe
Dr Wilfon replied in the Philofophical Tranfadlions
for 1783, to the following purpofe.
137 “ Firft of all (fays he) it has been urged, as an*ob-
The Doc- je£t;on 0f great weight, that the abfence of the umbra
t^ob^ec-^ on one w^ere fpots are near the limb, is not al-
tions. ways conftant 5 and of this I was fufficiently aware,
having ftated three cafes from my own obfervation,
when I did not perceive this change to take place.
The reverend Francis Wollafton is the only perfon
who, in the Philofophical Tranfadlions, has bellowed
any remarks on my publication ; and though he ac¬
knowledges that the umbra generally changes in the
manner I have determined, yet he exprefles a difficulty
as to my conclufion, on account of this circumltance
not obtaining univerfally. Under fimilar expreffions,
M. de la Lande produces from his own obfervations,
which appear to have been long continued, only three
cafes of the fame kind, and four more from the ancient
obfervations of M. Caffini and De la Hire. In re¬
gard to thefe laft, I am not fure if fuch obfolete ones
ought to be referred to in a queftion of the prefent
kind. Thefe excellent obfervers, entertaining no thought
that any thing of moment depended upon a nice atten-
N
M Y.
45i
tion to the form of the fpots, might eafily overlook Conclufions
lefs obvious circumftances, efpecially when they were frorn
found near the limb. We may add farther, that even App°aran-
when they were fo fituated, they retain the umbra atces>
both ends; and that whole fide of it which lies far- y—-J
theft from the centre of the dilk and thefe parts in the
aggregate, they might fometimes miftake for the umbra
as not deficient in any particular place. But, even ad¬
mitting the anomaly we at prefent confider to be much
more frequent than can be contended for, ftill fuch
cafes can only be brought as fo many exceptions to the
general law or uniformity of appearance, from which
the condition of by far the greateft number of fpots is
moft undeniably deduced. The utmoft, therefore, that
can be alleged is, that fome few fpots differ from all
the reft, or from the multitude; and are not, like
them, excavations in the fun. But notwithftanding
thefe few inftances where the umbra is not found to
change, when we confider how perfeflly all fpots re»
femble one another in their moft ftriking features,
there naturally rifes fome prefumption for all under
that defeription we have given, partaking of one com¬
mon nature ; and for this only difference in the phe¬
nomena depending upon fomething, which does not
neceffarily imply a complete generical diftindlion. It
comes therefore to be inquired, how far fpots, which
when near the middle of the dilk appear equal and fi¬
milar in all things, may yet differ from one another as
excavations, or as poffeffing the third dimenfion of
depth ? and how far the peculiar circumflanccs by which
they may difagree, can contribute to make fome refill
this change of the umbra when ne&r the limb much
more than others i
“ In order to this, fuppofe two fpots which occupy
a fpace upon the fun correfponding to the equal arches
G D, fig. 94. and let G M, DM, be drawn fo as to
coincide with the plane of the excavation in fuch a
cafe. The breadth of the nupleus being commonly
equal to that of the furrounding umbra, if the bafe
MD of the triangle GDM conceived redliliueal, be
divided in L, fo as ML : LD : : MD : DG ; and if
through L be drawn LS parallel to DG, then will
DGSL be the fedtion of two fpots having this condi¬
tion ; and which, as to fenfe, would, when far away
from the limb, be equal in all apparent meafures; tho*
very unequal in the third dimenfion HE, or depth of
the nucleus SL, and alfo in the inclination DGM of
their fides parallel to the fpherical furface of the fun.
Now it is manifeft from the conftruftion of the figure,
that the diftances AB, AK, from the limb A, when
the fides GS of the umbra difappear, mull depend
very much on the latter of thefe two circumftances ;
and when, according as the angle of inclination DGM
is fmaller, the refpe&ive fpot will go nearer to the
limb than the other, before the fide of the umbra GS
vanilhes. But thefe very exceptions to the general
phenomena which we are at prefent examining, are of
this kind ; and may perhaps, from what has been now
fhown, proceed wholly from the fhallownefs and the
very gradual Ihelving of fome few fpots which break,
out in, certain tra&s of the fun’s body, over which the
luminous matter lies very thinly mantled.
“ In order to avoid circumlocution, we may call
that fide of the umbra which lies neareft the limb the
neareji umbra, and the fide oppofite the farthejl umbra.% ,
3 L 2 and.
•452 ASTRONOMY. Sea. Ill,
Conclufions and to enter more particularly into the confideration all upon a point of this kind. The breadth of theConclufions
from the now before us, let us fuppofe a fpot of 40" over all, umbra is, as affumed in the computations, about equalfrom the
Appearan- with it3 nuclei,s and umbra eq«ally broad ; then will to that of the nucleus, though fometimes it varies more^rfS°in8
the depth of the nucleus, and the apparent breadth of or lefs ; but how far thefe relative dimenfions indicate^sPpearan'
j the neared umbra, when the plane of the farthed comes
to coincide with the vifual ray, be expreffed as in the
following examples, where the apparent femidiameter
of the fun is fuppofed to be 16', and his parallax 8.3".
Fartheft umbra
fuppofed to
vanith when
diftant from
the limb.
1.
II.
III.
IV.
30
1J
Depth of nucle¬
us in Enghfii
miles and fe*
conds.
454"
3-°9
z.oy
1 44
2 1 T 8
1442
975
672
ts Now becaufe in every afpe& of
breadth of either the farthed or neared umbra mud be
to the projefted or apparent breadth as radius to the
fine of the angle which this refpeftiveplane makes w ith
the vifual ray, it follows, that at any time before the
fpot comes fo near the limb as is expreded in the above
examples, the apparent breadth of the neared and fur*
thed umbra cannot differ fo much as by the quantity
there fet down for the apparent breadth of the neared
when the other is fuppofed to vanifh. Regarding,
depth or diallownefs, mud be expounded only by ob-v-
fervation, and not by any vague and imperfeid notions
of the nature and eonditution of the fun.
“ The mention of a pit, or hollow or excavation fe-
veral thoufands of miles deep, reaching to that extent
down through a luminous matter to darker regions, is
ready to drike the imagination in a manner unfavour¬
able to a jud conception of the nature of the folar fpots
as now deferibed. Dpon fird thoughts it may look
drange how the fides and bottom of fuch vad abyffes
can remain fo very long in fight, whild, by the fun’s
rotation, they are made to prefect themfelves more
and more obliquely to our view. But when it is confi-
fpot the real dered how extremely inconfiderable their greated depth
 a. k- jg compared to the diameter of the fun, and how very
wide and (helving they are, all difficulties of this fort
will be entirely removed.” Unlefs, however, we duly
attend to thefe proportions, our notions upon the fub-
jeft mud be very erroneous ; and it feems the more
neceffary to offer this caution, as this very thing is
inaccurately reprefented in fig. 9. belonging to the Me¬
moir under review, and in a way that may lead to mi-
dakes. In (lead of exhibiting a fpot as depreffed be-
Apparent
breadth of
8.58
6.02
4-!3
2.87
therefore, the farthed and neared umbra of the fpot in low the furface of the fun one hundredth part of hit
Cafe IV. as two neighbouring vifibleobje<ds which turn femidiameter, the fedlion of it is there determined by
narrower by degrees as the fpot goes towards the limb,
we ffiould undoubtedly judge that they contraft as to
fenfe alike; fince, fo long as the farthed could be
perceived, the other cannot appear to exceed it by a
quantity that we could didinguiffi ; and by the time
the former coincides with the vifual ray, the extreme
nearnefs to the limb would prevent our forming any
certain judgment of either.
1 Prom this lad example, therefore, it appears ma-
two lines drawn from the circumference, and meeting
in a point at the prodigious diftance of one fifth of the
femidiameter below. Any reader, therefore, who
pleafes, by turning to fig. 95. may fee how very fmall
a portion of the fun’s body is made up of the luminous
matter when fuppofed every where 3967 Engliffi miles
deep. A is a fedlion of a fpot 5c/ diameter, fituated
in the deeped part of this refplendent fubdance.
“ What has now been infided on at fo much length
uifed, that a fpot anfwering to the defeription and concerning the fhallownefs and more gradual (helving
conditions therein mentioned, or one a little more dial- of fome few fpots, will alfo apply to another obje&ion
low, would approach the limb, and finally go off the
diflt, without that peculiar change of the umbra on
one fide which is fo obvious on common occafions, not-
withdanding it were an excavation whofe nucleus or
bottom is fo many miles below the level of the furface.
In the four cafes above dated, the, didance of the re-
moted part of the nucleus from the fun’s limb, when
the vifual ray coming from it is jud interrupted by
the lip of the excavation, or, in other words, the di¬
dance of the nucleus from the limb when it was totally
hid, was alfo computed. Thefe didances are as fol¬
lows :
Cafe I. - 16.93" Cafe III. - 4.7c''
II. - 8.90 IV. - 2.70
And it is remarkable, from the two lad, how very near
the limb a (hallow fpot of not more than 40" in diame¬
ter may come, before the nucleus wholly difappears.”
After deferibing the method in which thefe compu¬
tations were made, the Dodtor proceeds thus : “ Per¬
haps it may be urged, that very (hallow fpots ought
always to be known from the red, and difeover them¬
felves, by a furrounding umbra, very narrow, compared
to the extent cf the nucleus ; but we know far too
little of the qualities of the luminous matter, and of
4he proximate eaufes of the fpots to fay any thing at
which M. de la Lande views in a drong light. 138
“ Here we find quoted the great fpot in 17x9, feenHow a fpot
by M. Caffini; and, for the fecond time, that of Junemay
1703, feen by M. de la Plire ; both which, on their^j^^”
arrival at the limb, are faid to have made an indenta-0n the func¬
tion or dark notch in the di(k ; and this phenomenonlimb.
is mentioned as abfolutely incompatible with fpots be¬
ing below the furface.
“ It is mod true, that if we look for any thing like
this when the plane which coincides with the external
boundary of the fpots paffes through the eye, the way
that M. de la Lande confiders the matter, it mud be
very large indeed before the di(k could be perceived
deficient by any dark fegment. But may not a fpot,
even no larger than M. Caffini’s, confidered as an ex¬
cavation, make, in a manner very different from this,
fomething like a notch ; for, by the way, this pheno¬
menon is not in the Mem. Acad, nor any where dfe
that I know of, deferibed with any fort of precifion.—
M. Caffini’s great fpot, by which we underdood the
nucleus, was of 30" : and fuppofing the umbra equally
broad, its diameter over all mud have been 1' 30". It
would therefore occupy an extent upon the fun’s fur-
face of 50 22' fully. Now, fuppofe a circular fpace of
that nze upon the fun diltinguiihed from the furround-
>ng
A S T TLOIST OMY.
Plafe LX\1.
A
* f
*S
* r
% ft • iftoofal.
.A ttttfeJ.
* ‘
^ V
*0
o^X < 'Af't)/e.i.
.1 c/-$<■//■ ''Jw^/farfr/v-'
5e<a. m. ASTRO
ponclufions ing laftre by fucb a failure of light as is peculiar to
{From the fome fpots, and fuppofe that it juft touches the limb,
| foregoing jt wou](] fubtend an angle of more than 4". This
j:es>P being the cafe, might not a duiky fliade, more or lefs
tU—y—remarkable according to the darknefs of the umbra,
commencing at the limb, and reaching inwards upon
the diik, or, in other words, a notch, be perceived?
Had M. Caffini’s fpot been a very ihallow excavation,
it appears by Cafe IV. that when viewed in this afpeft,
fome fmall part of the nucleus might have yet been
vifible; and might have contributed, along with the
(hade of the fartheft umbra, and the ftill broader and
deeper (hade cf the two ends of the umbra, to mark
out the indentation.
“ Should it be faid, that thefe notches are always
diftindt and jet-black impreflions on the dilk, of an
obvious breadth, and originating entirely from the o-
paque nucleus conceived as fomething prominent above
the general furface, this can be (hown inconfiftent with
fome circumftances we find accidentally mentioned in
the cafe of M. de la Hire’s fpot; for of this great one
it was faid, that when only 8'' diftant from the limb,
the nucleus was feen as a very narrow line. This was
on June 3d 1703, at fix o’clock in the morning. Now,
forafmuch as at that time its alleged elevation muft
have been to its apparent fubtenfe very nearly as ra¬
dius to cofine of that arch of the fun’s circumference
whofe verfed fine was the 87 of diftance from the limb,
it is impoffible that its breadth could have increafed t
fenfibly in its further progrefs towards the limb; and
how any obvious black notch could be produced by
the elevation contended for in this cafe is not concei¬
vable.
“ I do not imagine, therefore, that the phenomena
of notches in the difle, fo inconfiderable and dubious as
thefe feem to be, are by any means a proof of projec¬
ting nuclei, or that they are not reconcileable to fpots
being depreffions on the fun. A large (hallow excava¬
tion, with the (loping fides or umbra darker than the
common, may, as has been (hown, be more or lefs per¬
ceptible at the limb; and what perhaps is a further
confirmation of this, and feems to evince that fuch
a concurrence of circumftances is neceflary, is, that
fometimes even'large fpots make no indentatiom M.
Cafiini, in Mem. Acad. Toim.X. pi 581. deferibes the
great fpot of 1676, which he faw at its entrance with
a telefcope of 35 feet, as an obfeure line parallel to the
limb; but no where mentions that it thade a notch in
! 1 it.
“ Though we now and then fee the furrounding
umbra darker than at other times ; yet when fpots
are deep, and the umbrae but little dulky, it is indeed
impofiible that we (hould fee any thing of them, even
though large, very near the limb : for here even the
nucleus, which lies buried, cannot in the lead contri-
j bute to the effed, as it may do a little before its date
of evanefcence, when fpots are very (hallow. Accord¬
ingly, cafes of this kind are perfeftly agreeable to ex¬
perience.
“ In reafoning concerning the nature of the fpots,
and particularly about their third dimenfion, the only
arguments which are admiflible, fend which carry with
them a perfedt convi&ion, are thole grounded upon
the principles of optical projection. If, for example,
the far greater number of them -be excavations fome
N O M Y.
453
thoufands of miles deep, certain changes of the umbra Conckfions
would be obfervable when near the limb, as has been Jrom t.hc
(hown at fo much length. Were they very (hallow, or Ap'pe'aran-
quite fuperficial, both fides of the umbra would as toces>
fenfe contradl alike in their progrefs toward the limb 5 v—y—
for if, in cafe 4th above dated, the fpot had been fup-
pofed fuperficial, the apparent breadth of the fide of
the umbra next the centre of the di(k would have made
them only 1.62", and that of the fide oppofite i.i’]".
Now, the whole of either of thefe quantities, and
much more their difference, would be quite infenfible.
Again, if the nucleus extended much above the com¬
mon level, whilft the furrounding umbra was fuperfi-
cial, we (hould behold the manifeft indications of this
by fuch an opaque body when feen very obliquely be¬
ing projected acrofs the fartheft fide of the umbra, and
by hiding the whole or part of it before the time it
would otherwife difappear. According to this or that
condition of the fpot, fuch things mud infallibly ob¬
tain by the known laws of vifion ; and hence arguments
refting upon fuch principles may be denominated opti¬
cal ones. On the other hand, when fpots are contem
plated near the middle of the difle, a great variety of
changes are obferved in them, which depend not upon
pofition, but upon certain phyfical caufes producing real
alterations in their form and dimenfions. It is plain,
that arguments derived from the confideration of fuch
changes, and which, on that account, may be called
phyjical arguments, can aflift us but little in inveftiga-
ting their third dimenfions ; and, from the nature of
the thing, muft be liable to great uncertainty. The
author of the Memoirs, in p. 511, &c. takes new
ground, and proceeds with a number of objedtions de¬
pending upon that fort of reafoning which we have laft
defined. I muft take notice, that a certain diftindtion
has been here overlooked, which in my paper I have
endeavoured to point out. Prefuming upon our great
ignorance of many things which doubtlefs affedt deep¬
ly the conftitution of that wonderful body the fun, I
offered in Part IL an account of the produdtion, chan¬
ges, and decay, of the fpots, confidered as excavations,
in the mod loofe and problematical manner; dating
every thing on this head in the form of queries.  ■
Hence 1 would remark, that whatever inconfiftencies
are imagined in the account I have delivered Part II.
though fuch may be juftly chargeable on certain prin¬
ciples there aflumed, yet they ought not to be ftated
as prefumptions againft the fpots being really excava¬
tions or depreflions in the luminous matter of the fun.
This opinion muft reft entirely upon the evidence held
forth in the firft part of the paper, whatever be the
fate of the»account laid down in the fecond. It does
not enter there as an hypothejis, but as a matter of fadt
previoufly eftablifhed by optical arguments ; and from
optical arguments alone can there arife even any juft
prefumptions againft it. 139
“ It remains now only to make a few ftrrdtures up-Remarkso*
on M. de la Lande’s theory of the folar fpots, humbly?'1,
fubmitting them to the confideration of the reader. The ^
import of it is, ‘ that the fpots as phenomena arife from the folar
dark bodies like rocks, which by an alternate flux and-fpots.
reflux cf the liquid igneous matter of the fun, fome¬
times raife their heads above the general furface. That
part of the opaque rock, which at any time thus (lands
above, gives the appearance of the nucleus, whilft thofe
parts*
454
R
N O M Y.
Sea, m.
Conclufionsparts, which in each ly only a little under the ig-
from the neous matter, appear to us as the furrounding umbra.’
oietromz {< the p]ace it may be remarked, that the
whole proceeds upon mere fuppofition. This indeed the
J author himfelf very readily acknowledges. Though
therefore it could not be difputed by arguments deri¬
ved from obfervation, yet conje&ure of any kind, if
equally plaufible, might fitly be employed to fet afide
its credit. Without entering into any tedious difcuf-
fion, however, we fliall confine ourfelves to fuch par¬
ticulars as appertain to the more obvious charadters of
the fpots, and which alfo feem to be irreconcileable
with the theory ; and firft of all with regard to the di-
ftinguiihing features of the umbra.
“ M. Caffini, Mem. Acad. tom. x. p. 582. PI. VII.
and M. de la Hire, Mem. Acad. 1703, p. 16, and I
may add all other obfervers, and all good reprefenta-
tions of the fpots, bear teftimony to the exterior boun¬
dary of the umbra being always well defined, and to the
umbra itfelf being lefs and lefs (hady the nearer it comes
to the nucleus. Now it may be afked, how this could
poffibly be, according to M. de la Lande’s theory ? If
the umbra be occafioned by our feeing parts of the
opaque rock which lie a little under the furface of the
igneous matter, Ihould it not always be darkeft next the
nucleus ? and, from the nucleus outward, Ihould it not
wax more and more bright, and at laft lofe itfelf in the
general luftre of the fun’s furface, and not terminate
all at once in the darkeft fhade, as in faff it does ?
Thefe few incongruities, which meet as it were in the
very threfhold of the theory, are fo very palpable,
that of themfelves they raife unfurmountable doubts.
For, generally fpeaking, the umbra immediately con¬
tiguous to the nucleus, inftead of being very dark, as
it ought to be, from our feeing the immerfed parts of
the opaque rock through a thin ftratum of the igneous
matter, is on the contrary very nearly of the fame
fplendor as the external furface.
“ Concerning the nucleus, or that part of the
opaque rock which Hands above the furface of the fun,
M. de la Lande produces no optical arguments in fup-
port of this third dimcnfion or height. Neither does
he fay any thing particular as to the degree of elevation
above the furface. But from what has been already
hinted in the courfe of this paper, it appears, that if
this were any thing fenfible, it ought to be difcovered
by phenomena very oppofite to thofe which we have
found to be fo general.
“ Again, a flux and reflux of the igneous matter, fo
confiderable as fometimes to produce a great number of
fpots all over the middle zone, might affeft the appa¬
rent diameter of the fun, making that which pafles
through his equator lefs than the polar one, by the re¬
treat of the igneous matter towards thofe regions where
no fpots ever appear. But as a difference of this kind,
of nearly one thoufandth part of the whole, would be per¬
ceivable, as we lea^n from M. de la Lande’s own ob-
fervations, compared with thofe of Mr Short in Hi-
ftoire Acad. 1760, p. 123, it would feem, that the
theory had this difficulty alfo to combat. Further,
when among fpots very near one another fome are ob-
ferved to be increafing whilft others are diminilhing,
how is it poffible this can be the effeft of fuch a fup-
pofed flux and reflux ? This laft inconfiftency is men¬
tioned by the author himfelf, who endeavours to avoid
it by making a new demand upon the general fund of Conclufions
hypothefis, deriving from thence fuch qualities of thefrom
igneous matter as the cafe feems to require ; and fuch^^^ran
muft be the method of proceeding in all fyftems mere-ces-
ly theoretical. But it is unneceffary to purfue at more'—y——'
length illufive fpeculations of this kind, efpecially as
we lie under a conviction founded on fadt, of the theory
being utterly erroneous. It hardly differs in any re-
fpedt from that propofed by M. de la Hire, and a little
amended by the writer of the Hijloire de /’ Academic
for 1707, p. 111. Views very much of the fame kind
were even entertained by fome fo long ago as the days
of Scheiner, as we find mentioned by that indefatigable
author in Rofa Urfina, p. 746.” J40
2. Concerning the moon, it is allowed on all hands, Great ine-
that there are prodigious inequalities on her furface. qualities ou
This is proved by looking at her through a telefcope,^.6 furfacc
at any other time than when (he is full ; for then there of the
is no regular line bounding light and darknefs ; but the
confines of thefe parts appear as it were toothed and
cut with innumerable notches and breaks ; and even in
the dark part, near the borders of the lucid furface,
there are feen fome fmall fpaces enlightened by the
fun’s beams. Upon the fourth day after new moon,
there may be perceived fome (hining points like rocks
or fmall iflands within the dark body of the moon ; but
not far from the confines of light and darknefs there
are obferved other little fpaces w'hich join to the en¬
lightened furface, but run out into the dark fide, which
by degrees change their figure, till at laft they come
wholly within the illuminated face, and have no dark
parts round them at all. Afterwards many more fhin-
ing fpaces are obferved to arife by degrees, and to ap¬
pear within the dark fide of the moon, which before
they drew near to the confines of light and darknefs
were invifible, being without any light, and totally im¬
merfed in the (hadow. The contrary is obferved in the
decreafing phafes, where the lucid fpaces which joined
the illuminated furface by degrees recede from it, and,
after they are quite feparated from the confines of light
and darknefs, remain for fome time vifible, till at laft
they alfo difappear. Now it is impoffible that this
(hould be the cafe, unlefs thefe (hining points were
higher than the reft of the furface, fo that the light of
the fun may reach them. I4T
Not content with perceiving the bare exiftence of Method of
thefe lunar mountains, aftronomers have endeavoured meafuring
to meafure their height in the following manner. Lettlle lun®r
EGD be the hemifphere of the moon illuminated by p;°UI^lnS*
the fun, ECD the diameter of the circle bounding light
and darknefs, and A the top of a hill within the dark
part, when it firft begins to be illuminated. Obferve
with a telefcope the proportion of the right line AE,
or the diftance of the point A from the lucid furface
to the diameter of the moon ED; and becaufe in this
cafe the ray of light ES touches the globe of the moon,
AEG will be a rjght angle by 16th prop, of Euclid’s
third book ; and therefore in the triangle AEG ha¬
ving the two fides AE and EC, we can find out the
third fide AC; from which fubdufting BC or EC, there
will remain AB the height of the mountain. Ric-
ciolus affirms, that upon the fourth day after new
moon he has obferved the top of the hill called St Ca¬
tharine's to be illuminated, and that it was diftant from
the confines of the lucid furface about a fixteenth part
of
Sea. III.
R O
Conclufionsof the moon’s diameter. Therefore, if CE=8, AE
from the w;u be Ij and ACX= CE2+AE1 by prop. 47. of Eu-
App™- clid’s firft ^ook Now, the fquare , f C£ being 64,
ces. and the fquare of AE being 1, the fquare of AC will
< 1 y.. . > be 65, whofe fquare root is 8,062, which expreffes the
length of AC. From which deducing BC=8, there
will remain AB = o,o62. So that CB or CE is there¬
fore to AB as 8 is to 0,062, that is, as Sooo is to 62.
If the diameter of the moon therefore was known, the
height of this mountain would alfo be known. This de-
monilration is taken from Dr Keil, who fuppofes the
femidiameter of the moon to be 1182 miles; according
to which, the mountain mull be fomewhat more than
nine miles of perpendicular height: but aftronomers
having now determined the moon’s femidiameter to be
only 1090 miles, the height of the mountain will be
142 nearly 8' miles.
Height of In the former edition of this work, we could not
the lunar help making fome remarks on the improbability that
mountains raountains 0f the moon, a planet fo much inferior .
over-rate . pJze t£) carth} fhould exceed in fuch vail propor¬
tion the higheft. of our mountains, which are computed
at little more'than one-third of the height juft men-
143 tioned. Our remark is now confirmed by the obfer-
Mr Her- vations of Mr Herfchel. After explaining the method
rebel's ob- ufed by Galileo, Hevelius, &c. for meafuring the lu-
onTthem.* nar mounta'ns> te"s us> that the former takes the
diftance of the top of a lunar mountain from the line
that divides the illuminated part of the dilk from that
which is in the lhade to be equal to one-twentieth of
the moon’s diameter; but Hevelius makes it only one
twenty-fixth. When we calculate the height of fuch
a mountain, therefore, it will be found, according to
•Galileo, almoft 5* miles; and according to Hevelius
3|. miles, admitting the moon’s diameter to be 2180
miles. Mr Fergufon, however, fays (Aftronomy ex¬
plained, § 252.), that fome of her mountains, by com¬
paring their height with her diameter, are found to be
three times higher than the higheft hills on earth :
and Keil, in his Aftronomical Le&ures, has calculated
the height of St Catharine’s hill, according to the ob-
fervations of Ricciolus, and finds it nine miles. Ha¬
ving premifed thefe accounts, Mr Herfchel explains
his method of taking the height of a lunar mountain
from obfervations made when the moon was not in her
quadrature, as the method laid down by Hevelius an-
fwers only to that particular cafe: for in all others the
proje&ion mull appear fhorter than it really is. “ Let
SLM, fays he, or // m, (fig. 96.) be a line drawn from
the fun to the mountain, touching the moon at L or /,
and the mountain at M or m. Then, to an obferver
at E or e, the lines L M, /m, will not appear of the
fame length, though the mountain Ihould be of an
equal height; for LM will be projedled into on, and
/ m into O N. But thefe are the quantities that are
taken by the micrometer when we obferve a mountain
to projedl from the line of illumination. From the
obferved quantity 0 n, when the moon is not in her
quadrature, to find L M, we have the following ana¬
logy. The triangles 0 O L, r M L, are fimilar ; there¬
fore L0: LG :: Lr : LM, orL^ilf=L M: but
L O is the radius of the moon, and L r or ow is the
obferved diftance of the mountain’s projedlion ; and
L 0 is the fine of the angle R O L 0 L S j which
N
M Y.
455
we may take to be the diftance of the fun from the Conclufions
moon without any material error, and which therefore^0151 t.he
we may find at any given time from an ephemeris. A^caran-
“ The telefcope ufed in thefe obfervations was aces>
Newtonian refledlor of fix feet eight inches focal1——v— —>
length, to which a micrometer was adapted, confifting
of two parallel hairs, one of which was moveable by
means of a fine ferew. The value of the parts fhown
by the index was determined by a trigonometrical ob-
fervation of a known objeft at a known diftance, and
was verified by feveral trials. The power was always
222, excepting where another is exprefsly mentioned;
and this was alfo determined by experiment, which
frequently differs from theory on account of fome fmall
errors in the data, hardly to be avoided. The moon
having fufficient light, an aperture of no more than
four inches was made ufe of; and, fays Mr Herfchel,
“ 1 believe, that, for diftin&nefa of vifion, this inftru-
ment is perhaps equal to any that ever was made.”
With this inftrument he obferved a prominence,
which he calls a rock, fituated near the Lacus Niger of
Hevelius, and found that it projedled 41.56". To
reduce this into miles? put R for the femidiameter of
the moon in feconds, as given by the nautical almanack
at the time of obfervation, and Q^for the obferved
quantity, alfo in feconds and centefimals; then it will
be in general, R : 1090 : : Qj Q-— 0 » in miles.
R
Thus it is found, that 41.56" is 46.79 miles. The
diftance of the fun from the moon at that time was,
by the nautical almanack, about 93v 571'; the fine of
which to the radius 1 is .9985, &c. and i- in this cafe
is L M = 46.85 miles. Then, by Hevelius’s method,
the perpendicular height of the rock is found to be
about one mile. At the fame time, a great many
rocks, fituated about the middle of the difk, projedled
frpm 25.92" 1026.56"; which gives on about 29.3
miles : fo that thefe rocks are all lefs than half a mile
high.
Thefe obfervations were made on the 13th of No¬
vember 1779. On the 13th of January 1780, exa¬
mining the mountains of the moon, he found that
there was not one of them fairly placed on level ground,
which is very neceffary for an exadt meafurement of
the projedlion: for if there ftiould be a declivity on
the moon before the mountains, or a tradt of hills pla¬
ced fo as to call a lhadow upon that part before them
which would otherwife be illuminated, the projedlion
would appear too large ; and, on the contrary, (hould
there be a rifing ground before them, it would appear
too little.
Proceeding in this cautious manner, Mr Herfchel
meafured the height of many of the lunar prominences,
and draws at lad the following conclufions.—“ From
thefe obfervations I believe it is evident, that the
height of the lunar mountains in general is greatly
over-rated; and that, when we have excepted a few,
the generality do not exceed half a mile in their per¬
pendicular elevation. It is not fo eafy to find any
certain mountain exadlly in the fame fituation it has
been meafured in before; therefore fome little differ¬
ence muft be expcdled in thefe meafures. Hitherto I
have not had an opportunity of particularly obferving
the three mountains mentioned by Hevelius j nor that
which
456 ASTRO
Conclufions which Ricciolus found to project a fixteenth part of
from the t^e moon’s diameter. If Keiil had calculated the
Appearan- l^‘s mentioned hill according to the
ceSi theorem I have given, he would have found (fuppofing
—v-—1 the obfervation to have been made, as he fays, on the
fourth day after new moon) that its perpendicular
height could not well be lefs than between u and 12
miles. I fhall not fail to take the firft opportunity of
obferving thefe four, and every other mountain of any
eminence ; and if other perfons, who are furnifhed
with good telefcopes and micrometers, would take the
quantity of the projeftion of the lunar mountains, I
make no doubt but that we fltould be nearly as well
144 acquainted with their heights as we are wi;h the ele-
Caution to vation of our own. One caution I would beg leave to
be obferved ment;on to thofe who may ufe the excellent 3 J feet
lond’s^de "re^ra<^ors ^ admirable quantity
fcopes. which on molt occafions is fo defireable, will
probably give the meafure of the proje&ion fomewhat
larger than the true, if not guarded againft by proper
limitations placed before the objeft-glafs. I have ta¬
ken no notice of any allowance to be made for the re¬
fraction : a ray of light mull fuffer in palling through
the attuofphere of the moon, when it illuminates the
top of the mountain, whereby its apparent height will
be leffened, as we are too little acquainted with that at-
mofphere to take it into confideration. It is alfo to
be obferved, that this would equally affeCt the conclu¬
fions of Hevelius, and therefore the difference in our
inferences would ftill remain the fame.”
In the continuation of his obfervations, Mr Her-
fchel informs us that he had meafured the height of
one of the mountains which had been meafured by
Hevelius. “ Antitaurus (fays he), the mountain
meafured by Hevelius, was badly fituated; becaufe
Mount Mofchus and its neighbouring hills caft a deep
fiiadow, which may be miftaken for the natural con¬
vexity of the moon. A good, full, but juft meafure,
25.105"; in miles, 29.27: therefore LM 3 1.7 miles,
and the perpendicular height not quite half a mile.
As great exaftnefs was defired in this obfervation, it
was repeated with very nearly the fame refult. Several
other mountains were meafured by the fame method;
and all his obfervations concurred in making the height
of the lunar mountains much lefs than what former
aftronomers had done. Mount Lipulus was found to
be near two-thirds of a mile ; one of the Apennine
mountains between Lacus Trafimenus and Pontus Euxi-
nus meafured a mile and a quarter ; Mons Armenia,
near Taurus, two thirds of a mile; Mons Leucop-
tera three quarters of a mile. Mons Sacer projeded
45.625"; ‘ but (fays he) 1 am almoft certain that there
are two very confiderable cavities or places where the
ground defeends below the level of tlie convexity, juft
before thefe mountains ; fo that thefe meafures muft
of courfe be a good deal too large : but fuppofing
them to be juft, it follows, that c n h 50.193 miles,
LM=64 miles, and the perpendicular height above
3., miles.’
■Volcanoes the moon has on its furface mountains and val-
ilifcovered leys in common with the earth, fome modern aftrono-
in the mers have difeovered a ftill greater fimilarity, viz. that
iaoon. fome of thefe are really volcanoes, emitting fire as thofe
on earth do. An appearance of this kind was difeo¬
vered fome years ago by Don Ulloa in.an eclipfe of
N° 32.
N O M Y. Sea. III.
the fun. It was a fmall bright fpot like a ftar near Conclufions
the margin of the moon, and which he at that timefrom t*16
fuppofed to have been a hole with the fun’^ light A^aran-
ning through it. Succeeding obfervations, however,ces>
have induced aftronomers to attribute appearances . -t /
this kind to the eruption'of volcanic fire ; and Mr
Herfchel has particularly obferved feveral eruptions of
the lunar volcanoes, the laft of which he gives an ac¬
count of in the Phil. Tranf. for 1787. “ April 19.
ioh. 36' fidereal time. I perceive (fays he) three
volcanoes in different places of the dark part of the
new moon. Two of them are either already nearly
extindl, or otherwife in a ftate of going to break out;
which perhaps may be decided next lunation. The
third ftiows an a&ual eruption of fire or luminous mat¬
ter. I meafured the diftance of the crater from the
northern limb of the moon, and found it 3' 57.3";
its light is much brighter than the. nucleus of the co¬
met which M. Mechain difeovered at Paris the 10th
of this month.
“ April 20. 10h. 2' fidereal time. The volcano
burns with greater violence than laft night. Its dia¬
meter cannot be lefs than 3", by comparing it with
that of the Georgian planet; as Jupiter was near at
hand, 1 turned the telefcope to his third fatellite, and;
eftimated the diameter of the burning part of the vol¬
cano to be equal to at leaft twice that of the fatellite
whence we may compute that the fliining or burning
matter muft be above three miles in diameter. It is
of an irregular round figure; and very fharply defined
on the edges. The other two volcanoes are much far¬
ther towards the centre of the moon, and refemble
large, pretty faint nebulae, that are gradually much-
brighter in the middle ; but no well-defined luminous
fpot can be difeerned in them. Thefe three fpots are
plainly to be diftinguiftied from the reft of the marks
upon the moon ; for the refledlion of the fun’s rays
from the earth is, in its prefent fituation, fufficiently
bright, with a ten-feet refle&or, to (how the moon’s
fpots, even the darkeft of them ; nor did I perceive
any fimilar phenomena laft lunation, though I then,
viewed the fame places with the fame inftrument.
“ The appearance of what I have called the afihtal
fire, or eruption of a volcano, exaftly refembled a
(mail piece of burning charcoal when it is covered by
a very thin coat of white allies, which frequently ad¬
here to it when it has been fome time ignited ; and it
had a degree of brightnefs about as ftrong as that with
which fuch a coal would be feen to glow in faint day¬
light. All the adjacent parts of the volcanic moun¬
tain feemed to be faintly illuminated by the eruption,
and were gradually more obfeure as they lay at a
greater diftance from the crater. This eruption ro
fembled much that which I faw on the 4th of May in
the year 1783, but diifiired confiderably in magnitude
and brightnefs; for the volcano of the year 1783,
though much brighter than that which is now burning,,
was not nearly fo large in the dimenfions of its erup¬
tion : the former feen in the telefcope refembled a ftar
of the fourth magnitude as it appears to the naked
eye ; this, on the contrary, (hows a vifible difit of lu¬
minous matter very different from the fparkiing bright- I4$
nefs of ftar-light.” Conjeftnre*.
Concerning the nature of the moon’s fubftance there concerning
have been many conjeftures formed.. Some have ima-)’erfu^*
J gined, ^3nce*
Sea. nr.
R
foregoing
Appearan-
Conclufionsgined, that, befides the light refle&ed from the fun,
from the tjje moon hath alfo fome obfcure light of her own, hy.
vbich fhe would be viuble without being illuminated
by the fun-beams. In proof of this it is urged, that
j during the time of even total eclipfes the moon is ftill
vifible, appearing of a dull red colour, as if obfcured
by a great deal of fmoke. In reply to this it hath
been advanced, that this is not always the cafe ; the
moon fometimes difappearing totally in the time of
an eclipfe, fo as not to be difcernible by the beft glaf*
fes, while little ftars of the fifth and fixth magnitudes
were diftindtly feen as ufual. This phenomenon was
obferved by Kepler twice, in the years 1580 and 1583 ;
and by Hevelius in 1620. Ricciolus and other Je-
fuits at'Bologna, and many people throughout Hol¬
land, obferved the fame on April 14. 1642; yet at
Venice and Vienna fhe was all the time confpicuous.
In the year 1703, Dec. 23, there was another total
obfcuration. At Arles, fhe appeared of a yellowifh
brown 5 at Avignon, ruddy and tranfparent, .as if the
fun had fhone through her : at Marfeilles, one part
was reddifh and the other very dufky ; and at length,
though in a clear fky, fhe totally difappeared. The
general reafon for her appearance at all during the time
of eclipfes fhall be given afterwards : but as for thefe
particular phenomena, they have not yet, as far as we
know, been fatisfafkorily accounted for.
Different conje£tures have alfo been formed concern¬
ing the fpots on the moon’s furface. Some philofophers
have been fo taken with the beauty of the brighteft
places obferved in her diflt, that they have imagined
them to be rocks of diamonds 5 and others have com¬
pared them to pearls and precious ftones. Dr Keill
and the greateft part of aftronomers now are of opinion,
that thefe are only the tops of mountains, which by
reafon of their elevation are more capable of refle&ing
the fun’s light than others which are lower. The duflc-
ifh fpots, he fays, cannot be feas, nor any thing of a
liquid fubftance ; becaufe, when examined by the fele-
fcope, they appear to confift of an infinity of caverns
and empty pits, whofe fhadows fall within them, which
can never be the cafe with feas, or any liquid fubftance:
but, even within thefe fpots, brighter places are alfo
to be obferved y which, according to his hypothefis,
ought to be the points of rocks (landing, up within the
cavities. Dr Long, however, is of opinion that fe¬
ver/ of the dark fpots on the moon are really wa-
tff. May not the lunar feas and lakes (fays he) have
klands in them, wherein there may be pits and ca¬
verns ? And if fome of thete dark parts be brighter
than others, may not that be owing to the^ feas and
lakes being of different depths, and to their having
rocks in fome places and flits in others ?
It has alfo been urged, that if all the dark fpots ob¬
ferved on the moon’s furface were really the fhadows
O N O M Y. 457
the decreafing moon lofe their light fooner than the in-Con=iuf:ons
termediatc ones : running round, and appearing fome- Jlom tiie
times longer, and iometimes ihorter. i ne Pe)'1^anenl yvppearan-
dark fpots, therefore, it is faid, muft be fome matter ces.
which is not fitted for reflediing the rays of the fun fo \
much as the bright parts do; and this .property, we
know by experience, belongs to water rather than land:
whence thefe philofophers conclude, that the moon, as
well as our earth, is made up of land and feas.
It has been a matter of difpute whether the moon Whether
has any atmofphere or not. The following argumentsthe moon
have been urged by thofe w’ho take the negative fide, has any au*
1. The moon conftantly appears with the famemoPiere*
brightnefs when there are no clouds in our atmofphere ;
which could not be the cafe if fhe were furrounded with
an atmofphere like ours, lo variable in its denfity, and
fo frequently obfcured by clouds and vapours. 2. In
an appulfe of the moon to a ftar, when foe comes fo
near it that part of her atmofphere is ipterpofed be¬
tween our eye and the ftar, refradion would caure the
latter feem to change its place, fo that the moon would
appear to touch it later than by her own motion file
would do. 3. Some philofophers are of opinion, that
becaufe there are no feas or lakes in the moon, there
is therefore no atmofphere, as there is no water to be
raifed up in vapours.
All thefe arguments, however, have been anfwered
by other aftronomers in the following manner. 1. It
is denied that the moon appears always with the fame
brightnefs, even when our atmofphere appears equally
clear. Hevelius relates, that he hasfeveral times found
in fkies perfedlly clear, when even ftars of the fixth
and feventh magnitude were vifible, that at the fame
altitude of the moon, and the fame elongation from the
earth, and with one and the fame telefcope, the moon
and its maculae do not appear equally lucid, clear, and
confpicuous at all times ; but are much brighter and
more diftinft at fome times than at others. From the
circumftances of this obfervation, fay they, it is evi¬
dent that the reafon of this phenomenon is neither in
our air, in the tube, in the moon, nor in the fpedlator’s
eye ; but muft be looked for in fornething exifting about
the moon. An additional argument is drawn from the
different appearances of the moon already mentioned
in total eclipfes, which are fuppofed to be owing to *
the different conftitutions of the lunar atmofphere.
To the fecond argument Dr Long replies, that Sir
Ifaac Newton has ftiown (ProP' 37* cor' 5-)»
that the weight of any body upon the moon is but a
thii^d part of what the weight of the fame would be
upon the earth : now the expanfion of the air is reef-1^he
procally as the weight that, compreffes it: the air, light is not-
therefore, furrounding the moon, being preffed toge-refrafted by
ther by a weight,, or being attraded towards the centrethe moon’s
of the moon by a force equal only to one-third of that atino^llerc
of mountains, or of the Tides of deep pits, they could^ which attrads our air towards the centre of the earth.
t poffibly be fo permanent as they are found to be ;
but would vary according to the pofition of the moon
with regard to the fun, as we find fhadows on earth
are varied according as the earth is turned towards or
from the fun. Accordingly it is pretended, that vari¬
able fpots are adually difeovered on the moon’s difk,
and that the diredion of thefe is always oppofite to the
fun. Hence they are found among thofe parts which
are fooneft illuminated in the increafiug moon, and in
VpL. II. Part II, &
thence follows, that the lunar atmofphere is only
one-third as denfe as that of the earth, which is too
little to produce any fenfible refradion of . the ftars
light. . Other aftronomers have contended that fuch
refradion was fometimes very apparent. Mr Cafiini
fays that he frequently obferved Saturn, Jupiter, and :
the fixed ftars, to have their circular figure changed in¬
to an elliptical one, when they approached either to .
the moon’s daik or illuminated limb, though they,
3 M - owu, ,
149
Xuminons
ting obfer-
vcd about
the moon
in total
£clipfes,
A S T R O
own, tlintj in other cccultations, no fuch change could
be obferved. With regard to the fixed ftars, indeed,
it has been urged, that, granting the moon to have
an atmofphere of the fame nature and quantity as ours*
no fuch effetl as a gradual diminution of light ought
to take place ; at leaft, that we could by no means be
capable of perceiving it. Our atmofphere is found to
be fo rare at the height of 44 miles as to be incapable
of refrafting the rays of light. This height is the
i8otb part of the earth’s diameter; but fince clouds
aVe never obferved higher than four miles, we muft con¬
clude that the vaporous or obfeure part is only one
1980th. The mean apparent diameter of the moon
is 31' 29", or 1889 feconds : therefore the obfeure
parts of her atmofphere, when viewed from the earth,
mull fubtend an angle of lefs than one fecond ; which
fpace is palled over by the moon in lefs than two fe¬
conds of time. It can therefore hardly be expedled
that obfervation Ihould generally determine whether
the fuppofed obfeuration takes place or not.
The third argument is necelfarily inconclufive, be-
eaufe we know not whether there is any water in the
moon or not; nor, though this could be demonftrated,
would it follow that the lunar atmofphere anfwers no
other purpofe than the railing of water into vapour.
There is, however, a ftrong argument in favour of
the exiftence of a lunar atmofphere, taken from the
appearance of a luminous ring round the moon in the
time of folar eclipfes. In the eclipfe of May i. 1706,
Captain Stanyan, from Bern in Switzerland, writes,
that “ the fun was totally darkened there for the fpace
of four minutes and a half: that a fixed liar and pla¬
net appeared very bright: that his getting out of the
eclipfe was preceded by a-blood-red Itreak of light
from his left limb, which continued not longer than fix
or feven feconds of time ; then part of the fun’s dilk
appeared, all on a fudden, brighter than Venus was
ever feen in the night; and in that very inftant gave
light and (hadow to things as ftrong as moon-light ufes
to do.” The publilher of this account obferves, that
the red ftreak of light preceding the emerfion of the
fun’s body, is a proof that the moon has an atmo¬
fphere ; and its fiiort continuance of five or fix feconds
Ihows that its height is not more than the five or fix
hundredth part of her diameter.
Fatio, who obferved the fame eclipfe at Geneva,
tells us, that “ there was feen during the whole time
of the total immerfion, a whitenefs which feemed to
break out from behind the moon, and to encompafs
her on all fides equally : this whitenefs was not .well
defined on its outward fide, and the breadth of it was
not a twelfth part of the diameter of the moon. The
planet appeared very black, and her diik very well de¬
fined within the whitenefs which encompaffed it about,
and was of the fame colour as that of a white crown
«r halo of about four or five degrees in diameter, which
accompanied it, and had the moon for its centre. A
little after the fun had begun to appear again, the
whitenefs, and the crown which had encompaffed the
moon, did entire]^’ vanifh.” “ I muft add (fays Dr
.Long), that this defeription is a little perplexed, ei¬
ther through the fault of the author or of the tranf-
lator; for I fuppofe Fatio wrote in French : however,
it plainly appears by it that the moon’s atmofphere was
■vifible, furrounded by a light of larger extent, which
- N O M Y. Sea. III.
I think muft be that luminous appearance (the zodiacal Conclufious
light) mentioned from Caffini.” Flamftead, who pub-from ^’e
lifted this account, takes notice, that, according to^ppearau-
thefe obfervations, the altitude of the moon’s atmo-ces.
fphere cannot be well fuppofed lefs than 180 geogra
phical miles; and that probably this atmofphere was
never difeovered before this eclipfe, by reafon of the
fmallnefs of the refradftion, and the want of proper
obfervations.
An account of the fame cclipfe, as it appeared at
Zurich, is given by Dr Scheuchzer, in the following
words : “ We had an eclipfe of the fun, which was
both total and annular ; total, becaufe the whole fun
was covered by the moon ; annular, not what is pro¬
perly fo called, but by refra&ion ; for there appeared
round the moon a bright ftining, which was owing to
the rays of the fun rciradted through the atmofphere
of the moon.
Dorn. Caffini, from a number of accounts fent hira
from different parts, fays, that in all thofe places where
it was total, during the time of total darknefs, there
was feen round the moon a crown or broad circle of
pale light, the breadth whereof was about a 12th part of
the moon’s diameter : that at Montpelier, where the ob-
fervers were particularly attentive to fee if they could
diftinguift the zodiacal light already mentioned, they
took notice of a paler light of a larger extent, which fur-
rounded the crown of light before mentioned, and
fpread itfelf on each fide of it, to the diftance of four
degrees. He then mentions Kepler’s opinion, that
the crown of light which appears round the moon du¬
ring the total darknefs in an eclipfe of the fun, is cau-
fed by fome celeftial matter furrounding the moon, of
fufficient denfity to receive the rays of the fun and
fend them to us ; and that the moon may have an at¬
mofphere fimilar to that of our earth, which may re-
fradl the fun’s light. i^0
A total cclipfe of the fun was obferved on the 22dDr Halley’s
of April O. S. in the year 1715, by Dr Halley at Lon*account ot'
don, and by M.'Louville of the Academy of Sciences3 o ar.c'
at Paris. Dr Halley relates, that “ when the fir ft part
the fun remained on his eaft fide, it grew very faint, and
was eafily fupportable to the naked eye even through the
telefcope, for above a mirrute of time before the total
darknefs ; whereas, on the contrary, the eye could
not endure the fplendour of the emerging beams through
the telefcope even from the firft moment. To this,
two caufes perhaps corrcurred : the one, that the pupil
of the eye did neceffarily. dilate itfelf during the dark¬
nefs, which before had been much contra&ed by look¬
ing on the fun : the other, that the eaftern parts of
the moon, having been heated with a day near as long
as 30 of ours, ntuft of neceffity have that part of its
atmofphere replste with vapours raifed by the fo long
continued aftion of the fun ; and, by confequence, it
was more denfe near the moon’s furface, and more ca¬
pable of obftriufting the fun’s beams; whereas at the
fame time the weftern edge of the moon had fuffered
as long a night, during which there might fall in dews
all the vapours that were raifed in the preceding long
day ; and for that reafon, that that part of its atmo-
fphere might be feeu much more pure and tranfparenf.
“ About two minutes before the total immerlion,
the remaining part of the fun was reduced to a very
fine hern, whofe extremities feemed to Jofe their acute-
nefs.
Sea. III.
R
N O M
459
Conclufionsnefs, and to become round like ftars ; and for the
from the fpace of about a quarter of a minute a fmall piece of
A^eanfn t*ie ^out^ern ^orn t^ie eclipfe feemed to be cut off
ces>.PCa an from the reft by a good interval, and appeared like an
< i - v < oblong ftar rounded at both ends: which appearance
would proceed from no other caufe but the inequalities
of the moon’s furface; there being fome elevated parts
thereof near the moon’s fouthern pole, by whofe inter-
pofition part of that exceedingly fine filament of light
was intercepted. A few feconds before the fun was
totally hid, there difcovered itfelf round the moon a
luminous ring, about a digit, or perhaps a tenth part
of the moon’s diameter is breadth. It was of a pale
■whitenefs, or rather of a pearl colour, feeming to me
a little tinged with the colour of the iris, and to be
concentric with the moon; whence I concluded it the
moon’s atmofphere. But the great height of it, far
exceeding that cf our earth’s atmofphere, and the
obfervations of fome who found the breadth of the ring
to increafe on the weft fide of the moon as the emerfion
approached, together with the contrary fentiments of
thofe whofe judgments I fhall always revere, make me
lefs confident, efpecially in a matter to which I gave
not all the attention requifite.
“ Whatever it was, this ring appeared much bright¬
er and whiter near the body of the moon than at a
diftance from it; and its outward circumference, which
was ill defined, feemed terminated only by the extreme
raiity of the matter of which it was compofed, and in
all refpedls refembled the appearance of an enlightened
atmofphere feen from far: but whether it belonged to
j-jj the fun or moon, I (hall not pretend to determine.
Flafhcs of During the whole time of the total eclipfe, 1 kept my
light appear telefcope conftantly fixed on the moon, in order to ob-
to dartfrom^ wj5a^ might occur in this uncommon appearance;
inoon t1C an<^ ^ ^aw PerPetual flalhes or corufcations of light,
which feemed for a moment to dart out from behind
the moon, now here, now there, on all Tides, but
more efpecially on the weftern fide, a little before the
emerfion ; and about two or three feconds before it, on
the fame weftern fide,, where the fun was juft coming
out, a long and very narrow ftreak of dulky but ftrong
red light feemed to colour the dark edge of the moon,
though nothing like it had been feen immediately after
the immerfion. But this inftantly vanifhed after the ap¬
pearance of the fun, as did alfo the aforefaid luminous
ring.”
Mr Lou- -L°uv^'e relates, that a luminous ring of a filver
ville’sob- colour appeared round the moon as foon as the fun was
fervations, entirely covered by her difli, and difappeared the mo¬
ment he recovered his light; that this ring was bright-
eft near the moon, and grew gradually fainter towards
its outer circumference, where it was, however, de¬
fined ; that it was not equally bright all over, but had
feveral breaks in it: but he makes no doubt of its be¬
ing occafioned by the moon’s atmofphere, and thinks
that the breaks in it were cccafioned by the mountaius
of the moon ; he fays alfo, that this ring had the
moon, and not the fun, for its centre, during the whole
time of its appearance. Another proof brought by
him of the m6on having an atmofphere is, that, to¬
wards the end of the total darknefs, there was feen on
that fide of the moon on which the fun was going to
appear, a piece of a circle, of a lively red, which might
be owing to the. red. ray s that are leaft refrangible be¬
ing tranfmitted through the moon’s attriofphers in the Conelufions
greateft quantity : and that he might be aflured this £ronr ^1C
rednefs did not proceed from the glafles of his tele-Apptarfn-
fcope, he took care to bring the red part into tl)emid-ces>
die of his glaffes.
He lays great ftrefs on the ftreaks of light which he 153
faw dart inllantaneoufly from different places of the lightning
moon during the time of total darknefs, but chiefly fuPPofed v>
near the eaftern edge of the difle : thefe he takes to be-^
lightning, fuch as a fpe&ator would fee flafhing fromjnoon.
the dark hemifphere cf the earth, if he were placed
upon the moon, and faw the earth come between him-
felf and the fun. “ Now (fays Dr Dong) it is highly
probable, that if a man had, at any time, a view cf
that half of the earth where it is night, he would fee
lightning in fome part of it or other.” LouviHe farther
obferves, that the moft mountainous countries are molt
liable to tempefts; and that mountains being more
frequent in the moon, and highert than on earth *, thun- ‘See n° 14#
der and lightning mult be more frequent there thane//ef,
with us ; and that the eaftern fide of the moon would
be moft fubjefl; to thunder and lightning, thofe parts ha¬
ving been heated by the fun for half the month im¬
mediately preceding. It mull here be cbferved, that
Halley, in mentioning thefe flafhes, fays they feemed
to come from behind the moon ; and Louviile, though
be fays they came fometimes from one part and fome-
times from another, owns, that he himfelf only faw
them near the eaftern part of the dilk ; and that, not
knowing at that time what it was that he faw, he did
not take notice whether the fame appearance was to
be feen on other parts of the moon or not. He telis
us, however, of an Englifli aftronomer, who prefented
the Royal Society with a draught of what he favv in
the moon at the time of this eclipfe; from which Dou-
ville feems to conclude that lightnings had been ob»
ferved by that aftronomer near the centre of the moon’a
difli. “ Now (fays Dr Long) thunder and lightning
would be a demonftration of the moon having an at¬
mofphere fimilar to ours, wherein vapours and exhala¬
tions may be fupported, and furnifh materials for
clouds, ftorms, and tempefts. But the ftrongeft proof
brought by Louville of the moon having an atraofpherc
is this, that as foon as the eclipfe began, thofe parts of’
the fun which were going to be hid by the moon grew
fenfibly palvlh as the forn^er came near them, fuffer-
ing beforehand a kind cf impeife£t. eclipfe or diminu¬
tion of light; this could be owing to nothing elfe but
the atmolphere of the moon, the eaftern part whereof
going before her reached the fun before the moon- 154
did. As to the great height of the lunar atmofphere, Great
which from the breadth of the luminous ring being^’S111 of
about a whole digit would upon a calculation come out t^eiu“arati"
180 miles, above three times as high as the atmofphereac”0^nj^.
of the earth, Louville. thinks that no objedfy'on; for.
fince, if the moon were furrounded with an atmofpherc
of the fame nature with that which eneompaffes the
earth, the gravitation thereof towards the moon would
be but one third of that of our atmofphere.towards the
earth and confequently its expaniion would.make the
height of it three times as great from the moon as is
the height of our atmofphere from the earth.”
The fame luminous ring has been obferved in other'
total eclipfes, and even in fuch as are annular, though;
without, the luminous ftreaks or flafl.es cf lightning, a..
3 M 2 ‘ bovc*
460 ASTRO
Conclufiohs bove mentioned 5 it is even taken notice of by Plutarch :
from the however, fome members of the academy at Paris have
oiegoing^ crK]eavou.red to account «for both thefe phenomena
, ces- without having recourfe,to a lunar atmofphere ; and
i—y—,, t for this purpofe they made the following experiments,
155 The image of the fun coming through a fmall hole in-
Thefe phe- to a darkened room, was received upon a circle of wood
therwift ac °r meta^ a diameter a good deal larger than that of
counted for" ^ie ^un’s image ? then the {hadow of this opaque circle
was call upon white paper, and there appeared round
it, on the paper, a luminous circle fuch as that which
furrounds the moon. The like experiment being made
with a globe of wood, and with another of ftone
not polifhed, the fhadows of both thefe caft upon pa¬
per were furrounded with a palilh light, moft vivid
near the fliadows, and gradually more diluted at a di-
ftance from them. They .obferve alfo, that the ring
round the moon was feen in the eclipfe of 1706 by
, Wurzelbaur, who caft her (hadow upon white paper.
The fame appearance was obferved on holding an opaque
globe in the fun, fo as to cover his whole body from
the eye ; for, looking at it through a fmoked glafs, in
order to prevent the eye from being hurt by the glare
of light it would otherwife be expofed to, the globe
appeared furrounded with a light refembling that round
the moon in a total eclipfe of the fun.
Thus they folve the phenomenon of the ring feen
round the moon by the infledfion, or diffrattion as they
call it, of the folar rays pafiing near an opaque fubftance.
As for the fmall ftrCaks of light abovementioned, and
which are fuppofed to be lightning, they explain thefe
by an hypothefis concerning the cavities of the moon
themfelves; which they confider as concave mirrors
refle&ing the light of the fun nearly to the fame point;
and as thefe are continually changing their fituation
with great velocity by the moon’s motion from the fun,
the light which any one of them fends to our eye is
feen but for a moment. This, however, will not ac¬
count for the flaflies, if arty fuch there are, feen near
the centre of the difk, though it does, in no very fatis-
fadtory manner, account for thofe at the edges.
Occulta- ^as already been obferved, that the occultations of
tions of the fixed ftars and planets by the moon, in general hap*
fixed ftars pen without any kind of refradb'on of their light by
by the the lunar atmofphere. The contrary, however, has
anoon. fometimes been obferved, and the ftars have been feen
manifeftly to change their lhape and colour on going
behind the moon’s dilk. An inftance of this happen¬
ed on the 28th of June N. S. in the year 1715, when
an occultation of Venus by the moon happened in the
day-time. Some aftronomers in France obferving this
with a telefcope, faw Venus change colour for about a
minute before (he was hid by the moon ; and the fame
change of colour was obferved immediately after her
emerfion from behind the diflt. At both times the
edge of the di(k of Venus that was neareft the moon
appeared reddifh, and that which was moft diftant of
a bluilh, colour. Thefe appearances, however, which
might have been taken for proofs of a lunar atmo¬
fphere, were fuppofed to be owing to the obfervers ha¬
ving diredted the axis of their telefcopes towards the
moon. This would neceflarily caufe any planet or ftar
near the edge of the moon’s di(k to be^feen through
thofe parts of the glaffes which are neat their circum¬
ference, and cdnfcquently to appear coloured. This
N O M Y. Sefl. Ill,
was evidently the cafe from other obfervations of an Conclufions
occultation of Jupiter by the moon the fame year,from t.he
when no fuch appearance of refra&ion could be per-^res°lns
ceived while he was kept in the middle of the tele-cefPCaran"
fcope. Maraldi alfo informs us, that he had obferved
before this two other occultations of Venus and one
of Jupiter; and was always attentive to fee whether
thofe planets changed their figure or colour either up¬
on the approach of the moon to cover them, or at
their firft coming again into fight; but never could
perceive any fuch thing. Nor could he, in a great
number of occultations of the fixed ftars, perceive
the fmalleft apparent change in any of them, except¬
ing once that a fixed ftar feemed to increafe its di-
ftance a little from the moon as it was going to be co*
vered by her; but this, he fufpedted, might be owing
to his telefcope being diredted fo as to have the flat
feen too far from the middle of its aperture. He con¬
cludes, therefore, that the moon has no atmofphere s
and he remarks, that at Montpelier, perhaps becaufe
the air is clearer there than at London, the luminous
ring round the moon appeared much larger than at
London ; that it was very white near the moon, and,
gradually decreafing in brightnefs, formed round her
a circular area of about eight degrees in diameter.
If, fays he, this light was Caufed by the atmofphere of
the moon, of what a prodigious extent tnuft that at¬
mofphere be ?
Before we enter upon any further fpeculations con-Ofapla*
cerning the celeftial bodies, we (hall here take fome no-ral‘ty
tice of the dodtrine of a plurality of worlds; towords'
which we are naturally led by the queftion, Whether
the moon is inhabited or not ? This is an hypothefis of
very ancient date, and which in modern times has
been revived in fuch a manner as now to be almoft
adopted as an undoubted truth. Plutarch, Diogenes,
Laertius, and Stobseus, inform us, that this dodtrine
was embraced by feveral of the ancient Greek philofo-
phers; from which authors Gregory has given us ex-
tradfs in the Preface to his Aftronomy. “ Among
the moderns (fays Dr Long), Huygens has written a
treatife, which he calls Cofmotheoros, or A view of the
world, worth perufing. One thing, however, 1 muft
find fault with ; that, in peopling the planets withrea-
fonable creatures, he infifts upon their being in all
points exadtly fimilar to the human race, as to the (hape
of their bodies and the endowments of their minds :
this is too confined a thought; for we cannot but ac¬
knowledge that infinite Power and Wlfdom is able to
form rational beings of various kinds, not only in (hape
and figure different from the human, but endowed alfo
with faculties and fenfes very different; fuch as in our
prefent (late we can have no idea of.” With regard
to the probability of the dodtrine itfelf, the Dodtor
expreffes himfelf in the following manner : “ Thatthe
earth and all the creatures thereon were created to be
fubfervient to the ufe of man, we may believe uj)on the
authority of the facred writer, Pfalm viii. but that the
ftars and planets were formed only to befpangle the
canopy of heaven with their glimmering, which does
not furnilh us with the twentieth part of the light the
moon gives, I think is,not at all probable : this is con¬
trary to the obfervation made by the beft philofophers,
that nature is magnificent in all her defigns, but frugal
in the execution of them. It is commonly faid, that
nature
Sea. III.
A
R O
Conclufionsnature Hoes nothing in vain: now by Nature, in a
from the found fenfe, muft be underftood the (ardent order and
Apjfea'ran- Hifpofition of things according to the will of the fu*
ces- preme Being.’
Objedlions have been made to the pofiibility of this
158 hypothefis from the different degrees of heat and light
Objeftions which the planets receive from the fun, according to
fibhit;6 their various diftances from him. On Venus, for in-
this'doc- fiance, the heat muft be more than double what it is
trine. with us, and* on Mercury upwards of ten times as
great; fo that were our earth brought as near the fun
as Mercury, every drop of liquid would be evaporated
into (team, and every combuftible folid fet on fire ;
while, on the other hand, were we removed to the di-
ftance of the fuperior planets, fuch as the Georgium
Sidus, Saturn, or even Jupiter, there is the higheft
probability that our liquids would all be congealed into
ice, at the fame time that the climate would be utterly
infupportable by fuch creatures as we are. Objeflions
of the fame kind are drawn from the fmall quantity of
light which falls upon the more diilant planets, which
160 it is thought would be infufficient for the purpofes of
fnconclu- Jiving and rational creatures. -Such arguments as thefe,
lve* however, are by no means eonclufive; for, as Dr
. Long juftly obferves, “ we are fure, that if the all-wife
fupreme Being hath placed animals on the planets, he
has fitted the inhabitants to the places, and the places
to the inhabitants.” We fiiall therefore only add the fol-
^ Introd. to lowing quotation from MrNioholfon f concerning final
ca,1^es> which fums up all that can be faid with propriety
o . 1. 1 3. -n favour 0£ jjjg do&rine in queftion.—“ The purpofes or
motives (fays he) which determine the aftions of intel¬
ligent beings, and produce their effedfs in a manner fimi-
lar to the operation of the laws of nature, or the proper¬
ties of matter in cafes where thought is not fuppofed
to be concerned, are called final caufeu In the works
of nature we behold enough of exquifite contrivance,
and can fee far enough into many final eaufes, to con¬
vince us that the arrangement of the univerfe has been
made, and probably ftill is occafiohally adjufted, by a
Being whofe intelligence and power are immenfely be¬
yond what we poffefs. To judge properly of his in¬
tentions, or, in other words, to be equal to the talk
of exploring final caufes, requires no lefs than a perfedl
knowledge and recolledlion of every purpofe to which
the objedfs around us may be applied, together with a
dear conception of the ideas of fitnefs and order that
form the prototypes in the mind of that Great Being
who direfts their motions. Thefe confiderations fliovv
the abfurdity of attempting to explain the final caufes
of every event we fee •, but they by no means require
that we (hould negledl them in cafes where we have
reafon to believe that we underftand the phenomena,
and have fufficient experience to be affured that we
difccrn the principal, or at lead one of the principal,
purpofes to which things may have been deftined.
Thus it is fcarcely to be imagined that we can err in
concluding, that the eyes, ears, legs, wings, and other
parts of animals, were ftiade for the purpofes of feeing,
hearing, walking, flying, and fo forth. Neither can
we avoid inferring, that the Power who conftrudfed li¬
ving creatures with mouths, teeth, and organs to digeft-
and afilmilate food for their nutriment, did likewife
form other organized bodies, which we call vegetables,
for the exprefs purpofe of affording that food. It is
N O M Y. 461
needlefs to multiply inftances. We cannot avoid fee-Conclufions
ing them every moment ; an’d their effedl is fo ftriking, £rom ^he
that we are infenfibly forced from analogy t0 ah°w the Appe°ra® _
exiftence of a final caufe in all cafes, whether we areces,
able to difcover it or not. ^--y- >
“ On this ground, an inquiry into the final caufes 161
of the planetary bodies offers itfelf to our confidera-9f the ,va'
tion. The earth is Ihown to be a planet in eireum-^^*^^
ftances very fimilar to the other five: we know 'ts tjje pianets:
final caufe—to fupport a number of inhabitants : And
by analogy we may conclude, that the others are alfo
habitable worlds ; though, from their different pro¬
portions of heat, it is credible that beings of our make
and temperature could not live upon them. However,
even that can fcarcely be affirmed of all the planets;
for the warmelt climate on the planet Mars is not
colder than many parts of Norway or Lapland are in
the fpring or autumn. Jupiter, Saturn, and the Geor¬
gium Sidus, it muft be granted, are colder than any
of the inhabited parts of our globe. The greateit
heat on the planet Venus exceeds the heat on the ifland
of St Thomas on the coaft of Guinea, or Sumatra in
the Eaft Indies, about as much as the heat in thofe
places exceeds that of the Orkney iflands, or the
city of Stockholm in Sweden : therefore, at 6o° north
latitude on that planet, if its axis were perpendicular
to the plane of its orbit, the heat would not exceed
the greateft heat on the earth ; and of courfe vegeta¬
tion like ours might be there carried on, and animals
of the fpecies on earth might fubfift. If Mercury’s
axis be fuppofed to have a like pofition, a circle of
about 2c0 diameter round each pole would enjoy the
fame temperature as the warmer regions of the earth,
though in its hotteft climate water would continually
boil, and moil inflammable fubilances would be parch¬
ed up, deftroyed, or converted into vapour. But it
is not at all neceffary that the planets Ihould be peopled
with animals like thofe on the earth ; the Creator has
doubtlefs adapted the inhabitants of each to their fitu-
ation.
“ From the obfervations that have been juft made, Compari-
a bet ter idea may be formed of the proportions of heatf?n of the.
on the planets than can be conveyed by numbers. itl'sht ofthe
will not, however, be remote from our purpofe top“a®”t°rwit^
compare the light of the fuperior planets with that of0ur day.
our day 5 from whence it will appear, that they are
by no means in a ftate of darknefs, notwithftanding
their great diftance from the fun. This might be in-
ftanced by feveral different methods ; as by the fun’s
light admitted into a dark chamber, and received on
paper with different degrees of obliquity ; by a
greater or lefs number of candles brought into a room
for the purpofe of illuminating it with various degrees
of light ; or by various optical methods that need not
here be defcribed. It will be fufficient for the illuftra-
tion of the fubjedt, to compare their different propor¬
tions of light with that of a moonfhine night at the
time of full.
“ When the moon is vifible in the day-time, its
light is fo nearly equal to that of the lighter thin
clouds, that it is with difficulty diftinguilhed among
them. Its light continues the fame during the night }.
but the abfence of the fun fuffering the pupil of the:
eye to dilate itfelf, it becomes more confpicuous. It
therefore follows, that if every part of the Iky were
equally
462 A & T R O
Conclufions equally luminous with the moon’s difk, the light would
from the },,. tj,e fame as jf ;n day.ume it were covered with
foregoing t^jn C]0UCJS abovemcntioned. This day-light is
confequently m proportion to that or the moon as the
v—whole furface of the iky or vifible hemifphere is to the
furface of the moon ; that is to fay, nearly as 90,000
to 1. The light of the Georgium Sidus being to that
of the earth as 0.276 to ioo, will be equal to the effeft
of 248 full moons. Jupiter’s day will equal the light
of 3,330 moons; and that of Mars will require 38,700,
a number fo great that they would almott touch one
another. It is even probable, that the comets in the
moft diflant parts of their orbits enjoy a degree of light
much exceeding moonfhine.”
Of all the celeftial bodies, comets have given rife
to the greateft number of fpecuiations and conjeftures.
Their ’ ange appearance has in all ages been a mat¬
ter of terror to the vulgar, who uniformly have look¬
ed upon them to be evil omens and forerunners of war,
peftilence, &c. Others, lefs fuperftitious, fuppofed
them to be meteors raifed in the higher regions of the
air. But we find that fome part of the modern doc-
163 trine concerning them had been received into the an-
Suppofed cient Italic and Pythagorean fchools : for they held
by the an- them to be fo far of the nature of planets, that they
planets0 ^ t^ie‘r periodical times of appearing 5 that they
were out of fight for a long time, while they were
carried aloft at an immenfe diftance from the earth, but
became vifible when they defcended into the lower re¬
gions of the air, when they were nearer to us.
Thefe opinions were probably brought from Egypt,
from whence the Greeks borrowed great part of their
1^4 learning. However, it feems not to have been gene-
Ariflotle’s ra]]y received ; for Arifiotle, who mentions it, afierted
epmion t|iat tj,e heavens were unchangeable, and not liable to
*hci*rn,nS genii'3*'011 or corruption. Comets, therefore, which
he believed to be generated when they firft made their
appearance, and deftroyed when they vanilhed from
our fight, he maintained could not be heavenly bodies,
but rather meteors or exhalations raifed into the upper
regions of the atmbfpbere, where they blazed out for
a while, and difnppeared when the matter of which
they were formed was confumed. Seneca, who lived
jn the firft century, mentions Apollonius of Myndus,
a very careful obferver of natural caufes, to have been
of the fame fentiments w ith the moil ancient Greek
philofophers with regard to comets^ He himfelf had
feen two : one in the reign of Claudius, the other in
that of JSiero ; beftdes another which he faw while a
boy, before the death of Auguftus. He plainly inti¬
mates, that he thought them above the moon ; and
argues ftrongly againft thore who fuppofed them to
be meteors, or held other abfurd opinions concerning
them i declaring his belief that they were not fires
fuddenly kindled, but the eternal productions of na¬
ture. He points out alfo the only way to come at a
oertainty on this fubjeft, viz. by collecting a number
of cbfervations concerning their appearance, in order
to difeover whether they return periodically or not.
For this pOrpofe (fays he) one age is not Infficient ;
but the time will come when the nature of comets and
their magnitudes will be demonftrated, and the routes
they take, fo different from the planets, explained.
JPofleyity will then wonder that the preceding ages
N O M Y. Sea, III.
fhould be ignorant of matters fo plain and eafy to be Condufioas
known.” froni
For a long time this prediction of Seneca feemed
very unlikely to be fulfilled. The great authority ces.
which Ariftotle maintained for many ages, determined e—y—J
them to be nothing but meteors .cafually lighted up
in the air ; though they were manifeftly at a great
height, not only above the clouds, but fubjeCt to. the
diurnal revolution of the earth. In the dark and fu¬
perftitious ages, they were held to be the' forerunners
of every kind of calamity, and were fuppofed to have
different degrees of malignity according to the fiiape
they affumed 5 from whence alfo they were differently T^.
denominated. Thus, fome were fa id to be bearded, Onlv one
fome hairy; fome to reprefent a beam, fword, orfpec’iesof
fpcar 5 others a target, &c. ; whereas modern aftrono-thcm exifts,
mers acknowledge only one fpecies of comets, and ac¬
count for their different appearances from their differ¬
ent fituations from the fun and earth. jgg
It was not till fome time after people began to Kepler and
throw off the fetters of fuperftition and ignoranceBodin’s o-
which had fo long held them, that any rational hypo-Pinion of
thefis was formed concerning comets. Kepler, inthem'
other refpefts a very great genius, indulged the moft
extravagant conje&ures, not only concerning comets,,
but the whole fyftem of nature in general. The pla¬
nets he imagined to be huge animals who fwam round
the fun by means of certain fins afting upon the ethe¬
real fluid, as thofe of fiflies do on the water : and agree¬
able to this notion, he imagined the comets to be mon-
ftrous and uncommon animals generated in the celeflial
fpaces; and he explained how the air engendered them
by an animal faculty. A yet more ridiculous opinion,
if poffible, was that of John Bodin, a learned man of,
France in the 16th century.. He maintained that co¬
mets “ are fpirits, which having lived on the earth in¬
numerable ages, and being at laft arrived on the con¬
fines of death, celebrate tlieir laft triumph, or are re-,
called to the firmament like fliining flars ! This is fol-.
lowed by famine, plague, &.c. becaufe the cities and;
people deftroy the governors and chiefs who appeafe
the wrath of God.” This opinion he fays he borrow¬
ed from the philofopher Democritus, who imagined
them to be the fouls of famous heroes : but that being
irreconcilcable with Bodin’s Chriftian fentiments, he
was obliged to fuppofe them to be a kind of genii, or
fpirits fubjedk to death, like thofe fo much mentioned
in the Mahometan fables. Others, again, have denied
even the exiftence of comets, and maintained that they
were only falfe appearances occafioned.by the refradtion
or refledfion of light. ,
The firft rational conje&ure we meet with is that offiernouiMV
James Bernouilli, an Italian ailronomer,. who imagined opinion,
them to be the fatellites of fome very diftant planet,
which was invifible to us on account of its diflance, as
were alfo the fatellites, unlefs when in a certain part of
their courfe.
Tycho Brahe was the firft who reftored the co-TruIdoo
mets to their true rank in the creation.. Before his trine con-,
time, feveral comets had been obferved with tolerable«rninS
exadtnefs by Regiomontanus, Appian, Fabricius, andrhcrn revi*
others ; yet they all thought them below the moon.^ ^
But Tycho, being provided with much better inftru-C ° Uie’'
meats, fet himfelf with great diligence to obferve the
famous,
Sea. III. ASTRO
Gonclufions famous comet of 1577 ; and from many careful obfer-
from the vations, deduced that it had no fenfible diurnal paral-
Ap^aran- *ax ; ant^ t^eref°re vvas not or|ly ^ar above the regions
ces> of our atmofphere, but much higher than the moon.
Y—' But though few have'come fo near the earth as to have
any diurnal parallax, all of them have what may be
called an annual parallax ; that is, the revolution of
the earth in her orbit caufes their apparent motion to
be very different from what it would be if viewed from
the fun ; and this fhows them to be much nearer than
the fixed ftars, which have no fuch parallax. Kepler,
the difciple of Tycho, notwithftanding his ridiculous'
ccnjefture already mentioned, was very attentive to the
motions of the comets, and found that they did not
move in ftraight lines, as had been fuppofed. He
fhowed that their paths were coqcave towards the fun,
6 and fuppofed them to move in parabolic traje&ories.
*Their mo- Their true motion, however, was only difcovered
tion exaftlyfrom the obfervations made by Sir Ifaac Newton on
determined the great comet of 1680. This defcended almoft per-
by Sm Ifaac pen(j;cu]ar]y t0wards the fun with a prodigious velo-
Cw on‘ city ; afcending again with the fame velocity retarded,
as it had been before accelerated. It was feen in the
morning by a great number of aftronomers in different
parts of Europe, from the 4th to the 25th of Novem¬
ber, in its way toward the fun 5 and in the evening from
the 12th of December to the 9th of March following.
The many exadl obfervations made on this comet en¬
abled Sir Ifaac Newton to determine that they are a
kind of planets which move in very eccentric ellipfes ;
and this opinion is now looked upon to be certainly
cftablifhed. It was oppofed, however, by M. de la
Hire, and fome other French philofophers ; and it is
evident that the whole difpute now turned on mere
pradlical obfervation. If the return of any comet could
be predi&ed, and its periodical time calculated like
t»0 that of a planet, then the dodtrine might be concluded
Dr Halley certainly true, but not otherwife. Dr Halley therefore
prcdifts a fet himfelf to colleft all the obfervations he could on
comet’s re-comets ; and afterwards calculated the periodical times
tarn. of 24 of them, on a fuppofition of their being para-
boles but afterwards found that they agreed better
•with the fuppofition of their motion being performed
in very eccentric elliptical orbits. On this he calcu¬
lated a table of their elements ; from which it was ma-
nifeft that they were not comprehended in the zodiac,
fome of them making an angle of upwards of 8o° with
I7I the ecliptic.
Periodical By computations founded on thefe elements, the
times of Dodtor concluded that the comet of 1682 was the
different fame which had appeared in 1607 and 1531 ; that it
termined'' a Psr‘0(^ °*' 75 or 7^ years; and he ventured to
erm * foretel that it would return about the year 1758. The
comet which appeared in 1661 was fuppofed to be the
fame with that of 1532, and to ' ve a period of izy
years ; and from the equality of periods, and fimilitude
of appearances, it was concluded thaffthe great comet
of 16S0 was the fame which had appeared in 1106 in
the time of Henry I. and the conlulate of Lampa-
dius and Orelies about the year 53 t, and in the year
44 B. C. before Julius Caefar was murdered ; and
theqce concluded that its period was 575 years. Mr
Dunthorne, however, has endeavoured to fliow from a
MS. in Pembroke-hall library, that the Comet of
1106 could not be the fame with that of 16S0: but
N o M Y. 463
M. de by Lande thinks the four appearances related by Conclufions
Dr Halley ftronger proofs than a fingle obfervation, ^rcm’
which might be very faulty. Appea'rlu-
Since the time of Dr Halley, other aftronomers have ctS.
calculated the elements of 25 other comets; all of1—v——J
which, excepting one of three which appeared in 1759,
and which differs but little from that of 1531, 1607,
and 1682, and is therefore accounted the fame, dift’er
very much from each other; fo that we cannot help
concluding them all to be different, and that the num-
ber of thefe bodies is very great. “ It is not, how-Why co-
ever, unlikely (fays D? Long), from the immenfe-inter- mets may
val between the orbit of Saturn and the neareft fixed
ftars, that many of them have not defcended into thecven jn
planetary regions fince they have been looked upon as their peri"
celeftial bodies, and obferved accordingly : befides, ithelion.
may often happen, that a body may finifh its whole
period without being obferved by us, on account of the
unfavourable fituation of the earth in her orbit when
the comet is in its perihelion. Thus, if the comet be
either behind or before the fun, or nearly fo, it muff
be above our horizon in the day-time, and confequent-
ly invifible, except the fun (hould at that time be in a
total eclipfe ; for then the comet might be feen near
the fun, as tvell as the ftars and planets are : and this
cafe is faid to have happened ; for Seneca relates from
Pofiidonius, that a comet was feen when the fun was
eclipfed, which had before been invifible by being near
that luminary.”
A greater number of comets are feen in the hemi-Why more
fpbere towards the fun than in the oppofite ; the reafonare feen in
of which will eafily appear from fig. 97. wherein Sthehemi-
reprefents the fun, E the earth, A B C D the fphere
the fixed ftars : and becaufe comets either do not re-pun than ia
fleft light enough to be vifible, or emit tails confpi- the oppo-
cuous enough to attradf our notice, till they come with-fite.
in the planetary regions, commonly a good way with¬
in the fphere of Jupiter, let K L M N be a fphere con
centric to the fun, at fuch a diftance from him, that
no comet can be feen by us till it come within that
diftance ; through E draw the plane B D perpendicular
to S E, which will divide the fphere K L M N into two
hemifpheres, one of which, BC D, is towards the fun,
the other, DAB, oppofite. Now it is manifeft, that
the fpherical portion L M N, which is in the hemi,-
fphere BCD towards the fun, is larger than the portion
N K L in the hemifphere oppefite to him ; and confe-
quently a greater number of comets will appear in the
hemifphere BCD than in that marked DAB. 174
Though the orbits of all comets are very eccentric ®reat
ellipfes, there are vaft differences among them ; for ex- th^ecccn*1-
cepting Mercury, there are no great differences among tricities of
them either as to the eccentricity of their orbits, or thethe orbits
inclination of their planes; but the planes of fome comets comets,
are almoft perpendicular to others, and fome of their ellip¬
fes are much wider than others. The nanoweft ellipfi*
of any comet hitherto obferved vvas that of 168©. There
is alfo a much greater inequality in the motion of the
comets than of the planets ; the velocity of the former
being incomparably greater in their perihelion than ia
their aphelion; but the planets are but very little ac¬
celerated. •
Aftronomers are now generally agreed, that comets 0 ;
are opaque bodies, enlightened by the fun. EleveliuSjcone1””"*
in a large work, wherein he gives the opinion of vari- their fub-
OUS fiance.
464
RON
M Y.
Sea. nr.
Conclufions ous authors on the fubjeft, mentions fome who were of
from the fame f^ntiments with himfelf, that comets were fo
-Appearan- ^ar tran^Parent as to let the light of the fun pafs thro*
ces, them, which formal their tails. Sir Ifaac Newton
'..'■i v—was of opinion, that they are quite opaque ; and in
confirmation of this, he obfervcs, that if a comet be
feen in two parts of its orbit, at equal diftances from
the earth, but at unequal diftances from the fun, it al¬
ways fhines brighteft in that neareft the fun. They
are of very different magnitudes, which may be con-
jedtured from their apparent diameter and brightnefs.
Thus the head of a comet, wl.; n of the fame bright-
i»efs and apparent diameter with Saturn, may be iup-
pofed to be nearly about the fame magnitude with that
planet ; though this muff be attended with fome un¬
certainty, as we know not whether the heads of comets
refledt the fun’s light in the fame manner the planets
do. Their diftance may be known from their paral-
lax, in the manner related in a fubfequent fe&ion.
IJiftances, In this manner he found the diftance of the comet
diameters, of j577 to be about 21o femidiameters of the earth,
&c. offomeor about 840,000 miles diftant from us, its appa-
wnputed rent cI>ameter being feven minutes; whence he con¬
cluded, that the true diameter of the comet was to
that of the earth as 3 to 14. “ But (fays Dr Dong)
it was the hemifphere of the comet which was. then
meafured.” Hevelius, from the parallax and apparent
, diameter of,the head of the comet in 1652, computed
its diameter to be to that of the earth as 52 to 100.
By the fame method he found the diameter of the head
of the comet of 1664 to be at one time 12 femidiarae-
ters of the earth, and at another not much more than
5. “ That the head of a comet muft appear lefs the
farther it is from the earth (fays Dr Long) is obvious ;
but befides this apparent change, there is alfo a real
qne in the dimenfions of the head of the fame comet;
for, when near the fun, the atmofphere is dimimfhed
by the heat raifing more of it into the tail ; whereas, at
a greater diftance, the tail is diminilhed and the head
enlarged.” Hevelius computed the diameter of the
nucleus of the comets of 1661 and 1665 to be only a-
bout a tenth part of that of the earth ; and Cyfatus
makes the true diameter of the comet of 1618 to be
about the fame fize. Some comets, however, from
their apparent magnitude and diftance, have been fup-
pofed much larger than the moon, or even equal in
177 magnitude to fome of the primary planets; and fome
XyUpfes oc- have imagined, that by an interpofition of thefe bodies
cloned by betwixt the earth and fun, we might account for thofe
,s9n)?ts' darkneffes which cannot be derived from any interpofi¬
tion of the moon. Such are thofe mentioned by He¬
rodotus, 1. 7.C. 37. and 1. y.,c. 7Q.4 like wife theeclipfe
mentioned by Dion, which happened a little before the
death of Auguftus ; and it is obfervabie that Seneca
faw a comet that year. Some have even attempted to
account .in this manner for the darknefs which happen¬
ed at opr Saviour’s crucifixion ; and indeed it is cer¬
tain, that were a comet in its perigee to come between
the earth and fun, and to be moving the fame way
with the earth, it muft caufe a darknefs much more
intenfe, as well as of more cor.fiderable duration, than
what could take place in any lunar eclipfe.
Cpnjetlures Various conjedhures have been formed refpe&ing
•qncerning the tails of comets ; though it is acknowledged by
tljck tails. 3]^ that they depend on the fun fomehow or other j
JM° 32°
and for this plain reafon, that they are always turned Conclufions
from him 5 but in what manner this is accomplifhed,froin
we cannot eafily determine. Apian, Tycho-Bra he, and ^regoins _
others, thought the tail was formed by the fun’s raysceSi
tranfmitted through the nucleus of the comet, which —y—j
they fancied tranfparent, and was there refrafted as in
a lens of glai's, fo as to form a beam of light behind
the comet : but this cannot be the cafe, as wellbecaufe
the figure of a comet’s tail does not anfwer to fuch a
ref rad ion, as that fuch refra&ed light would not be
feen by a fpe&ator placed fideways to it, unlefs it
fell upon fome fubftance fufficiently denfe to caufe a
refleftion. Des Cartes and his followers were of opi- Opinion of
nion, that the tail of a comet was owing to the refrac-Des Cartes,
tion ofits head : but if this were the cafe, the planets and
principal fixed ftars muft have tails alfo ; for the rays
From them pafs through the fame medium as the light
from the comets. Sir Ifaac Newton was of opinion,
that the tail of a comet is a very thin vapour which
the head fends out by reafon of its heat: that it afcends
from the fun juft as fmoke does from the earth : that
as the afcent of fmoke is caufed by the rarefadtion of
the air wherein it is entangled, caufing fuch air to
afcend and carry the fmoke up with it; fo the fun’s
rays adling upon the coma or atmofphere of the co¬
met, do by rarefaftion and refradtion heat the fame: that
this heated atmofphereheats, and by heating rarefies, the
ether that is involved therein; and that the fpecific
gravity with which fuch ether tends to the fun, is fo
diminiihed by its rarefadFion, that it will now afcend
from him by its relative lightnefs, and carry with it the
reflecting particles whereof the tail is compofed. Tho’
the immenfely large tails of fome comets feem to re¬
quire a great quantity of matter to produce them, this
is no objedtion to the foregoing folution : for every
day’s experience ftiows what a great quantity of fmoke
is produced from a very little wood or coal; and New¬
ton has demonftrated, that a cubic inch of air equally
rarefied with that at the diftance of a femidiameter
from the earth’s furface, would fill all the planetary
regions to the orbit of Jkturn and beyond. Mairan
entertained a very different opinion. He fuppofed the
tails of the comets to be formed out of the luminous
matter whereof the fun’s atmofphere confifts. This
he fuppofes to extend as far as the orbit of the earth,
and to furnifh matter for the aurora borealis. M. de
la Lande is for joining the two laft opinions together.
Part of the matter which forms the tails of comets he
fuppofes to arife from their own atmofphere rarefied by
heat and pufhed forward by the force of the light
ftreaming from the fun ; and alfo that a comet palling
through the fun’s atmofphere is drenched therein, and
carries away fome of it. Mr Downing objedls to New¬
ton’s account, that it can hardly be luppofed the thin
vapour of the tail Ihould go before the morefolid body
, of the comet, when the motion thereof is fometimes fo
extremely fwift, as that of fome of the comets is faid to
be after the rate, as Sir liaac Newton calculated the
motion of the comet of 1680 to be, of no lefs than
880,0.00 miles an hour. He therefore fuppofes the
atmofphere of the comet to extend every way round it
as far as the tail readies ; and that the part of it which
makes the tail is diftinguilhed from the reft, fo as to
fall thick upon that pan of the atmolphere which goes
before the comet in its progrefs along its elliptic orbit.
The
Sea. III.
R O
ConclufiousThe greateft; obje&ion to tins is the immenfe magni-
from the tu(je 0f tjie atriiofpheres ; as it mull now be ftippofed to
Appearan* account f°r ^e vail lengths cf the tails of fomc co-
ces> mets, which have been faid to meafure above 80 mil-
-y—' lions of miles.
The many difcoveries which, lince t]ie time of New¬
ton, Halley, and other celebrated mathematicians, have
been made in ele&ricity, having brought in a new ele¬
ment unknown to former ages, and which fhows a vail
power through every part of the creation with which
we are acquainted, it became natural to imagine that
it mull extern! alio into thofe higher regions which are
altogether inacceffible to man. The fimilarity cf the
tails of comets to the aurora borealis, which is com¬
monly looked upon to be an eledlrical phenomenon,
therefore fuggefted an opinion at prefent far from being
generally dilbelieved, that the tails of comets are
jgo dreams of eleftric matter. An hypothefis of this kind
Dr Hamil- was publilhed by Dr Hamilton of Dublin in a fmall
tonofDub-treatife, intitled. Conjectures on the Nature of the Ati-
lin s opi- rora RorcaHs, and on the Tails of Cotnets. His hypo-
nl0n’ thefis is, that the comets are of ufe to bring back the
eledlric fluid to the planets, which is continually dif-
charged from the higher regions of their atmofpheres.
Having given at length the abovementioned opinion of
Sir Ifaac, “ We find (fays he) in this account, that
Sir Ifaac afcribes the afcent of comets tails to their
being rarer and lighter, and moving round the fun
more fwiftly, than the folar atmofphere, with which
he fuppofes them to be furrounded whilft in the neigh¬
bourhood of the fun ; he fays alfo, that whatever po-
fition (in refpedl to each other) the head and tail of
a comet then receive, they will keep the fame after¬
wards mod freely ; and in another place he obferves,
< That the celedial fpaces mud be entirely void of any
power of refiding, fince not only the folid bodies of
the planets and comets, but even the exceeding thin
vapours of which comets tails are formed, move thro’
' thofe fpaces with immenfe velocity, and yet with the
greatett freedom.’ I cannot help thinking that this
account is liable to many difficulties and objedlions,
and that it feems not very confident with itfelf or with
the phenomena.
“ I do not know that we have any proof of the ex-
idence of a folar atmofphere of any confiderable ex¬
tent, nor are we any where taught how to guefs at the
limits of it. It is evident that the exidence of fuch
an atmofphere cannot be proved merely by the afcent of
comets tails from the fun, as that phenomenon may
poffibly arife from fome other caufe. However, let us
fuppofe for the prefent, that the afcent of comets
tails is owing to an atmofphere furrounding the fun,
and fee how the effedls arifing from thence will agree
with the phenomena. When a comet comes into the
folar atmofphere, and is then defeending almofi diredl-
ly to the fun, if the vapours which compofe the tail are
raifed up from it by the fuperior denfity and weight of
that atmofphere, they mud rife into thofe parts that the
comet has left, and therefore at that time they may ap¬
pear in a direftion oppofite to the fun. But as foon as
the comet comes near the fun, and moves in a direction
nearly at right angles with the direction of its tail, the
vapours which then arife, partaking of the great velo¬
city of the comet, and being fpecifically lighter than
the medium in which they move, and being vafily ex-
Vol. II. Part II.
N O M Y. 465
panded through it, mud neceffarlly fuffer a refidanceflonclufion5
immenfely greater than what the fmall and denfe bodyj™™^
of the comet meets with, and confequently cannot P°f-Appeanui-
fibly keep up wdth it, but mud be left behind, or, asces.
it were, driven backwards by the refidance of that me-'——v —J
dium into a line directed towards the parts which the
comet has left, and therefore can no longer appear in a
dire&ion oppofite to the fun. And, in like manner,
when a comet pafies its perihelion, and begins toafeend
from the fun, it certainly ought to appear ever after
with its tail behind it, or in a dire&iun pointed to¬
wards the fun ; for if the tail of the comet be fpecifi¬
cally lighter than the medium in which it moves with,
fo great velocity, it mud be jud as impoffible it ffiould
move foremod, as it is that a torch moved fwiftly thro’
the air fliould projedl its flame and fmoke before it.
Since therefore we find that the tail of a comet, evea
when it is afeending from the fun, moves foremod, and
appears in a direftion nearly oppofite to the fun, I
think we mud conclude that the comet and its tail do
not move in a medium heavier and denfer than the mat¬
ter of which the tail confids, and confequently that
the condant afcent of the tail from the fun mud be ow¬
ing to fome other caufe. For that the folar atmofphere
fhould have denfity and weight fufficient to raife up the
vapours of a comet from the fun, and yet not be able
to give any fenfible refidance to thefe vapours in their
rapid progrefs through it, are two things inconfident
with each other : And therefore, fince the tail of a co¬
met is found to move as freely as the body does, we
ought rather to conclude, that the celedial fpaces are
void of all refiding matter, than that they are filled with
a folar atmofphere, be it ever fo rare.
“ But there is, I think, a further confideration,
which will diow that the received opinion, as to the
afcent of comets tails, is not agreeable to the pheno¬
mena, and may at the fame time lead us to fome know¬
ledge of the matter of which thefe tails confid ; which
I fufpedl is of a very different nature from what it has
been hitherto fuppofed to be. Sir Ifaac fays, the va¬
pours, of which the tail of a comet confids, grow hot
by reflefting the rays of the fun, and thereby warm
and rarefy the medium which furrounds them ; which
mud therefore afeend from the fun, and carry with it
the refledling particles of which the tail is formed 5 for
he always fpeaks of the tail as fliining by refleded
light. But one would rather imagine, from the phe¬
nomena, that the matter which forms a comet’s tail has
not the lead fenfible power of refle&ing the rays of
light. For it appears from Sir Ifaac’s obfervation
which I have quoted already, that the light of the
fmalled dars, coming to us through the immenfe thick-
nefs of a comet’s tail, does not fuffer the lead diminu¬
tion. And yet, if the tail can refled the light of the fun
fo copioufly as it mud do if its great fplendour be ow¬
ing to fuch refledion, it mud undoubtedly have the
fame effed on the light of the dars ; that is, it mull
refled back the light which comes from the dars be¬
hind it, and by fo doing mud intercept them from our
fight, confidering its vail thicknefs, and how exceed¬
ingly flender a ray is that comes from a fmall ftar 5 or
if it did not intercept their whole light, it mud at lead
increafe their twinkling. But we do not find that it
has even this fmall effrd $ for thofe dars that appear
through the tail are not obferved to twinkle more than
5 N others
466 ASTRONOMY. Sett. Ill,
Conclusions others in their neighbourhood. Since therefore this
from the faft ;s fupported by obfervations, what can be a plainer
foregoing proof tj)at (jjg matter of a comet’s tail has no power of
^>pcaran' rt.fle&ing the rays of light ? and confequently that it
* , .' be a felf-fhining fubftance. But the fame thing
will further appear, From confidering that bodies refleft
and refraft light by one and the fame power ; and
therefore if comets tails want the power of refraffing
the rays of light, they muft alfo want the power of re-
fle&ing them. Now, that they want this refracting
pow'er appears from hence : If that great column of
stranfparent matter which forms a comet’s tail, and
moves either in a vacuum or in fome medium of a dif-
sferent denfity from its own, had any power of refrac¬
ting a ray of light coming through it from a ftar to
ns, that ray muft be turned far out of its way in paf-
fing over the great diftance between the comet and the
earth ; and therefore we (hould very fenfibly perceive
the fmalleft refraftioti that the light of the ftars might
fuffer in paffing through a comet’s tail. The con-
fequence of fuch a refraffion muft be very remarkable :
the ftars that lie near the tail would, in fome cafes, ap¬
pear double ; for they would appear in their proper pla¬
ces by their direCl rays, and we fttould fee their images
behind the tail, by means of their rays which it might
refraCl to our eyes ; and thofe ftars that were really be¬
hind the tail would difappear in fome lituations, their
rays being turned afide from us by refraftion. In
fhort, it is eafy to imagine what ftrange alterations
would be made in the apparent places of the fixed ftars
by the tails of comets, if they had a power of refrac¬
ting their light, which could not fail to be taken no¬
tice of if any fuch ever happened. But fince aftrono-
mers have not mentioned any fuch apparent changes of
place among the ftars, I take it for granted that the
ftars feen through all parts of a comet’s tail appear in
their proper places, and with their ufual colours ; and
eonfequently I infer, that the rays of light fuffer no re-
fra&ion in paffing through a comet’s tail. And thence
I conclude (as before), that the matter of a comet’s tail
Iras not theptower of refrafting or reflefting the rays of
light, and muft therefore be a lucid or felf-fhining
^ fubftance.”
431r Jfaac’s But whatever probability the Doftor’s conje&ure
account de-concerning lbe materials whereof the tails are formed
fended. may have in it, his criticifm on Sir Ifaac Newton’s ac¬
count of them feems not to be juft : for that great phi-
Jofopher fuppofes the comets to have an atrr.ofphere pe¬
culiar to themfelves ; and confequently, in their neareft
approaches to the fun, both comet and atmofphere are
immerfed in the atmofphere of that luminary. In this
cafe, the atmofphere of the comet being prodigioufly
heated on the fide next to the fun, and confequently
•the equilibrium in it broken, the denfer parts will con¬
tinually pour in from the regions fartheft from the fun ;
for the fame reafon., the more rarefied part which is be¬
fore will continually fly off oppofite to the fun, being
difplaced by that which comes from behind ; for tho’
we muft fuppofe the comet and its atmofphere to be
heated on all fides to an extreme degree, yet ftill that
part which is fartheft from the fun will be lefs hot, and
confequently more denfe, than what is nearett to his
body. The confequence of this is, that there muft be
a conftant ftream of denfe atmofphere defeending to¬
wards the fun, and another ftream of rarefied vapours
and atmofphere afeending on the contrary fide ; juft as Conclufions
in a Common fire, there is a conftant ftream of denfe from the
air defeending, which pulhes up another of rarefied *°reSoing
air, flame, and fmoke. The refiftance of the folarce^pcaran'
atmofphere may indeed be very vvell.fuppofed to occa-1   ,
fion the curvature obfervable in the tails of comets,
and their being better defined in the fore part than be-
hind 5 and this appearance we think Dr Hamilton’s Dr jjamil-
hypothefis is incapable of folving. We grant, that ton’s hypo-
there is the utmoft probability that the tails of comets thffis infuf-
are ftreams of eleftric matter ; but they who advance ®c'€nt*
a theory of any kind ought to folve every phenome¬
non, otherwife their theory is infufficient. It was in¬
cumbent on Dr Hamilton, therefore, to have explained
how this ftream of ele&ric matter comes to be bent
into a curve ; and alfo why it is better defined and
brighter on the outer fide of the arch than on the in¬
ner. This, indeed, he attempts in the following man¬
ner : “ But that this curvature was not owing to any
refilling matter appears from hence, that the tail muft
be bent into a curve, though it met with no refiftance ;
for it could not be a right line, unlefs all its particles
were proje&ed in parallel direftions, and with the fame
velocity, and unlefs the comet moved uniformly in a
right line. But the comet moves in a curve, and each
part of the tail is projefted in a dire&ion oppofite to
the fun, and at the fame time partakes of the motion
of the comet 5 fo that the different parts of the tail
muft move on in lines which diverge from each other ;
and a line drawn from the head of a comet to the ex¬
tremity of the tail, will be parallel to a line drawn from
the fun to the place where the comet was when that
part of the tail began to afeend, as Sir Ifaac obferves j
and fo all the chords or lines drawn from the head of
the comet to the intermediate parts of the tail, will
be refpeftively parallel to lines drawn from the fun to
the places where the comet was when thefe parts of
the tail began to afeend. And therefore, fince thefe
chords of the tail will be of different lengths, and
parallel to different lines, they muft make different
angles with a great circle paffing through the fun and
comet; and confequently a line paffing through their
extremities will be a curve.
“ It is obferved, that the convex fide of the tail which
is turned from the fun is better defined, and fliines a
little brighter, than the concave fide. Sir Ifaac accounts
for this, by faying, that the vapour on the convex fide
is frefher (that is, has afeended later) than that on the
concave fide ; and yet I cannot fee how the particles'on
the convex fide can be thought to have afeended later
than thofe on the concave fide which may be nearer to
the head of the comet. I think it rather looks as if
the tail, in its rapid motion, met with fome flight re¬
fiftance juft fufficient to caufe a fmall condenfation in
that fide of it which moves foremoft, and which would
occafion it to appear a little brighter and better defined
than the other fide ; which flight refiftance may arife
from that fubtile ether which is fuppofed to be dif-
perfed through the celeftial regions, or from this very
ele&ric matter difperfed in the fame manner, if it be
different from the ether.”
On the laft part of this obfervation we muff remark,
that though a flight refiftance in the etherial medium
would have ferved Sir Ifaac Newton’s turn, it will by
no means ferve Dr Hamilton’s ; for though a ftream of
water
Sea. III.
ASTRO
may be eafily deftroyed or broken by re-
183
Elettric
matter
Conclufions water or
from the fiftance, yet a ftream of eleftric matter feems to fct
foregoing^ every obftacle at defiance. If a fharp needle is placed on
ces> the conduftor of an eleftric machine, and the machine
-y—-j fet in motion, we will perceive a fmall itream of eledtric
matter ifluing from the point; but though we blow a-
gainft this dream of fire with the utmoit violence, it
is impofiible either to move it, or to brighten it on the
fide againft which we blow. If the celeftial fpaces
then are full of a fubtile ether capable of thus affedting
a dream of eledtric matter, we may be fure that it al-
fo will refid very violently : and we are then as much
difficulted to account for the projedlile motion conti¬
nuing amidd fuch violent refidance ; for if the ether
refids the tail of the comet, it is impoffible to prove
that it doth not refid the head alfo.
This objedtion may appear to fome to be but weak¬
ly founded, as we perceive the eledtric fluid to be en-
alwayspaf- dowed with fuch extreme fubtility, and to yield to the
impreflion of folid bodies with fuch facility, that we
eafily imagine it to be of a very paffive nature in all
cafes. But it is certain, that this fluid^cnly fhows it-
felf pafiive where it paffes from one body into another,
which it feems very much inclined to do of itfelf. It
will alfo be found, on proper examination of all the
phenomena, that the only way we can manage theelec-
tricfluid at all is by allowing it to diredt itsown motions.
In all cafes where we ourfelves attempt to aflame the
government of it, it (hows itfelf the mod untradtable and
dubborn being in nature. But thefe things come more
properly under the article Electricity, where they
are fully confidered. Here it is fufficient to oblerve,
that a dream of eledlric matter refids air, and from
the phenomena of eledtric repulfion we are fure that
one dream of eledtric matter refids another: from which
we may be alfo certain- that if a dream of eledlric
matter moves in an aerial duid, fuch fiuid will refid it ;
and we can only jsdge of the degree of refidance it
meets with in the heavens from what we obferve on
earth. Here we fee the mod violent blad of air has
no effedt upon a dream of eledtric fluid: in the celeftial
regions, either air or fome other fluid has an effedt up¬
on it according to Dr Hamilton. The refiftance of
that fluid, therefore, mud be greater than that of the
mod violent blaft of air we can imagine.
As to the Dodtor’s method of accounting for the cur¬
vature of the comet’s tail, it might do very well on Sir
Ifaac Newton’s principles, but cannot do fo on his.
There is no comparifon between the celerity with which
rarefied vapour afcends in our atmofphere, and that
whereby the eledlric fluid is difcharged. The velocity
of the latter feems to equal that of light; of confequence,
fuppofing the velocity of the comet to be equal to that
of the earth in its annual courfe, and its tail equal in
length to the diftance of the fun from the earth, the ’
curvature of the tail could only be to a ftraigHt line
as the velocity of the comet in its orbit is to the velo¬
city of light, which, according to the calculations of
Dr Bradley, is as 10,201 ,to!. The apparent curva¬
ture of fuch a comet’s tail, therefore, would at this rate
184 on]y *3e Y-fflo-r,Part of its vifible length, and thus
Prodigious would always be imperceptible to. us. The velocity of .
velocity of comets is indeed fometimes inconceivably great. Mr
- comet ob-grydone obferved one at Palermo, in July 1770, which
N O M Y. 467
of 5a degrees in length ; according to which he fup-Condufions
pofes, that if it was as far diftant as the fun, it muftjfoin t.he
have moved at the rate of upwards of 60 millions of^^"^
miles in a day. But this comet was attended with noce
tail, fo that we cannot be certain whether the curva-*-
ture of the tails of thefe bodies correfponds with their
velocity or not.
The near approach of fome comets to the fun fub-
jedts them to intenfe and inconceivable degrees of heat. jgj
Newton calculated that the heat of the comet of 1680 Vehement
mud have been near zcoo times as great as that of red-heat of the
hot iron. The calculation is founded upon this Pr‘n*c^^to£
ciple, that the heat of the fun falling upon any body
at different diftances is reciprocally as the fquares of
thofe diftances; but it may be obferved, that the ef¬
fedt of the heat of the fun upon all bodies near our
earth depends very much on the conftitution of thofe
bodies, and of the air that furrounds them. “ The
comet in queftion (lays Dr Long) certainly acquired
a prodigious heat; but I cannot think it came up to
what the calculation makes it: the effedt of the ftrong-
eft burning-glafs that has ever been made ufe of was
the vitrification of mod bodies placed in its focus.
What would be the effedt of a dill greater heat we can
only conjedture; it would perhaps fo difunite the parts
as to make them dy off every way in atoms. This co¬
met, according to Halley, in palling thro’ its fouthern
node, came within the length of the fun’s femidiame-
ter-of the orbit of the earth. Had the earth then
been in the part of her orbit neared to that node, their
mutual gravitation mud have caufed a change in the
plane of the orbit of the earth, and in the length of
our year: he adds, that if fo large a body, with fo ra¬
pid a motion as that of this comet, were to ftrike againft;
the earth, a thing by no means impoflible, the (hock
might reduce this beautiful frame to its original chaos.’”
We mud not conclude this account without obferving,
that Whifton, who, from Flamftead’s meafure of , its
apparent diameter, concluded the nucleus of the comet
to be about ten times as big as the moon, or equal to
a fourth part of the earth, attributes the univerfal de¬
luge in the time of Noah to the near approach thereof.
His opinion was, that the earth palling thro’ the atmo¬
fphere of the comet, attradled therefrom great part of.
the water of the dood ; that the nearnefs of the comet
raifed a great tide in the fubterraneous waters, fo that
the outer cruft of the earth was changed from a fphe-
rical to an oval figure ; that this could not be done
without making fiffures and cracks in it, thro’ which
the waters forced themfelves, by the hollow of the earth
being changed into a lefs capacious form ; that along
with the water thus fqueezed up on the furface of the
earth, much (lime or mud would rife;.which, together
with the groffer part of the comet’s atmofphere, would,
after the fubfiding of the water, partly into the fiffures
and partly into the lower parts of the earth to form
the fea, cover all over, to a conliderable depth, the
antediluvian earth. Thus he accounts for trees and
bones of animals being found at very great depths in
the earth. He- alfo. held that, before the fall, the
earth revolved round the fun in the plane of the eclip¬
tic, keeping always the fame points of its furface to¬
wards the lame fixed ftars. By this means, as every
meridian would come to the fun but once in every re-
fcrved by jn hours defcribed an arch in the heavens upwards volution, a day and a year were then the fame:
done.17' 3.N-2-
but z
that t
463 ASTRO
ConcUi'lons tV.at a coTft flriking obliquely upon fume part of the
hom t ie earth gave it the diurnal rotation ; that the antedilu-
Afc^earan v'an year coniifled of 360 days 5 but that the addi-
tes.'eaian tional matter depofited upon the earth from the atmo-
v—> fphere of the comet at the flood, fo retarded the revo¬
lution thereof round the fun, that it is not now per¬
formed in lefs than 365 days and about a quarter. The
fame comet he thought would probably, coming near
the earth when heated in an immenfe degree in its pe¬
rihelion, be the inftrumental caufe of that great cata-
ftrophe, the general conflagration, foretold in the fa-
186 cred writings and from ancient tradition.
Conje£tnres Thefe conjedlures lead us to fpeak fomewhat more
ofHevelins, particularly concerning the nature of comets, and
«rnin0nthe t^ie PlirP0^es may poflibly anfwer in the creation,
nature*of C Heveiius, in order to account for the various appear-
comets. ah'ces of the nucleus already related, fuppofed that
they were eompofed of feveral mafles compared toge-
gether with a tranfparent fluid interfperfed, but the ap¬
parent changes in the nucleus may be only on the fur-
face : comets may be fubjeft to fpots as the planets
are ; and the vaftly different degrees of heat they go
through may occafion great and fudden changes, not
only in their furfaces, but even in their internal frame
and texture. Newton places all thefe apparent changes
to the atmofphere that environs them ; which muft be
very denfe near the furface, and have clouds floating
therein. It was his opinion, that the changes mention¬
ed may all be in the clouds, not in the nucleus. This
laft indeed he looked upon to be a body of extreme fo-
lidity, in order to fuftain fuch an intenfe heat as the
comets are fometimes deftined to undergo ; and that,
notwithftanding their running out into the immenfe re¬
gions of fpace, where they were expofed to the moft
intenfe degrees of cold, they would hardly be cooled
again on their return to the fun. Indeed, accord¬
ing to his calculation, the comet of 1680 muft be
for ever in a ftate of violent ignition. He hath com¬
puted that a globe of red-hot iron of the fame dimen-
fions with the earth, would fcarce be cool in 50,000
years. If then the comet be fuppofed to cool 100
times fafter than red-hot iron, as its heat was 2000
times greater, it muft require upwards of a million of
years to cool it. In the fhort period of 575 years,
therefore, its heat will be in a manner fcarce dimi-
nifhed ; and, of confequence, in its next and every fuc-
ceeding revolution, it muft acquire an increafe of heat:
fo that, fince the creation, having received a propor¬
tional addition in every fucceeding revolution, it muft
now be in a ftate of ignition very little inferior to that
of the fun itfelf. Sir Ifaac Newton hath farther
concluded, that this comet muft be confiderably re¬
tarded in every fucceeding revolution by the atmo¬
fphere of the fun within which it enters 5 and this muft
continually come nearer and nearer his body, till at laft
it falls into it. This, he thinks, may be one ufe of the
comets, to furnifh fuel for the fun, which otherwife
would be in danger of wafting from the continual emif-
fion of its light.
He adds, that for the confervation of the water and
moifture of the planets, comets feem abfolutely requi-
fne; from whofe condenfed vapours and exhalation
all the moifture-which is fpent in vegetation and pu¬
trefaction, and turned into dry earth, &c. may be
N O M Y. Sea III.
refupplied and recruited ; for all vegetables grow andConelufions
increafe wholly from fluids; and again, as to theirfrom t.1,e
greateft part, turn by putrefaction into earth ; an earthy ^r£golng __
flime being perpetually precipitated to the bottom of
putrefying Hqours. Hence the quantity of dry earth u—y—j
muft continually increafe, and the moifture of the
globe decreafe, and be quite evaporated, if it have not
a continual fupply from fome part or other of the uni-
verfe. “ And I fufpedl (adds our great author), that
the fpirit, which makes the fineft, fubtileft, and beft
part of our air, and which is abfolutely requifite for
the life and being of all things, comes principally from
the comets.”
Mr Brydone obferves, that the comets without tails
feem to be of a very different fpecies from thofe
which have tails : To thedatter, he fays, they appear
to bear a much lefs refemblance than they do even to jg.
planets. He tells us, that comets with tails have fel-Mr Ury-
dom been vifible but on their recefs from the fun : that done’s con-
they are kindled up, and receive their alarming appear-jeftur£S.
ance, in their near approach to this glorious luminary .concern*nS
but that thofc without tails are feldom or never feen without
but on their way to the fun ; and he does not recolleCttails,
any whofe return has been tolerably well afeertained.
“ I remember indeed (fays he), a few years ago, a
fmall one, that was faid to have been difeovered by a
telefcope after it had paffed the fun, but never more be¬
came vifible to the naked eye. This aflertion is eafily
made, and nobody can contradiCt it; but it does not
at all appear probable that it ftiould have been fo much
lefs luminous after had palled the fun than before it
approached him : and I will own to you, when I have
heard that the return of thefe comets had efcaped the
eyes of the moft acute aftronomers, I have been tempt¬
ed to think that they did not return at all, but were
abforbed in the body of the fun, which their violent
motion towards him feemed to indicate.” He then at¬
tempts to account for the continual emiflion of the fun’s
light without wafte, by fuppofing that there are num-
berlefs bodies throughout the univerfe that are attrafted
into the body of the fun, which ferve to fupply the
wade of light, and which for fome time remain ob-
feure and occafion fpots on his furface, till at laft they
are perfeftly diffolved and become bright like the reft.
This hypothefis may account for the dark fpots beco¬
ming as bright, or even brighter, than the reft of the
dilk, but will by no means account for the brighter
fpots becoming dark. Of this comet too, Mr Bry¬
done remarks, that it was evidently furrounded by an
atmofphere which refrafted the light of the fixed ftars,
and feemed to caufe them change their places as the
comet came near them. ^
A very ftrange opinion we find fet forth in a bookMrCoje»s
intitled “ Obfervations and Conjedfures on the Nature hypothefis,
and Properties of Light, and on the Theory of Co¬
mets, by William Cole.” This gentleman fuppofes
that the comets belong to no particular fyftem ; but
were originally projected in fuch direftions as would
fucceflively expofe them to the attra&ion of different
centres, and thus they would deferibe various curves of
the parabolic and the hyperbolic kind. This treatife is
written in anlwer to fome objedtions thrown out in Mr
Brydone’s Tour, againft the motions of the comets by
means of the two forces of gravitation and projedtion,
which
As T K () X O M V.
."^y. (jo. *S'/(J. My.
VUxU LXiX.
■A,f-
Sea. III. ASTRONOMY. 4^9
Conclufions which were thought fufficient for that purpofe by Sir
from the lfaac Newton ; of which we fliall treat as fully as our
Appearan- ^m'ts w'^ allow in the next fe&ion.
ces. The analogy between the periodical times of the
* v—. < planets and their diftances from the fun, difcovered by
189 Kepler, takes place alfo in the comets. In confe-
Of the pe- quence of this, the mean diftance of a comet from the
thnes^&c ^Un ma^ ke f°un^ hy comparing its period with the
of the’ C’ t'me t^ie earth’s revolution round the fun. Thus
comets, the period of the comet that appeared in 1531, 1607,
1682, and 1759, being about 76 years, its mean di-
flance from the fun may be found by this proportion :
As 1, the fquare of one year, the earth’s periodical time,
is to 5776 the fquare of 76, the comet’s periodical
time; fo is 1,000,©00, the cube of too the earth’s
mean diftance from the fun, to 5,776,000,000, the cube
of the comet’s mean diftance. The cube root of this
laft number is 1794; the mean diftance itfelf in fuch
parts as the mean diftance of the earth from the fun
contains too. If the perihelion diftance of this comet,
58, be taken from 3588 double the mean diftance, we
fhall have the aphelion diftance, 3530, of fuch parts as
the diftance of the earth contains ico; which is a little
more than 35 times the diftance of the earth from the
fun. By a like method, the aphelion diftance of the
comet of 1680 comes out 138 times the mean diftance
of the earth from the fun, fuppofing its period to be
575 years: fo that this comet, in its aphelion, goes
more than 14 times the diftance from the fun that Sa¬
turn does. Euler computes the orbit of this comet
from three of Jlamftead’s obfervations taken near
together, compared with a fourth taken at fome di-
flance from the other three; and from thence concludes
the period to be a little more than 170 years. “ It
feems fomething furprifing (fays Dr Long), that,
from the fame obfervations which were ufed by New¬
ton and Halley, he fhould bring out a period fo very
different from what thofe great men have determined :
but it is the lefs to be wondered at, if we confider how
fmall a portion of the comet’s orbit lay between the
moft diftant places ufed in this computation, or indeed
that could be had for that purpofe; fo fmall, that the
form of the ellipfis cannot be found with precifion by
this method, except the comet’s places were more ex-
aftly verified than is poffible to be done : and that he
does not pretend to confirm his determination of the
period by pointing out and comparing together any
former appearances of this comet; a method which
Newton recommended as the only one whereby the
periodical times and tranfverfe diameters of the orbits
of the comets can be determined with accuracy.”
The period of the comet in 1744 is much longer than
even that of 1680. Mr Betts, in attempting to compute
the tranfverfe axis of its orbit, found it come out fo
near infinite, that, though the orbit fhowed itfelf in
this manner to be a very long one, he found it impof-
fible to calculate it without fome obfervations made
Dr Halley a^ter *ts perihelion. Halley, after he had finilhed his
calculates table of comets, found fuch a fimilitude in the elements
the return of thofe of 1531, 1607, and 1682, that he was indu¬
ct comets. ced to believe them to be returns of the fame comet in
an elliptic orbit: but as there was fuch a difference
in their periodical times and inclinations of their or¬
bits as feemed to make againft this opinion ; and as
the obfervations of the firll of them in 1531 by Appian,
and the fecond in 1607 by Kepler, were not exa& e-Conclufions
nough to determine fo nice a point when he firft pub- ^rom t.*ie
liflied his fynopfis in 1705 ; he only mentioned this as A^Wanfu-
a thing probable, and recommended it to pofterity toccs>
watch for an appearance of the fame in 1758. After-i—y—J
wards, looking over the catalogue of ancient comets,
and finding three others at equal intervals with thofe
now mentioned, he grew more politive in his opi¬
nion ; and knowing a method of calculating with eafe
a motion in an elliptic orbit, how eccentric foever it
might be, inltead of the parabolic orbit which he had
given for tire comet of 1682, he let about adapting the
plan of that orbit to an ellipfis of a given fpace and
magnitude, having the fun in one of its foci, fo as to
tally with the obfervations of that comet made by Flam-
ftead with great accuracy, by the help of a very large
fextant. He likewife corredled the places of the comet
of 1531 from Appian, and thofe of the comet 1607
from Kepler and Longomontanus, by re&ifying the
places of the ftars they had made ufe of, and found
thofe places agree as well with the motion in fuch
an ellipfis as could be expe&ed from the manner of ob-
ferving of thefe aftronomers, and the imperfections of
their inftruments. The greateft objection to this
theory was fome difference in the inclination of the
orbits, and that there was above a year’s difference be- jpr
tween the two periods. The comet of 1531 was in Why the
its perihelion Augull 24. ; that of 1607, O&ober 16.; periodical
and that of 1682, September 4. : fo that the firft c,f^t”g"s<^a
thefe periods was more than 76, the latter not quite
75 years. To obviate this, he reminds his readers ofuneqUai
an obfervation made by him of the periodical revolu-intervals,
tion of Saturn having at one time been about 13 days
longer than at another time ; occafioned, as he fup-
pofed, by the near approach of Saturn and Jupiter,
and the mutual attradtion and gravitation of the two pla¬
nets : and obferves, that in the fummer of the year 1681,
the comet in its defeent was for fome time fo near Ju¬
piter, that its gravitation towards that planet was one-
fiftieth part of its gravitation towards the fun. This,
he concluded, would caufe a change in the inclination
of its orbit, and alfo in the velocity of its motion : for
by continuing longer near the planet Jupiter on the
fide moft remote from the fun, its velocity would be
more increafed by the joint forces of both thofe bodies,
than it would be diminilhed by them adting contrary-
wife, when on the fide next the fun where its motion
was fwifteft. The projedtile motion being thus in¬
creafed, its orbit would be enlarged, and its period
lengthened ; fo that he thought it probable it would
not return till after a longer period than 76 years,
about the end of the year 1758 or beguiling of
i?59*
As Halley exprefied his opinion modeftly, though
clearly enough, that this comet would appear again
about the end of 1758, or the beginning of the fol¬
lowing year, M. de la Lande pretends he muft have
been at a lofs to know whether the period he foretold
would have been of 75 or of 76 years ; that he did
not give a decilive predidlion, as if it had been the re-
fult of calculation ; and that, by confidering the affair
in fo loofe a manner as Halley did, there was a good
deal of room for objefting to his reafoning. After
thefe refledtions, he is very large in his commendation
of the performance of Clairault; who, he fays, not
4?o ASTRO
Conclufions only calculated ftridtly the effeft of the atiradlion of
from the Jupiter in i68i and 1683, when the comet W'as again
Appearan- near JuP'ter> ^ut not negk& the attraftion of that
C£S. planet w-hen the comet was moft diftant ; that he con-
t——y——J fidered the uninterrupted attractions of Jupiter and
Saturn upon the fun and upon the comet, hut chiefly
the attraction of Jupiter upon the fun, whereby that
luminary was a little difplaced, and gave different ele¬
ments to the orbit of the comet. By this method he
found the comet would be in its perihelion about the
middle of April ; but that, on account of fome fmall
quantities neceffarily negleCted in the method of ap¬
proximation made ufe of by him, Mr Clairault de-
fired to be indulged one month ; and that the comet
came juft 30 .days before the time he had fixed for its
appearance.
That comets may have their motion difturbed by
the planets, efpecially by the two largeft, Jupiter and
Saturn, appears by an inftance juft now mentioned.
They may alfo affeft one another by their mutual gra¬
vitation when out of the planetary regions ; but of this
we can take no account, nor ca-n we eftimate the refift-
ance of the ether through which they pafs ; and yet
both thefe caufes may have fomc influence on the incli¬
nation of their orbits and the length of their periods.
19a
Mxcd ftars Thus much concerning the bodies of which our fo-
beflins^t0 ^ar *s compofcd. But the conjectures of aftro-
nomers have reached even beyond its boundaries : they
have fuppofed every one of the innumerable multitude
of fixed ftars to be a fun attended by planets and co¬
mets, each of which is an habitable world like our
own ; fo that the univerfo may in fome meafure be re-
prefented by fig. 161. where feveral adjacent fyftems
are marked. The ftrongeft argument for this hypo-
thefis is, that they cannot be magnified by a telefcope
on account of their extreme diftance ; whence we mull
conclude that they fhine by their own light, and are
therefore as many funs ; each of which we may fuppofe
to be equal, if not fuperior, in luftre and magnitude
to our own. They are not fuppofed to be at equal
diftances from us, but to be more remote in propor¬
tion to their apparent fmallnefs. This fuppofition is
neceflary to prevent any interference of their planets :
and thus there may be as great a diftance between a
ftar of the firft magnitude and one of the fecond appa¬
rently clofe, to it, as between the earth and the fixed
ftars firft: mentioned.
Thofe who take the contrary fide of the queftion
affirm, that the difappearance of fome of the fixed ftars
is a demonftration that they cannot be funs, as it would
be to the higheft degree abfurd to think that God
would create a fun which might difappear of a fudden,
and leave its planets and their inhabitants in endlefs
Conjeaures night. Yet this opinion we find adopted by Dr Keil,
—-;nS who tell us, “ It is no ways improbable that thefe
IS’ ftars loft their brightnefs by a prodigious number of
fpots which entirely covered and overwhelmed them.
In what difmal condition muft their planets remain,
who have nothing but the dim and twinkling light of
the fixed ftars to enlighten them Others, however,
have made fuppofitioris more agreeable to our notions
of the benevolent chara&er of the Deity. Sir Ifaac
Newton thinks that the fudden blaze of fome ftars
snay have been occaftoned by the falling of a comet
193
Oppofed,
from the
variable
nature of
the ftars.
194
N O M Y. Sed. III.
into them, by which means they would be enabled to Ccnclufions
emit a prodigious light for a little time, after which ^roin tlle
they would gradually return to their former ftate. G-Appear^1.
thers have thought that the variable ones, which dif-ces.
appear for a time, were planets, which were only v——v—>
vifible during fome part of their courfe. But this, their
apparent immobility, notwithftanding their decreafe of
luftre, will not allow us to think. Some have imagin¬
ed, that one fide of them might be naturally much
darker than the other, and when by the revolution of
the ftar upon its axis the dark fide was turned towards
us, the ftar became invifible, and, for the fame reafon, 195
after fome interval, refumed its former luftre. Mr Opinion of
Maupertuis, in his diflertation on the figures of the Mr rfau"
celeftial bodies (p-6i—63 ), is of opinion, that fome peltuls*
ftars, by their prodigious quick rotations on their axes,
may not only affume the figures of oblate fpheroids,
but that, by the great centrifugal force arifing from
fuch rotations, they may become of the figures of
mill-ftones, or be reduced to flat circular planes, fo
thin as to be quite invifible when their edges are turned
towards us ; as Saturn’s ring is in fuch pofitions. But
when very eccentric planets or comets go round any
flat ftar, in orbits much inclined to its equator, the at-
tradtion of the planets or comets in their perihelions
muft alter the inclination of the axis of that ftar; on
which account it will appear more or lefs large and
luminous, as its broad fide is more or lefs turned to¬
wards us. And thus he imagines we may account for
the apparent changes of magnitude and luftre in thofe
ftars, and likewife for their appearing and difappearing.
Daftly, Mr Dunn (Phil. Tranf. Vol. DID) in adif- Mr Dunn’s
fertation concerning the apparent increafe of magni- hypothecs,
tude in the heavenly bodies when they approach the
horizon, conjedtures that the interpofition of fome
grofs atmofphere may folve the phenomena both of
nebulous and new ftars. “ The phenomena of ne¬
bulous and new ftars (fays he) have engaged the at¬
tention of curious aftronomers ; but none that I know
of have given any reafon for the appearance of nebu¬
lous ftars. Pofiibly what has been before advanced may
alfo be applicable for inveftigating reafons for thofe
ftrange appearances in the remote parts of the univerfe.
From many inftances which might be produced con¬
cerning the nature and properties of lights and illumi¬
nations on the earth’s furface, concerning the nature
and properties of the earth’s atmofphere, and concern¬
ing the atmofpheres and illuminations of comets, we
may fafely conclude, that the atmofpheres of comets
and of our earth are more grofs in their nature than
the etherial medium which is generally diffufed through
the folar fyftem: pofiibly a more aqueous vapour in
the one than the other, makes the difference. Now, as
the atmofpheres of comets and of planets in our folar
fyftem are more grofs than the ether which is generally
diffufed through our folar fyftem, why may not the
etherial medium diffufed throughout thofe other folar
fyflems (whofe centres are their re-fpedlive fixed ftars)
bemoregrofs than the etherial medium diffufed rhrough
out our folar fyftem ? This indeed is an hypothefis, but •
fuch an one as agrees exafily with nature. For thefe
nebulous ftars appear fo much like comets, both to the
naked eye and through telefcopes, that the one cannot
always, by any difference of their extraneous light, be
knqwn from the other. Such orbs of grofs ether ie»
fledling
Sea. III. A S T R
Conclufionsfle&ing light more copioufly, or like the atmofpheres
from the ef Comeits, jnay help us to judge of the magnitudes
foregoing 0j- ^ orbs illuminated by thofe remote funs, when all
ces'Peardn ot^er nifans feem to fail. The appearance of new ftars,
■ ^ ignrl difappearance of others, poffibly may be occafion-
ed by the intcrpofition of fuch an ethereal medium,
within their refpe&ive orbs, as either admits light to
pafs freely, or wholly abforbs it at certain times, whilft
light is conftantly purfuing its journey through the vaft
regions of fpace.”
In the Philofophical. Tranfa&ions for 1783, how¬
ever, Mr Michel), in propofing a method to determine
the diftance, magnitude, &c. of the fixed ftars by the
diminution of-thc velocity of their light, (hould any
fuch thing be difcovered, makes fucli fuppofitions as
jpy feem totally inconfiftent with what has been juft now
Mr Mi- advanced. “ The very great number of ftars (fays
chell’s con-he) that have been difcovered to be double, triple, &c.
jcttures particularly by Mr Herfchel, if we apply the do&rine
concerning chances, as I have heretofore done in my Inqui-
©fthe fix- T ,nto the probable parallax, &c. of the fixed ftars,
ed ftars. publiflied in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for the year
1767, cannot leave a doubt with any one who is pro¬
perly acquainted with the force of thofe arguments,
that by far the greateft part, if not all of them, are
fyftems of ftars fo near each other, as probably to be
liable to be affe&ed fenfibly by their mutual gravita¬
tion ; and it is therefore not unlikely, that the periods
of the revolutions of fome of thefe about their princi¬
pals (the fmaller ones being, upon this hypothefis, to
be confidered as fatellites to the others) may fome time
or other be difcovered.” Having then fhown in what
manner the magnitude of a fixed ftar, if its denfity
were known, would affeft the velocity of its light, he
In what concludes at laft, that “ if the femidiameter of a fphere
cafes light Gf the fame denfity with the fun were to exceed his in
*?ay ^.e the proportion of 50© to 1, a body falling from an in-
j“^ntot0finite height towards it (or moving in a parabolic
the body curve at its furface) would have acquired a greater ve-
that emits locity than that of light; and confequently, fuppofing
light to be attra&ed by the fame force in proportion
to its vis inertia with other bodies, all light emitted
from fuch a body would be made to return towards it
by its own proper gravity. But if the femidiameter
of a fphere, of the fame denfity with the fun, was of
any other fize lefs than 497 times that of the fun,
though the velocity of light emitted by fuch a body
would never be wholly deftroyed, yet it would always
fuffer fome diminution, more or lefs according to the
magnitude of the fphere. The fame effedls would like-
wife take place if the femidiameters were different
from thofe already mentioned, provided the denfity
was greater or lefs in the duplicate ratio of thofe fe¬
midiameters inverfely.
After proceeding in his calculations, in order to find
the diameter and diftance of any ftar, he proceeds
Compara- : “ According to Mr Bouguer the brightnefs of
tive bright-the fun exceeds that of a wax candle in no lefs a pro-
nefs of the portion than that of 8000 to 1. If therefore the
fun and fix-brightnefs of any of the fixed ftars ftiould not exceed
ed ftars. tbat Qf our common candles, which, as being fome-
thing lefs luminous than wax, we will fuppofe in round
numbers to be only one ten thoufanJth part as bright
as the fun, fuch a ftar would not be vifible at more
than one hundredth part of the diftance -at which k
would be feen if it were as bright as the fun. Now,
O N O M Y. 47!
becaufe the fun would ftill, I apprehend, appear as Condufions
bright and luminous as the ftar Sirius, if removed tofrom tlle
ago,000 times his prefent diftance, fuch a body, if noff'csoins
, . . . r ,, , , , Appearan-
brignter than our common candles, would only appearces
equally luminous with that ftar at 4000 times the di-—y—_j
ftance of the fun ; and we might then be able, with
the belt telefcopes, to diftinguifli fome fcnfible ap¬
parent diameter of it : but the apparent diameters
of the fkrs of lefler magnitudes would ftill be too
fmall to be dillinguiftiable even with our heft telefcopes,
unlefs they were yet a good deal lefs luminous ; which
may pofiibly, however, be the cafe with fome of them :
for though we have indeed very flight grounds to go
upon with regard to the fpccific brightnefs of the fixed
ftars, compared with that of the fun at prefent, and
can therefore form only very uncertain and random
conjedlures concerning it ; yet from the infinite variety
which we find in the works cf the creation, it is not
unreafonable to fufpeft, that very pofiibly fome of the
fixed ftars may have fo little natural brightnefs in'pro¬
portion to their magnitude, as to admit of their dia¬
meters having fome fenfible apparent fize when they
(hall come to be more carefully examined, and with
larger and better tdefcopes than have been hitherto in
common ufe.
“ With regard to the fun, we know that his whole Lumjn0lls
furface is extremely luminous, a very fmall and tern-appearance
porary interruption fometimes, from a few fpots, ex- °f the fun
cepted. This univerfal and exceflive brightnefs of the rt,pPofe<1 to
whole furface is probably owing to an atra°fpherc,frr°1^e^ at_
which being luminous throughout, and in fome mea-mofpherc.
fure alfo tranfparent, the light proceeding from a con-
fiderable depth of it all arrives at the eye, in the fame
manner as the light of a great number cf candles
would do if they were placed one behind, another, and
their flames were fufficiently tranfparent to permit the
light of the more diftant ones to pafs through tho£e
that were nearer without interruption.
“ How far the fame conftitution may take place in
the fixed ftars we do not know : probably, however, it
may ftill do fo in many ; but there are fome appear¬
ances, with regard to a few of them, which feem to
make it probable that it does not do fo univerfally.
Now, if I am right in fuppofing the light of the fun
to proceed from a luminous atmofpherc which mutt
neceffarily diffufe itfelf equally over the whole furface,
.and I think there can be very little doubt that this is
really the cafe, this conftitution cannot well take place
in thofe ftars which are in fome degree periodically
more and lefs luminous, fuch as that in Collo Ceti,
&c. It is alfo not very improbable, that there is fome 2oi
difference from that of the fun in the conftitution of0ft),eva_
thofe ftars which have fometimes appeared and difap-riable ftars.
peared, of which that in the conftellation of Caffiopeia
is a notable inftaoce. And if thefe conje&ures are
well founded which have been formed by fome philo-
fophers concerning ftars of this kind, that they are
not wholly luminous, or at leaft not conftantly fo,
but that all, or by far the greateft part of their fur-
faces, is fubjeft to confiderable changes, fometimes
becoming luminous, at others extinguiftied; it is
amongft ftars of this fort that we are moft likely to
meet with inftances of a fenfible apparent diameter,
their light being much more likely not to be fo great
in proportion as that of the fun, which if removed to
400^000 times bis prefent diftance, would ftill appear.
47 2
R
Conclufions I apprehend, as bright as Sirius, as I have obferved
from the above ; whereas it is hardly to be expected, with any
foregoing te]efCOpe whatfoever, that we (hould ever be able to di¬
ce^ * ftinguiih a well-defined difk of any body of the fame
j 1- . fiyp with the fun at much more than 10,000 times his
prefent diftance.
“ Hence the greateft diftance at which it would be
poffible to diftinguifli any fenfible apparent diameter of
a body as denfe as the fun, cannot well greatly exceed
five hundred times ten thoufand ; that is, five million
times the diftance of the fun ; for if the diameter of
fuch a body was not lefs than 500 times that of the
fun, its light, as has been fhown above, could never
20Z arrive at us.”
Mr Her- Mr Herfchel, improving on Mr Michell’s idea of
fchel’s opi-the fixed ftars being colleded into groups, and af-
nion con- fifted by his own obfervations with the extraordinary
conftruc^^e^coP’c powers already mentioned, has fuggefted a
tion of thet^ieory concerning the conftrudlion of the univerfe en-
univerfe. tirely new and fingnlar. It had been the opinion of
former aftronomers, that our fun, befides occupying
the centre of the fyftem which properly belongs to
him, occupied alfo the centre of the univerfe : but
Mr Herfchel is of a very different opinion. “ Hither¬
to (fays he) the fidereal heavens have, not inadequately
for the purpofe defigned, been reprefented by the con¬
cave furface of a fphere, in the centre of which the
eye of the obferver might be fuppofed to be placed.
It is true, the various magnitudes of the fixed ftars
even then plainly fuggefted to us, and would have
better fuited, the idea of an expanded firmament of
three dimenfions ; but the obfervations upon which I
am now going to enter, ftill farther illuftrate and en¬
force the neceffity of confidering the heavens in this
point of view. In future therefore we (hall look upon
thofe regions into which we may now penetrate by
means of fuch large telefcopes, (a) as a naturalift re¬
gards a rich extent of ground or chain of mountains,
containing ftrata varioully inclined and direfted, as
well as confifting of very different materials. A fur-
face of a globe or map therefore will but ill delineate
the interior parts of the heavens.”
With the powerful telefcope mentioned in the note,
Mr Herfchel firft began to furvey the Via Ladfea, and
found that it completely refolved the whitifh appear¬
ance into ftars, which the telefcopes he formerly ufed
had not light enough to do. The portion he firft ob¬
ferved was that about the hand and club of Orion ; and
found therein an aftonifhing multitude of ftars, whofe
number he endeavoured to eftimate by counting many
fields (b), and computing from a mean of thefe how
many might be contained in a given portion of the
milky-way. In the moft vacant place to be met with
in that neighbourhood he found 63 ftars ; other fix
fields contained 110, 60, 70, yo, 70, and 74 ftars ; a
mean of all which gave 79 for the number of ftars to
each field : and thus he found, that by allowing 15
minutes for the diameter of his field of view, a belt of
15 degrees long and two broad, which he had often
No 32.
His obfer¬
vations on
the Via
Laftca.
N O M Y. Sea. Ill,
feen pafs before his telefcope in an hour’s time, could Conclufions
not contain lefs than 50,000 ftars, large enough to be from thc
diftinttly numbered; befides which, he fufpedfted twice ^re8°^n
as many more, which could be feen only now and then cJ?pearan*
by faint glimpfes for want of fufficient light. * -y <
The fuccefs he had with the mi iky-way foon induced 204
him to turn his telefcope to the nebulous parts of the On the
heavens, of which an accurate lift had been publiihednebl,la5'
in the Co?inoiJfance des ’Temps for 1783 and 1784.
Moft of thefe yielded to a Newtonian refledlor of 20
feet focal diftance and 12 inches aperture ; which plain¬
ly difeovered them to be compofed of ftars, or at lead,
to contain ftars, and to (how every other indication of 205
confifting of them entirely. “ The nebula; (fays he) They are
are arranged into ftrata, and run on to a great length ; arranged
and fome of them I have been able to purfue, and toint0 ^rats'
guefs pretty well at their form and diredlion. It is
probable enough that they may furround the whole
ftarry fphere of the heavens, not unlike the milky, way,
which undoubtedly is nothing but a ftratum of fixed
ftars : And as this latter immenfe ftarry bed is not of
equal breadth or luftre in every part, nor runs on in
one ftraight diredlion, but is curved, and even divided
into two ftreams along a very confiderable portion of
it; we may likewife cxpeA the greateft variety in the
ftrata of the clufters of (tars and nebulae. One of thefe
nebulous beds is fo rich, that, in puffing through a
fedfion of it in the time of only 36 minutes, I have
detedfed no lefs than 31 nebulae, all diftindlly vifible 20g
upon a fine blue fky. Their fituation and fhape, as Variety of
well as condition, feem to denote the greateft variety ftapes af-
imaginable. In another ftratum, or perhaps a diffe- fumed bf
rent branch of the former, I have often feen double and 1 em‘
treble nebulae varioufly arranged ; large ones with fmall
feeming attendants ; narrow, but much extended lucid
nebulae or bright dafhes ; fome of the (hape of a fan,
refembling an eledlric brufh ifluing from a lucid point;
others of the cometic (hape, with a feeming nucleus in
the centre, or like cloudy ftars, furrounded with a ne¬
bulous atmofphere : a different fort again contain a ne-
bulofity of the milky kind, like that wonderful inex¬
plicable phenomenon about 9 Orionis; while others
(bine with a fainter mottled kind of light, which de¬
notes their being refolvable into ftars.
“ It is very probable that the great ftratum called tj,e
the milky-way, is that in which the fun is placed, though mitky-way
perhaps not in the very centre' of its thicknefs. We appears to
gather this from the appearance of the galaxy, which fl'rr°und
feems to encompafs the whole heavens, as it certainly e eaven“'’
muft do if the fun is within the fame. For fuppofe
a number of ftars arranged between two parallel planes,
indefinitely extended every way, but at a given confi¬
derable diftance from one another, and calling this a
fidereal ftratum, an eye placed fomewhere within it
will fee all the ftars in the direction of the planes of
the ftratum projected into a great circle, which will
appear lucid on account of the accumulation of the
ftars, while the reft of the heavens at the fides will on¬
ly feem to be fcattered over with conftellations, more or
lefs
(a) Mr Herfchel’s obfervations, on which this theory is founded, were made with a Newtonian refteftor of
20 feet focal length, and an aperture of 18 inches.
(b) By this word we are to undsrftand the apparent fpace in the heavens he could fee at once through his
telefcope.
■( s/w/.'Shhfrz/.i, .
foregoing
Appearan-
408
Celefthl
Sea. III. A S T R
Conclufions lefs crowded according to the diftance of the planes or
from the number of ftars contained in the thicknefs or fides of
the ftratum.
« Thus in fig. 102. an eye at S within the ftratum
a b, will fee the ftars in the dire&ion of its length ab,
or height e d, with all thofe in the intermediate fitu-
ation, projected into the lucid circle ABCD ; while
thofe in the fides me, « w, will be feen fcattered over
the remaining part of the heavens at MVNW.
   “ If the eye were placed fomewhere without the
appearan- ftratum, at no very great diftance, the appearance of
ces fclvcd the ftars within it would aft'ume the form of one of the
HcrfhT ^e^er c‘rc‘es t^ie fp^ere» which would be more or
hypothdis. lefs contra&ed to the diftance of the eye } and if this
" diftance were exceedingly increafed, the whole ftratum
might at laft be drawn together into a lucid fpot of any
fhape, according to the pofition, length, and height of
the ftratum.
“ Let us now fuppofe, that a branch or fmaller ftra¬
tum ftiould run out from the former in a certain direc¬
tion, and let it alfo be contained between two parallel
planes extended indefinitely onwards,, but fo that the
eye may be placed in the great ftratum fomewhere be¬
fore the feparation, and not far from the place where
the ftrata are ftill united; then will this fecond ftratum
not be projected into a bright circle like the former,
but will be feen as a lucid branch proceeding from the
firft, and returning to it again at a certain diftance lefs
than a femicircle. Thus, in the fame figure, the ftars
in the fmall ftratum will be proje&ed into a bright
arch at PRRP, which, after its fepa.ration from the
circle CBD, unites with it again at P.
“ What has been inftanced in parallel planes may
eafily be applied to ftrata irregularly bounded, and
running in various dire&ions ; for their proje&ion
will of confequence vary according to the quantities of
the variations in the ftrata and the diftance of the eye
from the fame. And thus any kind of curvatures, as
well as various degrees of brightnefs, may be produced
^09 in the proje&ions.
©f the fun’s “ From appearances, then, as I obferved before, we
place in the jnfer)- that the fun is molt likely placed in one of
univerfe. ^ great ftrata of the fixed ftars, and very probably
not far from the place where fotne fmaller ftratum
branches out from it. Such a fuppofition will fatis-
fa£tori!y, and with great fimplicity, account for all the
phenomena of the milky way ; which, according to
this hypothefis, is no other than the appearance of the
projection of the ftars contained in this ftratum and its
fecondary branch. As a farther inducement to look
on the galaxy in this point of view, let it be confider-
cd, that we can no longer doubt of its whitilh appear¬
ance arifing from the mixed luftre of the numberlefs
{tars that compofe it. Now, ftiould we fuppofe it to
be an irregular ring of ftars, in the centre nearly of
which we muft then fuppofe the fun to.be placed, it
will appear not a little extraordinary, that the fun,
being a fixed ftar like thofe which compofe this ima¬
gined ring, (hould juft be in the centre, of fuch a mul¬
titude of celellial bodies, without any apparent reafon
for this fingular diftindion whereas, ou our fuppo¬
fition, every ftar in this ftratum, not very near the ter¬
mination of its length or height, will be fo placed as
aifo to have its own galaxy, with only fuch variations
V,oi. II. Fait II.
O N O M
in the form and luftre of it ;
ticular fituation of each ftar.
Y. 473
may arife from the par-Conclufions
method of
gauging the
from the
“ Various methods may be taken to come to a^ppeara?n.
knowledge of the fun’s place in the fidereal ftratum, tcs<
one of which I have already begun to put in practice: v—j
I call it gauging the heavens, or the Jiar-gauge. It aio
coufifts in repeatedly taking the number of ilai s in ten Herfchel
fields of,view of my refle&or very near each other; and
by adding their fums, and cutting oft: one decimal
the right, a mean of the contents of the heavens in all
the parts which are thus gauged are obtained. Thus
it appears, that the number of ftars inercafes very
much as we approach the' milky way ; for in the pa¬
rallel from yz to 94 degrees north polar diftance, and
right afcenlion 15 h. 10', the ftar-gauge runs up from
9.4 ftais in the field to iii.6 in about an hour and an
half; whereas in the parallel from 78 to 80 degrees
north polar diftance, and R. A. II, 12, 13, and 14
hours, it very feldom rifes above 4. We are, however,
to remember, that, with different inftruments, the ac¬
count of the gauges will be very different, efpecialiy
on our fuppofition of the fun in a flratum of ftars.
For let a b, fig.'yS. be the ftratum, and fuppofe the
fmall circle g h Ik to reprefent the fpace into which, by
the light and power of a given telefcope, we are ena¬
bled io penetrate, and let GHLK be the extent of
another portion which we are enabled to vifit by means
of a larger aperture and power; it is evident, that the
gauges with the latter inftrument will differ very much
in their account of ftars contained at MN and at KG-
or LH, when with the former they will hardly be af¬
fected with the change from m n to kg.ox lk, 2II.
“ The fituation of the fun in the fidereal ftratum How to
will be found by confidering in what manner the ftar-fin<l th.'
gauge agrees with the length of a ray revolving-fin fe.of4
vera! directions about an EiTume'd point, and cut ^''
by the bounds of the ftratum. Thus, in fig. 99. let Sgratunn
be the place cf an obferver ; S rrr, Sr r r, lines in the
plane rSr, rSr, drawn from'S within the ftratum to
one of the boundaries here reprefented by the plane AB.
Then, .fince neither the fituatron of S nor the form of
the limiting iurface AB is known, we are to affume
a point, and apply to it lines proportional to the fe-
veral gauges that have been obtained, and :at fuch
angles from each other as they may-point out : then-
will the termination of thefe lines delineate the boun¬
dary of the ftratum, and confequently.manifeft the fi¬
tuation of the fun within the fame. iJZ .
“ In my late obfervStions on nebula, I foon found, Obfwva-
that I generally deteCted them in certain directions ra-tions on
ther than in others : that the fpaces preceding themnehule*
were generally quite deprived of their ftars, fo as often
to afford many fields v/ithout a fingle ftar in it : that
the nebula -generally appeared fome time- after among
ftars of a certain confiderable-fize, and but feldom
among very fmall ftars : that when I came to one ne¬
bula, i generally found feveral more in the neighbour¬
hood : that afterwards a confiderable time paffed before
I'came to another parcel. Thefe events beings often .
repeated in different altitudes of my inftrument, and .
fome of them at confiderable diftances from each other,,
it occurred to me that the intermediate fpaces between
the fweeps might allb contain nebulas; and finding
this to hold .good more than once, I ventured to givs-
3 O Koticer
474
R O N O M Y.
Conclufions notice to my aflidant at the clock, that ‘ I found my-
fiom the felf on nebulous ground.’ But how far thefe circum-
Appearan- ftance3 °f vacant places preceding and following the
css. nebulous ftrata, and their belugas it were contained in
V“—J a bed of ftars fparingly fcattered between them, may
hold good in more diltant portions of the heavens,, and
which I have not been yet able to vifit in any regular
manner, I ought by no means to hazard a conjedure.
Direction I may venture, however, to add a few particulars about
of fome of the diredtion of fome of the capital ftrata or their
theprinci- branches. The well-known nebula of Cancer, vifible
of ftars15 t0 ^le na^e^ eye’ 's Probably one belonging to a cer¬
tain ftratum, in which I fuppofe it to be fo placed as to
lie neareft to us. This ftratum I ftiall call that of
Cancer. It runs from s Cancri towards the fonth, over
the 67th nebula of the Conmijfance des Temps, which
is a very beautiful and pretty much comprefled clufter
of ftars, eafily to be feen by any good telefcope ;
and in which I have obferved above 200 ftars at once
in the field of view of my great refledlor with a power
of 157. This clufter appearing fo plainly with any
good common telefcope, and being fo near to the one
which may be feen with the naked eye, denotes it to
be probably the next in diftance to that within the
quartile formed by y, J, », «. From the 67th nebula,
the ftratum of Cancer proceeds towards the head of
Hydra ; but I have not yet had time to trace it far¬
ther than the equator.
“ Another ftratum, which perhaps approaches nearer
to the folar fyftem than any of the reft, and whofe fi-
tuation is nearly at redangles with the great fidereal
ftratum in which the fun is placed, is that of Coma
Berenices, as 1 fhall call it. I fuppofe the Coma it-
felf to be one of the clutters in it, and that on account
of its nearnefs it appears to be fo fcattered. It has
many capital nebulae very near it: and in all probabi¬
lity this ftratum runs out a very confiderable way. It
may perhaps even make the circuit of the heavens,
though very likely not in one of the great circles of
the fphere •, for unlefs it ftiould chance to interfed the
great fidereal ftratum of the milky way before men¬
tioned, in the very place in which the fun is ftationed,
fuch an appearance would hardly be produced. How¬
ever, if the ftratum of Coma Berenices ftiould extend
fo far as I apprehend it may, the diredion of it to¬
wards the north lies probably, with fome windings,
through the Great Bear onwards to Caffiopeia, thence
through the Girdle of Andromeda and the Northern
Fifti, proceeding towards Cetus; while towards the
fouth it pafles through the Virgin, probably on to the
tail of Hydra and Centaurus.”
By a continued feries of obfervations, Mr Herfchel
became confirmed in his notions ; and in a fucceeding
paper * has given a fketch of his opinions concerning
the interior conftrudion of the heavens,—“ That the
Of the in-way (fays he) is a moll extenfive ftratum of
ftmftionnofftars of various fizes’ adm:‘ts 110 longer t!le leaft
ofthehea- doubt ; and that our fun is one of the heavenly bodies
vens. belonging to it is as evident. I have now viewed and
gauged this fhining zone in almoft every diredion, and
find it compofed of ftiinrng ftars, whofe number, by
the account of thofe gauges, conftantly increafes and
, decreafes in proportion to its apparent brightnefc to
the naked eye. But in order to develope the ideas of
the univerfe that have been fuggefted by my late ob-
« mhj.
Tranf.
Vol. 75.
Sed III.
fervations, it will be beft to take the fubjed from a Conclufions
point of view at a confiderable diftance both of fpacefromthe
and time. * foregoing
“ Let us then fuppofe numberlefs ftars of various^pearan*
fizes fcattered over an indefinite portion of "fpace, ini—L . .
fuch a manner as to be almoft equally diftributed thro’
the whole. The laws of attradion, which no doubt Confequen-
extend to the remoteft regions of the fixed ftars, willces.of tlie
operate in fuch a manner as moft probably to produceiaw5.of at'
.he following remarkable «**. 85££
“ 1. It will frequently happen, that a ftar, being the ftars.
confiderably larger than its neighbouring ones, will 216
attrad them more than they will be attraded by o-Nct,utae>
thers that are immediately around them; by which forra'
means they will be in time, as it were, condenfed about
a centre; or, in other words, form themfelves into a
clufter of ftars of almoft a globular figure, more or
lefs regularly fo according to the fize and original di¬
ftance of the furrounding ftars. The perturbations of
thefe mutual attradions muft undoubtedly be very
intricate, as we may eafily comprehend, by confidering
what Sir Ifaac Newton has faid, Princip. lib. i. prob.
38, et feq. \ but in order to apply this great author’s
reafoning of bodies moving in ellipfes to fuch as are
here for a while fuppofed to have no other motion
than what their mutual gravity has imparted to them,
we muft fuppofe the conjugate axes of thefe ellipfes in¬
definitely diminifhed, whereby the ellipfes will become
ftraight lines.
“ II. The next cafe, which will happen almoft as
frequently as the former, is where a few ftars, though
not fuperior in fize to the reft, may chance to be ra¬
ther nearer each other than the furrounding ones ; for
here alfo will be formed a prevailing attradion in the
combined centre of gravity of them all, which will oc-
cafion the neighbouring ftars to draw together; not,
indeed, fo as to form a regular globular figure, but,
however, in fuch a manner as to be condenfed towards
the common centre of gravity of the whole irregular
clufter. And this conftrudion admits of the utmofl:
variety of (hapes, according to the number and fituatiou
of the ftars which firft gave rife to the condenfation of
the reft.
“ III. From the compofition and repeated conjunc¬
tion of both the foregoing forms, a third may be de¬
rived, when many large ftars, or combined fmall ones,
are fituated in long extended regular or crooked rows,
hooks, or branches ; for they will alfo draw the fur¬
rounding ones fo as to produce figures of condenfed
ftars coarfely fimilar to the former, which gave rife to
thefe condenfations.
“ IV. We may likewife admit of ftill more exten¬
five combinations ; when, at the fame time that a du¬
ller of ftars is forming in one part of fpace, there may
be another colleding in a different, but perhaps not
far diftant, quarter, which may occafion a mutual ap¬
proach towards their common centre of gravity. SI^
“ V. In the laft place, as a natural confequence of Vacancies,
the former cafes, there will be great cavities or vacan-hew they
cies formed by the retreat of the ftars towards the va- ®re °“f'
rious centres which attrad them; fo that, upon
whole, there is evidently a field of the greateft variety venSt
for the mutual and combined attradions of the heaven¬
ly bodies to exert themfelves in.
“ From this theoretical view of the heavens, which
has
Sea. III. A S T R
Conclufionshas been taken from a point not lefs diftant in time
from the t]ian jn fpacej we vv;]l now retreat to our own ret;red
Appearan- ‘lation> in °ne the planets attending a ftar in its
ces. great combination with numberlefs others : and in or-
—y——' der to inveftigate what will be the appearances from
2Ig. this contrafted fituation, let us begin with the naked
How the eye. The liars of the firft magnitude, being in all prc-
ftars muft babiiity the neareft, will furnilh us with a flep to begin
us accord- °Ur ^Cale’ Setting therefore, with the diftance
ingtoThis Sirius or Ardturus, for inftance, as unity, we will
hypothefis. at prefent fuppofc, that thole cf the fecond magnitude
are at double, thofe of the third at treble, the diftance,
&c. Taking it for granted, then, that a ftar of the
feventh magnitude (the fmalleft fuppofed vilible with
the naked eye) is about feven times as far as one of
the firft, it follows, that an obferver who is inclofed in
a globular duller of liars, and not far from the centre,
will never be able with the naked eye to fee to the end
of it; for fince, according to the above eftimations,
he can only extend his view to about feven times the
diftance of Sirius, it cannot be expefted that his eyes
fhould reach the borders of a duller which has perhaps
not lefs than 50 liars in depth every where around
him. The whole univerfe to him, therefore, will be
comprifed in a fet of conftellations richly ornamented
with fcattered liars of all fixes : Or, if the united
brightnefs .of a neighbouring duller of liars Ihould, in
a remarkable clear night, reach his fight, it will put
on the appearance of a fmall, faint, whitilh, nebulous
cloud, not to be perceived without the greatdl atten¬
tion. Let us fuppofe him placed in a much extended
ftratum, or branching cinder of millions of liars, fuch
as may fall under the third form of nebulas already con-
fidered. Here alfo the heavens will not only be richly
fcattered over with brilliant conftellations, but a Ihi-
ning zone or milky way will be perceived to furround
the whole fphere of the heavens, owing to the com¬
bined light of thofe liars which are too fmall, that is,
too remote to be feen. Our obferver’s fight will be fo
confined, that he will imagine this fingle collection of
liars, though he does not even perceive the thoufandth
part of them, to be the whole coptents of the heavens.
Allowing him now the ufe of a common telefcope, he
begins to fufpedl that all the milkinefs of the bright
path which furrounds the fphere may be owing to
liars. He perceives a few clufters of them in various
parts of the heavens, and finds alfo that there are a
kind of nebulous patches: but Hill his views are not
extended to reach fo far as to the end of the ftratum’
in which he is fituated ; fo that he looks upon thefe
patches as belonging to that fyftem which to him feenvs
to comprehend every celeftial objedl. He now in-
creafes his power of vifion ; and, applying himfelf to
a clofe obfcrvation, finds that the milky way is indeed
no other than a co!le£lion of very fmall liars. He
perceives, that^ thofe obje&s which had been called
nebula, are evidently nothing but cluflers of (tars.
Their number increafes upon him * and when, he re-
folves one nebula into (lars, he difcovers ten new ones
which he cannot refolve. He then forms the idea of
immenfe ft.rata of fixed liars, of clufters of (tars and of
nebulae ; till, going on with fuch interelling obferva-
tions, he now perceives, that all thefe appearances
nauft naturally arife from the confined fituation in
N O M Y.
475
which we are placed. Confined it may juftly be called, ^oriclufi°ns
though in no lefs a fpace than what appeared before to from 4*
be th.e whole region of the fixed ftars, but which now A^eamr-
has alfumed the lhape of a crookedly branching nebula ; ces>
not indeed one of the lead, but perhaps very far from im.—v-..
being the moll confiderable, of thofe numberlefs clu¬
fters that enter into the conftrudlion of the heavens.” 219
Our author now proceeds to (how that this theoretical Arguments
view of the heavens is perfectly confident with fails,
and feems to o . confirmed by a feries of obfervations. gojng tlieo_"
Many hundreds of nebulas of the firft: and fecond formsry from ob-
are to be feen in the heavens ; and their places, hefervations
fays, will hereafter be pointed out ; many of the third011
form deferibed, and inftances of the fourth related ;
a few of the cavities mentioned in the fifth particu-
larifed, though many more have been already obierved :
fo that,. “ upon the whole (fays he), I believe it will
be found, that the foregoing theoretical view, with all
its confequenlial appearances, as feen by an eye inclo¬
fed in one of the nebulae, is no other than a drawing
from nature, wherein the features of the original have
been clojfely copied : and I hope the refemblance will
not be called a bad one, when it (hall be confidered
how very limited muft be the pencil of an inhabitant
of fo fmall and retired a portion of an indefinite fy¬
ftem in attempting the picture of fo unbounded an ex-
*ent' ' 220
Mr Herfchel next prefents us with a long table of Method of
ftar-gauges, or accounts of the number of ftars at ^earring
once in the field of his telcfcope, which go as high as (!ie
588; after which he propofes the following ° heavens1
Problem.
“ The ftars being fuppofed nearly equally fcattered,
and their number, in a field of view of a known an¬
gular diameter, being given, to determine the length
of the vifual ray.
“ Here, the arrangement of the-ftars not being fix¬
ed upon, we mud endeavour to find which way they
may be placed fo as to fill a given fpace mod equally.
Suppofe a redlangular cone cut into fruftula by many'
equidiftant planes perpendicular to the axis 5 then, if
one ftar be placed at the vertex and another in the
axis at the firft interfe&ion, fix liars may be fet around
it fo as to be equally diftant from one another and front
the central ftar. Thefe pofitians being carried on in
the fame manner, we ftvall have every liar within the
cone furrounded by eight others at an equal diftance
from that ftar taken as a centre. Fig. too..contains
four fe&ions of fuch a cone diftinguilhed by alternate
Ihades ; which will be fufficient to explain what fort of
arrangement I would point out.
“ The feries of the number of liars contained in
the feveral fe&ions will be I, 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, &c„
which, continued to w terms, the fum of it, by the
differential method, will be na+n. d! fi-n* n 1
^—2- d", &e. where a is the firft term, d', d", d!\ &c,
3
the firft, fecond, and third differences. Then, fince <7—r
d'—6, d"zz:6, d"'—o, the fum of the feries will be n},
Let S be the given number of ftars 5 1 the diameter of
the bafe of the field of view ; and B tire diameter of the
great refiaiigular cone ; and by trigonometry we ffall
have B =
Radius
Now, fince the field of view
la.
ig. field
of a tc'efcope is a cone, we (hall have its folidity to
that of the great cone of the ftars formed by the a-
bavef corsftrudion, as the fquare of the diameter of the
bafe of the field of view to the fquare of the diameter
of the great ctme, the height of both being the fame ;
and the ftars in each cone being in the ratio of the fo¬
lidity, as being equally fcattered, we have »:ry'B46;
and the length of the viftial ray -±.n—f, which was
to be determined;” Another folution of-this problem,
on the fuppofition of another arrangement of ftars, is
22i g'ven 5 but Mr Herfchel prefers the former.
Proofs of From the data now laid down* Mr Herfchel next
our fidereal endeavours to prove that the earth is ‘ the planet of
fyftem be- a ftar belonging to a compound nebula of the third
nebu-form.’ «« j /hall trow (fays he) proceed to (how, that
the ftupendous fidereal fyftem we inhabit, this extenfive
ftratum, and its fecondary branch, confifting of many
millions of ftars, is in all probability a detached nebula.
In order to go upon grounds that feem to me to be ca¬
pable of great certainty; they being no lefs than an
aftual furvey of the boundaries of our fidereal fyftetn,
which I have plainly perceived as far as I have yet
gone round it, every where terminated, and in moft
places very narrowly too, it will be proper to (how the
length of my founding line, if I may fo call it, that
it may appear whether it was fufficiently long for the
l2, purpofe.
Length of “ In the moft crowded parts of the milky-way, I
the line by have had fields of view that contained no fewer than
which Mr ftars, and thefe w'ere continued for many mi-
Hertchel nutes ; fo that in one quarter of an hour’s time there
theheavens. Paffi;cl no lefs than 116,000 ftars through the field of
view of my telefcope. Now, if we compute the length
of the vifual ray, by putting 8=588, and the diame¬
ter of the field of view 15 minutes, we (hall find
»= \/ 134 8 = 498 ; fo that it appears the length of
what I have called my Sounding Line, or n—1, was
not probably Jefs than 497 times the diftance of Sirius
from the fun.
“ It may feem inaccurate that we (hould found an
argument on the ftars being equally fcattered, when, in
all probability, there may not be any.two of them in
the heavens whofe mutual diftance (hall .be equal to
that of any other two given ftars : but it {hould be
eonfidered, that when we take all the ftars colle&ively,
there will be a mean diftance which may be affumed
as the general one ; and an argument founded on fuch
a fuppofition will have in its favour the greateft pro-
fclufter of bability of not being far fhort of truth. And here I
ftars de- muft obferve, that tbe difference between a crowdtd
fined. place and a clufter (none of the latter being put into
the gauge table), may eaiily be perceived by the ar¬
rangement as well as the fize and mutual diftance of
the ftars ; for in a clufter they are generally not only
‘refembling each other pretty nearly in fize, but a cer¬
tain uniformity of diftance alfo takes place f they are
' more and more accumulated towards the centre, and put
on all the appearances which we {hould naturally expedl
from a number of them colledted into a group at a
certain diftance from us. On the other hand, the rich
;part8 of the milky-way, as well as thofe in the diilant
n o n o m y. sea. m.
broad parts of the ftratum, confift of a mixture of ftars Conclufions
of all poffible fizesy that are feemingly placed without frorn
any particular apparent order. Perhaps we might re.^revoinS
col left, that a greater condenfation towards the centre C£J>pCaran'
of our fyftem than towards the borders of it {hould he i—-y—j
taken into corffideration 5 but with a nebula cf the
third form, containing fuch various and eXtenfive com¬
binations as I have found to take place in ours, this
circumftance, which in one of the firft form would be
of confiderable moment, may, I think, be fafely ne-
glefted;
“ If fome other high gauge be felefted from the
table, fuch as' 472 or 344, the length of the vifual ray
udll be found 461 and 415. And although in ccnfe-
quence of what has been faid, a certain degree of
doubt may be left about the arrangement and {batter¬
ing of the ftars, yet when it is recoilefted, that in thofe
parts of the milky-way, where thefe high gauges were
taken, the ftavs were neither fo final! nor fo crowded
as they muft have been, on a fuppofition of a much
farther continuance of them, when certainly a milky
or nebulous appearance muft have come on, I need
not fear to have over-rated the extent of my vifual ray ;
and indeed every thing that can be faid to {horten it
will only contraft the limits of our nebula, as it has in
moft places been of fufficient length to go far beyond
the bounds of it. Thus in the fides of our ftratum, 224
oppofite to onr fituation in it, where the gauges often Extent of
run below 5, our nebula cannot extend to too timesour
the diftance of Sirius ; and the fame telefcope which
could Ihow 588 ftars in a field of view of 15 minutes,
muft certainly have prefented me alfo wfith the ftars in
thefe fituations, had they been there. If we {hould
anfwer this by obferving, that they might be at too
great a diftance to be perceived, it will be allowing
that there muft at leaft be a vacancy amounting to the
length of a vifual ray, not ftiort of 400 times the di¬
ftance of Sirius ; and this is amply fufficient to make
our nebula a detached one. It is true, that-it would
not be confiftent confidently to affirm that we wrere on
an ifland, unlefs we had found ourfelves every where
bounded by the ocean ; and therefore I {hall go no far¬
ther than the gauges will authorife : but confidering
the little depth of the ftratum in all thofe places which
have been aftually gauged, to which muft be added all
the intermediate parts that have been viewed and found
to be much like the reft, there is but little room fo ex-
pe£t a connexion between our nebulil and any of the
neighbouring ones. A tclefcope, with a much larger
aperture than my prefent one, grafping together a
greater quantity of light, and thereby enabling us to
fee farther into fpace, will be the fureft means of com¬
pleting and eftabliftiing the arguments that have been
ufed: for if our nebula is not abfolutely a detached
one, I am firmly perfuaded that an mftrument may be
made large enough to difeover the places where the
ftars continuewnwards. A very bright milky nebulc-
fity muft there undoubtedly come on, fince the ftars in
a field of view vvill increafe in the ratio of greater
than that of the cube of the vifual ray. Thus, if 588
ftars in a given field of view are to be feen by a ray of
497 times the diftance of Sirius, when this is length¬
ened to 1000, which is but little more than double the
former, the number of ftars in the fame field of view
will
Sea. m.
A S T R O
for when the vifua! ray r is
where
N O M
m
Conclufions will be no lefs than 4774
from the .
foregoing given, the number of liars S will be =.
Appeanm . anj a telefcope with a threefold power of
to.—Y-—'extending into fpace, or with a ray of 1500, which I
think may eafily be conftrufted, will give us 16,096
ftars. Nor would thefe be fo clofe, but that a good
power applied to fuch an inftrument might eafily di-
ftinguilh them ; for they need not, if arranged in re¬
gular fquares, approach nearer to each other than
6''.27 : but the milky nebulofity I have mentioned,
Would be produced by the numberlefs ftars beyond
them, which, in one refpeft, the vifual ray might alfo
be faid to reach.. To make this appear, we muft re¬
turn to the naked eye ; which, as we have before efti-
mated can only fee the ftars of the feventh magnitude
fo as to diftinguifh them : but it is nevertheleis very
evident, that the united luftre of millions of ftars, fuch
as I fuppofe the nebula in Andromeda to be, will
reach our fight in the fliape of a very fmall faint nebu¬
lofity ; fincc the nebula of which I fpeak may eafily
be feen in a fine evening. In the fame manner, my
prefent telefcope, as I have argued, has not only a
vifual ray that will reach the ftars at 497 times the
diftance of Sirius, fo as to diftingtiifti them, and pro¬
bably much farther, but alfo a power of ftiowing the
united luftre of the accumulated ftars that compofe a
milky nebulofity at a diftance far exceeding the former
limits : fo that from thefe confiderations it appears
again highly probable, that my prefent telefcope not
fhowing fuch a nebulofity in the milky-way, goes al¬
ready far beyond its extent; and confequently much
more would an inftrument, fuch as I have mentioned,
remove all doubt on the fubjedft, both by ftiowing the
liars in the continuation of the ftratum, and by expo-
fing a very ftrong milky nebulofity beyond them, that
could no long*
the heavens.
•Analogical “ To thefe arguments, which reft bn the firm bafis
arguments of a feries of obfervath n, we may add the following
in favour of confiderations drawn from analogy. Among the-great
liis Joe- nuitjber of nebulae which I have now already feen, a-
mounting to more than 900, there are many which in
all probability are equally extenfive with that which
_ we inhabit 5 and yet they are all feparated from each
other by very confiderable intervals. Some, indeed,
there are that feem to be double and treble ; and though
with moft of thefe it may be that they are at a very
great diftance from each other, yet we allow that
feme fuch conjundlions really are to be found ; nor is
this what we mean to exclude: But then theQ: com¬
pound, or double nebulse, which are thofe of the third
and fourth forms, ftill make a detached link in the
great chain.. It is alfo to be fuppofed, that there may
be feme thinly fcattered foiitary ftars between the large
interftices of nebulte ; which being fituated fo as to be
nearly equally attrafted by the feveral clufters when
they were forming, remain unaflbeiated : and though
we cannot expeft to fee thofe ftars on account of their
vaft diftance, yet we may well prefnme that their num¬
ber cannot be very confiderable in-comparifon to ihofe
that are already drawn into fyflems ; which conjedure
is alfo abundantly confirmed in fituations where the
nebulas are near enough to have their ftars vifible ; for
they are all mfulated, and .generally to be feen upon a
very clear and pure ground, without any ftar near them Conclufions
that might be thought to belong to them. And though £roin
I have often feen them in beds of ftars, yet from the Apprar^n-
fize of thefe latter we ma,y be certain, that they wereces.
much nearer to us than thofe nebulae, and belonged'—•—v——!
undoubtedly to pur own fyHem.”
Having thus determined that the vifible fyftem of
nature, by us called the ntiiverfe, confiding of all the
celeftial bodies, and many more than can be feen by
the naked eye, is only a group of ftars or funs with
their planets, conftituting one of thofe patches called a
nebula, and perhaps not one ten thoufandth part of
what is really the univerfe, Mr Herfchel goes on to
delineate the figure of this vaft nebula, which he is of jZ6
opinion may now be done; and for this purpofe heHowthe
gives a table, calculating the diftance of the ftars which fisure of
form its extreme boundaries, or the length of the vi-^ ^ ^
fual ray in different parts, by the number of ftars con-uneatC(j,
tained in the field of his telefcope at different times,
according to the principles already laid down. He
does not, however, as yet attempt the whole nebula,
but of a particular fe£tion, reprefented fig. 160. “I
have taken one (fays he) which pafles through the
poles of our fyftem, and is at rectangles to the con-
junftion of the branches, which I have called its length.
The name of poles feemed to me not improperly ap¬
plied to thofe points which are 90 degrees diftantfrom
a circle paffing along the milky-way ; and the north
pole is here fuppofed to be fituated in right afeenfio*
186°, and polar diftance (that is from the pole com¬
monly fo called) 58°. The feftion is one which make*
an angle of 35 degrees with our equator, crofting it La
!24f and 304-^-degrees. A celeftial globe, adjufted
to the latitude of 559 north, and having a- Ceti
near
the meridian, will have the plane of this feftion point-
^ ed out by the horizon. The vifual rays are to be pro¬
be miftaken for the dark ground of je&ed on the plane of the horizon of the latitude juft
mentioned, which may be done accurately enough by
a globe adjufted in the manner diredted. The ftars is
the border, which are marked larger than the reft, arC
thofe pointed out by the gauges. The intermediate
parts are filled up by fmalier ftars, arranged in ftraight
lines between the gauged ones. From this figure,
which I hope is cot a very inaccurate one, we may fee
that our nebula, as we obferved before, is of the third
form ; that is, a very extenfive, branchings compound
congeries of many millions of ftars, which moft pro¬
bably owes its origin to many remarkably large, as
well as pretty clofely fcattered fmall ftars, that may-
have drawn together the reft. Now, to have fome idea
of the wonderful extent of this fyftem, I muft: obferve,
that this fedtion of it is drawn upon a fcale where the
diftance of Sirius is no more than the 80th part of an
inch ; fo that probably all the ftars, which in thefineft
nights we are able to diftinguifh with the naked eye,
may be comprehended within a fphere drawn round
the large ftar near the middle, reprefenting our fitua-
tion in the nebula of lefs than half a quarter of An inch
radius.”
Mr Herfchel now proceeds to offer fome further
thoughts on the origin of the nebulous ftrata of the
heavens ; in doing which he gives fome hints concern¬
ing the antiquity of them. “ If it were poflible (fays
he) to diftinguifh between the parts of an indefinitely
extended whole, the nebula tve inhabit might be faid
47* ASTRO
Conclufionsto be one that has fewer marks of antiquity than any
from the cf t}je q’0 eXp|ajn this idea perhaps more clear-
Appearjfn- we reco!]e&, t-liat the condenfation of clufters
ces> of ftars has been afcribed to ^gradual approach ; and
■'v— •' whoever refledfs on the number of ages that mull have
paffed before fome cf the clufters that are to be found
in my intended catalogue of them could be fo far con-
denfed as we find them at prefect, will not wonder if
I afcribe a certain air of youth and vigour to many
very regularly fcattered regions of our fidereal ftratum.
aay There are, moreover, many places in it in which, if we
Of the <le- may judge from appearances, there is the greateft rea-
cay and re-fon tQ believe that the ftars are drawing towards fecon-
tionPof ne- ^ary centres* an<^ w’^ >n t'me fcParate into clufters, fo
bul*. as to occafion many fubdivifions. Hence we may fur-
Riife, that when a nebulous ftratum confifts chiefly of
nebulas of the firft and fecond forms, it probably owes
its origin to what may be called the decay of a great
compound nebula of the third form ; and that the fub¬
divifions which happened to it in length of time, occa-
Jioned all the fmall nebulas which fprung from it to lie
in a certain range, according as they were detached
from the primary one. In like manner, our fyftem,
after numbers of ages, may very pofiibly become divi¬
ded, fo as to give rife to a ftratum of two or three
hundred nebulae ; for it would not be difficult to point
out fo many beginning or gathering clufters in it.
This throws a confiderable light upon that remarkable
colleftion of many hundreds of nebulae which are to
be feen in what 1 have called the tiebulous Jiratutn in
Coma Berenices. It appears from the extended and
branching figure of our nebula, that there is room for
the decompofed fmall nebulae of a large reduced former
great one to approach nearer to us in the fides than in
any other parts. Nay, poffibly there might originally
be another very large joining branch, which in time
became feparated by the condenfation of the ftars :
and this may be the reafon of the little remaining
breadth of our fyftem in that very place; for the ne¬
bulae of the ftratum of the Coma are brighteft and moft
crowded juft oppofite to our fituation, or in the pole
cf our fyftem. As foon as this idea was fuggefted, I
tried alfo the oppofite pole ; where accordingly I have
met with a great number of nebulas, though under a
much more fcattered form.
<< Some parts of our fyftem indeed feem already to
have fuftained greater ravages of time than others :
for inftance, in the body of the Scorpion is an open¬
ing or hole, which is probably owing to this catife.
It is at leaft four degrees broad ; but its height I have
not yet afcertained. It is remarkable, that the 80
Nebuleufe fans Etoiles of the Conncijjance des Temps,
which is one of the richeft and moft compreffed clu¬
fters of fmall ftars I remember to have feen, is fituated
juft on the weft border of it, and would almoft autho-
rife a fufpicion that the ftars of which it is compofed
were colle&ed from that place, and had left the vacan¬
cy. What adds not a little to this furmife is, that
the fame phenomenon is once more repeated with the
fourth dufter of the Gonnoijfance des Temps ; which is
aifo on the weftern border of another vacancy, and has
moreover a fmall miniature clufter, or eafily refolvable
nebula, of about 2-‘- minutes in diameter north, follow¬
ing it at no very great diftance.
w There is a remarkable purity or clearnefs in the
n o M Y. Sefl. in.
heavens when we look out of our ftratum at the fides ; Conclufions
that is, towards Leo, Virgo, and Coma Berenices on from tllc
one hand, and towards Cetus on the other; whereas *?res°ins
the ground of the heavens becomes troubled as vvc ap-cefpearan*
proach towards the length or height of it. Thefe1 - ‘
troubled appearances are eafily to be explained by
afcribing them to fome of the diftant ftraggling .ftars
that yield hardly light enough to be diftinguifhed.
And I have indeed often experienced this to be the
caufe, by examining thefe troubled fpots for a long
while together, when at laft I generally perceived the
ftars which occafioned them. But when we look to¬
wards the poles of our fyftem, where the vifual ray does
not graze along the fide, the ftraggling ftars will of
courfe be very few in number; and therefore the
ground of the heavens will aflume that purity wffiich
1 have always obferved to take place in thofe re-
S’T” 228
Thus, then, according to Mr Herfchel, the univerfe Univerfe
confifts of nebula, or innumerable colledions of innu-compofed
merable ftars, each individual of which is a fun not on- of ncbulse.
ly equal, but much fuperior to ours : at leaft if the
words of Mr Nicholfon have any weight ; for he tells
us, that “ each individual fun is deftined to give light ^
to hundreds of worlds that revolve about it, but which
can no more be feen by us, on account of their great ' ’
diftance, than the folar planets can be feen from the
fixed ftars.” “ Yet (continues he), as in this unex¬
plored, and perhaps unexplorable, abyfs of fpace, it is
no neceflary condition that the planets ftiould be of
the fame magnitudes as thofe belonging to our fyftem,
it is not impoffible but that planetary bodies may be
difcovered'among the double and triple ftars.”
Though In the above extra&s from Mr Herfchel’s
papers, the words condenfation, clufiers, &c. of ftars
frequently occur, we are by no means from thence to
imagine that any of the celeftial bodies in our nebula
are nearer to one another than we are to Sirius, whofe
diftance is fnppofed not to be lefs than 400,000 times
that of the fun from us, or 38 millions of millions of
miles. The whole extent of the nebula being in fome
places near 500 times as great, muft be fuch, that the
light of a ftar placed at its extreme boundary, fuppo-
fing it to fly with the velocity of 12 millions of miles
every minute, muft have taken near 3000 years to
reach us. Mr Herfchel, however, is by no means of
opinion, that our nebula is the moft confiderable in
the univerfe. “ As we are ufed (fays he) to call the
appearance of the heavens, where it is furrounded with
a bright zone, the milky-rway, it may not be amifs to
point out fome other very remarkable nebulae, which
cannot well be lefs, but are probably much larger, than
our own fyftem ; and being alfo extended, the inhabi¬
tants of the planets that attend the ftars which com-
pofe them, muft likewife perceive the fame phenome¬
na : for which reafon they may alfo be called milky-
rJjays, by way of diftin&ion.
“ My opinion of their fize is grounded on the fol-
lowing obfervations : There are many round nebulae of
the firft form, of about five or fix minutes in diameter, ftance 0£
the ftars of which I can fee very diflin&ly ; and on nebulae,
comparing them with the vifual ray calculated from
fome of my long gauges, I fuppofe by the appearance
of the fmall ftars in thofe gauges, that the centres of
thefe round nebulae, may be 6co times the diftance of
£ixiu&
Sea. lit.
ASTRO
Gonclnfions Sirius from us.”—He then goes on to tell us, that the
from the ftars jn (■QC{1 nebula are probably twice as much con-
Appearan- as thofe of our fyftem ; otherwife the centre of
ces. 3 3 it would not be lefs than 6coo times the diftance of
"V—1...> Sirius from us ; and that it is poffibly much under¬
rated by fuppofing it only 6co times the diftance of
that ftar.
•“ Some of thefe round nebulae (fays Mr Herfchel),
have others near them, perfeftly fimilar in form, colour,
and the diftribution of liars, but of only half the dia¬
meter : and the liars in them feem to be doubly crowd¬
ed, and only at about half the diftance from each other*
They are indeed fo fmall, as not to be vifible without
the utmoft attention. 1 fuppofe thefe miniature nebulae
to be at double the diftance of the firft. An inftance
equally remarkable and inftrufilive is a cafe where, in
the neighbourhood of two fuch nebulae as have been
mentioned, 1 met with a third fimilar, refolvable, but
much fmaller and fainter nubula. The Hare of it are
no longer to be perceived; but a refemblance of colour
with the former two, and its diminilhed fize and light,
may well permit us to place it at full twice the di-
llance of the fecond, or about four or five times the
diftance of the firft. And yet the nebulofity is not
of the milky kind ; nor is it fo much as difficultly re¬
folvable or colourlefs. Now in a few of the extend¬
ed nebulas, the light changes gradually, fo as from
the refolvable to approach to the milky kind ; w hich
appears to me an indication, that the milky light of
nebulas is owing to their much greater diftance. A
nebula, therefore, whofe light is perfe&ly milky, can¬
not well be fuppofed to be at lefs than fix or eight
thoufand times the diftance of Sirius ; and though the
numbers here aflumed are not to be taken otherwife
than as very coarfe ellimates, yet an extended nebula,
which in an oblique fituation, where it is poffibly fore-
fhortened by one half, two-thirds, or three-fourths of
its length, fubtends a degree or more in diameter, can¬
not be otherwife than of a wonderful magnitude, and
may well outvie our milky-way in grandeur.”
Mr Heffchel next proceeds to give an account of fe-
a3o veral remarkable nebulise, and then concludes thus :
Va!l length“ Now, what great length of time mull be required
^ TO produce thei'e effe&s (the formation of nebulae) may
eafily be conceived, when, in all probability, our whole
fyftem, of about 8oo ftars in diameter, if it were feen
at fuch a diftance that one end of it might affume the
refolvable nebulofity, would not, at the other end,
prefent us with the ir*efolvable, much lefs with the
colourlefs and milky, fort of nebulofities.” Great in¬
deed muft be the length of time requifite for fuch di-
ftant bodies to form combinations by the laws of at-
traftion, fince, according to the diftances he has af-
fumed, the light of fome of his nebulae mull be thirty-
fix or forty-eight thoufand years in arriving from them
to us. It would be worth while then to enquire, whe¬
ther attraction is a virtue propagated in time or not ;
or whether it moves quicker or flower than light l
In the courfe of Mr Herfchel’s obfervations and in-
fiars do notquiries concerning the ftru&ure of the heavens, an ob-
fall upon je<Stion occurred, that if the different fyftems were
ther*110" formedby tbe mutual attractions of the ftars, the whole
ner’ would be in danger of deftruCtion by the falling of
them one upon another. A Efficient anfwer to this,
he thinks, is, that if we can really prove the fyftem of
form the
nebulas.
Why the
N O M Y. 479
the univerfe to be what he has faid, there is no doubtConclufiona
but that the great Author of it has amply Provided
for the prefervation of the whole, though it fhould not Appeanfn.
appear to us in what manner this is effefted. Several ces,
circumftances, however, he is of opinion, manifeltlyv—-y——^
tend to a general prefervation ; as, in the fit ft place,
the indefinite extent of the fidereal heavens ; which
muft produce a balance that will effedually fecure all
the great parts of the whole from approaching to eaeh
other. “ There remains then (fays he) only to fee
how the particular ftars belonging to feparate clufters
are prevented from rufhing on to their centres of at¬
traction.” This he fuppofes may be done by projec¬
tile forces ; “ the admiffion of which will prove fuch a
barrier againft the feeming deftruClive power of attrac¬
tion, as to fecure from it all the ftars belonging to a
clutter, if not for ever, at leaft for millions of ages.
Befides, we ought perhaps to look upon fuch clufters,
and the deftruClion of a ftar now and then in fome
thoufands of ages, as the very means by which the
whole is preferved and renewed. Thefe clufters may
be the laboratories of the univerfe, wherein the moft
falutary remedies for the decay of the whole are pre-
pared.” _ 43a
In fpeaking of the planetary nebulas, by which name of the pla-
he diftinguilhes thofe fpots that are all over equally lu-netary ne-
minous, he fays, “ If we (hould fuppofe them to be^**
Angle ftars with large diameters, we lhall find it diffi¬
cult to account for their not being brighter, unlefs we
{hould admit that the intrinfic light of fome ftars may
be very much inferior to that of the generality; which,
-however, can hardly be imagined to extend to fuch a
degree. We might fuppofe them to be comets about
their aphelion, if the brightnefs, as well as magnitude
of their diameters, did not oppofe this idea : fo that,
after all, we can hardly find any hypothefis fo probable
as that of their being nebulae; but then they muft con-
fill of ftars that are comprefled and accumulated in the
higheft degree. If it were not perhaps too hazardous
to purfue a former furmife of a renewal in what I figu¬
ratively called the Laboratories of the Univerfe, the ftars
forming thefe extraordinary nebulas, by fome decay or
wafle of nature being no longer fit for their former
purpofes, and having their projectile forces, if any
fuch they had, retarded in each other’s atmofphere,
may rulh at lall together ; and, either in fucceffion or
by one general tremendous (hock, unite into a new
body. Perhaps the extraordinary and fudden blaze of
a new ftar in Caffiopeia’s chair, in 1572, might pof¬
fibly be of fuch a nature. If a little attention to thefe
bodies {hould prove that, having no annual parallax,
they belong moft probably to the clafs of nebulae, they
may then be expeCled to keep their ftation better than
any one of the ftars belonging to our fyftem, on ac¬
count of their being probably at a very great di¬
ftance.” 23j
Having thus at length got through the conjeClures Motion of
and theories concerning the nature and fituations ofthe fixed
the heaveuly bodies, we muft now proceed to confiderj?ars
thofe projeCtile forces which are fuppofed neceflary toj^^ y~
the prefervation of the fyftem of Nature, and to pre¬
vent the ftars from falling upon one another more fre¬
quently than they do. It was firft fufpeCled by Dr
Halley, that many of the ftars which we call fixed, are
really in motion, though that motion is either fo flow
480
Attraction
prevents
the ftars
from re¬
vert.
Conclufions Jn itfelf, or their difrance is fo great, that it can icarce
from the perceptible in half a century. It is, however, now
AnnearS - confirmed by aftrono'mica! obfervations, that Ar&urus,
ces. 31 Sirius, Aldebaran, Procyon, Caftor, Rigel, Altaic,
v—J and many others, are aftually in motion : which con-
fideration, with the length of time neceffary to fhow
any change of place in bodies at fuch extreme diftarce,
with the latenefs of any obfervations on this head,
« would lead us (fays Mr Herfchel) to fuppofe that
there is not one fixed (lar in the heavens:” but “ ma¬
ny other reafons (adds he) will render this fo obvious,
that there can hardly remain a doubt of the general
motion of all the Harry fyftems, and confequently of
the folar one among the red.
“ I might begin with principles drawn from the
theory of attraction, which evidently oppofe every
idea of abfolute reft in any one of the ftars, when once
it is known that lame of them are in motion : for the
abfolute 3t change that mull arife by fuch motion, in the value of
a power which afts inverfely as the fquares of the di-
ftances, muft be felt in all the neighbouring ftars 5 and
if thefe be influenced by the motion of the former,
they will again affedi thofe that are next to them, and
fo on, till all are in motion. Now, as we know feve-
ral ftars in divers parts of the heavens do actually
change their place, it will follow, that the motion of
our folar fyltem is not a mere hypothefis. And what
will give additional weight to this confideration is, that
we have the^reateft reafon to fuppofe molt of thofe
very ftars which have been obferved to move, to be fuch
as are neareft to us ; and therefore their influence on
our fituation would alone prove a powerful argument
jn favour of the proper motion of the fun had it been
originally at reft.”
After enumerating a great many, changes, which,
from his own obfervation, have happened among the
fixed ftars, and of which we have already given an ac¬
count, “ Does it not feem natural (fays he), that
thefe obfervations fliould caufe a ftrong fufpicion that
moft probably every ftar in the heaven is more or lefs
in motion ? And though we have no reafon to think
oernin^the t^at t^ie ^^aPPearBnce ^orae ftats, or new appearance
appearance ot^ers> nor indeed that the frequent changes in the
■ef new magnitude of fo many of them, are owing to their
flats. change of diftance from us by proper motions, which
could not occafion thefe phenomena without being in¬
conceivably quick; yet we may well fuppofe, that mo¬
tion is fome way or other concerned in producing thefe
effedts. A flow motion, for inftance, in an orbit round
fume large opaque body, where the ftar which is loft
or diminiflied in magnitude might undergo occafional
occultations, would account for fome of thofe changes;
■while,others might perhaps be owing to the periodical
return of fome large fpots oa that fide of the furface
which is alternately turned towards us by the rotatory
motion of the ftar. The idea, alfo, of a,body much
flattened by a quick rotation, and having a motion fi-
snilar to the moon’s orbit by a change of the place of
its nodes, whereby more of the luminous furface would
one time be expofed to us than another, tends to the
fame end : for we cannot help thinking with Mr de la
Lande (Mem.. 1 776), that the fame force which gave
fuch rotations, would probably alfo produce motions of
a different kind by a trauflation of the centre. Now, if
the proper motion of the ftars in general be once admit-
R O N o M Y. Sefl. III.
ted, who can refufe to allow that our fun, with all its Conclufions
planets and comets, that is, the folar fyftem, is no lefsfro1”
liable to fuch a general agitation as we find to obtain*?res°ins
among the reft of the edeftial bodies ? ces?364™11'
“ Admitting this for granted, the greateft difficul-l—^—■ „>
ty will be, how to diiccru the proper motion of the 336
fun among fo many other and varioufly compoundedH°w to
motions of the ftars. This is an arduous talk indeed :difcovei"thc
but I (hall point out a method of dete&ing the direc-
lion and quantity of the fuppofed proper motion of-thefun4
fun by a few geometrical dedu&ions; and at the fame
time fhow, by an application of them to fome known
fafts, that we have already fome reafon to guefs which
way the folar fyftem is probably tending its courfe.
“ Suppofe the fun to be at S, fig. 101, the fixed
ftars to be difperfed in all poftibie dirt&ions and di-
ftances around, at /, s, s, s, &c. Now, felting afide
the proper motion of the ftars, let us firft confider
what will be the confequence of a proper motion in
the fun, and let it move in a dire&ion from A to¬
wards B. Suppofe it now arrived at C : here, by a
mere infpeftion of the figure, it will be evident, that
the ftars s,s,s, which w-ere before feen at aaa, will
now, by the motion of the fun from S to C, appear to
have gone in a contrary direftion, and be feen at bbb',
that is to fay, every ftar will appear more or lefs to
have receded from the point B, in the order of the
letters ab, ab, ab. The converfe of this propofition is
equally true ; for if the ftars fliould all appear to have
had a retrograde motion with refpeft to the point B,
it is plain, on a fuppofition of their being at reft, the
fun muft have a diredft motion towards the point B, to
occafion all thefe appearances. From a due confider¬
ation of what has been laid, we may draw the follow¬
ing inferences :
“ 1. The greateft, or total fyftematical parallax of
the fixed ftars (fig. 103), will fall upon thofe that are
in the line D E, at reftangles to the direction A B of
the fun’s motion. ,
“ 2. The partial fyftematical parallax of every other
ftar s, s, s, not in the line D E, will be to the total pa¬
rallax as the fine of the angle BStf, being the ftar’s di-.
fiance from that point towards which the fun moves,,
to radius.
“ 3. The parallax of ftars at different diftances will
be inverfely as-thefe diftances; that is, one half at
double the diftance, one third at three times, and fo on ;
for the fubtenfe SC remaining the fame, and the pa-
ralladfic angle being very fmall, we may admit the angle
SjC to be inverfely as the fide Sr, which is the ftar’s
diftance.
“ 4. Every ftar at reft, to a fyftem in motion, will
nppear to move in a direction contrary to that which
the fyftem has. Hence it follows, that if the folar fy¬
ftem be carried towards any ftar fituated in the eclip¬
tic, every ftar, whofe angular diftance in. antecedentia
(reckoned upon the ecliptic from the ftar towards
which the fyftem moves) is lefs than 180 degrees,' will
decreafe in longitude ; and that, on the contrary,
every ftar, whofe diftance from the fame ftar (reckon¬
ed upon the ecliptic, but in confequ&ntia) is lefs than
180 degrees, will increafe in longitude in both cafes,
without alteration-of latitude.
“ The immenfe regions of the fixed ftars may be
confidered as an infinitely expanded globe, having the
fo-
tJ'ia. /08.
A S T R O X O M Y .
Plate PXX I.
///.
• ./‘rlH. TtaZ'Sat/fr/srr/W/M
Sea. III.
ASTRONOMY.
481
ConcluGonsfolar fyftem for its centre. The moft proper method
from the therefore of finding out the dire&ion of the motion of
Appearan- t^ie ^un *s» t0 ^'v^e ou'' obfervations on the fyftema-
oes. tical parallax of the fixed ftars into three principal zones.
i*—v——' Thcfe, for the convenience of fixed inftruments, may
be aflumed fo as to let them pafs around the equator
and the fo}ftitiaI colures, every one being at rectangles
to the other two, according to the three dimenfions of
folids.” Our author, then, having informed us that
obfervations on double ftars are moft proper for afccr-
taining this point, gives an account of three zones he
has marked out for this purpofe ; the equatorial zone,
containing 150 double ftars; that of the equinoCtial
colure, extending 10 degrees of a great circle on each
fide, as far as it is vifible on our hemifphere, which will
contain about 70 double ftars ; and that of the folftitial
colure, including 120, befides a. zone of the ecliptic
containing a great many double ftars which may under¬
go occultations by the moon. It is of the fameextent,
and includes about 120 double ftars.-
To apply this theory, it is neceffary, in the firft
place, to obferve, that the rules of philofophifing direft
us to refer all phenomena to as few and fimple prin¬
ciples as are fufficient to explain them. Aftronomers,
therefore, having already obferved what they call a
proper motion in feveral of the fixed ftars, and which,
may be fuppofed common to them all, ought to refolve
it, as far as pofiible, into a Angle and real motion of
the folar fyftem, as far as that will anfwer the known
fads; and only to attribute to the proper motion of
each particular ftar the deviations from the general law
3;jy which the ftars feem to follow.
Proper mo- Dr Mafkelyne informs us, that the proper motions
tionsof in right‘afcenfion of Sirius, Caftor, Procyon, Pollux,
Regulus, AuCturus, and « Aquilse, are as follow—
the itars. 0//.8o__ 0".93 o".4l i".4o,
and 4 Two of them, Sirius and Ar&urus,
have alfo a change of declination; viz. i".2o and
2''.oi ; both fouthward. Det now fig. 104. reprefent
an equatorial zone with the abovementioned ftars refer¬
red to it, according to their refpedive right afcenfions,
having the folar fyftem in its centre. Affume the di-
re&ion A B from a point fomewhere not far from the
77th degree of right afcenfion to its dppofite 257th de¬
gree, and fuppofe the ftm to move in that dire&ion
from S towards B, then will that one motion anfwer
that of all the ftars together ; for if the fuppofition be
true, Ardurus, Regulus, Pollux, Procyon, Caftor,
and Sirius, ftiould appear to decreafe in right afcen-
fion, while « Aquilae, on the contrary, fhould appear
. to increafe. Moreover, fuppofe the fun to afcend at
the fame time, in the fame diredion, towards fame
point in the northern hemifphere, for inilance towards
the conftellation Hercules ; then will alfo the obferved
change of declination of Sirius and Ardurus be-refol-
ved into the fingle motion of the fyftem. Many diffi¬
culties indeed yet remain ; fnch as the correfpondence
of the .exad quantity of -motion obferved in each ftar,
with what will be afiigned to it by this bypothefis. Btit
it is to be remembered, that the very different and Hill
unknown diftances of the fixed ftars mult, for a good
. while yet, leave us in the dark as to the ftrid applica¬
tion of the theoi y ; and that any deviation from it may
ealily be accounted for from the ftill unknown real
proper motion of the ftars; for if the folar-fyftem have
You IL. Part II.
in reality the motion now afcribed to it, then wliatConclufions
aftronomers have already obferved concerning the change |!rom t.'le
of place of the ttars, and have called their proper mo* A^earan-
tion, will become only an apparent motion ; and futureces<
obfervations muft ftill point out, by the deviations from
the general law, which the ftars will follow in tliofe
apparent motions, what may be their real proper mo¬
tions, as well as relative diftances. “ But (fays Mr
Herfchel) left I ftiould be cenfured for admitting
fo new and capital a motion upon too flight a founda¬
tion, T muft obferve, that the concurrence of thofe feven
principal ftars cannot but give fome value to an hypo-
thefis that will Amplify theceleftial motions in general.
We know that the fun, at the diftance of a fixed ftar,
would appear like one of them ; and from analogy we
conclude the fixed ftars to be funs. Now, tince the ap¬
parent motions of thofe feven ftars may be accounted for, .
either by fuppofing them to move itr the manner they
appear to do, or elfe by fuppofing the fun alone to
have a motion in a dirc&icn fomehow not far from
that which I have affigned to it, I think we are no
more authorifed to fuppofe the fun at reft than we
fhould be to deny the diurnal motion of the earth ; ex¬
cepting in this refpedt, that the proofs of the latter are
very numerous, whereas the former reft only on a few,
though capital teftimonies.” 238
The following table, taken from De la Lande, ofChangeof
the change of right afeenfion and declination of twelverightafcen- -
ftars, is brought as an additional proof of this do&rine. a[,dde"
vt r ^ ^ . clination •£ •
Names of Stars. Change of R. A.  
Artturus — 1' it"
Sirius — 37
/3 Cygni — 3
prccyon — 3$
* Cygni 4 20
y Arietis — j4
y Gemini — 8
Aldebaran 4 3
P> Gemini — 48
y Pifcium 4 53
a Aquilas 4 32
« Gemini — 24.
Change of Dcdin. twelve
55'' ftars.
52
49
47
54
29
24
j 8
16
7
4
Fig. 105. reprefents them proje&ed on the plane of f
the equator. They are all in the northern hemiTpherer
except Sirius, which muft be fuppofed to be viewed in •
the concave part of the oppofite half of the globe,
while the reft are drawn on the convex furface. Re¬
gulus being added to that number, and Caftor being
double, we have 14 ftars; and every ftar’s motion ex¬
cept Regulus, being afligned in declination as well as
right afcenlion, we have no fewer than 27 given mo- , 239 ,•
lions to account for. Now, by affuminga point fome- Motions cf '
where near *. Plercules, and fuppofing the fun to have ft16 ftars
a proper motion towards that part of the heavens, We®ccounted
ftiall account for 22 of thefe motions. For p Cygni, r*
« Aquilae, * Cygni, y,Pifcium, y Arietis, and Alde¬
baran, ought, upon the fuppofed motion of the fun, to
have an apparent progreffion according ,to the hour-
circle XVMl, XiX, XX, See. or to increale in right
afeenfion ; while Aidturus, Regulus, the two ftars of :
« Geminorum, Pollux, Procyon, Sirius, and y Ge-
minorum, ftiould apparently go back in the order XVI, .
XV, XIV, &c. of the bonr-clrcle, fo as to decreafe in •
right afeenfion. But according to De la Lande’e
table, .excepting 0 Cyg'ni and y.Arietis, all thefe mo-
3 jP tio.c»:3
N O
M Y.
482 ASTRO
Conclafions tlons really take place. With regard to the change
from the Gf declination, every ftar in the table fliould go towards
Appear an- ^)e f°uth 5 an^ here we find but three exceptions, in
CCSi /j and £ Cygni and y Pifcium. So that, upon the
Ui.—y—ii j whole, we have but five deviations out of 27 known
motions which this hypothefis will not account for;
and thefe exceptions muft be refolved into the real pro*
340 per motion of the liars.
Oftheve- Some circumftarices in the quantity of thefe motions
locity of alfo deferve our notice. In the firft place, Arfturus
■the ftars. and Sirius being the iargeft of the liars, and therefore
probably the neareft, ought to have the greatefl appa¬
rent motion both in right afcenfion and declination ;
which is agreeable to obfervation, as appears from the
table. 2. With regard to the right afcenfion only,
Ar&urus being better fituated to fiiow its motion,
ought to have it much greater ; as we find it a&ually
has. Aldebaran, both badly fituated and confiderably
fmaller, ought, according to the fame rule, to fhow
but little motion, &c. ; all of which is conformable to
the table. A very ftriking agreement with the hypo¬
thefis may alfo be obferved in Caftor and Pollux, both
of which are pretty well fituated : and accordingly we
find that Pollux, for the fize of the ftar, (hows as much
motion in right iafeenfion as we could expert ; though
it is remarkable that Caftor, though equally well pla¬
ced, fhows no more than half the motion by the table.
This is feemingly contrary to the hypothefis : but it
muft be remembered, that Caftor is a double ftar, and
the two of which it confifts are nearly equal to each
other in luftre; fo that, as we can allow only half the
light to each, there is a ftrong prefumption of their
being at twice the diftance of Pollux, which agrees
very well with obfervation. It might alfo be obferved,
that we fhould be involved in great difficulty by fup*
pofing the motion of Caftor really to be in the ftar :
for how extraordinary muft be the concurrence, that
two ftars, viz. thofethat make up this apparently Angle
one, Ihould both have a proper motion fo exaftly alike,
that in all our obfervations hitherto, we have not found
them difagree a Angle fecond either in right afcenfion,
441 or in declination for 50 years together ?
Arguments In a poftfeript to this paper on the motion of the
fr°^m tlie folar fyftem, Mr Herfchel brings feveral additional
tionsoaf'MrCon^rmat*ons hypothefis from the works of Mr
Mayer in Mayer. Thefe contain a catalogue of the places of 80
favour of ftars obferved by Mr Mayer in 1756, and whofe places
Herfchel’s he compared with thofeof the fame ftars given by Roe-
•-hypothefis. mer in 1706. From the goodnefs of the inftrument
with which Mr Roemer made his obfei vations, Mr
Mayer gives it as his opinion, that where thp difagree-
ment in the place of a ftar is but fmall, it may be at¬
tributed to the imperfe&ion of the inftrument, but that
when it amounts to 10" or 15", it is a very probable
indication of motion in fuch a ftar ; and he adds, that
when the difagreement is fo much as in fome ftars which
he names (among which is Fomahand, where the dif-
242 ference is 21" in 50 years), he has not the leaft doubt
Tables of of a proper motion. The following tables are extraft-
moving C(j from Mr Mayer’s work ; one contains the ftars
f ars‘ whofe motion agrees with Mr Her'fchcl’s hypothefis ;
the other thofe that difagree with it, and whofe phe¬
nomena muft therefore be either aferibed to a proper
motion of the ftars themfelves, or to fome other more
bidden caufe.
Names of Stars.
Cete
a. Arietis
JCeti
u Ceti
« Perfei
j) Pleiadum
y Eridani
6 Tauri
a Aurigae
/3 Orionis
£ Tauri
g Hydras
y Leporis
e Urfae Majoris
at Serpentis
y Draconis
a Lyrae
y Aquilae
y Capricorn
s Pegafi
£ Capricorn
ee Aquar.
a Orionis
jti Oeminorum
^ Navis
/3 Cancri
» Urfas Majoris
£ Pegafi
Fomahand
/3 Pegafi .
« Androm.
/S Caffiopeiae
Names of Stats.
Polaris
y Ceti
0 Perfei
ec Leporis
Geminor.
s Cam’s Major.
£ Hydrae
a Hydrae
0 Herculis
y Cygni
s Pegafi
£ Pegafi
Table I.
Motion in R. A.
+
+
+
+
+
+ H
+ 11
infenf.
— 11
— 23
infenf.
+ 12
infenf.
+ x9
+ 24
+ 13
irifenf.
— 16
— 13
— 54
+ 21
+ 12
+ 34
Table II.
Motion in R, A.
— H
— IO
+ H
— 13
— 14
  20
Se&. in.
Motion of Declin.
Conclufions
from the
foregoing
Appearan-
— 16
infenf.
— 13
— 10
+ 10
+ H
— 20
— 28
— i?
— 11
— 11
— «4
— I3
— 21
Motion in Declin.
+ 13
+ II
+ 15
+ IO
+ 24
+ 13
“ From the firft table, (fays Mr Herfchel), we ga¬
ther that the principal ftars, Lucida Lyrae, Capella,
Orionis, Rigel, Fomahand, ec Serpentarii, « Aquarii,
ec Arietis, ec Perfei, a Andromedae, a Tauri, « Ceti, and
20 more of the moft diftinguiftied of the fecond and
third rank of the ftars, agree with our propofed folar
motion 5 when, on the contrary, the fecond table con¬
tains but a few ftars, and not a Angle one of the firft
magnitude among them to oppofe if. It is alfo re¬
markable, that many ftars of the firft table agree both
in right afcenfion and declination with the fuppefition
of a folar motion ; whereas there is not one among thofe
of the fecotuPtable which oppofes it in both diixdions.
This feems to indicate, that the folar motion, in fome
-of
Sea. III.
RON
M Y.
Conclufionsof them at leaft, has countera&ed, and thereby deftroy-
from the ecj} of their own proper motion in one direc-
Appearau- t‘on» as t0 renc^er infenfible 5 otherwife it would
ces. appear improbable, that eight ftars out of twelve, con-
*—V—^ tained in the latter table, fhould only have a motion at
rectangles, or in oppofition to any one given direction.
The fame may alfo be faid of 19 ftars of the former
table, that only agree with the folar motion one way,
and are as to fenfe at reft in the other direction ; but
thefe Angularities will not be near fo remarkable when
we have the motion of the fun to compound with their
own proper motions.
The motions of « Lyrae and f Urfas Majoris towards
the north, are placed in the firft table : to underftand
the reafon of which, it wilj be neceflary to point out
To deii- the general law by which the apparent declinations of
neate the the ftars at pre^nt under confideration are governed,
apparent Let an arcj, 0f gQo ke app]je£] to a fphere reprefenting
th^ftars. l^e ^xec* ftars> as always tQ pafs through the apex
of the folar motion : then, while one end of it is drawn
along the equator, the other will defcribe on the/phe^
rical furface a curve which will pafs through the pole
244 of the equator, and return into itfelf at the apex. This
Spherical curve, not taken notice of by other authors, Mr Her-
conchoid fchel calls a fpherical conchoid, from the manner in
defcribcd. which it is generated. The law then is, that all the
ftars in the northern hemifphere, fituated within the
nodated part of the conchoid, will feem to go to the
north by the motion of the folar fyftem towards its a-
pex, the reft will appear to go fouthwards. A fimilar
curve is to be delineated in the fouthern hemifphere.
Mr Herfchel then fhows a method of finding whether
any ftar whofe place in the heavens is known, will fall
without or within the conchoid 5. after which he ac¬
counts for the want of fenfible motion in « Lyrse and
* Orionis in right afcenfion, and of Rigel both in right
afcenfion and declination, in the following manner:
“ Thefe ftars are fo bright, that we may reafonably
fuppofe them to be among thofe that are neareft to
us : and if they had any confiderable motion, it would
moft likely have been difcovered, fince the variations
of Sirius, Arfturus, ^rocyon, Caftor, and Pollux, &c«
have not efcaped our notice. Now, from the fame
principle of the motion of the folar fyftem, by which
we have accounted for the apparent of the lat¬
ter ftars, w’e may account for the apparent reji of the
former. Thofe two bright ftars, a.Lyrae and «.Ono¬
nis, are placed fo near the direftion of the afligned fo->
lar motion, that from the application of the fecond
theorem (n° 236), their motion ought to be infenfible in
right afcenfion, and not very confiderable in declina¬
tion ; all which is confirmed by obfervations. With
refpeft to Rigel and <* Serpentarii, admitting them
both as ftars large enough to have Ihown a proper mo¬
tion, were their fituation otherwife than it is, we find
that they alfo fhould be apparently at reft in right af-
cenfion ; and Rigel, having fouthern declination-, and
being a lefs confiderable - ftar than « Orionis, which
fhows but 11" motion towards the fouth in 50 years,
its apparent motion in declination may on that account
be alfo too fmall to become viiible.” Our author con¬
cludes with a remarkable pafiage from Mayer, to the
following purpofe, viz. If it be poflible that the fun
has any proper motion of his own, the ftars in that
part of the heavens towards which he moves, muft ap.
pear to open and recede from each other, while on the
483
other hand, thofe on the oppofite fide will feem to con- Conclufions
trad their diftances, and come nearer each other.”^0"1
“ Now (fays Mr Herfchel), if we recolleft what has
been faid of the motion of the ftars, we find that thofe,ces. earan*
towards which I fuppofe the folar fyftem to move, do 1 "--v— .J
really recede from each other : for inftance, Ar&urus
from « Lyrae, « Aquilae and * Aquarii from « Ser¬
pentarii and e Urfae Majoris; and, on the contrary,
thofe in the oppofite part of the heavens do really
come nearer each other, a» Sirius to Aldebaran, Pro-
cyon to * Arietis, Caftor, Pollux, Regulus, &c. to
« Ceti, « Perfei, « Andromedae, &c. It muft be added
however, that we cannot expeft immediately to per¬
ceive any effe&s of this motion, excepting in fuch ftars
as are neareft; to us. But as we have at prefent no
other method of judging of the relative diftance of the
fixed ftars than from their apparent brightnefs, thofe
that are moft likely on that account to be affe&ed by
a parallax arifings from the motion of the folar fyftem,
are the very ftars which have been pointed out from
Mayer’s own table.” a4^
With regard to the quantity of motion in tjje folarVelocity of
fyftem, or the velocity with which the fun and planets the folar
change their places in abfolute fpace, Mr Herfchel pro-,f)^em*
pofes only a few diftant hints. “ From the annual
parallax of the fixed ftars (fays he) which from my
own obferyations 1 find much lefs than it has hither¬
to been thought to be, we may certainly admit, that
the diameter of the earth’s orbit, at the diftance of
Sirius or Ar&urus, would not nearly fubtend an angle
of one fecond ; but the apparent motion of Arfturus,
if owing to a tranflation of the folar fyftem, amounts
to no lefs than 2".7 a-year, as will appear if we com¬
pound the two motions of F 11" in right afcenfion,
and i'55" in declination into one fingle motion, and
reduce it into an annual quantity. Hence we may, irr
a general way, eftimate, that the folar motion can cer¬
tainly not be lefs than that which the earth has in her*
annual orbit.”
Sect. TV. Of the different Syjlems by which the :
Celejiial Phenomena have been accounted for.
In treating of the various fyftems which have been
invented in different ages, we do not mean to give an
account of the various abfurdities that have been #
broached by individuals on this fubjeft ; but fliall
confine ourfelves to thofe fyftems. which have been .
of confiderable note, and been generally followed for
a-number of years. Concerning the opinions of the -
very firft aftronomers about the fyftem of nature, we
are neceflarily as ignorant as we are of thofe aftro¬
nomers themfelves. Whatever opinions are handed •
down to us, muft be of a vaftly later date than the in¬
troduction of aftronomy among mankind. If we may
hazard a conjeCture, however, we are inclined to think
that the firft opinions on this fubjed were much more-
juft than thofe that were held afterwards for many ages. <
We are told that Pythagoras maintained the motion ofphthago* >
the earth, which is now univerfally believed, but at-reanfyftensu.
that time appears to have been the opinion of only a
few detached individuals of Greece. As the Greeks
borrowed many things from the Egyptians,- and Py¬
thagoras had travelled into Egypt and Phenice, it is
probable he. might receive an account- of this -hypothe-*
fia.from thence : but whether he did fo.or not, we have •
3 P.2 .
noy/Pt-
484 ASTRO
Offhedif- now nd means of knowing, neither is it of any im-
ferent Sy- p0rtance whether he did or not. Certain it is, how-
wblch'the ever» t^lat °P'nion not prevail in his days, nor
Celeftial ^or many ages sfter. In the 2d Century after Chrift,
Phenome. the very name of the Pythagorean hypothefis was fup-
na have prefled by a fyftem ere£led by the famous geographer
been ac* at)(j aftronomer Claudius Ptolemasus. This fyftsm,
counted for. cotnmonly goes by the name of the Ptolemaic,
347 he feems not to have originally inventedj but adopted
Suppreffed as lbe prevailing one of that age 5 and perhaps made
by the Pto-it fomewhat more confiftent than it Was before. He
■lemaic. fuppofed the earth at reft in the centre of the univerfe*
Round the earth, and the neareft to it of all the hea¬
venly bodies, the moon performed its monthly revolu¬
tions. Next to the moon was placed the planet Mer-
> cury 5 then Venus ; and above that the Sun, Mars, Ju¬
piter, and Saturn, in their proper orbits ; then the
fphere of the fixed ftars; above thefe, two fpheres
of what he called chryjlallitie heavens ; above thefe was
the primum mobile, which, by turning round once in
24 hours, by fome unaccountable means or other, car¬
ried all the reft along with it. This primum mobile was
encompaffed by the empyrean heaven, which was of a
cubic form, and the feat of angels and blelfed fpirits.
Befides the motions of all the heavens round the earth
once in 24 hours, each planet was fuppofed to have a
particular motion of its own ; the moon, for inftance,
once in a month, performed an additional revolution,
a48 the fun in a year, &c. See Fig. 150.
Ptolemy’s It is eafy to fee, that, on this fuppofition, the con-
fyftem in- fufe(l motions of the planets already deferibed could
Sufficient, never be accounted for. Had they circulated uniformly
round the earth, their apparent motion ought always
to have been equal and uniform, without appearing
either ftationary or retrograde in any part of their
courfes. In confcquence of this objeftion, Ptolemy
was obliged to invent a great number of circles, inter¬
fering with each other, which he called epicycles and
■eccentrics. Thefe proved a ready and effectual falvo
for all the defe&s of his fyftem ; as, whenever a planet
was deviating from the courfc it ought on his plan to
have followed, it was then only moving in an epicycle
or an eccentric, and would in due time fail into its
proper path. As to the natural caufes by which the
planets were diredled to move in thefe epicycles and
eccentrics, it is no wonder that he found himfelf much
at a lofs, and was obliged to have recourfe to divine
power for an explanation, or, in other words, to own
that his fyftem was unintelligible,
ipythgo- This fyftem continued to be in vogue till the begin-
rean fyftem ning of the t6th century, when Nicolaus Copernicus,
revived by a native of Thorn (a city of regal Prufiia), and a man
Copernicus 0f great abilities, began to try whether a more fatis-
fadfory manner of accounting for the apparent motions
of the heavenly bodies could not be obtained than w as
afforded by the Ptolemaic hypothefis. He had recourfe
to every author upon the fubjedl, to fee whether any had
been more confident in explaining the irregular mo¬
tions of the ftars than the mathematical fchools : but he
received no fatisfadlion, till he found firft from Cicero,
that Nicetas the Syracufan had maintained the motion
of the earth ; and next from Plutarch, that others of
the ancients had been of the fame opinion. From the
fmall hints he could obtain from the ancients, Coperni-
Cns then deduced a moft complete fy.ftem, capable of fol-
N O M Y, Sea. IV.
ving every phenomenon in a fatisfa&ory manner. From Of thedifs
him this fyftem hath ever afterwards been called theferentSy*
Copernican, and reprefented fig. 152, Here the fun
is luppofed to be in the centre ; next him revolves the Celeftial
planet Mercury; then Venus ; next, the Earth, with Phenome-
the Moon ; beyond thefe, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn ; na have
and far beyond the orbit of Saturn, he fuppofed the been ac".
fixed ftars to be placed-, which formed the boundaries tcoul1t^(1 for;
of the vifible creation.
Though this hypothefis afforded the only natural and Tydiouic
fatisfadtory folution of the phenomena which fo much fyftem.
perplexed Ptolemy’s fyftem, it met with great oppofi-
tion at firft ; which is not to be wondered at, confider-
ing the age in which he lived. Even the famous aftro¬
nomer Tycho Brahe could never affent to the earth’s
motion, which was the foundation of Copernicus’s
fche'me. He therefore invented another fyftem, where- Fig. 151,
by he avoided the aferibing of motion to the earth,
and at the fame time got clear of the difficulties with
which Ptolemy was embarralfed. In this fyftem, the
earth was fuppofed the centre of the orbits of the fun
and moon ; but the fun was fuppofed to be the centre
of the orbits of the five planets ; fo that the fun with
all the planets were by Tycho Brahe fuppofed to turn
round the earth, in order to fave the motion of the
earth round its axis once in 24 hours. This fyftem was
never much followed, the fuperiority of the Copernican
fcheme being evident at firft fight. j
The fyftem of Copernicus coming foon into univer-Inquiries
fal credit, philofophers began to inquire into the caufes concerning
of the planetary motions ; and here, without entering t['ecailfesof
upon what has been advanced by detached individuals,
we fhall content ourfelves with giving an account oftions.
the three famous fyftems, the Cartefian, the Newtonian,
and what is fometimes called the Mechanical (yllem. ^
Des Cartes, the founder of that fyftem which flneeCartefian
his time ha* been called the Cartejian, flourifhed about fyftem.
the beginning of the 17th century. His fyftem feems
to have been borrowed from the philofophers Demo¬
critus and Epicurus ; who held, that every thing was
formed by a particular motion of very minute bodies
called atoms, which could not be divided into fmaller
parts. But though the philofophy of Des Cartes re-
fembled that of the Corpufcularians in accounting for
all the phenomena of nature merely from matter and
motion ; he differed from them in fuppofing the ori¬
ginal parts of matter capable of being broken. To
this property his Materia Subtilis omts its origin. To
each of his atoms, or rather fmall mafies of matter,
Des Cartes attributed a motion on its axis, and like-
wife maintained that there was a general motion of
the whole matter of the univerfe round like a vortex
or whirlpool. From this complicated motion, thole
particles, which were of an angular form, would have
their angles broke off; and the fragments which were
broke off being fmaller than the particles from which
they were abraded, behoved to form a matter of a more
fubtile kind than that made of large particles ; and as
there was no end of the abrafion, dift'erent kinds of
matter of all degrees of finenefs would be produced.
The fineft forts, he thought, would naturally fepnrate
themfelves from the reft, and be accumulated in parti¬
cular places. The fineft of all would therefore be col-
ledted in the fun, which was the centre of the univerfe,
whofe vortex was the. whole ethereal matter in the ere-
a-tioiH
As T UO X O MY. Plate LXXH.
. f-v' u < •;
Sea. IV. ASTRONOMY.
485
Of the dilation. As all the planets were immerfed in this vor-
ferent Sy- teX) t[jey behoved to be carried round by it, in diffe-
which'the rent t‘rr'es’ ptopoftioned to their diftancesj thofe which
Oeleftial werc n«areft the fun circulating the moil quickly ; and
Phenomenathofe fartheft off more flowly ; as thofe parts of a vor-
havc been tex which are fartheft removed from the centre are ob-
accounted ferve(] t0 circulate more flowly than thofe which are
|or~ , neareft. Befides this general vortex of the fun, each
of the planets had a particular vortex of their own by
which their fecondary planets were carried round, and
any other body that happened to come within reach of
it would likewife by carried away.
It is eafy to fee, from this fliort account of Des
Cartes’s fyftem, that the whole of it was a mere petitio
principii: for had he been required to prove the exift-
ence of his materia fubtilis, he muft undoubtedly have
failed in the attempt 5 and hence, though his hypothe¬
cs was for fome time followed for want of a better, yet
it gave way to that of Newton almoft as foon as it was
propofed.
Sir Ifaac The general view of the folar fyftem given by this
Newton’S celebrated philofopher, is not different from what' has
. been laid down in the foregoing fe&ions. The fun is
^ placed in or near the centre 5 about whom the fix pla¬
nets, to which a feventh, the Georgium Sidus, is now
added, continually move wuth different degrees of ve¬
locity, and at different diftances. The firft and near-
eft to the fun is Mercury, next Venus, then the Earth
and Moon : beyond thefe is Mars; after him, Jupiter ;
then Saturn ; and laft of all, at lead; as far as difcoveries
have hitherto reached, the Georgium Sidus. Four of
thefe primary planets, as they are called, are attended by
* Seen0 74.moonsorfatel!ites,aswellastheearth. Thefeare,Venus*,
Jupiter, Saturn, and the Georgium Sidus: of whom the
firft has only one ; the fecond, four; the third, five; and
the fourth two, though probably there may be more yet
254 undifcovered by reafon of their fmallnefs or diftance.
Orbits of Though thefe planets uniformly and at all times
the planets refpeft the fun as the centre of their motion, yet they
elliptical, not a]Ways preferve the fame dillance from him ; nei-
c* iher do they all move in the fame plane, though every
one of them revolves in an orbit whofe plane if ex¬
tended would pafs through the fun’s centre. The
line in which the plane of any of the planetary orbits
erodes the orbit of the earth is called the line of its
nodes, and the points of interfe&ion are the nodes
themfelves. Each of them moves in an orbit fome-
what elliptical; and thus fometimes approaches nearer,
and at others recedes farther from, the fun than before.
This deviation from a circle is called the eccentricity of
the orbit; the point where it is fartheft diftant from
the fun is called its aphelion; and where neareft, the
perihelion. The eccentricities of the different planets,
. however, are very different. In Saturn the proportion
ties™1 he1' greate^ diftance to the lead is fomething lefs
Tm &c. of t^an 9 to but much nearer to this than 10 to 9;
the diffe- in Jupiter, it is fomething greater than that of 11 to
rent pla- 10; in Mars, it exceeds the proportion of 6105*,
Ilcts- in the earth, it is only in the proportion of about 30
to 29 •, in Venus ftill lefs, being only as 70 to 69 ;
but in Mercury it is much greater than in any of the
reft, being little lefs than that of 3 to 2. Theaphe-
lia of all the planets are not fituated on the fame fide
of the fun, but in the.pofitions fhown fig.ic6. j though
thefc pofitions are alfo variable, as fhall be afterwards Of eentri-
more fully explained. The eccentricity of the Geor-
gium Sidus is not yet determined, though it is fuppo-, °WOT' .
fed to be lefs than that of the reft. All of them re¬
volve from weft to eaft ; and the mod remote is the
longeft of finifhing its courfe round the fun.
Each of the planets moves in its orbit round the They de¬
fun in fuch a manner, that the line drawn from the^cribe (:^ua*
fun to the planet, by accompanying the planet in *t3 uaTtimeT
motion, will deferibe about the fun equal fpaces in,roun(i tiis
equal times. There is alfo a certain relation between fun.
the greater axes of thefe ellipfes and the times in which
the planets perform their revolutions through them,
which may be expreffed in the following manner: Let
the period of one planet be expreffed by the letter A,
the greater axis of its orbit by D; let the pe- ^
riod of another planet be denoted by B, and g
the greater axis of this planet’s orbit by E. £ p
Then if C be taken to bear the fame propor- q
tion to B as B bears to A ; likewife if F be
taken to bear the fame proportion to E as E bears to
D, and G taken to bear the fame proportion likewife
to F as E bears to D; then A fhall bear the fame
proportion to G as D bears to G.
I. Of Centripetal Powers in general.
Before we attempt to give any particular explana-Sir Ifaac’s
tion of the caufes producing the planetary motions, itd9ftr;ne°f
will be neceffary to premife fomething of Sir Ifaac
Newton’s doftrine of centripetal forces, as upon thatP
depends his dodtrine of gravitation, and of the whole
celeftial fyftem. The firft effeft of thefe powers is, to
caufe any body proje&ed in a ftraight line deviate from
it, and deferibe an incurvated one, which ftiall always
be bent towards the centre to which the body is fup-
pofed to have a tendency. It is not, however, necef¬
fary that the moving body ftiould approach the centre;
it may even recede farther from it, notwithftanding iu
being drawn by it; but this property uniformly be¬
longs to it, that the line in which it moves will be con¬
tinually concave towards the centre to which the power
is dire&ed.
Let A (fig. 107.) be the centre of a force. Let a
body in B be moving in the direction of the ftraight
line BC, in which line it would continue to move if
undifturbed; but being attradted by the centripetal
force towards A, the body muft neceffarily depart from
this line BC ; ancTbeing drawn into the curve line BD,
muft pafs between the lines AB and BC. It is evi¬
dent, therefore, that the body in B being gradually
turned off from the ftraight line BC, it will at firft be
convex towards that line, and concave towards A. And
that the curve will always continue to have this conca¬
vity towards A, may thus appear : In the line BC,
near to B, take any point, as E, from which the line
EFG may be fo drawn as to touch the curve line BD
in fome point, as F. Now, when the body is come to
F, if the centripetal power were immediately to be
fufpended', the body would no longer continue to move
in a curve line, but, being left to itfelf, would forth¬
with reaffume a ftraight courfe, and that ftraight courfe
would be in the line FG; for that line is in the direc¬
tion of the body’s motion of the point F. But the
centripetal force continuing its energy, the body will
be gradually drawn from this line FG fo as to keep i»
486
Of Centri¬
petal
ASTRONOMY. SecT IV.
the line FD, and make that line, near the point F, to inclined to the line GC more obliquely than AB,OfCentri-
be concave towards the point A ; and in this manner AE more obliquely than AD, and AF than AE;Peta*
the body may be followed in its courfe throughout the or, to fpeak more correftly, the angle under ADG is lt>owcrs‘ ,
line BD, and every part of that line be Ihown to be lefs than that under ABG, that under AEG is lefs ' "
concave towards the point A. than ADG, and AFG lefs than AEG. Now fup-
Again, the point A (fig. 108.) being the centre of pofe the body to move in the curve line BHIK, it is
a centripetal force, let a body at B fet out in the di- likewife evident that the line BHIK being concave
re&ion of the ftraight line BC perpendicular to the towards A and convex towards BC, it is more and
line AB. It will be eafily conceived, that there is no more turned off from that line ; fo that in the point H,
other point in the line BC fo near to A as the point the line AK will be more obliquely inclined to the
B ; that AB is the fhorteft of all the lines which can curve line BHIK than the fame line AHD is inclined -
fee drawn from A to any part of the line BC ; all others, to BC at the point D ; at the point I the inclination
as AD or AE, being longer than AB. Hence it fol- of the line A1 to the curve line will be more diffe-
lows, that the body felting out from it, if it moved rent from the inclination of the fame line AIE to the
in the line BC, would recede more and more from line BC at the point IE ; and in the points K and E
the point A. Now, as the operation of a centripetal the difference of inclination will be ftill greater; and
force is to draw a body towards the centre of that force, in both, the inclination at the curve will be lefs ob-
if fuch a force aft upon a refting body, it muft necef- lique than at the ftraight line BC. But the ftraight
farily put that body fo into motion as to caufe it move line AB is lefs obliquely inclined to BG than AD is
towards the centre of the force : if the body were of inclined towards DG : therefore, although the line
itfelf moving towards that centre, it would accelerate AH be lefs obliquely inclined towards the curve HB
that motion, and caufe it to move fafter down ; but if than the fame line AHD is inclined towards DG,
the body were in fuch a motion that it would of itfelf yet it is poffible, that the inclination at H may be
recede from the centre, it is not neceffary that the ac- more oblique than the inclination at B. The inclina¬
tion of a centripetal power fhould make it immediately tion at H may indeed be lefs oblique than the other,
approach the centre from which it would otherwife or they may be both the fame. This depends upon
have receded ; the centripetal force is not without ef- the degree of ftrength wherewith the centripetal force
feft if it caufe the body to recede more flowly from exerts itfelf during the paflage of the body from B to
that centre than otherwife it would have done. Thus, H ; and in like manner the inclinations at I and K
the fmalleft centripetal power, if it aft on the body, depend entirely on the degree of ftrength wherewith
will force it out of the line BC, and caufe it to pafs the centripetal force afts on the body in its paflage
in a bent line between BC and the point A, as has from H to K : if the centripetal force be weak enough,
been already explained. When the body, for inftance, the lines AH and AI drawn from the centre A to
has advanced to the line AD, the effeft of the centri- the body at H and at I, fhall be more obliquely in¬
petal force difeovers itfdf by having removed the body dined to the curve than the line AB is inclined to-
out of the line BC, and Brought it to crofs the line wards BG. The centripetal force may be of fuch a
AD fomewhere between A and D, fuppofe at F. Now, ftrength as to render all thefe inclinations equal ; or if
AD being longer than AB, AF may alfo be longer ftronger, the inclinations at I and K will be lefs ob-
ihan AB. The centripetal power may indeed be fo lique than at be ; and Sir Ifaac Newton has particu-
ftrong, that AF ftiall be (horter than AB-j or it may larly ftiown, that if the centripetal power decreafes af-
be fo evenly balanced with the progreffive motion of ter a certain manner without the increafe of diftance,
the body that AF and AB fhall be juft equal; in a body may deferibe fuch a curve line, that all the
which cafe the body would deferibe a circle about the lines drawn from the centre to the body fhall be equal-
centre A ; this centre of the force being alfo the centre ly inclined to that curve line. „
of the circle. . We muft farther remark, that if the centripetal Revofution
If now the body, inftead of fetting out in the line power, while the body increafes its diftance from theof a body
BC perpendicular to AB, . had fet out in another line oentre, retain fufficient ftrength to make the lines round a
BG more inclined towards the line AB, moving in drawn from the centre to the body to become at c<jn!;re,£X‘'
the curve line BH ; then, as the body, if it were to length lefs oblique to the curve; then, if this diminu-P ame“v
continue its motion in the line BG, would for fome tion of the obliquity continue, till at laft the line
time approach the centre A, the centripetal force drawn from the centre to the body fhall ceafe to be
would caufe it to make greater advances toward that obliquely inclined to the curve, and become perpendi-
centre : But if the body were to fet out in the line cular thereto ; from this inftant the body fhall no
BI, reclined the other way from the perpendicular BC, longer recede from the centre, but in its following mo-
and were to be drawn by the centripetal force into the tion fhall again defeend, and deferibe a curve in all
curve line BK~; the body, notwithftanding any cen- refpefts like that which it has deferibed already, pro- *
tripetal force, would for fome time recede from the vided the centripetal power, every where at the fame
centre; fince fomc'part at lead of the curve line BK diftance from the body, afts with the fame ftrength.
lies between the line BI and the perpendicular BC. This return of the body may be proved by the follow-
Let us next, fuppofe a centripetal power direfted to- ing propofition : That if the body in any place, fup-
ward the point A (Fig. 109.), to aft on a body in B, pofe at I,, were to be flopped, and thrown direftly
which is moving in the direftion of the ftraight line backward with the velocity wherewith it was moving
BC, the line BC reclining off from AB. If from A forward in that point 1, then the body, by the aftion
the ftraight lines AD, AE, AF, are drawn to the line ‘of the centripetal force upon it, would move back
CB, prolonged beyond B to G, it appears that AD is again over the path IfiB, in which it had before ad-
vancedj
Sea. IV. A S T R
Of Centri- vanced forward, and Would arrive again at the point B
Petal in the fame fpace of time as was taken up in its paffage
*>owcrs' , from B to I ; the velocity of the body at its return
¥ from the point B being the fame as that wherewith it
firft fet out from that point.
The truth of this propofition may be illuftrated in
the following manner. Suppofe, in fig. x to, that a
body were carried after the following manner through
the bent figure ABCDEF, compofed of the ftraight
lines AB, BC, CD, DE, EE : let the body then firft
be fuppofed to receive an impulfe to fome point within
the concavity of the figure, as G. Now, as this body,
when once moving in the ftraight line AB, will con¬
tinue to move on in this line as long as it {hall be left
toitfelf; but being difturbed at the point B by the
impulfe given it, it will be turned out of this line AB
into fome other ftraight line, wherein it will afterwards
continue to move as long as it {hall be left to itfelf:
therefore, let this impulfe have ftrength fufficient to
turn the body into the line BC ; then let the body
move on undifturbed from B to C : but at C let it re¬
ceive another impulfe pointed alfo towards G, and of
fufficient ftrength to turn the body into the line CD ;
at D let a third impulfe turn it into the line DE ; and
at E let another turn it into EF. Now, if the body,
while moving on in the line EF, be flopped and turn¬
ed back again with the fame velocity with which it
was moving forward, then by the repetition of the
former impulfe at E, the body will be turned into the
line ED, and move in it from E to D with the fame
velocity as that wherewith it was moving forward in
this line: then by a repetition of the impulfe at D,
when the body {hall have returned to that point,, it
will be turned into the line DC; and by the repetition
of the'former impulfes at C and at B, the body will
be brought back again into the line BA, with the ve¬
locity wherew-ith it firft; moved in that line.
To illuftrate this ftill farther, let DE and FE be con¬
tinued beyond E. In DE thus continued, take at plea-
fufe the length EH, and let HI be fo drawn as to be
equidiftant from the line GE ; then, from the fecond
law of motion, it follows, that after the impulfe on the
body on E, it will move through the fpace El in the
fame time it would have employed in moving from E
to H with the velocity it had in the line DE. In
FE prolonged, take EK equal to El and draw KL
equidiftant from GE. Then, becaufe the body is
thrown back in the line FE with the fame velocity
with which it went forward in that line, if, when the
body was returned to E, it were permitted to go
ftraight on, it would pafs through EK in the fame
time as it took up in palling through El, when it went
forward in the line EF. But if, at the body’s return
to the point E, fuch an impulfe dire&ed toward the
point D were to be given it as was fufficient to turn it
into the line DE, it is plain that this impulfe muft be
equal to that which originally turned the body out of
the line DE into EF; and that the velocity with
which the body will return into the line ED is the
fame as that wherewith it moved before through tthis
line from D to E. Becaufe EK is equal to El, and
KL and HI being each equidiftant from GE, are by
Confequence equidiftant from each other ; it follows,
that the two triangular figures 1EH and KEL are
altogether like and equal to e^ch other. EK .there-
O N O M Y. 487
fore being equal to El, and EL equal to KH, and 0f Centri-
KL equal to HL, it is plain, that the body, after itsfcta*
return to E, being turned out of the line FE into ED, owers‘ ,
by an impulfe acting upon it in E after the manner
above mentioned, it will receive fuch a velocity by
this impulfe as will carry it through EL in the fame
time it would have taken to go through EK, if it had
pafled through it undifturbed. It has already been
obferved, that the time in which the body would pafs
over EK, with the velocity wherewith it returns, is
equal to the time it took up in going forward from E
to I; that is, to the time in which it would have gone
through EH with the velocity yvherewith it moved
from D to E : therefore the time in which the body
will pafs from E to L, after its return into the line
ED, is the fame as would have been taken up by the
body in palling through the line EH with the velocity
wherewith it firft moved in the line DE. Since, there¬
fore, EL and EH are equal, the body returns into
the line DE with the velocity which it had before in
that line—Again, we may affirm, that the fecond
impulfe in E is equal to the firft : for as the impulfe
in E, whereby the body was turned out of the line
DE into the line EF, is of fuch ftrength, that if the
body had been at reft when this impulfe had adied up¬
on it, it would have communicated as much motion
to it as would have been fufficient to carry it through
a length equal to HI, in the time wherein the body
would have pafled from E to H, or in the time
wherein it pafled from E to I. In the fame manner,
on the return of the body, the impulfe in E, whereby
it is turned out of the line FE into ED, is of fuch
ftrength, that if it had afted on the body at reft, it
would have caufed it move through a length equal to
KL in the fame time as the body would employ in
paffing through EK with the velocity wherewith it re¬
turns in the line FE : therefore the fecond impulfe,
had it a&ed on the body at reft, would have caufed it
to move through a length equal to KL in the fame
fpace of time as would have been taken up by the body
in paffing through a length equal to HI were the firffi
impulfe to aft on the body while at reft ; that is, the
effefts of the firft and fecond impulfe on the body when
at reft would be the fame: for KL and HI are equal;
confequently the fecond impulfe is equal to the firft.
Thus, if the body be returned through FE with the
velocity wherewith it moved forward, it has been
fliown how, by the repetition of the impulfe which
afted on it in E, the body will return again into the
line DE with the velocity which it had before in that
line. By the fame method of reafoning it may be
proved, that when the body is returned back to D,
the impulfe which before afted on that point will
throw the body into the line DC with the velocity
which it firft had in that line 5 and the other impulfes
being fucceffively repeated, the body will at length be
brought back again into the line BA with the velocity
wherewith it fet out in that line.—Thus thefe impul¬
fes, by afting over again in an inverted order all their
operations on the body, bring it back again through
the path in which it had proceeded forward; and this
obtains equally whatever be the number of ftraight
lines whereof this curve figure is compofed. Now, by
a method of reafoning of which Sir Ifaac Newton
made much ufe, and which he introduced into geo-
xnetry.
488 ASTRO
Of Centra metry, thereby greatly enriching that fcience, we
Powers might make a traniition from this figure, compofed of
» _ i a number of ftraight lines, to a figure of one continued
curvature, and from a number of feparate impulfes re¬
peated at diftin& intervals to a continued centripetal
force, and fiiow, that becaufe what has been here ad¬
vanced holds univerfally true whatever be the num¬
ber of flraight lines whereof the curve figure ACF is
compofed, and however frequently the impulfes at the
angles of this figure are repeated j therefore the fame
will ftill remain true although this figure thould be
converted into one of a continued curvature; and
thefe diftin& impulfes fhould be changed into a conti¬
nual centripetal force.
This being allowed, fuppofe the body in R to have
the line AK no longer obliquely inclined to its mo¬
tion. In this cafe, if the body be turned back in the
manner we have been confidering, it mult be directed
track perpendicularly to AK ; but if it had proceeded
forward, it would likewife have moved in a direction
perpendicular to AK : confequently, whether it move
from this point K backward or forward, it mult de-
fcribe the fame kind of courfe. Therefore, fince by
being turned back it wiil go over again the line KIHB,
if it be permitted to go forward, the line KL, which
it lhall defcribe, will be altogether fimilar to the line
KHB.
In like manner we may determine the nature of the
motion, if the line wherein the body fets out be in¬
clined, as in fig. iii. down toward the line B A drawn
between the body and the centre. If the centripetal
power fo much increafes in tlrength as the body ap¬
proaches, that it can bend the path in which the body
moves to that degree as to caufe all the lines, AH,
AI, AK, to remain no lefs oblique to the motion of
the body than AB is oblique to BC, the body fhall
continually more and more approach the centre: But
if the centripetal power increafes in fo much lefs a
degree as to permit the line drawn from the centre to
the body, as it accompanies the body in its motion, at
length to become more and more ereft to the curve
wherein the body moves, and in the end, fuppofe at K,
to become perpendicular to it; from that time the bo¬
dy (hall rife again. This is evident from what has
been faid above ; becaufe, for the very fame reafon, here
alfo the body will proceed from the point K to defcribe
a line altogether fimiiar to that in which it has moved
from B to K. Thus it happens as in the pendulum,
which, all the time it approaches a perpendicular pofi-
tion towards the horizon, defcends more and more;
but as foon as it is come into that fituation, it imme¬
diately rifes again by the fame degrees as it defcended
before: fo here the body more and more approaches
the centre all the time it is moving from B to K; but
thenceforward it rifes from the centre again by the
fame degrees as it approached before.
If, as in fig. .112. the line BC be perpendicular to
AB; then, as has already been obferved, the centri¬
petal power may be..fo balanced with the progrefiive
motion of the body, that it may keep moving round
the centre A con.iamiy at the fame diltance ; as the
body does when whirled about any point to which it
is tied by a firing. If the centripetal power be too
weak to. produce this effeft, the motion of the body
will prefent’v become oblique to the line , drawn from'
«°23-
N O M Y. Sea. IV.
itfelf to the centre ; but if it be fironger, the body Of Centri-
muft conftantly keep moving in a curve to which a linePetai
drawn from it to the body is perpendicular. Power;.
If the centripetal power change with the change of " v
diflance, in fuch a manner that the body, after its mo¬
tion has become oblique to the line drawn from itfelf
to the centre, fhall again become perpendicular there¬
to ; then the body fhall, in its fubfequent motion, re¬
turn again to the diftance of AB, and from that di-
ftance take a courfe fimilar to the former: and thus,
if th£ body move in a fpace void of all refiftance, which
has been all along fuppofed, it will continue in a per¬
petual motion about the centre, defcending and afcend-
ing from it alternately. If the body, fetting out from
B (fig. 113.) in the line BC perpendicular to AB,.
defcribe the line BDE, which in D fhall be ob¬
lique to the line AD, but in E flrall again become
ereft to AE, drawn from the body in £ to the centre
A ; then from this point E the body fhall defcribe the
line EFG entirely fimilar to BDE, and at G fhall be
at the fame diftance as it was at B ; and the line AG
fhall be ereft to the body’s motion. Therefore the
body fhall proceed to defcribe from G the line GHI
altogether fimilar to the line GFE, and at I it will have -
the fame diftance from the centre as it had at E; and
alfo have the line AI ereft to its motion : fo that its
fubfequent motion muft be in the line IKL fimilar to
IKG, and the diftance AL equal to AG. Thus
the body will go on in a perpetual round without cea-
fing, alternately enlarging and contra&ing its diftance .
from the centre..
If it fo happen that the point E fall upon the line -
BA, continued beyond A ; then the point G will fall
upon B, I on E, and L, alfo on B ; fo that the body
will in this cafe defcribe a fimple curve line round the
centre A, like the line BDEF in fig. 114. in which
it will revolve from B to E, and from E to B, with¬
out end. If AE in fig. 113. fhould happen to be per¬
pendicular to AB, in this cafe alfo a fmiple line will
be deferibed ; for the point G will fall on the line BA .
prolonged beyond A; the point I on the line AE pro¬
longed beyond A, and the point L on B ; fo that the
body will defcribe a line like the curve line BEGI in
fig. 115. in which the oppofite points B and G are
equally diftant from A ; and the oppofite points E and
L are alfo equally diftant from the fame point A. In
other cafes the body will have a courfe of a more com¬
plicated nature.
Thus it muft be apparent how a body, while it is
conftantly attradled towards a centre, may notwith-
flanding by its progreffive motion keep itfelf from
falling down to the centre, deferibing about it an end-
lefs circuit, fometimes approaching and fometimes re¬
ceding from it. Hitherto, however, we have fuppo¬
fed, that the centripetal power is every where of equal
ftrength at the fame diftance from the centre : and i
this is indeed the cafe with that power which keeps the
planets in their orbits ; but a body may be kept on in ;
a perpetual circuit round a centre, although the cen¬
tripetal power be kept moving in any curve line what¬
ever, that fhall have its concavity turned every where
towards the centre of the force. To illuftrate this, we
fhall in the firft place propofe the cafe of a body mo¬
ving the incurvated figure ABCDE (fig. 116.), which
is compofed of the ftraight lines, AB, BC, CD, DE,
Sea. IV. ASTRONOMY. 489
Of Centri- and EA ; the motion being carried on in the follow-
petal jng tuanner. Let the body firfl move in the line AB
Powers. | with any uniform velocity. When it is arrived at the
^”""V point B, let it receive an impulfe direfted towards any
point F taken within the figure ; and let the impulfe
be of fuch a ftrength as to turn the body out of the line
AB into the line BC : The body after this impulfe,
while left to itfelf, will continue moving in the line
BC. At C let the body receive another impulfe di¬
rected towards the fame point F, of fuch a ftrength as
to turn it from the line CB into CD. At D, let the
body, by another impulfe, dire&ed likewife to the
point F, be turned out of the line CD into DE. At
E, let another impulfe, diredted likewife toward the
point F, turn the body from the line D£ into EA :
and thus the body will, by means of thefe impulfes, be
carried thro’ the whole figure ABCDE.
Again, when the body is come to the point A, if
it there receive another impulfe dire&ed like the reft to
the point F, and of fuch a degree of ftrength as to
turn it into the line AB, wherein it firft moved ; the
body will then return into this line with the fame velo¬
city it had originally. To underfland this, let AB
be prolonged beyond B at pleafure, fuppofe to G; and
from G let GH be drawn ; which, if produced, (hould
always continue equidiftant from BF, i. e. let GH be
drawn parallel to BF, in the time, then, in which the
body would have moved from B to G, had it not re¬
ceived a new impulfe in B ; by the means of that im¬
pulfe it will have acquired a velocity which will carry
it from B to H. After the fame manner, if Cl be
taken equal to BH, and IK be drawn parallel to CF,
the body will have moved from C to K, with the ve¬
locity which it has in the line CD, in the fame time it
would have employed in moving from C to I with the
velocity it had in the line BC. 1 herefore, fince Cl
and BH are equal, the body will move through CK
in the fame time as it would have taken up in moving
from B to G with the velocity wherewith it moved
through the line AB. Again, DL being taken equal
to CK, and LM drawn parallel to DF, the body will,
for the fame reafon as before, move through DM
with the velocity which it has in the line DE, in the
fame time it would employ in moving through BG
with its original velocity. Laftly, if EN be taken
equal to DM, and NO be drawn parallel to EF ; like¬
wife, if AP be taken equal to EO, and PQJae drawn
parallel to AF; then the body, with the velocity
wherewith it returns into the line AB, will pafs thro’
AQ__in the time it would have employed in palling
through BG with its original velocity. Now as all
this follows dire&ly from what has been delivered con¬
cerning oblique impulfes imprefied upon bodies in mo¬
tion ; fo we muft here obferve farther, that it can be
proved by geometry, that AQ^will always be equal
to BG; which being granted, it follows, that the body
has returned into the line AB with the fame velocity
which it had when it firft moved in that line ; for the
velocity with which it returns into the line AB, will
carry it over the line AQ^in the fame time as would
have been taken up in its paffing over an equal line BG
with the original velocity.
The conclufion naturally deduced from the above
reafoning is, that by means of a centripetal and pro-
jedile force, a body may be carried round any fixed
Vol. II. Part If.
point in a curve figure which fhall be concave towards Of Centri-
it, as that marked ABC, fig. 117. and when it is re-Peta^
turned to that point from whence it fet out, it fhall re-, 0"e^‘ ,
cover again the velocity with which it departed from
that point. It is not indeed always neceflary that it a body
fhould return again into its firft courfe, for the curve may be
line may have Tome fuch figure as ABCDBE inmov«iin
fig. 1 18. In this curve line, if the body fet out from?.ny a'r.vl*
B in the dire&ion BF, and moved through the line^^y11*0'
BCD till it returned to B ; here the body would not means of
enter again into the line BCD, b.ecaufe the two parts centripetal-
BD and BC of the curve line make an angle at thef°rce*
point B : fo that the centripetal power, which at the
point B would turn the body from the line BF into the
curve, will not be able to turn it into the line BC
from the direftion in which it returns to the point B.
A forcible impulfe muft be given the body in the point
B to produce that effeft. If, at the point B, whence
the body fets out, the curve line return into itfelf, as
in fig. 11 7. then the body, upon its arrival again at B,
may return into its former courfe, and thus make an
endlefs circuit about the centre. 3g0
The force reqnifite to carry a body in any curve line Calculation
propofed, is to be deduced from the curvature which of ^ force
the figure has in any part of it. Sir Ifaac Newton has^r'^a"be¬
laid down the following propofition as a foundation for *ny.0
difeovering this, viz. that if a line he drawn from Tome curve line,
fixed point to the body, and remaining by one ex¬
treme united to that point, it be carried round along
with the body ; then if the power whereby the body is
kept in its courfe be always pointed to this fixed point
as a centre, this line will move over equal fpaces in
equal portions of time. Suppofe a body were moving
through the curve line ABCD (fig. 120.), and palfed
over the arches AB, BC, CD in equal portions of
time ; then if a point, as E, can be found, from
whence the line EA being drawn to the body in ac¬
companying it in its motion, it fhall make the fpaces
EAB, EBC, and ECD, over which it paffes, equal
where the times are equal ; then is the body kept in
this line by a power always pointed to E as a centre.
To prove this, fuppofe a body fet out from the point
A, fig. 121 • to move in the ftraight line AB ; aad
after it had moved for fome time in that line, it were
to receive an impulfe diredfted to fome point, as C. Let
it receive that impulfe at D, and thereby be turned in¬
to the line DE; and let the body, after this impulfe,
take the fame time in palling from D to E that is em¬
ployed in paffing from A to D. Then the ftraight
lines CA, CD, and CE being drawn, the triangular
fpaces CAD and CDE are proved to be equal in the
following manner. Let EF be drawn parallel to CD.
Then, it follows, from the fecond law of motion, that
fince the body was moving in the line AB when it re¬
ceived the impulfe in the direction DC, it will have mo¬
ved after th^t impulfe through the line DE in the fame
time as it would have moved through DF, provided it
had received no difturbance in D. But the time of the
body’s movi ig from D to E is fuppofed to be equal to
the time of its moving through AD; therefore the
time which the body would have employed in moving
through DF, had it not been difturbed in D, is equal
to the time wherein it moved through AD: confe-
qnently DF is equal in length to AD ; for if the bo¬
dy had gone on to move through the line AB without ;
3 Q_. inter- -
ASTRO
Of Certtri- intemfption, it would have moved through allAthe
petal parts of it with the fame velocity, and have pa {fed over
Bowers. ^ eqUa] parts of that line in equal portions of time. Now
v CF being drawn, fince AD and DF are equal, the tri¬
angular Ipace CDF is equal to the triangular fpace
CAD. Further, the line EF being parallel to CD, it
follows from the 37th propofition of Euclid’s firft book,
that the triangle CED is equal to the triangle CFD :
thereforethe triangle CED is equal to the triangle CAD.
In like manner, if the body receive at E another
impulfe directed toward the point C, and be turned
by that impulfe into the line EG; if it move after¬
wards from E to G in the fame fpace of time as was
taken up by its motion from D to E, or from A to
D ; then CG being drawn, the triangle CEG is equal
to CDE. A third impulfe at G, directed as the two
former to C, whereby the body (hall be turned into
the line G H, will have alfo the like effedt with the
reft. If the body move over GH in the fame time as
it took up in moving over EG, the triangle CGH
will be equal to the 'triangle CE-G. Laftly, if the
;body at H be turned by a frelh impulfe direfted to-
ward'C into the line HI, and at I by another impulfe
dire&ed alfo to C be turned into the line IK'; and if
the body move over each of the lines HI and IK in
the fame time as it -employed in moving over each of
the preceding lines AD, DE, EG, and GH : then
each of the triangles CHI and CIK will be equal to
each of the preceding. Likcwife, as the time in
which the body moves over ADE is equal to the time
of its moving over EGH, and to the time of its mo¬
ving over HIK ; the fpace CADE will be equal to the
fpace CEGH and to the fpace CHIK. In the fame
manner, as the time in which the body moved over
ADEG is equal .to the time of its moving over
GHIK, fo the fpace CADEG will be equal to the
fpace CGHIK. From this principle Sir Ifaac New¬
ton demonftrates the above mentioned propolition, by
making the tranfition from this incurvated figure com-
-pofed of ftraight lines, to a figure of continued cur-
vation ; and by (bowing, that fince equal fpaces are
defcribed in equal times, in this prefent figure compofed
of ftraight lines, the fame relation between the fpaces
defcribed and the times of their defcription will alfo
have place in a figure of one continued curvature. He
alfo deduces from this propofition the reverfe of it ;
and proves, that whenever equal fpaces are continual¬
ly defcribed, the body is afted upon by a centripetal
force direfted tb the centre at which the fpaces ter¬
minate.
Having thus endeavoured to illuftrate the fundamen¬
tal principle of the Newtonian philofophy, at leaft as
far as it regards the motion of the planets and heaven¬
ly bodies, we (hall now proceed to the more particu¬
lar application of it. The firft thing undertaken by
Sir Ifaac in order to explain thofe motions, is to de-
«n° t^lat ’n celeftial fpaces there is no fen-
thecdeftial fible matter. That the heavenly bodies fuffer no fen-
fpaces. fible refiftance from any matter of this kind, is evident
from the agreement betwixt aftronomical obfervations
in all ages with regard to the time in which the pla¬
nets have been found to perform their revolutions. Des
Cartes, however, was of opinion, that the planets might
be kept in their courfes by means of a fluid matter,
N O M Y. Sea. IV.
which continually circulating round, fhould carry the Of Gentrt-
planets along with it; and there is one appearanceP813*
which feems to favour this opinion, viz. that thef,°wcrs-
fun turns round his axis the fame way the planets '
move ; the earth alfo turns round its axis the fame
way as the moon turns round the earth ; and the pla¬
net Jupiter turns round his axis the fame way that his
fatellites revolve round him. It might therefore be
fuppofed, that if the whole planetary region were fill¬
ed with a fluid matter, the fun, by turning round on
his own axis, might communicate motion firft to that
part of the fluid which was contiguous, and by degrees
propagate the like motion to the parts more remote.
After the fame manner the earth might communicate
motion to this fluid to a degree fufficient to carry round
the moon ; and Jupiter might communicate the like
to the diftance of its fatellites. This fyftem has been
particularly examined by Sir Ifaac Newton ; who finds,
that the velocities with which the parts of this fluid
(hould move in different diftances from the centre of
motion, will not agree with the motions obferved in
the different planets ; for inftance, that the time of
one entire circulation of the fluid wherein Jupiter
lliould fwim, would bear a greater propoition to the
time of one entire circulation of the fluid where the
earth is, than the period of Jupiter bears to that of
the earth. He proves alfo, that the planet cannot cir¬
culate in fuch a fluid, fo as to keep long in the fame
courfe. unlefs the planet and the contiguous fluid are
of the fame denfity, and the planet be carried along
with the fame velocity as the fluid. There is alfo ano¬
ther remark made on this motion by Sir ifaac, viz.
that (ome vivifying force will be continually nece(fary
at the centre of the motion. The fun, in particular,
by communicating motion to the ambient fluid, will
lofe from itfelf as much motion as it communicates to
the fluid, unlefs fome afting principle refide in the fun
to renew its motion continually. If the fluid were in¬
finite, this gradual lofs of motion would continue till
the whole (hould flop ; and if the fluid were limited,
this lofs of motion would continue till there would re¬
main no fwifter a revolution in the fun than in the out-
ermoft part of the fluid, fo that the whole would turn
together about the axis of the fun like one folid globe.
We muft likewife obferve, that as the planets do not
move in perfeft circles round the fun, there is a great¬
er diftance between their orbits in fome places than
others. For inftance, the diftance between the orbit of
Mars and Venus is near half as great again in fome
part of their courfe as in others. Now here the fluid
in which the earth {hould fwim, muft move with a lefs
rapid motion where there is this greater interval be¬
tween the contiguous orbits ; but, on the contrary,
where the fpace is ftraiteft, the earth moves more
flowly than where it is widelK
Again, if our globe of earth fvvam in a fluid of e-
qual denfity with the earth itfelf, that is, in a fluid
more denfe than water, all bodies put in motion here
upon the earth’s furface muft fuffer a great refiftance
by it; whereas Sir Ifaac Newton has made it evident,
by experiments, that bodies, falling perpendicularly
through the air, fuffer only about a hundred and fix-
tieth part of the refiftance from it that they meet with
in water.
Thefc
Sea. IV.
Motions of Thefe eKpei iaietjts
the Prima- ther the general queftion concerning the abfolute
^^[J^^plenitnde of fpace. He objefts agatnft the filling of
26a all fpace with a fubtile fluid, after the manner of Des
Objections Cartes, That all bodies muft be immeafurably refilled
to a pie- by it. And left it ftiould be thought that this objection
num. might be evaded, by afcribing to this fluid fuch very
minute and fmooth parts as might remove all adhefion
or fri&ion between them, whereby all refiftance would
be loft, Sir Ifaac proves, that fluids muft refill from
the ina&ivity of their particles, and that water and the
air refill almoft entirely on this account; fo that in
this fubtile fluid, however fmooth and lubricated the
particles might be, yet if the whole were as denfe as
water, it would refill very near as much as water does :
And whereas fuch a fluid, whofe parts are abfolutely
clofe together without any intervening fpaces, muft
be a great deal more denfe than water, it mull alfo
refill more in proportion to its denfity, unlefs we
fuppofe the matter of which this fluid is compofed not
to be endowed with the fame degree of inaftivity with
other matter : But if you deprive any fubftance of the
property fo univerfally belonging to all other matter,
without impropriety of fpeech it can fcarce be called
by this name. Sir Ifaac alfo made an experiment to
try in particular, whether the internal parts of bodies
fuffered any refillance ; and the refv.lt did indeed ap¬
pear to favour fome fmall degree of refiftance, but fo
very little as to leave it doubtful whether the effcdt
did not arife from fome other latent caufe.
§ 2. Of the Motions of the Primary Planets*
Since the planets thus move in a [pace void of all
refinance, they, would, if once fet in motion, continue
nove on for ever in a ftraight line. We have,
ever, already obferved, that the primary planets
move about the fen in fuch a manner that a line ex¬
tended from the fun to the planet would defcribe equal
fpaces in equal times; and this fingle property in the
planetary motions proves, that they are continually
adted upon by a power diredled towards the fun as the
centre. It has alfo been obferved, that if the ftrength
of the centripetal power were fuitably accommodated
every where to the motion of any body round a centre,
the body might be carried in any bent line whatever,
whofe concavity ftiould be every where turned towards
the centre of that force ; and likewife that the ftrength
of the centripetal force in each plaee was to be colledl-
ed from the nature of the'iine wherein the body moved.
Now fince each of the planets moves in an ellipfis,
having the fun in one of its foci, Sir Ifaac Newton de-
a64 monftrates, that the ftrength of this power is recipro-
Reciprocal cally in the duplicate proportion of the diftance from
duplicate fun. This proportion may be explained in the
proportion f0]]0W)'ng manner : Stippofe feveral diftances to bear to
exp aine . eacj1 other the proportions of the numbers I, 2, 3, 4, 5 ;
that is, let the fecond diftance be double the firft, the
third three times, the fourth four times, and the fifth
five times as great as the firft;: multiply each of thefe
numbers by itfelf, and I multiplied by 1 produces ftill
I, 2 multiplied by 2 produces 4, 3 by 3 produces 9,
4 by 4 produces 16, and 5 by 5 produces 25 ; this
being done, the fraftions Ty, and T'r, will refpec-
tively exprefs the proportion which the centripetal
power in each of the following, diftances bears, to the
ASTRONOMY. 49i
applied by Sir Ifaac yet far- power at the firft diftance; for in the fecohd diftance, Motions of
263
Planetary
motions
particularly 1
explained. *
which is double the firft, the centripetal power will bethe ^rima"
one fourth part only of the power at the firft diftance . f anets.
at the third diftance, the power will only be one ninth
part of the firft power ; at the fourth diftance, the
power will be only one fixteenth ;' and at the fifth
diftance only one twenty-fifth, of the firft power. Thus
is found the proportion in which the centripetal power
decreafes, as the diftance from the fun increafes within
the compafs of one planet’s motion. How it comes
to pafs that the planet can be carried about the fun by
this centripetal power in a continual round, fometimes
rifing from the fun, then defcending again as low, ap¬
pears from what has been already faid concerning cen¬
tripetal forces. 265
In order to know whether this centripetal powerCentriPeta*'
extends in the fame proportion throughout the g™*
and confequently whether all the planets arc influenced ten(j
by it, Sir Ifaac inquires what relation there ought tothroughout
be between the periods ofjthe different planets, provided the fyftem.
they were adled upon by the fame power, decreafing
throughout in the proportion abovementioned ; and he
finds, that the period of each, in this cafe, would have
that very proportion to the greater axis of its orbit
which has been already related : which puts it beyond
a doubt, that the different planets are preffed towards
the fun in the fame proportion to the diftances as one 266
planet is in its feveral1 diftances; whence it is juftlyCentripetall-
concluded, that there is fuch a power adling towardsP°wer ^c“
the fun in the forefaid proportion at all diftances'front6 *
it. This power, when referred to the earth, Sir Ifaac
calls gravity ; when to the fun, attrattian ; and to the
planets, centripetal force. By thefe names, howe¬
ver, he deligns only to fignify a power endowed with
the properties abovementjoned; but by no means
would have it underftood as if thefe names referred any
way to the caufe of it.
“ But now (fays Mr Pemberton) in thefe demon-View ef Sir--
ftrations, fome very minute inequalities in the motion-5^ Nev>-
of the planets are negledled ; which is done with 2Lt°n* PbHo-
great deal of judgment : for whatever be their caufe,
the effeds are very inconfiderable, they being fo ex¬
ceedingly fmall, that fome aftronomers have though
fit wholly to pafs them by. Kow-ever, the excellen- nations in
cy of this philofophy, when in the hands of fo great athe plane-
geometer as our author (Sir Ifaac Newton), is fuch, tfry mo-
that it is able to trace the leall variations of things
to their caufes. The only inequalities which havej°”n
been obferved common to all the planets are, the mo¬
tion of the aphelion and the nodes. The tranfverfe
axis of each orbit does not remain always- fixed, but
moves about the fun with a very flow, progrefiive mo¬
tion ; nor do the planets-keep conftantly in the fame
planes, but change them and the lines by which thefe Z6S
planes interfed each other by infenfible degrees. TheMotionof
firft; of thefe inequalities, which is the motion of thetheaphe-
aphelion, may be accounted for, by fuppofing the gra |^^coun’
vitation of the planets towards the fun to differ a little
farther from the forementioned reciprocal duplicate
proportion of the diftances ; but the fecond, which is
the motion of the nodes, cannot be accounted for by
any power direded towards the fun ; for no fuch
power can give it any lateral impulfe to divert it from
the plane of its motion into any new plane, but of ne-
cefiity muft be derived from fome other centre. Where
3 that
492 ASTRO
Motions of that power is lodged, remains to be difeovered. Now
the Prima- ;t js proved, as fliall be afterwards explained, that the
ry anets.^ t}jree primary planets, Saturn, Jupiter, and the Earth,
' which have fatellites revolving about them, are endow¬
ed with a power of caufing bodies, in particular thofe
fatellites, to gravitate towards them with a force which
is reciprocally in the duplicate proportion of their di-
ftances; and the planets are, in all refpe&s in which
they come under our confideration, fo fimilar and alike,
that there is no reafon to queftion but they have all
the fame property, though it be fufficient for the
prefent purpofe to have it proved of Jupiter and Sa¬
turn only; for thefe planets contain much greater
quantities of matter than the reft, and proportionally
exceed the others in power. But the influence of thefe
two planets being allowed, it is evident how the pla¬
nets come to (hift their places continually : for each of
the planets moving in a different plane, the aflion of
Jupiter and Saturn upon the reft will be oblique to
the planes of their motion, and therefore will gra¬
dually draw them into new ones. The fame aftion of
thefe two planets upon the reft will likewife caufe a
progreflive motion ; and therefore will gradually draw
them into new ones. The fame aftion of thefe two
planets upon the reft will likewtfe caufe a progreffive
motion of the aphelion ; fo that there will be no ne-
ceffity for having recourfe to the other caufe for this
motion, which was before hinted at, viz. the gravita¬
tion of the planets toward the fun differing from the
exaft duplicate proportion of their diftances. And in
the laft place, the aftion of Jupiter and Saturn upon
each other will produce in their motions the fame in¬
equalities as their joint aftion produces upon the reft.
All this is effeded in the fame manner as the fun pro¬
duces the fame kind of inequalities and many others
in the motion of the moon and other fecondary pla¬
nets ; and therefore will be beft apprehended by what
is faid afterwards. Thofe other irregularities in the
motion of the fecondary planets have place likewife
here, but are too minute to be obfervable, becaufe
they are produced and redified alternately, for the moft
part in the time of a Angle revolution ; whereas the
motion of the aphelion and nodes which increafe con-
tinually, become fenflble after a long feries of years.
Jupiter and Yet fome of thefe other inequalities are difcernible in
Saturn in- Jupiter and Saturn; in Saturn chiefly: for when Jupiter,
Auenceeach wdm moves faftet-than Saturn, approaches to a con-
other s mo'jun&;on with him, his adion upon the latter will a lit¬
tle retard the motion of that planet ; and by the reci¬
procal adion of Saturn, he will himfelf be accelerated.
After conjundion, Jupiter will again accelerate Saturn,
and be likewife retarded in the fame degree as before
the firft was retarded and the latter accelerated.
Whatever inequalities befides are produced in the mo¬
tion of Saturn by the adion of Jupiter upon that pla¬
net, will be fufficiently redified by placing the focus of
Saturn’s ellipfia, which fliould otherwife be in the fun,
N O M Y. Sed. IV,
in the common centre of gravity of the fun and Jupi-Motions of
ter. And all the inequalities of Jupiter’s motions,the
caufed by the adion of Saturn upon him, are much ?y P ar‘cti;
lefs confiderable than the irregularities of Saturn’s mo-
tion. This one principle therefore of the planets ha¬
ving a power as well as the fun to caufe bodies gravi¬
tate towards them, which is proved by the motion of
the fecondary planets to obtain in fad, explains all the
irregularities relating to the planetary motions ever ob-
ferved by aftronomers (a). jy®
“ Sir Ifaac Newton after this proceeds to make an Method of
improvement in aftronomy, by applying this theory tocoireffinS
the farther corredion of their motions. For as we
have here obferved the planets to poflefs a principle
gravitation as well as the fun ; fo it will be explained
at large hereafter, that the third law of motion, which
makes adion and readion equal, is to be applied in
this cafe, and that the fun does not only attrad each
planet, but is alfo itfelf attraded by them ; the force
wherewith the planet is aded on, bearing to the force
wherewith the fun itfelf is aded upon at the fame
time, the proportion which the quantity of matter in
the fun bears to the quantity of matter in the planet.
From the adion of the fun and planet being thus mu-Sun moves
tual, Sir Ifaac Newton proves that the fun and 'planetround the
will deferibe about their common centre of gravity fi- common
milar elliples ; and then, that the tranfverfe axis of thec®”‘f'
ellipfes, which would be deferibed about the fun at re A hhn'and'the
in the lame time, the fame proportion as the quantity planets,
of folid matter in the fun and planet together bears to
the firft of two mean proportionals between this quan¬
tity and the quantity of matter in the fun only.
“ It will be afked, perhaps, how this corredion can
be admitted, when the caufe of the motions of the
planets was before found, by fuppofing them to be the
centre of the power which aded upon them ? for, ac¬
cording to the prefent corredion, this power appears
rather to be direded to the common centre of gravity.
But whereas the fun was at firft concluded to be the
centre to which the power ading on the planets was
direded, becaufe the fpaces deferibed in equal times
round the fun were found to be equal ; fo Sir Ifaac
Newton proves, that if the fun and planet move round
their common centre of gravity, yet, to an eye placed
in the planet, the fpaces which will appear to be de¬
feribed about the fun will have the fame relation to the
times of their defeription as the real fpaces would if
the fun were at reft. I further aflerted, that, fup¬
pofing the planets to move round the fun at reft, and
to be attraded by a power which fliould every where
ad with degrees of ftrength reciprocally in the dupli¬
cate proportions of their diftances ; then the periods
of the planets mult obferve the fame relations to their
diftances as aftronomers have found them to do. But
here it mull not be fuppofed, that the obfervations of
aftronomers abfolutely agree without any the leaft dif¬
ference : and the prefent corre6tion will not caufe a
deviation
(a) Profeflbr J. Robifon, however, informs us in his paper on the Georgium Sidus (Edinburgh Philofophical
Tranfadions, Vol. I.), That all the irregularities in the planetary motions cannot be accounted for from the
laws of gravitation ; for which reafon he was obliged to fuppofe the exiflence of planets beyond the orbit of
Saturn, even before the difeovery of the Georgium Sidus. M. de la Lande alfo has obferved fome unaccountable
inequalities in the motion of Saturn for more than 30 years paft.
.1/:&■//;Jmj/,.
Sea. IV. A S T R
Motions of deviation from any one aftronomer’s obfervations fo
the Secon* much as they differ from one another; for in Jupiter,
net! 1>a" w^ere t^*s corre&ion is greatefl, it hardly amounts to
i ^ the jooodth part of the whole axis.
“ Upon this head, I think it not improper to men-
Argument tion a refledlion made by our excellent author upon
againft the thefe fmall inequalities in the planets motions, which
eternity of contains in it a very ftrong philofophical argument
the world. aga;nft eternity of the world. It is this, that thtTe
inequalities muft continually increafe by flow degrees,
till they render at length the prefent frame of nature
unfit for the purpofes it now ferves. And a more con¬
vincing proof cannot be defired againft the prefent
conftitution’s having exifted from eternity than this,
that a certain period of years will bring it to an end.
I am aware, that this thought of our author has been
reprefented even as impious, and as no lefs than calling
a refledtion upon the wifdom of the Author of nature
for, framing a perifliable work. But I think fo bold
an aflerticn ought to have been made with Angular
caution : for if this remark upon the increafing irre¬
gularities in the heavenly motions be true in fadl, as it
really is, the imputation muft return upon the afler-
tor, that this does not detrafl from the divine wifdom.
Certainly we cannot pretend to know all the omnifci-
ent Creator’s purpofes in making this world, and there¬
fore cannot pretend to determine how long he defigned
it fhould laft ; and it is fufficient if it endure the time
defigned by the Author. The body of every animal
(hows the unlimited wifdom of the Author no lefs,
nay, in many refpedls more, than the larger frame of
nature ; and yet we fee they are all defigned to laft
but a fmall fpace of time.”
§ 3. The Motions of the Secondary Planets explained
from the Principles laid down in § 1.
The excellency of the Newtonian Philofophy is dif-
coverable even more in its folution of the motions of
the fecondary than in thofe of the primary planets ;
for thus not only all the irregularities formerly difco-
vered by aftronomers in thefe motions are folved in a
fatisfadlory manner, but feveral others are difcovered
of fuch a complicated nature that they could never be
diftinguiihed into proper heads. Thefe, however, are
now not only found out from their caufes, which this
philofophy has brought to light; but the dependence
of them upon their caufes is alfo fliown in fuch a per-
fe£t manner, that the degree of them may be exadlly
computed. Thus Sir Ifaac Newton found means to
compute the moon’s motion fo exaftly, that he framed
a theory from which the place of that planet may at all
times be computed very nearly, or altogether, as exactly
as the places of the primary planets themfelves; which
is much beyond what the greateft aftronomers could
273 ever effedt.
Secondaries The firft thing demonftrated of thefe fecondary pla-
-attrafted nets is, that they are drawn towards their refpeftive
t«y their primaries in the fame manner as the latter are attradled
.primaries. ^ ^ fhaj eacjj feCondary planet is kept in its
orbit by a power diredled towards its primary, &c. is
proved from the phenomenon of the fatellites of Jupi¬
ter and Saturn; becaufe they move in, circles, as far
as we can obferve, about their refpedlive primaries
with an equable courfe, the primary being the centre
cif each orbit: and by comparing the times in which
O N O M Y. 493
the different fatellites of the fame primary perform tlidir Motions of
periods, they are found to obferve the fame relation to^1’® s^n'
the diilances from their primary, as the primary planets
obferve in refpedt of their mean diftances from thee—-y~—j
fun. The fame thing holds good alfo with regard to
the earth and moon ; for fhe is found to move round
the earth in an ellipfis after the fame manner as the
primary planets do about the fun, excepting only fome
fmall irregularities in her motions, the caufe of which
will be particularly explained in what follows ; where¬
by it will appear that they are no objtdlions againfl:
the earth’s adling on the moon in the fame manner as
the fun adts on the primary planets; that is, as Jupiter
and Saturn adt upon their fatellites. 274
By the number of fatellites which move round Ju-Tower of
piter and Saturn, the power of each of thefe planets Jupitcrf.n.<i
may be meafured to a very confiderable diftance ; for covered by
the diftance of the outermoil fatellite in each of thefetheii iatei-
planets exceeds feveral times the diftance of the inner-lites.
moil. The force of the earth upon the moon, how¬
ever, at different diftances, is more confirmed by the
following confideration than any analogical reafoning.
It will appear^that if the power of the earth by which Gravity re«
it retains the moon in her orbit be fuppofed to adl attains the
all diftances between the earth and moon, accordingf100" "1
to the rule already mentioned, this power will be fuf- r01 u
ficient to produce upon bodies near the furface of the
earth all the effedts aferibed to the principle of gravity.
This is difcovered by the following method. Let A
(in fig. 122.) reprefent the earth, B the moon, BCD
the moon’s orbit ; which differs little from a circle of
which A is the centre. If the moon in B were left to
itfelf to move with the velocity it has in the point B,
it would leave the orbit, and proceed ftraight forward
in the line BE which touches the orbit in B. Sup-
pofe the moon would upon this condition move from
B to E in the fpace of one minute of time: By the^2^.^
adlion of the earth upon the moon, whereby it is re- particularly
tained in its orbit, the moon will really be found at explained/’
the end of this minute in the point F, from whence a
ftraight line drawn to A fliall make the fpace BFA in
the circle equal to the triangular fpace B£A ; fo that
the moon in the time wherein it would have moved
from B to E, if left to itfelf, has been impelled to¬
wards the earth from E to F. And when the time of
the moon’s pafling from B to F is fmall, as here it is
only one minute, the diftance between E and F fcarce
differs from the fpace through which the moon would
defeend in the fame time if it were to fall diredlly down
from B toward A without any other motion. AB,
the diftance ®f the moon from the earth, is about 60 of
the femidiameters of the latter; and the moon, com¬
pletes her revolution round the earth in about 27 days
7 hours and 43 minutes: therefore the fpace EF will
here be found by computation to be about 163 feet.
Confequently, if the power by which the moon is re¬
tained in its orbit be near the furface of the earth
greater than at the diftance of the moon in the dupli¬
cate proportion of that diftance, the number of feet a
body would defeend near the furface of the earth, ^7Calculation
the adlion of this power upon it, in one minute, would 0f tjie vt]0_
be equal to the number 16-J. multiplied twice into the city of fall-
number 60; that is, to 58050. But how faft bodiesinS bodies,
fall near the furface of the earth may be known by
the pendulum ; and by the exadleft experiments, they
494 A S T R O N
Motions of are found to defcend the fpace of i6y feet in one fe-
tlie Sfcon- con(j . and the fpaces defcribed by falling bodies be-
^ a* ing in the duplicate proportion of the times of their
> ^ i fall, the number of feet a body would defcribe in its
fall near the furface of the earth in one minute of time,
will be equal to i6|- twice multiplied by 6o; the lame
as would be caufed by the power which a£ts upon the
M Y.
Sea. IV.
centre of
gravity.
o moon.
Earth and I11 th'8 computation the earth is fuppofed to be at
moon move reft : but it would have been more exaft to have fup-
about their pofed it to move, as well as the moon, about their
common common centre of gravity ; as will eafily be underftood
centre of £rc)m Jias been already faid concerning the motion
of the fun and primary planets about their common
centre of gravity. The aftion of the fun upon the
moon is alfo here negledled ; and Sir Ifaac Newton
fhows, if you take in both thefe confiderations, the
prefent computation will beft agree to a fomewhat
;rreater diftance of the moon and earth, viz. to
femidiameters of the latter, which diftance is more
conformable to ailronomical obfervations ; and thefc
computations afford an additional proof that the action
of the earth obferves the fame proportion to the diftance
which is here contended for. In Jupiter and Saturn
this power is fo far from being confined to a fmall ex¬
tent cf fpace, that it not only reaches to feveral fatel-
lites at very different diftances, but alfo from one pla¬
net to another, nay, even through the whole plane¬
tary fyftem ; confequently, there is no appearance of
reafon why this power (hould not aft at all diftances,
even at the very furfaces of thefe planets, as well as
farther off. But from hence it follows, that the
power which regains the moon in her orbit is the fame
as that which caufes bodies near the furface of the
earth to gravitate*; for fince the power by which, the
earth a£ts on the moon will cauie bodies near the fur¬
face of it to defcend with all the velocity they are
fouift to do, it is certain no other power can aft
upon them befides ; becaufe, if it did, they muft of
neceflity defcend fwifter. Now, from all this, it is at
length very evident, that the power in the earth which
we cal! gravity extends up to the moon, and decreafes
in the duplicate proportion of the increafe of the di¬
ftance from t.he earth.
y Thus far with refpeft to the aftion of the primary
the fun up-P'anetS upon their lecondanes. 1 he next thing to be
on the fe- fhown is, that the fun likewife afts upon them. For
this purpofe we muft obferve, that if to the motion of
the fatellite whereby it would be carried round its pri¬
mary at reft, we fuperadd the fame motion, both'in re¬
gard to the velocity and direftion, as the primary it-
felf has, it will defcribe about the primary the fame
orbit with as great regularity as if the primary had
been indeed at reft. This proceeds from the law of
motion, which makes a body near the furface of the
earth defcend perpendicularly, though the earth be in
fo fwift a motion, that if the falling body did not par¬
take of it, its defeent would be remarkab+y oblique ;
and that a body projefted deferibes in the moft regular
manner the fame parabola, whether projefted in the
direftion in which the earth moves, or in the oppofite
direftion, if the projefting force be the fame. From
this we learn, that if the fatellite moved about its pri¬
mary with perfeft regularity, befides its motion about
the primary it would have the fame progreffive velo-
condary
planets.
city with which the primary is carried about the fun, Motions of
in a direftion parallel to that iinpulfe of its primary jtheSccon-
And, on the contrary, the want of either of thefe, in^JJ P*a*
particular of the impulfe towards the fun, will orea.. .
fion great inequalities in the motion of the fecondary
planet. The inequalities which would arife from the
abfence of this irnpulfe towards the fun are fo great,
that by the regularity which appears in the motion of
the fecondary planets, it is proved, that the fun com¬
municates to them the fame velocity by its aftion as it 3g0
gives to their primary at the fame diftance. For Sirsecotuiary.
Ifaac Newton informs us, that upon examination he planets
found, that if any of the fatellites of Jupiter were at-etluahy at-
trafted by the fun more or lefs than Jupiter himfelf at tfa^5d
the fame diftance, the orbit of that fatellite, inftead of ^th their
being concentrical to Jupiter, would have its centre pnij,ari£j,
at a greater or leffer diftance than the centre of Jupi¬
ter from the fun, nearly in the fubduplicate proportion
of the difference between the fun’s aftion upon the fs-
tellite and upon Jupiter. Therefore, if any fatellite
were attrafted by the fun but one hundredth part
more or lefs than Jupiter is at the fame diffance, the
orbit of that fatellite would be diftant from the centre
of Jupiter no lefs than a fifth part of the outermoft fa¬
tellite from Jupiter; which is almoft the whole diftance
of the innermoft latellite. By the like argument, the
fatellites of Saturn gravitate towards the fun as much
as Saturn itfelf at the fame diftance, and the moon as
much as the earth. 2gj
Thus it is proved, that the fun afts upon the fecon-Whence
dary planets as much as upon the primaries at the fame tje inequa*
diftance: but it has alfo been ftiown, that the aftion 'n t^c
of the fun upon bodies is reciprocally in the duplicate
proportion of the diftance ; therefore the fecondary ary planet*
planets being fometimes nearer to the fun than to the arife.
primary, and fometitnes more remote, they are not al¬
ways afted upon in the fame degree with their prima¬
ry, but when nearer to the fun are attrafted more, and
when farther off are ttrafted lefs. Hence arife vari¬
ous inequalities in the motion of the fecondary planets.
Some of thefe inequalities, however, would take place, Inequalities
though the moon if unditlurbed by the fun had moved of the
in a circle concentrical to the earth, and in the plane™0011’51
of the earth’s motion ; others depend on the ellipticalti.0? c**
fionre and nhlimie-fituatinf] of the moon’s nrhit. Onp^
figure and oblique fituatio« of the moon’s orbit,
of the former is, that the moon does not deferibe equal
fpaces in equal times, but is continually accelerated as
fhe paffes from the quarter to the new or full, and is
retarded again by the like degrees in returning from
the new and full to the next quarter : but here we
confider not fo much the abfolute as the apparent
motions of the moon with refpeft to us. Thefe two
may be diftinguifhed in the following manner. Let
S in fig. 123. reprefent the fun, A the earth moving
in its orbit BC, DEFG the moon’s orbit, and H the
place of the moon in her orbit. Suppofe the earth to
liave moved from A to I. Becaufe it has been ftiown
that the moon partakes of all the progreffive motion
of the earth, and likewife that thq fun attrafts both
the earth and moon equally when they are at the fame
diftance from it, or that the mean aftion of the fun
upon the moon is equal to its aftion upon the earth ;
we muft therefore confider the moon as carrying about
with it the moon’s orbit: fo that when the earth is
removed from A to I, the moon’s orbit ffiall likewife
be
Sea. IV. A S T R
Motions of be removed from Its former fituation into that denoted
the Secon. by KLMN. But now the earth being in I, if the
nets moon were f°und in O, fo that OI fhould be parallel
■ , tr> H A. though the moon would really have moved
from H to O, yet it would not have appeared to a
fpe&ator upon the earth to have moved at all, becaufe
, the earth has moved as much as itfelf; fo that the
moon would dill appear in the fame place with refpeft
to the fixed ftars. But if the moon be obferved in P,
it will then appear to have moved, its apparent motion
being meafured by the angle under OIP. And if the
angle under PIS be lefs than the angle under HAS,
the moon will have approached nearer its conjun&ion
with the fun. Now, to explain particularly the ine¬
quality of the moon’s motion already mentioned, let S
in fig. I 24. reprefent the fun, A the earth, BCDE the
moon’s orbit, C the place of the moon when in the
latter quarter. Here it will be nearly at the fame di-
ftance from the fun as the earth is. In this cafe,
therefore, they will be both equally attradled, the earth
in the dire&ion AS, and the moon in that of CS.
Whence, as the earth, in moving round the fun, is con¬
tinually defcending towards it, fo the moon in this fi¬
tuation muft in any equal portion of time defcend as
much ; and therefore the pofition of the line AC in
refpeft of AS, and the change which the moon’s
motion produces in the angle CAS, will not be altered
by the fun : but as foon as the moon is advanced from
the quarter toward the new or conjundion, fuppofe to
G, the adion of the fun upon it will have a different
effed. Were the fun’s adion upon the moon here to
be applied in the diredion GH parallel to AS, if its
adion on the moon were equal to its adion on the
earth, no change would be wrought by the fun on the
apparent motion of the moon round the earth. But
the moon receiving a greater impulfe in G than the
earth receives in A, were the fun to ad in the direc¬
tion GH,, yet it would accelerate the defeription of
the fpace DAG, and caufe the angle under GAD to
decreafe fafter than it otherwife would. The fun’s
adion will have this effed upon account of the obli¬
quity of its diredion to that in which the earth at-
trads the moon. For the moon by this means is
drawn by two forces oblique to one another 5 one
drawing from G towards A, the other from G towards
H • therefore the moon muft neceffarily be impelled
toward D. Again, becaufe the fun does not ad in
the diredion GH parallel to SA, but in the diredion
GS oblique to it, the fun’s adion on the moon will,
by reafon of this obliquity, farther contribute to the
moon’s acceleration. Suppofe. the earth, in any fhort
fpace of time, would have moved from A to I, if not
attraded by the fun, the point I being in the ftraight
line C£, which touches the earth’s orbit in A. Sup¬
pofe the moon in the fame time would have moved in
her orbit from G to K, and befides have partook of
all the progreffive motion of the earth. Then, if KL
be drawn parallel to A I, and taken equal to it, the
moon, if not attraded to the fun, would be found in
L,- But the earth, by the fun’s adion, is removed
from I. Suppofe it were moved down to M in the
■line IMN parallel to SA, and if the moon were at-
^raded but as much, and in the fame diredion as the
earth is here fuppofed to be attraded, fo as to have
nkfcended during the fame time in the line DO paral-
O N O M Y, 495
lel alfo to AS, down as far as P, til! LP were equal to Motions of
IM, the angle under PMN would be equal to that un-^16 Spj°n'
der LIN ; that is, the moon will appear advanced as a~
much farther forward than if neither it nor the earth 1 t
had been fubjed to the fun’s adion. But this is on the
fuppofition that the adions of the fun upon the earth
and moon are equal ; whereas the moon being aded
upon more than the earth, did the fun’s adion draw the
moon in the line LO parallel to AS, it would draw it
down fo far as to make LP greater than IM, whereby
the angle under PMN will be rendered greater than
that under LIN. But, moreover, as the fun draws
the earth in a diredion oblique to IN, the earth will
be found in its orbit fomewhat fhort of the point M.
However, the moon is attraded by the fun flili more
out of the line LO than the earth is out of the line
IN ; therefore this obliquity of the fun’s adion will
yet farther diminifh the angle under PMN. Thus the
moon at the point G receives an impulfe from the fun
whereby her motion is accelerated ; and the fun pro¬
ducing this effed in every place between the quarter
and the conjundion, the moon will move from the
quarter with a motion continually more and more ac¬
celerated 5 and therefore, by acquiring from time to
time an additional degree of velocity in its orbit, the
fpaces which are deferibed in equal times by the line
drawn from the earth to the moon will not be every
where equal, but thofe toward the conjundion will
be greater than thofe toward the quarter. But in
the moon’s paffage from the conjundion D to the
next quarter, the fun’s adion will again retard the
moon, till, at the next quarter at E, it be reftored to
the firrt velocity which it had in C. When the moon
moves from E to the full, or oppofition to the fun in
B, it is again accelerated ; the deficiency of the fun’s
adion on the moon from what it has upon the earth
producing here the fame effed as before the excefs of its
adion.
Let ns now confider the moon in Q^as moving from
E towards B. Here, if (he were attraded by the fun
in a diredion parallel to AS, yet being aded on lefs
than the earth, as the latter defeends towards the fun,
the moon will in feme meafure be left behind. There¬
fore, QF being drawn parallel to SB, a fpedator on
the earth would fee the moon move as if attraded
from the point QJn the diiedion QJF, with a degree
of force equal to that whereby the fun’s adion on the
moon falls fliort of its adion on the earth. But the
obliquity of the fun’s adion has here alfo an effed.
In tie time the earth would have moved from A to I
without the influence of the fun, let the moon have
moved in its orbit from Q^to R. Drawing, therefore,
RT parallel and equal to AI, the moon, by the mo¬
tion of its orbit, if not attraded by the fun, muft be
found in T ; and therefore, if attraded in a diredion
parallel to SA, would be in the line TV parallel to
AS ; fuppofe in W. But the moon in Q^being far¬
ther off the fun than the earth, it will be lefs attraded;
that is, TW will be lefs than IM; and if the line SM
be prolonged towards X, the angle under XMW will
be lefs than XIT. Thus, by the fun’s adion, the
moon’s paffage from the quarter to the full would be
accelerated, if the fun were to ad on the earth and
moon in a diredtion parallel to AS ; and the obliquity
of the fun’s adion will ftili incresfe this acceleration :
For
496 ASTRO
Motions of For the a&ion of the fun on the moon is oblique to
Sp|0U’ the line SA the whole time of the moon’s paffage from
nets. a" Qj° and will carry her out of the line TV to-
wards the earth. Here we fuppofc the time of the
moon’s paffage from Qjo T fo fhort, that it fhall not
pafs beyond the line SA. The earth will alfo come a
little fliort of the line IN, as was already mentioned ;
and from thefe caufes the angle under XMW will be
Hill farther leffened. The moon, in pajfing from the
oppofition B to the next quarter, will be retarded a-
gain by the fame degrees as it was accelerated before
its appulfe to the oppofition ; and thus the moon, by
the fun’^ adftion upon it, is twice accelerated and twice
reftored to its firft velocity every circuit it makes round
the earth 5 and this inequality of the moon’s motion
583 about the earth is called by aftronomers its variation.
F.ffcft of The next eftedt of the fun upon the moon is, that
the fun’s at-it gives the orbit of the latter in the quarters a greater
different**1 c*eSree cmwature than it would receive from the
parts of theeart^ a'one ’ an^» on the contrary, in the conjun&ion
moon’s or- and oppofition the orbit is lefs infledfed. When the
hit. moon is in the conjun&ion with the fun at D, the lat¬
ter attracting her more forcibly than it does the earth,
the moon is by that means impelled lefs to the earth
than otherwife it would be, and thus the orbit lefs in-
curvated : for the power txy which the moon is impel¬
led towards the earth being that by which it is infled-
ed from a rectilinear courfe, the lefs that power is, the
lefs it will be infle&ed. Again, when the moon is in
the oppofition in B farther removed from the fun than
the earth is, it follows- then, that though the earth
and moon are both continually defcending toward the
fun, that is, are drawn by the fun towards itlelf out
of the place they would otherwife move into, yet the
moon defcends with lefs velocity than the earth ; info-
much that, in any given fpace of time from its paffing
the point of oppofnion, it will have lefs approached the
earth than otherwife it would have done 5 that is, its
orbit, in refpedf to the earth, will approach nearer to
a ftraight line. Laftly, when the motion is in the quar¬
ter in F, and equally diftant from the fun as the earth,
it was before obferved, that they would both defcend
with equal velocity towards the fun, fo as to make no
change in the angle FAS ; but the length of the line
FA muft neceflarily be fhortened. Therefore the
moon, in moving from F toward the conjunction with
the fun, will be impelled more toward the earth by the
fun’s aCtion than it would have been by the earth alone,
if neither the earth nor the moon had been aCted upon
by the fun ; fo that, by this additional impulfe, the
orbit is rendered more curve than it otherwife (hould
be. The fame effeCt will alfo be produced in the other
quarter.
A third effeCt of the fun’s aCtion, and which fol¬
lows from that juft now explained, is, that though the
moon undifturbed by the fun might move in a circle,
having the earth for its centre, by the fun’s aClion, if
the earth were to be in the very middle or centre of
the moon’s orbit, yet the moon would be nearer the
284 earth at the new and full than in the quarters. This
Moon _may at firft appear fomewhat difficult to be underftood,
eft the t^ie m°on fhould come neareft to the earth where
earth when it is lead attracted by it: yet, upon a little conftdera-
leaftat- tion, it will evidently appear to flow from that very
trafted by caufe> becaufe her orbit, in the conjunction and oppo*
lt’ N* 33.
N O M Y. Sea. IV.
fition, is rendered lefs curve 5 for the lefs curve the or- Motions of
bit is, the lefs will the moon have defeended from the Secon-
place it would move into without the aCHon of a*
earth. Now, if the moon were to move from any > ^ «.
place without further difturbance from that aCtion, fince
it would proceed on the line touching the orbit in that
place, it would continually recede from the earth ; and
therefore, if the power of the earth upon the moon
be fufficient to retain it at the fame diftance, this di¬
minution of that power will caufe the diftance to in-
creafe, though in a lefs degree. But, on the other
hand, in the quarters, the moon being prefled in a leis
degree towards the earth than by the earth’s lingle
aCtion, will be made to approach it: fo that, in palling
from the conjunction or oppofltion to the quarters, the
moon afeends from the earth ; and in paffing from the
quarters to the oppofition or cdnjunCtion, it defcends
again, becoming nearer in thefe laft mentioned places
than in the other.
All the inequalities we have mentioned are different
in degree as the fun is more or lefs diftant from the
earth; being greateft when the earth is in its perihe¬
lion, and fmalleft when it is in its aphelion : for in the
quarters, the nearer the moon is to the fun the greater
is the addition to the earth’s aCtion upon it by the
power of the fun ; and in the conjunction and oppofi- -
tion, the difference between the fun’s aCtion upon the
earth and upon the moon is likewife fo much the great-
er. This difference in the diftance between the earth Caufe of
and the fun produces a further effeCt upon the moon’s1}16 dilata-
motion 5 caufing her orbit to dilate when lefs remotetion °ftIie
from the fun, and become greater than when at
farther diftance: For it is proved by Sir Ifaac New¬
ton, that the aftion of the fun by which it diminilhes
the earth’s power over the moon in the conjundion or
oppofition, is about twice as great as the addition to
the earth’s aCHon by the fun in the quarters ; fo that
upon the whole, the power of the earth on the moon
is diminifhed by the fun, and therefore is moft dimi-
nilhed when that aCtion is ftrongeft : but as the earth
by its approach to the fun, has its influence leffened* ,
the moon, being lefs attracted, will gradually recede
from the earth ; and as the earth, in its recefs from
the fun, recovers by degrees its former power, the or¬
bit of the moon nvuft again contract. Two confe-
quences follow from hence* viz. that the moon will be
more remote from the earth when the latter is neareft
the fun* and alfo will take up a longer time in perform¬
ing its revolution through the dilated orbit than through
the more contraded.
Thefe irregularities would be produced if the moon,
without being a&ed upon unequally by the fun, fliould
deferibe a perfedt circle about the earth and in the
plane of its motion ; but though neither of thefe cir-
cumftances take place, yet the Shove-mentioned ine¬
qualities occur only with fome little variation with re¬
gard to the degree of them ; but fome others are ob¬
ferved to take place from the moon’s motion being
performed in the manner already deferibed : For, as
the moon deferibes an ellipfis, having the earth in one
of its foci, this curve will be fubje&ed to various
changes, neither preferving conftantly the fame figure
nor pofition ; and becaufe the plane of this ellipfis is
not the fame with that of the earth’s orbit, it thence
fallows, that the former will continually change; fo
A wS T U O X () M Y .
T R O N
Sea. IV.
Motions of that neither the inclination of the two planes towards
the Secon- eac{j other, nor the line in which they interfedt, will
netr ^ a" rema’n ^or any ^engt^1 t'me unaltered.
■ As the moon does not move in the fame plane with
the earth, the fun is but feldom in the plane of her
Aftion of orbit, viz. only when the line made by the common
the fun interfedlion of the two planes, if produced, will pafs
caufes the through the fun. Thus, let S in fig. 125. denote
moon’sOT*t^e *un» ^ t^ie eart^> ATB the plane of the earth’s
bit to orbit, CDEF the moon’s orbit; the part CDE being
change. raifed above, and the part CFE deprefled under, the
former. Here the line CE, in which the two planes
interfeft each other, being continaed, pafies through
the fun in S. When this happens, the adtion of the
fun is diredled in the plane of the moon’s orbit, and
cannot draw her out of this plane, as will evidently
appear from an infpedtion of the figure ; but in other
cafes the obliquity of the fun’s adtion to the plane of
the orbit will caufe this plane continually to change.
Let us now fuppofe, in the firft place, the line in
which the two planes interfedt each other to be per¬
pendicular to the line which joins the earth and fun.
Let T, in fig. 126, 127, 128, 129, reprefent the
earth ; S the fun ; the plane of the fcheme the plane
of the earth’s orbit, in which both the fun and earth
are placed. Let AC be perpendicular to ST, which
joins the earth and fun ; and let the line AC be that
in which the plane of the moon’s orbit interfe&s the
orbit of the earth. On the centre T defcribe in the
plane of the earth’s motion the circle ABCD ; and
in the plane of the moon’s orbit defcribe the circle
AECF ; one half of which, AEG, will be elevated
above the plane of this fcheme, and the other half,
AFC, as much depreffed below it. Suppofe then the
moon to fet out from the point A in fig. 127. in the
diredtion of the plane AEG. Here (he will be conti-
nually drawn out of this plane by the adtion of the
fun ; for this plane AEC, if extended, will not pafs
, through the fun, but above it; fo that the fun, by
drawing the moon diredtly toward, itfelf, will force it
continually more and more from that plane towards the
plane of the earth’s motion in which itfelf is, caufing
it to dtfcribe the line AKGHI, which will be convex
to the plane AEC, and concave to the plane of the
earth’s motion. But here this power of the fun, which
is faid to draw the moon toward the plane of the earth’s
motion, mull be underftood principally of as much on¬
ly of the fun’s adtion upon the moon as it exceeds the
adtion of the fame upon the earth : For fuppofe the
laft mentioned figure to be viewed by the eye placed
in the plane of;that fcheme, and in the line CTA, on
the fide A, it will appear as the ftraigju line DTB in
fig. 130. and the plane AECF as another ftraight line
FE, and the curve line AKGHI under the form of
the line TKGHL Now it is plain, that the earth
and moon being both attradted by the fun, if the fun’s
adlion upon both was equally firong, the earth T, and
M
497
ing greater than upon the earth all the time the moon Motions of
is nearer to the fun than the earth is, it will be drawn^16 Sp”n'
from the plane AEC, or the line TE, by that excefs,n^ a'
and made to defcribe the curve line AGI or TGT. < , - ‘
But it is the cuftom of aftronomers, inftead of confi-
dering the moon as moving in fuch a curve line, to re¬
fer its motion continually to the plane which touches
the true line wherein it moves at the point where at
any time the moon is. Thus, when the moon is in
the point A, its motion is confidered as being in the
plane AEC, in whofe diredlion it then attempts to
move; and when in the point K, fig. 127, its motion
is referred to the plane which pafles through the earth
and touches the line AKGHI in the point K. Thus
the moon, in pafiing from A to I, will continually
change the plane cf her motion in the manner we fhall
now more particularly explain.
Let the plane which touches the line AKI in the
point K, fig. 127, interfedt the plane of the earth’s
orbit in the line LTM. Then, becaufe the line AKt
is concave to the plane ABC, it falls wholly between
that plane and the plane which touches it in K ; fo that
the plane MKL will cut the plane AEC before it
meets the plane of the earth’s motion, fuppofe in the
line YF, and the point A will fall between K and L.
With a radius equal to TY or TL defcribe the femi-
circle LYM. Now, to a fpe&ator on the earth, the
moon when in A will appear to move in the circle
AECF; and when in K, will appear to be moving in
the femicircle LYM. The earth’s motion is perform¬
ed in the plane of this fcheme ; and to a fpeAator on
the earth the fun will always appear to move in that .
plane. We may therefore refer the apparent motion
of the fun to the circle ABCD deferibed in this plane
about the earth. But the points where this circle in
which the fun feems to move, interfering the circle in
which the moon is feen at any time to move, are called 3g
the nodes of the moon’s orbit at that time. When N0<jcs of
the moon ‘A feen moving in the circle AECD, the the mooa’at
points A and C are the nodes of the orbit ; when {he°rbit.
appears in the jemicircle LYM, then L and M are
the nodes. It will now appear, from what has been
faid, that while the moon has moved from A to K,
one of the nodes has been carried from A to L, and
the other as much from C to M. But the motion
from A to L and from C to M is backward in regard
to the motion of .the moon, which is the other way
from A to K, and from thence toward C. Again,
the angle which the plane wherein the moon at any
time appears makes with the plane of the earth’s mo¬
tion, is called the inclination of the moon’s orbit at 2gg .
that time : we fiiall now therefore proceed to filow>iBCiinatioa
that this inclination of the orbit, when the moon of her oa*?
is in K, is lefs than when Ihe was in A; or, that bit.
the plane LYM, which touches the line of the moon’s
motion in K, makes a lefs angle with the plane of the
earth’s motion, or with the circle ABCD, than the
with it the plane AECF, or the line FTE, would be . plane AEC. makes with the fame. The femicircle
carried towardsthefunwithasgreatvelocityasthemoon, LYM interfedts the femicircle AEC in Y, and the
and therefore the moon not drawn out of it by the fun’s arch AY is lefs than LY, and both together lefs than
aflion, except only from the fmall obliquity of direftion half a circle. But it is demonftrated by fpheric geo-
of this adtion upon the moon to that of the fun’s adtion^ metry, that when a triangle is -made as here, by three .
upon the earth, which arifes from the moon being out arches -of circles AL, AY, and YL, the angle under
of the plane of the earth’s motion, and is not conn- YAB without the triangle is greater than the angle
durable : but the adtion of the fun upon thc mOQU be- YLA within, if the two arches AY, YL, taken toge° -
Vpx...II. Part II. , tlfer,,
498 ASTRO
Motions of titer, do not amount to a femicircle. If the two arches
dm Spi*"' ma^e a complete femicircle, the two angles will be
nets 3' e<r,al» kut if the two arches taken together exceed a
femirii-rle. the inner angle YLA is greater than the
other. Here then the two arches AY and LY toge¬
ther being lefs then ? femicirdle, the angle under ALY
'is lefs than the angle under BAE. But from the doc¬
trine of the fphere it is alfo evident, that the angle
Under ALY is equal to that in which the plane of the
Circle LYKM, that is, the plane which touches the
line AKGHI in K is inclined to the plane of the
earth’s motion ABC: and the angle under BAE is
equal to that in which the plane AEC is inclined to
the fame plane. Therefore the inclination of the for¬
mer plane is lefs than that of the latter. Suppofe,
now, the moon to be advanced to the point G in
fig. 128. and in this point to be diftant from its node
a quarter part of the whole circle ; or, in other words,
to be in the mid-way between its two nodes* In this
cafe the nodes will have receded yet more, and the in¬
clination of the orbit be ftill more diminilhed : for
fuppofe the line AKGHI to be touched in the point
G by a plane palling through the earth T, let the in-
terfe&ion of this.plane with the plane of the earth’s
motion be the line WTO, and the line TP its inter-
fedlion with the plane LKM. In this plane let the
circle NGO be defcribed with the femidiameter TP
or NT cutting the other circle LKM in P. Now,
the line AKGI is convex to the plane LKM which
touches it in K ; and therefore the plane NGO, which
touches it in G, will interfeft the other touching plane
between G and K ; that is, the point P will fall be¬
tween thefe two points, and the plane continued to
the plane of the earth’s motion will pafs beyond L ;
fo that the points N and O, or the places of the nodes
■when the moon is in G, will be farther from A and C
than L and M * that is, will have moved farther back¬
ward. Befides, the inclination of the plane NGO to the
plane of the earth’s motion ABC is lefs than the incli¬
nation of the plane LKM to the fame ; for here alfo
the two arches LP and NP, taken together, are lefs
than a femicircle, each of them being lefs than a qua¬
drant, as appears, becaufe GN, the diftance of the
moon in G from its node N, is here fuppofed to be a
quarter part of a circle. After the moon is paffed
beyond G, the cafe is altered : for then thefe arches
will be greater than quarters of a circle 5 by which
means the inclination will be again increafed, though
the nodes ftill go on to move the fame way. Suppofe
the moon in H (fig. 129.), and that the plane which
touches the line AKGI in H interfefts the plane of
the earth’s motion in the line QTR, and the plane
1MGO in the line TV, and befides, that the circle
QJdR be defcribed in that plane : then, for the fame
reafon as before, the point V will fall between H and
G, and the plane RVQjvill pafs beyond the laft plane
OVN, caufing the points Qjmd K to fall farther from
A and C than N and O. But the arches NV, VQjire
each greater than the quarter of a circle ; confequent-
ly the angle under BQV will be greater than that un¬
der BNV. Laftly, when the moon is by this attrac¬
tion of the fun drawn at length into the plane of the
earth’s orbit, the node will have receded yet more, and
the inclination be fo much increafed, as to become
fomevvhat more than at firft : for the line AKGHI
N O M Y. Sefl. IV.
being convex to all the planes which touch it, the part Motions of
HI will wholly fall between the plane QVR and thethe Seconi‘
plane ABC ; fo that the point 1 will fall between Bc!aly
and R; and, drawing ITW, the point W will he ,
farther removed from A than But it is evident, that
the plane which pafles through the earth T and touches
the line AGI in the point 1, will cut the plane of the
earth’s motion ABCD in the line ITW, and be inclined
to the fame in the angle under HlB ; fo that the node
which was firft in A, after having paffed into L, N,
and comes at laft in the point W, as the node
which was at Srft in C has paffed from thence fuccef-
fively through the ^ointsJM, O, and R, to I. Bqt the
angle HIB, which is now the inclination of the orbit
to the plane of the ecliptic, is manifieftiy not lefs than
the angle under ECB or EAB, but rather fomething
greater. Thus the moon, while it pafles from the
plane of the earth’s motion in the quarter, till it comes
again into the fame plane, has the nodes of its orbit
continually moved backward, and the inclination of it at
firft diminifhed till it comes to G in fig. 128, which is
near to its conjun&ion with the fun, but afterwards is
increafed again almoft by the fame degrees, till upon
the moon’s arrival again to the plane of the earth’s
motion the inclination of the orbit is reftored to fome¬
thing more than its firft magnitude, though the diffe¬
rence is not very great, becaufe *the points I and C
are not far diftant from each other.
In like manner, if the moon had departed from the
quarter at C, it fliould have defcribed the curve line
CXW in fig. 126. between the planes AEC and ADC,
which would be convex to the former planes and con¬
cave to the latter ; fo that here alfo the nodes would
continually recede, and the inclination of the orbit
gradually diminirti more and more, till the moon arri¬
ved near its oppofition to the fun in X ; but from that
time the inclination fhould again increafe till it become
a little greater than at firft. This wdll eafily appear by
confidering, that as the a&ion of the fun upon the
moon, by exceeding its adtion upon the earth, drew
it out of the plane AEC towards the fun, while the
moon pafled from A to I; fo during its paffage from
C to W, the moon being all that time farther from the
fun than the earth, it will be attracted lefs; and the
earth, together with the plane AECF, will as it were
be drawn from the moon, in fuch a manner, that the
path the moon deferibes fhall appear from the earth as it
did in the former cafe by the moon being drawn away. 2gj
Such are the changes which the nodes and inclina-Motion of
tion of the moon’s orbit undergo when the nodes aretlle nodes
in the quarters ; but when the nodes by their motion,expIaincd*
and the motion of the fun together, come to be fituated
between the quarter and conjunftion or oppofition,
their motion and the change made in the inclination
of the orbit are fomewhat different—Let AGH, in
fig. 131. be a circle defcribed in the plane of the
earth’s motion, having the earth in T for its centre, A
the point oppofite to the fun, and G a fourth part of
the circle diftant from A. Let. the nodes of the
moon’s orbit be fituated in the line BTD, and B the
node falling between A, the place where the moon
would be in the full, and G the place where (he would
be in the quarter. Suppofe BEDF to be the plane in
which the moon attempts to move when it proceeds
from the point B; then, becaufe'the moon in B is more
diftant'
Sea. IV. ASTRO
Motions of diftant from the fun than the earth, it will be lefs at-
thc Secon- tra&ed by the fun, and will not defcend towards the
net! P a" ^un ^ as t^ie eart^> confequently it will quit the
< plane BEDF, which is fuppofed to accompany the
earth, and defcribe the line BIK convex to it, till fuch
‘ time as it comes to the point K, where it will be in
the quarter ; but from thenceforth being more attradl-
ed than the earth, the moon will change its courfe,
and the following part of the path it defcribes will be
concave towards the plane BED or BGD, and conti¬
nue concave to the plane BGD till it crofles that plane
in L juft as in the preceding cafe. Now, to fhow
that the nodes, while the moon is palling from B to
K, will proceed forward, orfmove the fame way with
the moon, and at the fame time the inclination of the
orbit will increafe when the moon is in the point I, let
the line MIN pafs through the earth T, and touch the
path of the moon in I, cutting the plane of the earth’s
motion in the line MTN, and the line BED in TO.
Becaufe the line BIK is convex to the plane BED,
which touches it in B, the plane NIM muft crofs the
plane DEB before it meets the plane CGB ; and the
therefore the point M will fall from G towards B; and
the node of the moon’s orbit being tranflated from B
towards M is moved forward.
Again, the angle under OMG, which the plane
MON makes with the plane BGC, is greater than the
angle OBG, which the plane BOD makes with the
fame. 'This appears from what has been already de-
monftrated, becaufe the arches BO and OM are each
of them lefs then the quarter of a circle ; and therefore,
taken both together are lefs than a femicircle. But
further, when the moon is come to the point K in its
quarter, the nodes will be advanced yet farther for¬
ward, and the inclination of the orbit alfo more augr
mented. Hitherto we have referred the moon’s mo¬
tion to that plane which, palling through the earth,,
tpuches the path of the moon in the point where the
moon is, as we have already faid that the cuftom of
aftrpnomers is. But in the point K no fuch plane can
be found : on the contrary, feeing the line of the
moon’s motion on one fide the point K is convex , to
the plane BED, and on the other fide concave to the
fame, fo that no plane can pafs through the poipta T
and K, but will cut the line BKD in that point ;
therefore, inftead of fuch a touching plane, we muft
make ufe of PKQ^which is equivalent, and with which
the line BKL lhall make a lefs angle than with any
other plane; for this does as it were touch the line
B-K in the point K, fince it cuts it in fuch a manner'
that no other plane can be drawn fo as to pafs between
the line BK and the plane PKQ^ But now it is evi¬
dent, that the point P, or the node, is removed from
M towards G, that is, has moved yet farther forward ;
and it is likewife as manifeft, that the angle under
KPG, or the inclination of the moon’s orbit in the
point K, is greater than the angle under IMG for the
reafon already given.
Aftef the moon has palled the quarter, her plane
being concave to the plane AGCH, the nodes will
recede as before till (he arrives at the point L ; which
fho-.vs, that, confideving the whole time of the. moon’s
palling from B to L, at the end of that time the nodes
ihai' be found to have receded, or to be placed more
kijehward, when the .moon is in L. than when it vas
N O M Y. 499
in B; for the moon takes a longer time in palling Motions of
from K to L than in palling from B to K ; and there-V1* SpC.on'
fore the nodes continue to recede a longer time than a~
they moved forwards ; fo that their recefs muft fur- ■ — ^ , ■
mount their advance. In the fame manner, while the
moon is in its paflage from K to L, the inclination of
the orbit (hall diminifh till the moon come to the point
in which it is one quarter part of a circle diftant from
its node, fuppofe in the point R ; and from that time
the inclination will again increafe. Since, therefore, -
the inclination of the orbit increafes while the moon
is palling from B to K, and diminifhes itfelf again only
while the moon is palling from K tQ R, then augments
again while the moon palfes from B to L ; it thence
comes to be much more incTeafed than diminifned, and
thus will be diftinguilhably greater when the moon
comes to L than when it fets out from B. In like
manner, when the moon is palling from L on the other
fide the p!ane AGCH, the node will advance forward-
as long as the moon is between the point L and the.
next quarter ; but afterwards it will recede till the
moon come to pafs the plane AGCH again, in the
point V between B and A : and becaufe the time be¬
tween the moon’s palling from L to the next quarter
is lefs than the time between that quarter and the-
moon’s coming to the point V, the node will have re¬
ceded more than it has advanced ; fo that the point
V will be nearer to A than L is to C. So alfo the in¬
clination of the orbit, when the moon is in V, will be
greater than when fhe was in L: for this inclination
increafes all the time the moon is betwixt L and the
next quarter, decreafing only when (be is palling from-
this quarter to the mid-way between the two nodes,-,
and from thence increafes again during the whole paf- ■
fage through the other half of the way to the next :
node.
In' this manner we fee, that at every period of the
moon the nodes will have receded, and thereby have
approached towards a conjunction with ,the fun : but .
•this will be much forwarded by the motion of the-
earth, or the apparent motion of the fun himfelf. In
the laft fcheme the fun will appear to have moved from
S towards W. Let us fuppofe it had appeared to have
moved from S to W.while the moon’s node has re¬
ceded from B to V ; then drawing the line WTX, the
arch VX will reprefent the diftance of the line drawn ->
between the nodes from the fun when the moon is i.j
V; whereas the arch BA reprefented that diftance-
when the moon was in B. This vifible motion of the
fun is much greater than that of the node ; for the -
fun appears to revolve quite round in one year, while
the node is near nineteen in making its revolution. .
We have alfo feen, that when the moon was. in the
quadrature, the inclination of her orbit decreafed till .:
ihe came to the conjunction or oppofition, according^
to the node it fet out from; but that afterwards it :
again incr.eafed till it became at the next.node rather
greater than at the former. When the node is once,
removed from the quarter nearer to a conjupCtion with
the fun, the inclination; of the moon’s orbit when flic,
comes into the. node is more fenfibly greater than it
was in the node preceding ; the,inclination of the or¬
bit by this means more and more increafing till the.
node comes into conjunction with the fun : at which,
time it has been Ihovvn that the latter has no power to.,.
3 R 2 „ shang«
a<)o
- Irregulari¬
ties arifing
from the
moon’s mo-
/Jliplis.
ASTRO
change the plane of her orbit. As foon, however, as
the nodes are got out of conjundlion towards the other
quarters, they begin to recede as before; but the in¬
clination of the orbit in the appulfe of the moon to
each fucceeding node is lefs than at the preceding, till
the nodes come again into the quarters. This will
appear as follows : Let A, in fig. 132., reprefent one
of the moon’s nodes placed between the point of oppo-
fition B and the quarter C. Let the plane ADE
pafs through the earth T, and touch the path of the
moon in A. Let the line AFGH be the path of the
moon in her paffage from A to H, where file crofies
again the plane of the earth’s motion. This line will
be convex towards the plane ADE, till the moon
comes to G, where file is in the quarter ; and after
this, between G and H, the fame line will be concave
towards this plane. All the time this line is convex
towards the plane ADE, the nodes will recede ; and,
on the contrary, move forward when the line is con¬
cave towards that plane. But the moon is longer in
pafiing from A to G, and therefore the nodes go back¬
ward farther than they proceed ; and therefore, on the
■whole, when the moon has arrived at H, the nodes will
have receded, that is, the point H will fall between B
and E. The inclination of the orbit will decreafe till the
moon is arrived at the point F in the middle between
A and H. Through the paffage between F and G
the inclination will increafe, but decreafe again in the
remaining part of the paflage from G to H, and con-
fequently at H muft be lefs than at A. Similar ef-
fedts, both with refpedt to the nodes and inclination of
the orbit, will take place in the following paffage of
the moon on the other fide of the plane ABEC from
H, till it comes over that plane again in T.
Thus the inclination of the orbit is greateft when
the line drawn between the moon’s nodes will pafs
through the fun, and lead when this line lies in the
quarters ; efpecially if the moon at the fame time be
in conjunftion with the fun, or in the oppofition. In
the firft of thefe cafes the nodeshave no motion; in
all others, the nodes will each month have receded :
and this retrograde motion will be greateft when the
nodes are in the quarters, for in that cafe they will
have no progreffive motion during the whole month ;
but in all other cafes they at fome times go forward,
viz. whenever the moon is between either of the quarters
and the node which is lefs diftant from that quarter
than the fourth part of a circle.
We have now only to explain thofe irregularities of
the lunar motion which arife from her motion in an
ellipfis. From what has been already faid it appears,
that the earth afts on the moon in the reciprocal du¬
plicate proportion of the diftance ; therefore the moon,
if undifturbed by the fun, would move round the earth
in a true ellipfis, and a line drawn from the earth to
the fun would pafs over equal fpaCes in equal times.
We have, however, already fliown, that this equality is
difturbed by the fun, and likewife hoW the figure of
the orbit is changed each month ; that the moon is
nearer the earth at the new and full, and more re¬
mote in the quarters, than it would be without the fun.
We muft, however, pafs by thofe monthly changes, and
confider the effeft which the fun will have in the diffe¬
rent fituations of the axis of the orbit in refpeft of
that luminary. This a&ion varies the force wherewith
n o M Y. Sefl. tv,
the moon is drawn towards the earth. In the quarters Motions of
the force of the earth is diredtly increafed by the fun,t,ie Secon-
but diminifhed at the new and full; and in the *nter‘nets
mediate places the influence of the earth is fometimesi .
leffened, fometimes afiifted, by the adtion of that lumi¬
nary. In thefe intermediate places, however, between
the quarters and the conjunction or oppofttion, the
fun’s adtion is fo oblique to that of the earth on the
moon, as to produce that alternate acceleration and re¬
tardation of her motion fo often mentioned. But be-
fides this effedt, the power by which the moon attradts
the earth towards itfelf, will not be at full liberty to
adt with the fame force as if the fun ^dted not at all
on the moon; and this effedt of the fun’s adtion,
whereby it corroborates or weakens the adtion of the
earth, is here only to be confidered ; and by means of
this influence it comes to pafs, that the power by which
the moon is impelled towards the earth is not perfedtly
in the reciprocal duplicate proportion of the diftance,
and of confequence the moon will not defcribe a per-
fedt ellipfis. One particular in which the lunar orbit
wiy differ from a perfedt elliptical figure, confifts in the
places where the motion of the moon is perpendicular
to the line drawn from itfelf to the earth. In an ellip¬
fis, after the moon flioukl have fet out in the diredxiors
perpendicular to this line, drawn from itfelf to the
earth, and at its greateft diftance from the earth, its
motion would again become perpendicular to this line
drawn between itfelf and the earth, and the moon be
at its neareft diftance from the earth, when it fiiould
have performed half its period : after having performed
the other half period of its motion, it would again be¬
come perpendicular to the forementioned line, and the
moon return to the place whence it fet out, and have
recovered again its greateft diftance. But the moon
in its real motion, after fetting out as before, fome¬
times makes more than half a revolution before its mo¬
tion comes again to be perpendicular to the line drawn
from itfelf to the earth, and the moon is at its neareft
diftance, and then performs more than another half of
an entire revolution before its motion can a fecondtime
recover its perpendicular direction to the line drawn
from the moon to the earth, and the former arrive
again at its greateft diftance from the earth. At other
times the moon will defcend to her neareft diftance be¬
fore file has made half a revolution, and recover again
its greateft diftance before it has made an entire revolu- 2^r
tion. The place where the moon is at its greateft di-Apogeori
ftance is called the moon's apogeon, and the place of her and peri-
neareft diftance her perigeon\ and this change of place, Seon °fthg
where the moon comes fucceflively to its greateft di-mooH*
ftance from the earth, is called the motion of the apogeon.
The manner in which this motion of the apogeon is
caufed by the fun, comes now to be explained.
Sir Ifaac Newton has fliown, that if the moon were
attra&ed toward the earth by a compofition of two
powers, one of which were reciprocally in the dupli¬
cate proportion of the diffance from the earth, and the
other reciprocally in the triplicate proportion of the
fame diftance ; then, though the line defcribed by the
moon would not be in reality an ellipfis, yet the moon’s
motion might be perfedtly explained by an ellipfis wh'ofe
axis fiiould be made to move round the earth ; this
motion being in confequence, as aftronomers exprefs
themfdvesj that is} the fame way as the moon itfelf
moveOj
Sea. IV.
A s
R O N 0 M Y.
Motions of moves, IF the mdonfebe attrafted by the fum of the two
the Secon- powers; but the axis muft move in antecedence, or
dary Pla- tjje contrary way# ;f tjie m0on be afted upon by the
■ difference of thefe forces. \Ve have already explained
what is meant by duplicate proportion, namely, that if
Motion in three magnitudes, as A, B, and C, are fo related that
antecedence the fecond B bears the fame proportion to the third C
and confe- as tjje firft A bears to the fecond B 5 then the propor-
^laTned CX* t'on ^ A to the third C is the duplicate of
the proportion of the firft. A to the fecond B. Now
^Triplicate if a fourth magnitude as D be affumed, to which C
proportion fhall bear the fame proportion as A bears to B, and B
explained. t0 £ . tjien tjje proportion of A to D is the triplicate
of the proportion of A to B.
Morion of Let now T (%• ‘SdO ^enote }hc earth» and
tlie moon’s fuppofe the moon in the point A its apogeon or
apogeon greateft diftance from the earth, moving in the direc-
determi- tion AF perpendicular to AB, and adted upon from
the earth by two fuch forces as already mentioned. By
that power alone, which is reciprocally in the duplicate
proportion of the diftance, if the moon fet out with a
proper degree of velocity, the ellipfts AMB may be
deferibed : but if the moon be afted upon by the fum
of the forementioned powers, and her Velocity in the
point A be augmented in a certain proportion ; or if
* gec js^ty-that velocity be diminilhed in a certain proportion *,
jfow’i PriK«-and the moon be adfed upon by the difference of thofe
ptai book i. powers ; in both thefe cafes the line AE, which fhall
prop. 44. deferibed by the moon, fhall thus be determined,
coro . z. point M be that into which the moon would
have arrived in any given point of time, had it moved
in the ellipfis AMB ; draw MT and likewife CTD
in fuch a manner that the angle ATM fhall bear the
fame proportion to the angle under ATC as the velo¬
city with which-the ellipfis muft have been deferibed
bears to the difference between this velocity and that
501
ftance, than if it were fimply in the reciprocal duplicate Motions of
proportion of the diftance. Therefore, if we ch0°fe ^ Sp^n"
to explain the moon’s motion by an ellipfis, which a"
be done without any fenfible error, we may colleft ini „ — .
general, that when the power by which the moon h
attrafted to the earth, by varying the diftance, in-
creafes in a greater than the duplicate proportion of
t-lie diftance diminifhed, a motion in confequence muft;
be aferibed to the apogeon ; but that when the attrac¬
tion increafes in a fmaller proportion than that juft
mentioned, the apogeon muft have given to it a mo¬
tion in antecedence. It is then obferved by Sir Ifaac
Newton, that the former of thefe cafes obtains when
the moon is in the conjun&ion and oppolition, and the
latter when fhe is in the quarters ; fo that in the for¬
mer the apogeon moves according to the order of the
figns; in the other, the contrary way. But, as has
been already mentioned, the difturbance given to the
aftion of the earth by the fun in the conjun&ion and
oppofition, being near twice as great as in the quar¬
ters, the apogeon will advance with a greater velocity
than recede, and in the compafs of a whole revolution
of the moon will be carried in confequence. ^
Sir Ifaac fhovvs, in the next place, that when the Inequality
line AB coincides with the line that joins the fun andin the mo-
earth, the progreffive motion of the apogeon, when t'on of ^
the moon is in conjunction or oppofition, exceeds theap05e01:’,
retrograde, in the quadratures, more than in any other
fituation of the line AB. On the contrary, when the
line AB makes right angles with that which joins the
earth and fun, the retrograde motion will be more con-
fiderable, nay, is found fo great as to exceed the pro-
grefiive ; fo that in this cafe the apogeon, in the com¬
pafs of an entire revolution of the moon, is carried in
antecedence. Yet from the confiderations already men¬
tioned, the progrefiive motion exceeds the other ; fo
with which the moon muft fet out from the point that on the whole, the motion of the apogeon is ia
A, in order to deferihe the path AE. Let the confequence. The line AB alfo changes its fituation
angle ATC be taken toward the moon, as in fig. 133,
if the moon be attradted by the fum of the powers ;
but the contrary way (as in fig. 134.) if by their diffe¬
rence. Then let the line AB be moved into the pofi-
tion CD, and the ellipfis AMB into the fituation
CND, fo that the point M be tranflated to L 5 then
the point L fhall fall upon the path of the moon AE.
Now the angular motion of the line AT, whereby it is
removed into the fituation CT, reprefents the motion
of the apogeon ; by the means of which the motion of
with that which joins the earth and fun by fuch flow
degrees, that the inequalities of the motion of the
apogeon, arifing from this laft confideration, are much
greater than what arife from the other. 4pg
This unfteady motion of the apogeon gives rife toOccalions
another inequality in the motion of the moon herfelf, anotha-in¬
fo that it cannot at all times be explained by the farne^ja^ni,t
ellipfis. For whenever the apogeon moves in confe- tr;cit^Cof"
quence, the motion of the luminary muft be referred the moon’s
to an orbit more eccentric than what the moon would orbit.
the moon might be fully explained by the ellipfis AMB, deferibe, if the whole power by which the moon was
if the adlion of the fun upon it was direded to the aded upon in its paffing from the apogeon changed
centre of the earthj and reciprocally in the triplicate
proportion of the moon’s diftance from it ; but that
not being fo, the motion of the apogeon will not pro¬
ceed in the regular manner now deferibed. It is,
however, to be obferved here, that in the firft of the
two preceding cafes* where the apogeon moves for¬
ward, the whole centripetal power increafes fafter,
with the decreafe of diftance, than if the entire power
were reciprocally in the duplicate proportion of the di-
itance 5 becaufe one part only is already in that pro¬
portion, and the other part, which is added to this to
make up the whole power, increafes fafter with the
decreafe of diftance. On the other hand, when the
centripetal power is the difference between thefe two
bodies, it increafes lefs with the decreafe of the di-
according to the reciprocal duplicate proportion of its
diftance from the earth, and by that means the moon
did deferibe an immoveable ellipfis: and when the apo¬
geon moves in antecedence, the moon’s motion muft
be referred to an orbit lefs eccentric. In the former
of the two figures laft referred to, the true place of the
moon L falls without the orbit AMB, to which its
motion is referred : whence the orbit ALE truly de¬
feribed by the moon, is lefs incurvated in the point A
than is the orbit AMB 5 therefore this orbit is more
oblong, and differs farther from a circle than-the ellip¬
fis would, whofe curvature in A were equal to that of
the line ALB : that is, the proportion of the diftance
of the earth T from the centre of the ellipfis to its
axis, will be greater in AMB than in the other j but
that
502 ASTRO
Motions of that Other is the ellipfis which the moon would defcn’be,
dir Spi°n' ^ie Power upon it in the point A were alter-
" ed in the reciprocal duplicate proportion of the di-
t ■ (lance ; and confequently the moon being drawn more
forcibly toward the earth, it will defcend nearer to it.
On the other hand, when the apogeon recedes, the
power afting on the moon increafes with the decreafe
of diftance, in lefs than the duplicate proportion of the
diftance ; and therefore the moon is lefs impelled to¬
wards the earth, and will not defcend fo low. Now,
fuppofe, in the former of thefe figures, that the apo¬
geon A is in the fnuation where it is approaching to¬
wards the conjun&ion or oppofition of the fun ; in this
cafe its progreffive motion will be more and more ac¬
celerated. Here fuppofe the moon, after having de-
fcended froth A through the orbit AE as far as F,
where it is come to its neareft diftance from the earth,
afcends again up the litje FG. As the motion of the
apogeon is here more and more accelerated, it is plain
that the caufe of its motion muft alfo be on the in-
creafe ; that is, the power by which the moon is drawn
to the earth, will decreafe with the increafe of the
moon’s diftance in her afeent from F, in a greater pro¬
portion than that wherewith it is increafed with the
decreafe of diftance in the moon’s defeent to it. Con¬
fequently the moon will afeend to a greater diftance
than AT from whenbe it is defeended ; therefore the
proportion of the greateft diftanse of the moon to the
leaft is increafed. But further, when the moon again
defeends, the power will increafe yet farther with the
decreafe of diftance than in the laft afeent it ihcrcafed
with the augmentation of diftance. The moon there¬
fore muft defcend nearer to the earth than it did before,
and the proportion of the greatest diftance to the leaft
Be yet more increafed. Thus, as long as the apogeon
js advancing to the conjuntlion or oppofition, the pro¬
portion of the greateft diftance of the moon from the
earth to the leaft will continually increafe ; and the el¬
liptical orbit to which the moon’s motion is referred,
will become more and more eccentric. As foon, how¬
ever, as the apogeon is paft the conjun&ion or oppo-
fition with the fun, its progreffive motion abates, and
with it the proportion of the greateft diftance of the
moon from the earth to the leaft will alfo.diminifh: and
when the apogeon becomes retrograde, the diminution
cf this proportion will be ftill farther continued, until
the apogeon comes into the quarter from thence this
proportion, and the eccentricity of the orbit, will in-
cfeafe again. Thus the orbit of the moon is moft
eccentric when the apogeon is in cpnjunftion with the
fun, or in oppofition to it, and leaft of alj when the
apogeon is in the quarters. Thefe changes in the
nodes, the inclination of the orbit to the plane of the
earth’s motion, in the apogeon and in the eccentricity,
are varied like the other inequalities in the motion of
the moon, by the different diftance of the earth from
the fun being greateft. when their caufe is greateft;
t}iat Js> when the earth is neareft the fun. Sir Ifaac
tipn of the Nov ton has computed the very quantity of many of
hinar ine- the. moon’s inequalities..' That acceleration of the
lyaiities. moon’s motion which is called the variation, when
greateft, removes tlie luminary out of the place in
which it would otherwife be found, fomewhat more
than half a degree. If the moon, without difturbance
from ;he fun, would have deferibed a circle, coccentri-
N O M Y. Sea. IV.
cal to the earth, his aftion will caufe her approach Nature and
nearer in the conjunftion and opp3!ition than in the Motions of
quarters, nearly in the proportion of 69 to 70. IttheCo'
has already been mentioned, that the nodes perform
their period in almoft 19 years. This has been found
by obiervation ; and the computations of Sir Ifaac af-
fign to them the fame period. The inclination of the
moon’s orbit, when leaft, is an angle about one-
eighteenth of that which conftitutes a right angle;
and the difference between the greateft and leaft incli¬
nation is about one eighteenth of the leaft inclination,
according to our author’s computations : which is al¬
fo agreeable to the general obfervations of aftronoraers.
The motion of the apogeon and the changes in the
eccentricity have not been computed by Sir Ifaac. 2oS
The fame incomparable geometer fhows how, by How to
comparing the periods of the motions pf the fatellites compute
which revolve round Jupiter and Saturn with the pe-th? inequa*
riod of our moon round the earth, and the periods oflitic? of thfc
thofe planets round the fun with our earth’s motion, w°er’sL
the inequalities in the motion of thofe fatellites may betellites. '
computed from thofe of our moon, excepting only the
motion of the apogeon ; for the, orbits of thofe fatei-
lites, as far as can be difeerned by us at this diftance,
appearing little or nothing- eccentric, this motion, as
deduced from the moon, muft be diminifhed.
§ Of the Nature and Motions of the Comets.
That thefe bodies are not meteors in our air is ma»
nifeft, becaufe they.rife and fet in the fame manner as
the moon and ftars. The aftronomers had gone fo far
in their inquiries concerning them, as to prove by their
obfervations that they moved in the celeftial fpaces be¬
yond the moon; but they had no notion of the path
which they deferibed. Before the time of our author, it
was fuppofed that they moved in ftraight Iin$s; and Des
Cartes, finding that fuch a motion would interfere with
his vortices, removed them entirely out of the folar fy- 2
ftem. Sir Ifaac Newton, however, diftintlly proves Cometf ge-
from aftronomical obfervation, that the comets pafs "craliy in-
through the planetary regions, and are generally Jnvi-vifib^e unt!l
fible at a fmaller diftance than that of Jupiter. Hence,thcy c°Te
finding that they were evidently within the fphere of Jupiter,
the fun’s a&jon, he concludes, that they muft neceffi»rilyJ
move about the fun as the planets do ; and he proves,
that the power of the fun being reciprocally in the du¬
plicate proportion of the diftance, every body a&ed
upon by him muft either fall dire&ly down, or move
about him in one of the conic fc&ions ; viz. either the
ellipfis, parabola, or hyperbola. If a body which de¬
feends towards the fun as low as the orbit of any pla¬
net, move with a fwifter motion than the planet, it will
deferibe an orbit of a more oblong figure than that of
the planet, and have at leaft a longer axis. The velo¬
city of the body may be fo great, that it ffiall move in
a parabola ; fo that having once pafled the fun, it (hail
afeend for ever without returning, though the fun will
ftill continue in the focus of that parabola ; and with a
velocity ftill greater, they will move in an hyperbola.
It is, however, moft probable, that the comets move in
very eccentric ellipfes, fuch as is reprefented in fig. 13 c,
where S reprefents the fun, C the comet, and ABJUE
its orbit ; wherein the diftafice of S and D far exceeds
that of S and A. Hence thofe bodies are fometimes
found at a mpderate diftance from the fun, and appear
withia,.
Seift. IV. A S T R
Nature and within tke planetary regions ; at .other times they a-
Motions of fcencj to vatt diftances, far beyond the orbit of Saturn,
Lets °" an<^ t^u3 b6001116 invifible.
■ ‘ • That the comets do move in this manner is pro-
3o0 ved by our author from Computations built upon the
They moveobfervations made by many aftronomers. Thefe com-
in eccentricputations were made by Sir Ifaac Newton himfelf up-
cihpies. Qn tjie comet which appeared toward tire latter end of
the year t68o and beginning of 1681, and the fame
were profecuted more at large by Dr Halley upon this
and other comets. They depend on this principle, that
the eccentricity of the orbits of the comets is fo great,
that if they are really elliptical, yet that part of them
which comes under our view approaches fo near to a
parabola that they, may be taken for fuch without any
fenfible error, as in the foregoing figure the parabola
FAG, in the lower part of it about A, differs very little
from the ellipfis DEAD; on which foundation Sir 1-
flow to faac Caches a method of finding the parabola in which
calculate any comet moves, by three obfervations made upon it
the motion that part of its orbit where it agrees neareft with a pa-
a comet. rab0]a ; and this theory is confirmed by aftronomical ob¬
fervations ; for the places of the comets may thus be com¬
puted as exadtly as thofe of the primary planets. Our
author afterwards (hows how to make ufe of any fmall
deviation from the parabola which may be obferved, to
determine whether the orbits of the comets be elliptical
or not; and thus to know whether or not the fame co¬
met returns at different feafons. On examining by this
rule the comet of 1680, he found its drbit to agree
more exadtly with an ellipfis than a parabola, thos the
ellipfis be fo very eccentric, that it cannot perform its
revolution in 500 years. On this Dr Halley obferved,
that mention is made in hiftory of a comet with a fimi-
lar large tail, which appeared three feveral times be¬
fore. The firft was before the death of Julius Caefar ;
and each appearance happened at the interval of 5^5
years, the laft coinciding with the year 1680. He
therefore calculated the motion of this comet to be in
fuch an eccentric orbit, that it could not return in lefs
than 575 years ; which computations agree yet more
perfedfly with the obfervations made on this comet than
any parabolic orbit will do. To compare together dif¬
ferent appearances of the fame comet, is indeed the only
method of difcovering with certainty the form of its or¬
bit ; for it is impoffible to difcover the form of one fo
exceedingly eccentric from obfervations taken in a fmall
part of it. Sir Ifaac Newton therefore propofes to com¬
pare the orbits, on the fuppofition that they are parabo¬
lical, of fuch comets as appear at different times ; for if
we find the fame orbit deferibed by a comet at diffe-*
rent times, in all probability it will be the fame comet
that deferibes it. Here he remarks from Dr Halley,
that the fame orbit very nearly agrees to two appear¬
ances of a comet about the fpace of 75 years diftance ;
Ip that if thefe two appearances were really of the fame
comet, the tranverfe axis of its orbit would be 18 times
that of the axis of the earth’s orbit ; and therefore,
when at its greateft diftance from the fun, this* comet
would be removed not lefs than 35 times the mean di¬
ftance of the earth from the fame luminary.
Even this is the leaft diftan'ce afiigned by our author
to any comet in its greateft elongation from the fun ;
and on the foundation of Dr Halley’s computations it
was.expeded in the year 17.58 or 175.9.
N 0 M Y.
S°3
The Aftronomer Royal advertifes us of the ex- Nature an*!
pe&ed return of the comet of 1532 and 1661, in ^”sof
latter end of the year 1788, or beginning of 1789, inllrtets
the following particulars. u—y—
“ The elements of the orbits of the comets obfer¬
ved by Appian in 1532, and by Hevelius in 1661, are
fo much alike as to have induced Mr Halley to fuppofc
them to be one and the fame comet ; and aftronomers
fince have joined in the fame opinion. Hence it fhould
return to its perihelium the 27th of April 1789. But
from the difturbances of the planets, it will probably-
come a few months fooner. It will firft be feen in the
fouthern parts of the heavens, if any aftronomers
fhould watch for it in fituations near the line, or in
fouthern climates, in the courfe of the year 1788, and
probably not before the month of September. Aftro¬
nomers who may happen to be in thofe parts will be
enabled to direft their telefcopes for difcovering it as
early as poffible, by being furniftied with the following
elements of its orbit:
The perihelium diftance - - 0.44851
Place of afeending node - - 2* 240 iS'
Inclination of the orbit to the ecliptic - 320 §(3
Perihelium forwarder in the orbit than
the afeending node - - 33® 28*
Time of the perihelium in the latter end of the year
1788, or beginning of 1789. Its motion is direft. If
it Ihould come to its perihelium on January 1. 1789,
it might be feen in the fouthern parts of the world
with a good achromatic telefcope about the middle of
September, towards the middle of Pifces, with 550 fouth
latitude, and 53 fouth declination.”
Sir Ifaac Newton obferves, that as the great eccen¬
tricity of the orbits of comets renders them very liable
to be difturbed by the attra&ion of the planets an#
other comets, it is probably to prevent too great di¬
fturbances from thefe, that while all the planets re¬
volve nearly in the fame plane, the comets are difpofei
in very different ones, and difpofed all over the hea¬
vens ; that when in their greateft diftance from . the
fun, and moving flowed, they might be removed as far
as poflible out of the reach of each other’s a&ion. The
fame end is likewife anfwered in thefe comets, which
by moving floweft in the aphelion or remoteft diftance
from the iun, defeend neareft to it by placing their
aphelion at the greateft height fronrthe fun. See more
on the fubjedb of comets by Sir Ifaac, Se<ft. III. n° 169.
$ 5. Oft he Bodies of the Sun and Planets, ’with the
Method of computing the Quantity of Matter they con¬
tain.
Our author having proved, as has been related,
that the primary planets and comets are retained in
their orbits by a power directed towards the fun, and
that the fecondaries are alfo retained by a power of
the like kind dire&ed to the centre of their primaries, 30S
proceeds next to demonftrate, that the fame power is Attractive
diffufed through their whole fubftance, and inherent inPfwer
every particle. For this purpofe he Ihows firft, that'V®1^ .
each of the heavenly bodies attra&s the reft and other
bodies with fuch different degrees of force, as that the fiance of all
force of the fame attra&ing body is exerted on others matter. "
exadtly in proportion to the quantity of matter con¬
tained in the body attra&ed. The firft proof of this
he brings from experiments made on bodies here o»
earth*
504 ASTRO
Of the Bo* earth. The power by which the moon is influenced
dits of the j^g keen a]rea(jy fhown to be the fame with that which
Planets. we ca^ gravity. Now, one of the effects of the prin-
ciple of gravity is, that all bodies defcend by this force
303 from equal heights in equal times. This was taken
Properties notice of long ago ; and particular methods have been
of gravity invented to fhow, that the only caufe why fome bo-
tedTh^en ^'£8 weie °bferved to fall in a fliorter time than others
c3ninmoPCn was the refiftance of the air. As thefe methods, how¬
ever, have been found liable to fome uncertainty, Sir
Ifaac'Newton had recourfe to experiments made on
pendulums. Thefe vibrate by the fame power which
makes heavy bodies fall to the ground ; but if the ball
©f any pendulum of the fame length with another were
more or lefs attra&ed in proportion to the quantity of
folid matter it contains, that pendulum mutt then vi¬
brate fafter or flower than the other. Now the vibra¬
tions of pendulums continue for a long time, and the
number of vibrations they make may be eafily deter¬
mined without any fufpicion of error 5 fo that this ex¬
periment may be extended to what exadtnefs we pleafe :
and Sir Ifaac affures us, that he examined in this way
feveral fubftances, as gold, filver, lead, glafs, fand,
common fait, wood, water, and wheat ; in all which
he found not the leafl; deviation from the theory, tho*
he made the experiment in fuch a manner, that in bo¬
dies of the fame weight, a difference in the quantity of
their matter lefs than the thoufandth part of the whole
■would have difcovered itfelf. It appears, therefore,
that all bodies are made to defcend here by the power
of gravity with the fame degree of fwiftnefs. This de-
icent has already been determined at 16-J- feet in a fe-
cond from the beginning of their fall. It has alfo been
obferved, that if any terreftrial body could be convey¬
ed as high up as the moon, it would defcend with the
very fame degree of velocity with which the moon is
attrafted toward the earth 5 and therefore that the
power of the earth upon the moon bears the fame pro¬
portion it would have upon thofe bodies at the fame
^04 diftance as the quantity of matter in the moon bears
Attrattion t0 t^ie quantity in thofe bodies. Thus the affertion is
proportion-proved in the earth, that its power on every body it
«d to the attracts is, at the fame diftance from the earth, propor-
quantity of tjonaj t0 ^ qUant;ty of folid matter in the body afted
a el'1 upon. As to the fun, it has been fhown, that the
power of his adtion upon the fame primary planet is
reciprocally in the duplicate proportion ofiits diftance ;
and that the power of the fun decreafes throughout in
the fame proportion, is teftified by the motion of the
planets traverfing the whole planetary region. This
proves, that if any planet were removed from the fun
to any diftance whatever, the degree of its acceleration
towards the fun vvould yet be reciprocally in the dupli¬
cate proportion o'f their diftance. But it has already
been proved, that the degree of acceleration given to the
planets by the fun is reciprocally in the duplicate pro¬
portion of their refpe&ive diftances ; all which, compa¬
red together, puts it out cf doubt, that the power of the
fun upon any planet removed into the place of any
other, would give it the fame velocity of defcent as it
gives that other 5 and confequently that the fun’s ac¬
tion upon different planets at the fame diftance would
be proportionable to the quantity cf matter in each. It
has likewife been flicwn, that the fun attra&s the pri¬
mary planets and their refpedlive fecondaries, when at
'^0 33s,.
N O M Y. Sea. V.
the fame diftance, in fuch a manner as to communicateOf the Go¬
to both the fame degree of velocity ; and therefore the dies of tlie
force wherewith the fun afts on the fecondary planetp“"na"
bears the fame proportion to the force wherewith it' ^
attra&s the primary, as the quantity of matter in the
fecondary planet bears to the’ quantity of matter in the
primary. This property therefore is found in the fun
with regard to both kinds of planets ; fo that he poflef-
fes the fame quality found in the earth, viz. that of a£t-
ing on bodies with a degree of force proportional to the
quantity of matter they contain.
This point being granted, it is hardly to be fuppo-
fed that the power of attra&ion with which the other
planets are endowed, ftiould be different from that of
the earth, if we confider the fimilitude of thefe bodies :
and that it does not in this refpeff, is farther evi¬
dent from the fatellites of Saturn and Jupiter, which
are attradled according to this law ; that is, in the fame
proportion to their diftances that their primaries are
attrafted by the fun. So that what has been concluded
of the fun in relation to the primary planets, may be
juftly concluded of thofe primaries in refpeft to their
fecondaries; and in confequence of that likewife in re¬
gard to all other bodies, viz. that they will attraft
every other body in proportion to the quantity of fo¬
lid matter it contains. Hence it follows, that this at-
tra&ion extends itfelf to every particle of matter in
the attracted body, and that no portion of matter is
exempted from the influence of thefe bodies to which
this attra&ive power has been proved to belong. 303.
Here we may remark, that the attra&ive power Attraction
both of the fun and planets appears to be the fame ina,fts equally
all; for it afts in each in the fame proportion to
diftance, and in the fame manner a&s alike up°a every jn ^ un£„
particle of matter. This power, therefore, in the fun verfe.
and planets, is not of a different nature from the power
of gravity in the earth ; and this enables us to prove,
that the attrafting power lodged in the fun and planets
belongs likewife to every part of them ; and that their
refpedtive powers upon the fame body are proportional
to the quantity of matter of which they are compofed ;
for inftance, that the force with which the earth at-
trafts the moon, is to the force with which the fun
would attraft it at the fame diftance, as the quantity
of folid matter in the earth is to that in the fun.
Before we proceed to a full proof of thefe affertions,
it will be neceffary to fhow that the third law of mo¬
tion, viz. That adtion is equal to readtion, holds good
in attraftive powers as well as in any other. The
moft remarkable force of this kind with which we are
acquainted, next to that of gravity, is the attradfion
the loadftone has for iron. Now if a loadftone and
piece of iron were both made to fwim on water, both
of them would move towards each other, and thus the
attradh’on would be Ihown to be mutual 5 and when they
meet, they will mutually flop each other : which Ihows
that their velocities are reciprocally proportioned to
the quantities of folid matter in each ; and that by the
ftone’s attradling the iron, it receives as much motion
itfelf, in the ftndt philofophic fenfe of the word, as it
communicates to the iron : for it is proved from ex¬
periments on the percuffion of bodies, that if two meet
with velocities reciprocally proportional to the refpcc- 1
live bodies, they will he ftopt by the concourfe, un-
lefs they meet with fome otker velocity, or their elafti- .
ci?ry
Sa/icrn. \
A S T K O N O M Y .
^ oe
1’Iate LXKV\
Sea. IV. ASTRONOMY. 505
Of the Bo- city put them into fre!h motion. Hitherto, however, monftrates, that if a globe were compounded of partiV9f t^ie Bo*
dies of the for fake of brevity, in fpeaking of thefe forces, we cles which will attraft the particles of any other kocty
Planets* have afcribed them to the body which is leaft moved; reciprocally in the duplicate proportion of their <h*p”"ne"s>
as when we called the power which exerts itfelf be- fiances, the whole globe will attradf the fame in the v.
tween the fun and planets, attrattive power of the reciprocal duplicate proportion of their diftances from
the centre of the globe, provided it be of equal denfity
306
Why the
gravity.
fun : but to fpeak more corre&ly, we thould rather call
this power in any cafe the force which a£ts between
the fun and the earth, between the earth and moon, &c.
for both the bodies are moved by the power afting
between them, in the fame manner as when two bodies
are tied together by a rope, if that fiiould {brink by
being wet or otherwife, and thereby caufe the bodies
to approach ; by drawing both, it will communicate to
both the fame degree of motion, and caufe them to
approach each other with velocities proportional to
their quantities of matter. From this mutual aftion
fiinand pla-of the fun and planets u{1on each, other, it follows, as
nets revolve has been already mentioned, that they both revolve
about their a{joUt their common centre of gravity. Thus let A
centre'of (ln reprefent the fun, B a planet, and C
their common centre of gravity. If thefe bodies were
once at reft, they would diredily approach each other
by their mutual attra&ion, and that with fuch veloci¬
ties, that their common centre of gravity would re¬
main at reft, and they would meet in that point.
Were the planet B to receive an impulfe, as in the di-
redlionDE, this would prevent the two bodies from fall-
ing together ; but their common centre of gravity would
be put into motion in the direction of the line CF,
equidiftant from BE. In this cafe Sir Ifaac New ton
proves, that the fun and planet would defcribe round
their common centre of gravity fimilar orbits, while
that centre would proceed with an uniform velocity in
the line CF, and fo the fyftem of the two bodies would
move on with the centre of gravity without end. In
order to keep the fyftem in the fame place, it is necef-
fary, that when the planet received its impulfe in the
dire&ion BE, the fun fhould receive fuch another the
contrary way, fo as to keep the centre of gravity C
without any motion, in which cafe it would always re¬
main fixed.
Thus we may underftand in what manner the a&ion
between the fun and planets is mutual. It has alfo
been fhown, that the power which a&s between the
fun and primary planets is altogether of the fame na¬
ture with that which a&s between the fecondary pla¬
nets and their primaries, or which adts between the
earth and bodies near its furface. It has alfo been
already proved, that in different planets the force of
the fun’s adtion upon each at the fame diftance would
be proportional to the quantity of folid matter contain¬
ed in the planet:. therefore the readlion of the planet
on the fun at the fame diftance, or the motion which
he would receive from each planet, would alfo be pro¬
portional to the quantity of matter in the planet ;
that is, thefe planets, at the fame diftance, would adt
on the fame body, with degrees of ftrengtb proportion¬
ed to the quantity of folid matter contained in each..
^   In the next place, our author deduces from the prin-
eft particlesciples above demonftrated, that each of the particles
of matter out of which the fun, moon, and planets, are formed,
attraft each exert their power of gravitation by the fame law, and
cordin'””to ^ ^ame ProPort*on to ^ie diftance, as the great
thefame0 bodies they compofe. For this purpofe, he firft dev
law. Vol, II, Part II,
The fmall-
throughout. Hence alfo he deduces the reverfe ; that
if a globe adts upon diftant bodies by the law juft now
fpecified, and the power of the globe be, derived front
its being compofed of attradling particles, each of
thefe will attradf after the fame proportion. The man¬
ner of deducing this is as follows : The globe is fup-
pofed to adt upon the particles of a body without it
conftantly in the reciprocal duplicate proportion of
their diftances from the centre ; and therefore, at the
fame diltance from the globe, on which fide foever the
body be placed, the globe will adl equally upon it.
Now becaufe if the particles of which the globe ia-
compofed aded upon thofe without in the reciprocal
duplicate proportion of their diftances, the whole globe
would ad upon them in the fame manner as it does;
therefore, if the particles of the globe have not all of
them that property, fome muft ad ftronger than in
that proportion, whilft others ad weaker : and if this
be the condition of the globe, it is plain, that when the
body attraded is in fuch a fituation in refped of the
globe, that the greater number of the ftrongeft parti¬
cles are neareft to it, the body will be more forcibly
attraded than when, by turning the globe about, the
greater quantity of weak particles ftiould be neareft,
though the diftance of the body ftionld remain the
fame from the centre of the globe ; which is contrary
to what was at firft remarked, that the globe ads
equally on all fides.
It is further deduced from thefe propofitions, that
if all the particles of one globe attrad all the particles
of another in the proportion already mentioned, the
attrading globe will ad upon the other in the fame
proportion to the diftance between the centre of the
globe which attrads, and the centre of that which is
attraded : and further, that the proportion holds true,
though either or both of the globes be compofed of
diffimilar parts, fome rarer, and fome more denfe ;
provided only, that all the parts in the fame globe,
equally, diftant from the centre, be homogeneous, and
likewife if both globes attrad each other. 308
Thus has our author fhown that this power in theAttraction-.
great bodies of the univerfe is derived from the .fameand univer- •
being lodged in every particle of the matter whichProperty
compofes them ; and oonfequently that it is no ]efaot n3aUei:*
than univerfal in matter, though the power be too mi¬
nute to produce any vifiblc effeds on the fmall bodies
with which we are converfant, by their adion on one
another. In the fixed ftars indeed we have no parti¬
cular proof that they have this power, as we find no
appearance to demonftrate that they either ad or are
aded upon by it. But fince this power is found to >
belong to all bodies whereon we can make obfervation, .
and we find that it is not to be altered by any change
in the fhape of bodies, but accompanies them in every
form, without diminution, remaining. ever propor¬
tional to the quantity of folid matter in each ; fuch a ■<
power muft without doubt univerfally belong to mat-
3: $
All;
N O M y.
50& ASTRO
Of the Bo- All fais r.aturally follows from a confuleration of
dies of the phenomena of thofe planets which have fecondaries
Planets'1 revolving about them. By the times in which thefe
1 a ^ ~ . fatellites perform their revolutions, compared with
30? their diftances from their refpe&ive primaries, the pro-
How to de-portion between the power with which one primary at-
termine thetrafts his fatellites and the force with which any other
power of attrafts his, will be known ; and the proportion of the
power with which any planet attradfs his fecondary to
the power with which it attracts a body at its furface,
■ <-r , ,  r .1- j.-ii „ r .1.,
gravity
•any of the
planets.
is found by comparing the diltance of the fecondary
planet from the centre of the primary to the diltance
of the primary planet’s furface from the famt; and
* From hence is deduced the proportion between the
power of gravity upon the furface of one planet to the
gravity upon the (urface of another. By the bke me¬
thod of comparing the periodical time of a primary
planet about the fun witli the revolution of a fatelhte
about its primary, may be found the proportion of
gravity or of the weight of any body on the furfpce
of the fun, to the gravity or to the weight of the fame
body upon the furface of the planet which carries about.
the fateliice. By computations of this kind it is found,
that the weight of any body on the furface of the fun
will be about 23 times as gr^at as on the furface of the
earth ; about 10 times as great as on the furface of
Jupiter; and near 19 times as great as on Saturn.
The quantity of matter contained in each of thefe bo¬
dies is proportional to the power it has upon a body
at a given diftance. Thus it is found, that the fun
contains 1067 times as much matter as Jupiter ; Jupi¬
ter I58J- times as much as the earth, and 2J- times as
much as Saturn. The diameter of the fun, according
to the data with which Sir Ifaac Newton was furnifhed,
was calculated at 92 times, that of Jupiter about 9
times, and that of Saturn about 7 times as large as
the diameter of the earth.
Denfittes of % comparing the quantities of matter in each of
the heaven-thefe bodies with their refpeaive magnitudes, theirden-
ly bodies, fities are likewife eafily difeovered ; the denfity of every
body being meafured by the quantity of matter con¬
tained under the fame bulk. Thus the earth is found
4J. times more denfe than Jupiter, while Saturn has
only between two thirds and three-fourths of the den¬
fity of the latter, and the fun has only one-fourth part
of the denfity of the earth. From all this our author
draws the following conclufions, viz. That the fun is ra¬
refied by its great heat ; and of the three planets above-
mentioned, the moft denfe is that neareft the fun. This
it was highly reafonable to expert, the denfeft bodies
requiring the greateft heat tfl agitate and keep their
parts in motion ; as on the contrary, the planets which
are more rare would be rendered unfit for their office
by the intenfe heat to which the denfer are expofed.
Thus the waters of our Teas, if removed to the diftance
of Saturn, would remain perpetually frozen, and at
Mercury wou'd conllantly boil. The denfities of the
planets Mars, Venus, Mercury, and the Georgium Sidut,
as they are not attended with planets on which many
obfervations have been made, cannot be afeertained.
From analogy, however, we ought to conclude, that
the inferior planets, Venus and Mercury, are more
denfe than the earth, Mars more rare, and the Geor¬
gium Sidus much more rare, than any of the reft.
Sea. V.
Particular
Sect. V. The Newtonian DoEIrine applied more^i'hca-
particnlarly to the Explication of the Celejlial1^^^ e
Phenomena. Phenome-
From the general account of thofe laws by which
the univerfe is upheld, we now’ proceed to give an ex¬
planation of the particular parts of which it is com-
pofed. Thofe which are nioft expofed to our refearches,
befides the earth we inhabit, are the Sun, Moon,
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Geor¬
gium Sidus (fee fig. 119.). The fun, an immenfe
globe of fire, is fituated near the centre of tlje fy flem,
round which he turns by a (mall and irregular motion,
according as the common centre of gravity betwixt him
and the planets, which is the^true centre of the fyftem,
varies by their different pofitions on this or that fide
of him. All the planets move round this common
centre of gravity together with the fun ; but the lat¬
ter, by reafon of his vaft bulk, is fo near the true cen¬
tre, that the motions of the celeftial bodies are by aftro-
nomers always referred to the centre of the fun as the
point round which they are diredted. The motions
of all of them are performed the fame way, viz. from
weft to eaft ; and feme comets have been obferved to
move alfo in this way, though the motion of others has
been diredfly contrary. This motion, from welt to
eaft, is faid to be in the order of the figns,’or in confe-
quence, as has been already mentioned, with regard to
the moon ; while that from eaft; to weft is in antecedence,
or contrary to the order of the figns. Though all of
them, however, revolve round the fun, their motions,
as we have already obferved, are not in the fame plane,
but inclined to one another by fmall angles: and the
way in which we compute this inclination is by con-
fidering the orbit of the earth as a ftandard, and cal¬
culating the angle which each of their orbits makes
with it. ,tI
To a fpe&ator placed in the fun, all the planets Heliocen-
would appear to deferibe circles annually in the hea-ttic circles
vens ; for though their motions are really elliptical,of the pi3"
the eccentricity is fo fmall, that the difference between nets*
them and true circles is not eafily perceived even on
earth ; and at the fun, whether great or fmall, it would
entirely vanilh. Thefe circles, which in fuch a fitua-
tion would appear to be annually deferibed among the
fixed liars, are called the heliocentric circles cf the pla¬
nets ; and if we fuppofe the orbits of the planets to be
extended to the extreme bounds of the creation, they
would deferibe among the fixed ftars thofe circles juft
mentioned. To a fpeftator in the fun, the comets,
though moving in the moft eccentric orbits, would alfo
appear to delcribe circles in the heavens : for though
their orbits are in reality very long ellipfes, the planes
of them extended to the heavens would mark a great
circle thereon, whereof the eye would be the centre ;
only, as the real motion is in an ellipfis, the body
would appear to move much more flowly in fome part
of the circle than another, and to differ exceffively in
magnitude. To an inhabitant of any planet, how¬
ever, the fun appears to go round in its own heliocen¬
tric circle, or to deferibe in the heavens that fame
curve which the planet would appear to do if feen from
the fun. Thus (fig. 137), when the earth is at'rf, if
we
Eecliptic,
why fo
named.
Sea. V. A S T R <
Particular we draw a line from a through the fun as S, the point
Explication jn t},e fphere 0f the heavens where the line termi-
nates, is the place where the fun then appears to an
lethal Phe- . , ’ , T , , .rr , ,
romcna. inhabitant or the earth. In a month s time the earth
i—; will be got from a to b •, draw a line then through the
fun, and its extremity at H will point out his-apparent
place at that time. In like manner, if we draw lines
from the earth in the twelve feveral fituations in which
it is reprefented for the twelve montlis of the year, the
fun’s apparent place will be found as above, and fo it
would be found by a fpcctator placed in Venus or any
it* other planet.
The heliocentric circle of the earth is called the
ecliptic ; becaufe edipfes of the fun or moon can only
happen when the latter is in or near it, as will after¬
wards be more particularly explained. By fome an¬
cient writers, it has been called the circle of the fun, .
or the oblique circle, becaufe it cuts the equator at
oblique angles. It is alfo called by Ptolemy the circle
which paifes through the midfl of the animals ; becaufe
the twelve conftdlations through which it pafles were
anciently all reprefented by animals, or parts of them,
3I3 though now the balame is introduced in place of the
Zodiac. claws of the fcorpion. For this reafon, a belt or hoop
taken in the concave fphere of the heavens about to
degrees on each fide of the ecliptic, is called the zo¬
diac, from a Greek, word which fignifies an animal;
and the conftellations through which the ecliptic is
3T4 drawn, are called the conftellations of the zodiac.
Howtode- Though the fun, as we have fa id, apparently goes
termine round the earth annually in the circle juft mentioned,
we cannot determine his place by mere infpe&ion as
we can do that of any of the other heavenly bodies ;
for the fixed ftars are the only marks by which we can
determine the place of any of the celeftial bodies, and
the fuperior brightnefs of the fun renders them totally
invifible, except in the time of a great eclipfe, when his
light is for a time totally obfeured. But though we
cannot know the place of the fun dire&ly, it is eafily
found from a knowledge of thofe fixed (tars which are
oppofite to him. Thus, in fig. 137. fuppofe it the
time of the year in which the earth is atg, if we know
that the point G is then diametrically opp'ofite to the
fun, we know that A, its oppofite, is the fun’s place,
and confequently, by finding the places throughout the
year diametrically oppofite to the fun, as GHLKLM
ABCDEF, we may be affured that in thefe times
the fun’s place was in the points A BCDEFGHIK.LM,
The point in the heavens diametrically oppofite to the
fun may be known every night at twelve o’clock when
the ftars are vifible ; for the ttar which has an elevation
above the horizon at that time equal to the fun’s de-
preffion below it, is direftly oppofite to him.
The ecliptic being thus found, the latitude of the
1 moon or any ftar is counted by its diftance from the
ecliptic, as the latitude of places on earth is counted by
their diftance from the equator ; and is marked upon
circles drawn through the pole of the ecliptic, and
perpendicular to its plane, as the latitude of places is
marked on one of the meridians of a terreftrial globe.
Thefe are called circles of latitude, and each of them
is fuppofed to divide the celeftial concave into two
equal hemifpheres ; and the declination of any ce-
kjlial body is its deviation from the ecliptic towards
N
m y,
507
the fun'
place.
plained.
the celeftial equator perpendicular to that of theParticular
earth. Explication
The latitude of any planet is either heliocentric or geo-
centric. The heliocentric latitude is its diftance from thenom!.na- '
ecliptic as feen from the fun, and its geocentric as feen—y—J
from the earth, and is coi fiderably different from the
former. With the fixed ftars indeed it is othervvife:
for their diftance is fo vait, that the whole diameter of
the earth’s o-bit is but a point in comparifon with it.
For this reaion, whatever part of its orbit the earth
may be in, the fixed (tars always appear to keep the
fame place j but with refpedl to the planets, the orbit
of the earth, or Magnus orlis, as it has fometim.es been
called, bears a very ccniiderable proportion, excepting
only to the Georgium Sidus, of whole diftance the dia¬
meter of the eartli’s orbit forms little more than a tenth
part ; and therefore ali calculations with regard to that
flar are muqh more difficult than the reft. The appa¬
rent places of the planets therefore are confiderably al¬
tered by the earth’s change of place as well as by their
own motions ; fo that though a planet fhould ftand ftill
for a whole year, it would neverthelefs appear to us to
deferibe a: circle round the heavens, as in that fpace of
time we would have been carried by the earth round the
fun, and have continually taken a view of it from dif¬
ferent ftations. As the orbits of the planets are inclin¬
ed in different angles to the ecliptic, it thence happens,
that the heliocentric latitude of any planet is almoll
always different from its geocentric latitude. Thus, let
AB, fig. 138. be the orbit of the earth, CD the orbit
of Venus, viewed with the eye in their common ftdlion,
wherein they appear ftraight lines ; let E and F be two
oppofite points of the ecliptic ; and fuppofe Venus to
be in the point C in her utmoft north limit. If fhe
were at that time viewed from the fun S, fhe would
appear in the point of the heavens marked H, and her
heliocentric latitude is then FR : but if viewed from
the earth in B, fhe will anpear at j-; at which time her
heliocentric latitude is FH, and her geocentric only
F jr. When at I, her apparent place is at K, her he¬
liocentric latitude FH, and her geocentric FK ; but
when the earth is at A, her apparent place wiM then
be at G, and her geocentric latitude EG, while her
heliocentric is only FH as before. 316
Thp two planets. Mercury and Venus, whofe orbits f(°w to
are included in that of the earth, are called inferior thl:
and Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and th*Georgium Sidus,^^^'.
whofe orbits include that of the earth, are calleda fupak>r
rior ; and from the circumftance juft mentioned, they planet,
muft prefent very different appearances in the heavens,
as will afterwards be particularly explained. The geo-
centric latitude of a fuperior planet may be underftood
from fig. 139. Let AB be the orbit of the earth, CD
that of Mars, both viewed wuh the eye in their common
fe&ion continued, by which they appear in ftraight
lines. Let E and F be eppofite points of the eclip¬
tic, and fuppofe Mars to be in his fouth limit at C. If
he were at that time viewed from fc», the cenrre of the
fun, he would appear in the fphere of the heavens at
the point H ; in which cafe his heliocentric latitude
would be FH : But when viewed in C from the earth,
or from its centre, which in this cafe is fuppofed to be
the ftation of the fpettator, he will appear to be in dif¬
ferent places of the heavens according to the po lit ion of
the;
ASTRONOMY. Sea. V.
Zodiac and
figns ex¬
plained.
Particular the earth. When the earth, for inftance, is at B, the
Explication piace 0f g wi)l appear to be at g, and his geocen-
wv fof lr'c latitude wili be F g. When the earth is at A, his
lethal Phe- , -ii . 5 • ^ , . • • , ■
nomena. apparent place will be in G, and his geocentric lati-
t——y—tude FG : and in like manner, fuppofiitg the earth to
be in any other part of its orbit, as in I or K, it is
eafy to fee, that his apparent places, as well as geo-
317 centric latitudes at tbofe times, will be different.
Nodes of a The two points where the heliocentric circle of any
Planet. planet cuts the ecliptic, are called its nodes : and that
which the planet paffes through as it goes into north
latitude, is called the afeending node, and is marked
thus £2, i and the oppofite to this is called the defeending
node, and is marked A line drawn from one node
to the other is called the line of the nodes of the planet,
which is the common fedion of the plane of the eclip¬
tic, and that of the planet produced on each fide to the
fixed ftars.
The zodiac, of which we have already given fome
account, is either afral or local. The aftral is divided
into tz unequal parts, becaufe it contains 12 celeftial
conftellations, fome of which are larger than others.
This continues always invariably the fame ; becaufe
the fame ftars now go to the making up of the diffe-
Tent conftellations as formerly, excepting fome fmall
variations to be afterwards explained. The local zo¬
diac is divided into twelve equal parts, each containing
30 degrees, ca\\c& fgns. Thcfe are counted from the
point where the equator and ecliptic interfed each
other at the time of the vernal equinox ; and are de¬
noted by particular marks, according to the apparent
annual motion of the fun. See fig. 158. A motion
in the heavens in the order of thefe figns, as from A-
ries to Taurus, is faid to be a motion in confequence ;
and fuch are the true motions of all the planets ; tho’
their apparent motions are fometimes contrary, and
then they are faid to move in antecedence. The local
zodiac is not always invariably the fame as to the pla¬
ces of the feveral figns, though the whole always takes
up the fame place in the heaven, viz. 10 degrees on each
fide the ecliptic. The points where the celeftial equa¬
tor cuts into the ecliptic, are found to have a motion in
antecedence of about 50 feconds in a year. This change
of place of the firft point of the ecliptic, from whence
the figns arccounted, occafions a like change in the figns
themfelves; which though fcarce fenfible for a few
years, has now become very confiderable. Thus, fince
aftronomy was firft cultivated among the Greeks, which
is about 2000 years ago, the firft point of the ecliptic
is removed backward above a whole fign ; and though
it was then about the middle of the conftellation A-
ries, is now about the middle of Pifces. Notwith-
llanding this alteration, however, the figns ftill retain
their ancient names and marks. When the zodiac is
mentioned by aftronomers, the local zodiac is general-
ly meant.
Longitude The longitude of a phenomenon in the heavens is the
of celeftial number of degrees counted from the firft point of A-
bodies ex- rjes on the ecliptic to the place where a circle of lati-
plaiaed. tude drawn through the phenomenon would cut the
ecliptic at right angles. Every phenomenon in the hea¬
vens, whether in the zodiac or not, is thus referred to
the ecliptic by the circles of latitude, as the longitudes
of terreftrial places are referred to the equator by the
meridians; and whatever fign the circle of latitude paf¬
fes through, the phenomenon is faid to have its place Particular
in that fign, though ever fo far diftant from it. Explication
Some aftronomical writers have made the local zo-
diac invariable; for which purpofe they imagine a nomena.
circle of latitude drawn through the firft ftar of the ‘ v - i‘
conftellation Aries, marked in Bayer’s catalogue by
the Greek letter y ; and reckon their longitude from
the point where that circle cuts the ecliptic. This
ftar, from its ufe, is called the firft ftar of the Ram ;
and when this method is made ufe of, the longitude
of any phenomenon is fsid to be fo many figns, de¬
grees, minutes, &c. from the firft ftar of the Ram.
Thus, in Street’s Caroline tables, the longitude of Ju¬
piter’s afeending node is two figns eight degrees from
the firft ftar of Aries, which is thus marked : Long.
Vy £2, 1* qp 2s fi0* The common way of reckoning
the longitude of a phenomenon is to take ^ for the
firft point of the ecliptic, and not to number the de¬
grees quite round that circle as a continued feries, but
to make a new beginning at the firft point of every
fign, and to reckon from thence only the length of
30°-. When this method is made ufe of, the longitude
of any phenomenon is expreffed by faying it is in fuch
a degree and fuch a minute of a fign : and thus we
may exprefs the longitude of the afeending node of
Mercury, $ £2, 14® 40'; and fo of any other. The
place of a phenomenon in the heaven is expreffed by
fetting down its longitude and latitude, as is done with
places fituated any where on the furface of the earth.
Having thus explained the aftronomical terms com¬
monly made ufe of with refpeft to the planets, and
likewife fhown how, from their motions and that of the
earth, there muft be a confiderable variation in their
apparent places, as feen from the fun and from the
earth ; we fhall now proceed to a more particular con-
fideration of their phenomena, as derived from a com-
pofition of the two motions juft mentioned, viz. that of
the planets in their refpedlive orbits, andthat of the earth 31a
in the ecliptic. Every planet, like the moon, is fome- Conjunc-
times in conjunftion, and fometimes in oppofition withtions ^
the fun. Its conjundlion is when the geocentric place
of the planet is the fame with that of the fun ; though °ets eX.a"
an exa& or central conjundtion can only take placeplained.
when the line of its nodes paffes through the earth,
and the planet itfelf is in one of its nodes at the time.
It is however, in general, called a conjun&ion or op¬
pofition, when the fame circle of latitude paffes through
the fun and planet at the fame time. When the geo¬
centric place of a planet is 90°, ora quarter of a circle 321
from the fun’s place, the planet is faid to be in quadra- Afye&s of
ture or in a quartile alpeGi with the fun; and thefe t*le planets*-
terms are ufed in a like fenfe when applied to any two
of the heavenly bodies. Thus the fun and moon, or
the moon and any planet, or any two planets, may be
in conjundtion, oppofition, or quadrature. Befides
thefe, the ancients reckoned other two afpedts, the
trine and the fertile ; the former when the bodies were
(jiftant 120°, and the latter when only half that di-
ftance. Thefe afpedls they marked thus :
Conjundtion. Oppofition. Quadrature. Trine. Sextile.
cf DA*
The afpedts were fuppofed to influence the affairs of
mankind ; and many conclufions drawn from them too
abfurd to be mentioned here, and now indeed almoft
entirely buried in oblivion.
The
Plate LXXYT
Sea. V. ASTRO
Particular The inferior planets have two kinds of conjunction
Explication w|th the fun ; one in the inferior part of their femi-
TeftiaTphe c‘rc'es> where they are nearer to the earth than the
nometia. ^un ' th£ other in the fuperior part, where they are
i—v—farther off. In the former, the planet is between
the earth and the fun 5 and in the latter, the fun is
between the earth and planet. The inferior planets
can never be in oppofition to the fun, nor even appear
at a great diftance from him. The length they go is
called their elongation. Thus, in fig. 140. let OPQ_RT
be part of the ecliptic ; S the fun ; and the three circles
gjj round him, the orbits of Mercury, Venus, and the Earth,
Geocentric Suppofe the earth to be at A, the fun’s geocentric
places, &c. place will be at If Mercury be then at I, his
of the geocentric place is likewife at Qj fo that he is in con-
c P sne s> jun£jon w;tjj the fun ;n his inferior femicircle : if at
M, his geocentric place is likewife at Qj fo that he is
in conjunction in his fuperior femicircle. In like man¬
ner, Venus at E is in conjunction in her inferior femi¬
circle, at G in her fuperior : but if we fuppofe the earth
to be at A, and Venus at H, her geocentric place is
T, and her elongation QT, which in this figure is the
greateft poffible ; for this always takes place when a
Straight line from the earth touches the orbit of the
planet, as is evident from the figure,; that is, provided
the planet be in its aphelion at the time. Thus the
greateft poflible elongation of Mercury is QP when he
is in his aphelion at L ; and the quantity of this is
found by aftronomical obfervations to be about 28 de¬
grees, that of Venus about 48. The inferior planets
in their elongations are fometimes eaftward and fome-
times weftward of the fun : in the former cafe they ap¬
pear in the evening; and in the latter in the morning.
The fmallnefs of Mercury and his nearnefs to the fun
prevent him from being often taken notice of; but
the largenefs and beauty of Venus have made her, in
all ages, celebrated as the evening and morning Jlar.
Direft and irregu^ar apparent motion of the planets has
retrograde been already taken notice of; fometimes going for-
motions of ward, fometimes backward, and fometimes appearing
the planets to ftand ftill for a little. Thefe different conditions
explained. are by aftronomers called dire ft, retrograde, and ftation-
ary. Were they to be viewed from the fun, they
would always appear diredl, as has been already fhown ;
but when viewed from the earth, the inferior planets
appear direft while moving in their upper femicircles,
and retrograde when in their lower ones. Thus, in fig.
140. fuppofe the earth at reft at A, while Mercury is
going on in his orbit from N to I; from I to L his
motion appears to an obferver at A to be retrograde,
or contrary to the order of the figns; namely, from R
to Q^and from Qjo P ; hut when in that part of his
orbit which lies between L and N, his motion appears
dire&, or from P to Q^and from Qjo R.
When the earth is in the line of nodes of an inferior
planet, the apparent motion of the former is then in a
ftraight line, becaufe the plane of it paffes through the
eye ; if in a conjunction in his upper femicircle, he
paffes behind the fun ; if in his lower femicircle, he
paffes before it, and will then be feen by an obferver
on earth to pafs over the fun’s difk like a round and
very black fpot. Were the plane of his orbit coinci¬
dent with the ecliptic, this appearance would be feen
every year j but by reafon of the obliquity of the two
N O M Y. 509
planes to each other; it is much more rare. However, Particular
he was feen in this manner November 12th 1782, at^xP*‘c^iort
3 h. 44' in the afternoon ; May 4th 1786, at 6 h. 57' pji"e.
in the morning; and will be feen again December 6th nomeua.
1789, at 3 h. 55' in the afternoon: but from thatu»—y——J
time not, in this ifland at leaft, until the year 1799,
May 7th, at 2 h. 34' in the afternoon. In like man¬
ner, Venus fometimes appears as a black fpot on the
fun, but much more feldom than Mercury. She was
firft feen by Mr Horrox, as we have already related, in
the J639; afterwards in the years 1761 and 1769;
but will not afterwards be vifible in this manner till the
year 1874.
When the earth is out of the line of the node* of an
inferior planet, its orbit appears an ellipfis, more or Ids
eccentric according to the fituation of the eye of the
fpeftator. Thus, fuppofe the earth to be as far as
poffible (that is, 90°) out of the line of the nodes of
Mercury, the projection of his orbit will be in fuch an
elliptic curve as is reprefented fig. 141. wherein he will
appear to move in the order of the letters; direCt when
in his upper femicircle from a to b> from b to c, being
above the fun at b in his fuperior conjunction ; but in
his inferior femicircle his motion will appear retrograde
from c to d, and from d \.o a ; in conjunction he will
be at </below the fun. In thefe cafes, the motion of
Mercury is unequal ; fafter near the inferior conjunc¬
tion, but moft unequal in the inferior femicircle, going
through the unequal fpaces into which the ellipfis is
divided. The motions of the inferior planets, both
direCt and retrograde, are very unequal : and this ine¬
quality proceeds not from the eccentricity of their or¬
bits, but from the projection of their orbits into long
ellipfes ; and is therefore a mere optical deception.
Thefe planets appear ftationary while changing their
motion from direCt to retrograde, or from retrograde to
direCt. If the earth flood ftill, the times of their ap¬
pearing ftationary would be at their greateft elonga¬
tion ; for though it be a property of the circle that a
ftraight line can only touch it in one point, yet when
the circle is very large, the recefs from the tangent is
not perceptible for a confiderable time. Thus, in fig.
140. fuppofe the earth to be at reft in A, Venus
would appear ftationary, her geocentric place conti¬
nuing at T all the while Ihe is going in her orbit from
a to £; becaufe her deviation from the vifual line AT
would fcarce be perceptible fo near the point of con-
tad H.
To an inhabitant of the earth, therefore, the infe¬
rior planets appear always near the fun ; alternately
going from and returning to him, fometimes in ftraight
lines, at others in elliptical curves, firft on one fide
and then on the other ; fometimes fo near as to be ren¬
dered invifible by his ftronger light. Sometimes, when
in or near their nodes, they pafs behind the fun in
their fuperior femicircles, or pafs between him and us ;
in which cafe they appear like black fpots on his difle,
as has been juft now mentioned. For the better com¬
prehending of thefe motions, however, we have hi¬
therto fuppofed the earth to ftand ftill in fome part of 314
its orbit, while they go round the fun in theirs : butE^eftsof,
as this is not the cafe, it now remains to confider
changes which take place in confequence of the earth’s the appear-
raotion. Were the earth to ftand ftill in any part ofancesoftht
its planets*
5io A S T R
Particular Jtg orbit as at A, the places of conjun&ion both in
Explicate the fUpev;or
and inferior femicircle, as alfo of the
kftial'phe" Sreate^ elongation ; and confequently the places of di-
nomcna. rc<^ an^ retrogratle motion, and of the Nations of an
«—inferior planet, w'ould always be in the fame part of
the heavens. 'Thus, in ag. 140, upon this fuppofition,
the places of Mercury’s ftations would always be the
points P and R, the arc of his motion PR, and of his
retrograde motion RP 5 whereas, on account of the
earth’s motion, the places where thefe appearances
happen are continually advancing forward in the eclip¬
tic according to the order of the figns. In fig. 142,
let APjCD be the orbit of the earth ; sfgh that of
Mercury ; 0 the fun; GKI an arc of the ecliptic ex¬
tended to the fixed liars. When the earth is at A,
the fun’s geocentric place is at F 5 and Mercury, in
order to a conjunftion, mud be in the line AF ; that
is, in his orbit he mull be at f or h. Suppofe him to
be at/- in his inferior femicircle : If the earth Itood
ilill at A, his next conjun£lion would be when he is in
his fuperior femicircle at h ; the places of his greatell
elongation alfo u'culd he at e and g, and in the eclip¬
tic at E and G : but fuppofing the earth to go on in
its orbit from A to B ; the fun’s geocentric place is now
at K; and Mercury, in order to be in corjundtion,
ought to be in the line BK at m. As by the motion
of the earth the places of Mercury’s conjun&ions with
the fun are thus continually carried round in the eclip¬
tic in confeqLienee, fo the places of his utmod elonga¬
tions mud be carried in confequence alfo. Thus, when
the earth is at A, the places of his greatell elongation
from the fun are in the ecliptic E and G; the motion
of the earth from A to B advance* them forward from
G to L and from E to I. But the geocentric mo¬
tion of Mercury will bed be feen in fig. 146. Here
■we have part of the extended ecliptic marked CY,) H>.
&c. in the centre of which S reprefents the fun, and
round him are the orbits of Mercury and the earth. The
orbit of Mercury is divided in 11 equal parts, fuch
as he goes through once in eight days: and the divi-
finns are marked by numeral figures t, 2, 3, &c. Part
of the orbit of the earth is likewife divided into 22
equal arcs, each arc being as much as the earth goes
through in eight days. The points of divilion are
marked with the letters a, b, c, d, e,f &c. and Ihow
as many feveral ilations from whence Mercury may be
viewed from the earth. Suppofe then the planet to be
at i and the earth at draw a line from a to 1, and
it {hows Mercury’s geocentric place at A. In eight
days he will be got to 2, and the earth to~£ ; draw a
line 2 to b, and it Ihows his geocentric place at B. In
other eight days be will have proceeded to 3, and the
earth to r; a line drawn from 3 to c will Ihow his geo¬
centric place at C. In this manner, going through
the figure, and drawing lines from the earth at d, e,f,
g, &c. through 4, 5, 6, 7, &c. we lhall find his
geocentric places fucceffively at the points D, E,
F, G, &c. where we may obferve, that from A to
B, and from B to C, the motion is. direfl; from C
to D, and from D to E, retrograde. In this figure
22 Ilations are marked in the earth’s orbit, from
whence the planet may be viewed ; correfponding to
which there ought to be as many in the orbit of Mer¬
cury and. for this purpofe the place of that planet is
O N O M Y. Seel. V.
marked at the end of every eight days for two of his Particular
periodical revolutions 5 and to denote this, two nume-ExP1'L'ation
ra! figures are placed at each divilion. kftiaTphe
The geocentric motion of Venus may be explained nomena>
in a iia.ilar manner; only as the motion of Venus'-—y—J
is much flower than that of Mercurv, his conjunc¬
tions, oppoiitions, elongations, and Ilations, all return
much more frequently than tliofe of Venus.
To explain the stationary appearances of the planets,
it mull he remembered, that the diameter of the earth’s
orbit, and even of that of Saturn, are but mere points
in comparifon of the diltance of the fixed liars ; and
therefore, any two lines abfolutely parallel, though
drawn at the dillance of the diameter of Saturn’s or¬
bit from each other, would, if continued to the fixed
liars, appear to us to terminate in the fame point. Let,
then, the two circles fig. 143. reprefent the orbits of
Venus and of the Earth ; let the lines AE, BE, CGr
DH, be parallel to SP, we may neverthelefs affirm,
that if continued to the dillance of the fixed liars, they
would all terminate in the fame point with the line SP.
Suppufe, then, Venus at E while the earth is at A,
the vifual ray by which Ihe is feen is the line AE. Sup¬
pofe again, that while Venus goes from E to F, the
Earth goes from A to B, the vifual ray by which Ve¬
nus is now feen is BF parallel to AE 5 and therefore
Venus will be all that time llationary, appearing in
.that point of the heaven where SP extended would
terminate: this llation is at her changing from diredl
to retrograde. Again, fuppofe, when the Earth is at
C, Venus is at G, and the vifual line CG 5 if, while
the Earth goes from C to D, Venus goes from G to
H, fo that Ihe is feen in the line GH parallel to CG,
fhe will be all that time llationary, appearing in the
point where a line drawn from S through P would ter¬
minate. This flation is at her changing from retro¬
grade to direfl 5 and both are in her inferior femicircle;
An inferior planet, when in conjun&ion with the funPerigeiT
in its inferior femicircle, is faid to be in perigee, and and apogee
in the other in apogee, on account of its different di-of the Pla_
fiances from the earth. Their real diftances from the”^?
earth when in perigee are variable, partly owing to theP
eccentricities of their orbits, as well as that of the
earth; and partly owing to the motions of the different
bodies, by which it happens that they are in perigee
in different parts of their orbits. The leaft poffible
diftance is when the perigee happens when the earth
is in its perihelion, and the planet in its aphelion.
The difference of diftance between the earth and in-Dif]rercnces
ferior planets at different times, makes a confiderable in the ap-
variation in their apparent diameters, which indeed is Parent ^a"
very obfervable in all the planets ; and thus they fome™^.5 of
times look very confiderably larger than at others. This116 P ancts*
difference in magnitude in Mercury is nearly at to
1 ; and in Venus, no lefs than 32 to 1. A common
fpedlator, unaffilted by any inttrument, may obferve
an inferior planet alternately approach nearer and near¬
er the fun, until at laft it comes into conjunction with
him, and then to recede farther and farther till it is at its
greatdl elongation, which will be firft on one fide and
then on the other : but if we obferve the apparent
change of place of an inferior planet in the fphere of
the heavens, its direA motions, ftations, and retrogra-
dations, meafuring i;s diameter frequently with the
micrometer^
Sea. V. A S T R <
Particular micrometer, vee flnll find by its decreafe at fome times
Explicationanc] increafe at others, that its diftance from os is very
letfid Phe confi^erabiy varied 5 fo tliat, taking the whole of its
nornena. couffc int° confideration, it appears to move in a very
t—v complicated curve. See fig. 1. at C.
327 As the fuperior planets move in a larger orbit than
Appearan- the earth, they can only be in conjunftion with the
ces of the pun wj,en they are on that fide oppofite to the earth ;
upenor ag^ on tj)e otj)er }jan(]} t[jey are in oppofition to him
plained. when the earth is between the fun and them. They
are in quadrature with him when their geocentric pla¬
ces are 90° diftant from that of the fun. In order to
underhand their apparent motions. We lhall fuppofe
them to hand Hill in fome part of their orbit while the
earth makes a complete revolution in hers 5 in which
cafe, any fuperior planet would then have the follow¬
ing appearances; 1. While the earth is in her moft
diftant femicircle, the motion of the planet will be di-
red!. 2. While the earth is in her neareft femicircle,
the planet will be retrograde. 3. While the earth is
near thofe places of its orbit where a line drawn from
the planet would be a tangent, it would appear to be
Ilationary. Thus, in fig. 147. a b c d reprefent the
orbit of the earth ; S the Sun ; EFG an arc of the
orbit of Jupiter ; ABC an arc of the ecliptic proje&ed
on the fphere of the fixed ftars. Suppofe Jupiter to con¬
tinue at F, while the earth goes round in her orbit accord¬
ing to the order of the letters abed. While the earth
is in the femicircle moft diftant from Jupiter, going from
a X.o b and from b to c, his motion in the heaven would
appear dirett, or from A to B and from B to C ; but
while the earth is in its neareft femicircle c de, the mo¬
tion of Jupiter- would appear retrograde from C to
B and from B to A; for a, b, c, d, may be confidered
as fo many different ftations from whence an inhabitant
of the earth would view Jupiter at different ftafons of
the year, and a ftraight line drawn from each of thefe
ftations, through F the place of Jupiter, and continu¬
ed to the ecliptic, would (how his apparent place there
to be fucceffively at A, B, C, B, A. While the earth
is near the points of contaft a and c, Jupiter would
appear ftationavy, becaufe the vifual ray drawn through
both planets does not fenfibly differ from the tangent
Va or Fe. When the earth is at b, a line drawn from
b through S and F to the ecliptic, (hows Jupiter to be
in coujuudlion with the fun at B. When the earth is
at d, a line drawn from d through S, continued to the
ecliptic, would terminate in a point oppofite to B ;
which fhows Jupiter then to be in oppoiition to the
fun : and thus it appears that his motion is diredt in
the conjundlion, but retrograde when in oppofition,
with the fun.
The diredl motion of a fuperior planet is fwifter the
nearer it is to a conjundtion, and flower as it approach¬
es to a quadrature with the fun. Thus, in fig. 144.
let 0 be the fun 5 the little circle round it, the orbit of
the earth, whereof a b c d efg\% the moft diftant fe¬
micircle ; OPQ, an arc of the orbit of Jupiter ; and
ABCDEFG, an arc of the ecliptic in the fphere of the
fixed ftars. If we fuppofe Jupiter, to (land ftill at P,
by the earth’s motion from a tog, he would appear to
move dired! from A to G, deferibing the unequal arcs
AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, FG, in equal times. When
the earth is ut.d, Jupiter is in conjundlion with the
fun at D, and there his diredt motion is fwifteft. When
> N O M Y. 511
the earth is in that part of her orbit where aline drawn Particular
from Jupiter would touch it, as in the points e or ^r* ^f*t,||ic^lon
Jupiter is nearly in quadrature with the fun ; and the
nearer the earth is to any of thofe points, the flower nomeuaj
is the geocentric motion of Jupiter ; for the arcs CD t—»
and DE are greater than BC or EF, and the arcs BC
and EF are greater than AB or FG.
The retrograde motion of a ftiperior planet is fwift¬
er the nearer it is to an oppofition, and flower as it
approaches to a quadrature with the fun. Thus, Jet
0, fig. 145. be the fun ; the little circle round it the
orbit of the earth, whereof g h i k l m n\% the neared
femicircle ; OPQ, an arc of the orbit of Jupiter; NKG
an arc of the ecliptic: If we fuppofe Jupiter to Hand
ftill at P, by the earth’s motion from g to n, he would
appear to move retrograde from G to N, deferibing
the unequal arcs GH, HI, IK, KL, LM, MN,
in equal times. When the earth is at k, Jupiter ap¬
pears at K, in oppofition to the fun, and there his re¬
trograde motion is fwifteft. When the earth is either
at£or«, the points of contadt of the tangents
and P/i, Jupiter is nearly in quadrature with the fun :
and the nearer he is to either of thefe points, the flow¬
er is his retrogradation ; for the arcs IK and KL are
greater than HI or LM: and the arcs HI and LM
are greater than GH or MN. Since the diredt motion
is fwifteft when the earth is at d, and continues dimi-
nifhing till it changes to retrograde, it mult be infen-
fible near the time of change: and, in like manner,
the retrograde motion being fwifteft when the earth is
in k, and diminiflting gradually till it changes to diredt,
muft alfo at the time of that change be ini'enfible; for
any motion gradually decreafing till it changes into a
contrary one gradually increafing, muft at the time of
the change be altogether infenfible.
The fame changes in the apparent motions of this
planet will alfo take place if we fuppofe him to go on
flowly in his orbit ; only they will happen every year
when the earth is in different parts of her orbit, and
confequently at different times of the year. Thus, (fig.
147.) let us fuppofe, that while the earth goes round
her orbit Jupiter goes from F to G, the points of the
earth’s orbit from which Jupiter will now appear to
be ftationary will be a and y ; and confequently his
ftations muft be at a time ot the year different from
the former. Moreover, the conjundtion of Jupiter
with the fun will now be when the earth is at fy and
his oppofition when it is at e; for which reafon thefe
alfo will happen at times of the year different from
thofe of the preceding oppofition and conjundtion.
The motion of Saturn is fo flow, that it makes but ■
little alteration either in the times or places of his
conjundtion or oppofition; and no doubt the fame will
take place in a more eminent degree in the Georgium
Sidus; but the motion of Mars is fo much fwifter
than even that of Jupiter, that both the times and
places of his conjundtions and oppofitions are thereby
very much altered.
Fig. 148. exemplifies the geocentric motion of Jupi¬
ter in a very intelligible manner ; where 0 reprefenls
the fun ; the circle 1, z, 3, 4, the orbit of the earth,
divided into twelve equal arcs for the twelve months of
the year ; PQjm arc of the orbit of Jupiter, containing
as much as he goes through in a year, and divided
in like manner into twelve equal parts, each as much
512 ASTRO
Pardcular as he goes through in a month. ^Now, fuppofe the
ofTheCCe-nearth t0 be at 1 wiien JuPlter is at a line drawn
leftiai Phe' through I and a (hows Jupiter’s place in the celeftial
nomena. ecliptic to be at A. In a month’s time the earth will
■■1 have moved from i to 2, Jupiter from « to ^ 5 and a
Jine drawn from 2 to b will Ihow his geocentric place
to be in B. In another month, the earth will be in 3,
and Jupiter at C, and confequently his geocentric
place will be at C 5 and in like manner his place may
be found for the other months at D. E, F, &c. It is
likewife eafy to obferve, that his geocentric motion is
direft in the arcs AB, BC, ED, DE 5 retrograde in
EF, FG, GH, HI; and.direft again in IK, KL,
LM, MN. The inequality of his geocentric motion
is likewife apparent from the figure.
A fuperior planet is in apogee when in conjundtion
with the fun, and in perigee when in oppofition ; and
every one of the fuperior planets is at its lead; poffibie
diftance from the earth where it is in perigee and peri¬
helion at the fame time. Their apparent diameters
are variable, according to their diftances, like thofe of
the inferior planets ; and this, as might naturally be
expedted, is mod remarkable in the planet Mars, who
is neared us. In his neared approach, this planet is
25 times larger than-when farthed off, Jupiter twice
328 and a half, and Saturn once and a half.
Of the The honour of difeovering the new attendant of the
Georgium fun, called the Georgs ion Sid us, is undoubtedly due to
Sidus., Mr Herfehel; though Mr Robifon, profeffor of Natu¬
ral Philofophy in Edinburgh, has given drong reafons
for ftfppofing that it had been marked by feveral adro-
nomers as a fixed dar. It was fird obferved by Mr
Herfchel on the 13th of March 1781, near the foot of
Cador, and his attention was drawn by its deady light.
On applying an higher magnifying power to his tele-
icope, it appeared manifedly to increafe in diameter ;
and two days after, he obferved that its place was chan¬
ged. From thefe circumdances he concluded, that it
was a comet ; and fent an account of it as fuch to the
adronomcr-royal, which very foon fpread all over Eu¬
rope. It was not long, however, before it was known,
319 by the Englifli adronomers efpecially, to be a planet,
vered tobe '^e c'rcum^ances which led to this difeovery were,
a planet. *ts v>chnty to the ecliptic, the diredion of its motion,
and its being nearly dationary at the time, in fuch a
manner as correfpor.ds with the like appearances of the
other planets. The French adronomers, however, dill
imagined it to be a comet, although it had not that
faint train of light which ufually accompanies thefe
bodies, nor would its fuccefiive appearances correfpond
with fuch an hypothefis ; Co that they were at lad ob¬
liged to own that it went round the fun in an orbit
Computa- circular. Its motion was fird computed on this
■felon of its principle by Mr Lexel profeflbr of adronomy at St
diftance, jpeterfburgh ; who dtowed, that a circular orbit, whofe
radius is about 19 times the didance of the earth from
the fun, would agree very well with all the obfervations
which had been made during the year 1781. On the
jd of December that year it was in oppofition with
the fun ; whence one of its dations was certainly deter¬
mined. In the mean time, >however, as adronomers
were every where engaged in making obfervations on the
fame dar, it occurred to feme, that it might poffibly have
been obferved before,''though cot known to be a pla-
N°- 32-
N O M Y. Sea. V,
net. Mr Bade of Berlin, who had jud publifhed a Particular
work containing all the catalogues of zodiacal darsExP!‘cat;ioa
which had appeared, was induced, by the obfervations
which had been already made on the new planet, tOn0mena.
confult thefe catalogues, in order to difeover whetheru—y—j
any dar, marked by one adronomer and omitted by
another, might not be the new planet in quedion. In -
the courfe of this inquiry, he found, that the dar,
N° 964 of Mayer’s catalogue, had been unobferved by
others, and only once by Mr Mayer himfelf, fo thaf,
no motion could have been perceived by him. On
this Mr Bade immediately directed his telefcope to
that part of the heavens where he might expefl; to find
the dar marked in Mayer’s catalogue, but without fuc-
cefs. At the fame time, by the calculations already
made concerning the new planet, he difeovered, that
its apparent place in the year 1756 ought to have been
that of Mayer’s dar, and this was one of the years in
which he was bufied in his obfe'rvations; and ou far¬
ther inquiry it was found, that the dar 964 had been
difeovered by Mr Mayer on the 1 £th of September
1756: So that it is now generally believed, that the
dar N° 964 of Mayer’s catalogue was the new planet
of Herfchel.
Before the end of the year 1782, it was foftnd, that
the angular motion of the planet was increafing 5 which
(howed, that it was not moving in a circle, but in an
eccentric orbit, and was approaching towards the fun.
Adronomers, therefore, began to invedigate the ine¬
quality of this angular heliocentric motion, in order to
difeover the form and pofuion of the ellipfia deferibed.
This was a very difficult talk, as the fmall inequality
of motion fliowed that the orbit was nearly circular,
and the arch already deferibed was no more than one-
fiftieth part of the whole circumference. It was, how¬
ever, by no means eafy, from the variation of curva¬
ture difcoverable in this fmall arch, to determine to
what part of the circumference it belongs ; though the
Profeffor is of opinion, that the fuppofition of its being
the dar 964 of Mayer’s catalogue renders the calcula¬
tion eafy. On this fuppofition, its motion has been
calculated by feveral adronomers, as well as by Mr Ro¬
bifon himfelf. He obferves, however, that if we do,
not admit the identity of thefe dars, near half a cen¬
tury mud elapfe before we can determine the dements
of this planet’s motion with a precifion equal to that of
the others.
Some adronomers are of opinion, that the new pla¬
net is the fame with the dar N° 34 Tauri of the Bri¬
tannic catalogue. “ In this cafe (fays Mr Robifon),
the elements will agree very well with Flamdead’s ob-
fervatiori of that dar on December 13th 1690, being
only 40"* or perhaps only 12", to the wedward of it;
but the latitude differs more than two minutes from
Flamdead’s latitude, which is properly deduced from
the zenith didance. This is too great an error for him
to commit in the obfervation ; and we fhould therefore
reje& the fuppofition on this account alone : But there
are dronger reafons for rejefting it, arifing from the
difagreement of thofe elements with the obfervations
made on the dations of the planet in October 1781
and in March and Oftober 1782, which gave, a very
near approximation of its didance from the fun.. When
compared with obfervations of the. planet near its da¬
tionary
Sea. V. A S T R c
Particular tionary points in the fpring, they give the geocentric
Explication latitude confiderably too great, while they give it too
?f/vhfn>e* fmall for the fimilar obfervations in autumn.”
lelhal Phe- ... - . n. - . .
nomena. •rLS the times or conjunction, utmolt elongation, di-
u—■> reft or retrograde motions of the inferior planets, de>
331 pend on the combinations of their motions in their or-
To find the bits with the motion of the Earth in its orbit i. any of
time when thefe appearances will be more frequent in Mercury than
wifi return ‘n Venus, becaufe the former moves with a fwifter mo-
into the tion in his orbit, and confequently mull more frequent-
lame appa- ly pafs through thofe places where he is in conjunction,
rent fitua- &c. The time in which any of the inferior planets
tlon' will return into a given fituation, may be known by
the following examples. Let fig. 149. reprefent the
orbits of Venus and the Earth. Let the Earth be at E,
Venus at V, when fhe is in the inferior conjunction
with the fun in 'Y1. From S, Venus and the Earth
would appear in conjunction in let Venus go round
her orbit, and return to V; the earth taking longer
time to go round than Venus will, in the mean time,
go from E, only through a part of her orbit, and Ve¬
nus muft overtake the Earth before fhe can have ano¬
ther inferior conjunction ; that is, fhe mull, befides an
entire revolution, which is equal to four right angles,
go through as much more angular motion round the
fun as the earth has done in the mean time, fo as to be
in a right line between the fun and the earth. Sup-
pofe this is to happen when the earth is got to F and
Venus to T, the angular motions of the Earth and
Venus performed in the fame times are reciprocally
as their periodical times: and therefore as the perio¬
dical time of the Earth is to the periodical time of
Venus ; fo is the angular motion of Venus, which is
equal to four right angles, added to the angular mo¬
tion of the earth, in the time between two like con¬
junctions of Venus, to the angular motion of the earth
in the fame time : and therefore, by divifion of pro-
Eud. portion, as the difference between the periodical times
j.prop. 17. Qf yenu8 an£j the Earth is to the periodical time of
Venus ; fo are four right angles, or 360^, to a fourth
quantity $ namely, to the angular motion or number
of degrees which the Earth goes in her orbit from the
time of one conjunction of Venus to the next conjunc¬
tion of the fame kind. Now the periodical time of
the earth is 365 days 6 hours or 8766 hours; the
period of Venus 224 days 16 hours or 5392 hours ;
the difference is 3374 hours. Say then, As 3374 is to
5392, fo are four right angles, or 360 degrees, to a
fourth number,, which is 5750 ; which the earth goes
through in a year and 218 days. Were Venus there¬
fore this day in an inferior conjunction with the fun, it
wouMbeayearand 2 iSdays before fhe come into another
conjunction of the fame kind ; and this alteration in
time occafions a proportionable change in place fo
that if one conjunction be in ‘Y3, the next fimilar con¬
junction will be in t]£. The time between any fitua¬
tion of Mercury, with regard to the fun and the earth,
and another like fituation, may be found by the fame
method. The periodical time of the earth is 87661
hours; the period of Mercury 87 days 23 hours, or
2iri hours; the difference 6655 hours. Say then,
As 6655 is to 2111, fo are four right angles or 360°
to 1140, through which the earth paffes in 116 days.
If therefore Mercury were to, be this, day in his iufe-
Von. II. Fart II.
> N O M Y. 515
rior conjunction, it would be 116 days before he were Particular
in a fimilar fit nation. _ ofTheC^
This problem is commonly refolved in another man- phe_
ner. Aftronomers compute the diurnal heliocentric nomena.
motions of Venus and of the Earth : the difference of l——\~ •->
thefe motions is the diurnal motion of Venus from the
Earth, or the quantity by which Venus would be feen
to recede from the Earth every day by a fpeCtator
placed in the fun : thus the mean motion of Venus ia
every day about 59 minutes and 8 feconds ; the diffe¬
rence is 37 minutes. Say, therefore, As 37 minutes ia
to 36°, or to 2L,6oo minutes, fo is one day to the
time wherein Venus, having left the earth, recedes from
her 360 degrees ; that is, to the time wherein fhe re¬
turns to the earth again, or the time between two
conjunctions of the fame kind.
The times are here computed according to the To find th«
mean or equable motions of the planets ; and this is true times
therefore called a mean conjunction : but becaufe Ve-pft^fcon'
nus and the Earth are really carried in elliptic orbits,^n^.°"os’s
in which their motions are fometimes fwifter and fome-&c 0f
times flower, the true conjunctions may happen fomeplanets.
days either fooner or later than what thefe rules will
give. The time of the true conjunction is to be com¬
puted from that of the mean conjunction in the fol¬
lowing manner. Find by aftronomical tables the places
of Venus and the earth in the ecliptic, from which we
fhall have the diftance of the two as feen from the fun ;
compute alfo for the fame time the angular motions
of thefe two planets for any given time, fuppofc fix
hours; the difference of thefe two motions will give
the accefis of Venus to the earth, or her recefs from
it in fix hours : then fay, as this difference is to the
arc between the places of Venus and the earth at the
time of a mean conjunction, fo is fix hours to the time
between the mean conjunction and the true. This
time added to or fubtraCted from the time of the mean
conjunction, according as Venus is in antecedence or
'onfequence from the earth, fhows the time of their
true conjunction.
With regard to the conjunctions, oppofitions, direCt
and retrograde motions, &c. of the fuperior planets, as
they depend on the combinations of their motions vvitu
that of the earth, they will be more frequent in Saturn
than in Jupiter, in Jupiter than in Mars, but moft fre¬
quent of all in the Georgium Sidus; becaufe the flow-'
er the motion of the planet is, the fooner the earth
will overtake it, fo as to have it again in any given fi¬
tuation. Thus, fuppofe Saturn to be in conjunction
with the fun in Yb >f he were to Hand ftiH for one
year, then he would again be in conjunction in Y5 ;
but as he goes on flowly, according to the order of the
figns, about 12° annually, the earth muft go through
almofl 13° more than an entire revolution ; fo that
there will be almofl a year and 13 days between any
conjunction between the Sun and Saturn and the con¬
junction immediately following. As Jupiter moves in
his orbit with greater velocity than Saturn, the Earth
muft have a proportionably larger fpace added to the
year ; and as Mars moves fwifter Hill, the time bt-
twixt any two of his conjunctions mull be Hill long¬
er.
The time when a fuperior planet will return into-
any given.fituation, may be found by the methods al-
3 T ready
5r4
Particular
Explication
c f theCe-
Icf'tial Phe¬
nomena. •
:Diftance,
* &c. of the
<carth.
AS TRONOMY. Sea. V.
ready laid down for the inferior planets. Thus, the
mean diurnal motion of the earth is about 59' 8" ;
the mean motion of Saturn in a day is only two mi¬
nutes ; the difference 57' 8". Say therefore, As 57' 8"
are to 360°, or 21,600 minutes, fo is one day to the
fpace of time wherein the earth having left Saturn, re¬
cedes from him 360° ; that is, to the time of her re¬
turn to Saturn again, or the time between two con-
j-unftions, oppofuions, or other like afpe&s. This
time will be found 378 days, or pne year and 1 3 days.
The mean motion of Jupiter in a day is 4' Si/'5 the
difference between this and the earth’s diurnal motion
is 54' 9". Say then, As 54' 9" are to 360° or 21,600',
fo is one day to the fpace of time when the earth, ha¬
ving left Jupiter, will overtake him again ; which will
be found to be 398 days, or one year and 33 days.
The mean motion of Mars is 31' 27" ; the difference
between which and the earth’s diurnal motion is 27'
41". Say then, As 27' 41'' are to 360° or 21,600', fo
is one day to the fpace of time wherein the earth, ha¬
ving left Mars, recedes from him 360° ; which will be
found two years and 50 days. The true conjundlions,
Sec. may be found in the fuperior planets as in the in¬
ferior.
The Earth is the next planet above Venus in the
fyftem. It is 95,173,000 miles from the fun ; and
goes round him in 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes, from
any equinox or folftice to the fame again ; but from
any fixed ftar to the fame again, as feen from the fun,
in 365 days 6 hours 9 minutes ; the former being the
length of the tropical year, and the latter the length
of the fiderial. It travels at the rate of 68,oco miles
every hour 5 which motion, though upwards of 140
times fwifter than that of a cannon ball, is little more
than half as fwift as Mercury’s motion in his orbit.
The earth’s diameter is 7970 miles ; and by turning
round its axis every 24 hours from weft to eaft, it
caufes an apparent diurnal motion of all the heavenly
bodies from eaft to weft. By this rapid motion of
the earth on its axis, the inhabitants about the equator
are carried 1042 miles every hour, whilft thofe on the
parallel of London are carried only about 580, befides
the 68,000 miles by the annual motion abovemention-
ed, which is common to all places whatever.
That the earth is of a globular figure may be pro¬
ved from feveral different and evident circumftances.
1. When we are at fea on board a fhip, we may be
out of fight of land when the land is near enough to
be vifible if it were not hid from our eye by the con¬
vexity of the water. Thus, let ABCD (fig. I54-) re-
prefent a portion of the globe of our earth. Let M
be the top of a mountain ; this cannot be feen by a
perfon on board the (hip at B, becaufe a line drawn
from M to his eye at E is intercepted by the convexi¬
ty of the water : but let the fhip come to C, then the
mountain will be vifible, becaufe a line may be drawn
from M to his eye at E. 2. The higher the eye, the
farther will the view be extended. It is very common
for failors from the top of the mail of a fliip to difeo- Particular
ver land or (hips at a much greater diftance than they ExPllc:ition
can do when they ftand. upon deck. 3. When we?^? pf’
ftand on fhore, the higheft part of a (hip is vifible at norlfena. C
the greateft diftance. If a (hip is going from us out 1——t,—■ ■ 1
to fea, we (hall continue to fee the maft after the hull
or body of the (hip difappears, and the top of the maft
will continue to be feen the longed. If a (hip is co¬
ming towards us, the top of the maft comes firft in
view, and we fee more and more till at laft the hull ap¬
pears. If the furface of the fea were a flat plain
(fig. 155-), a line might be drawn from any objedl fi-
tuated upon it, as the (hip D, to the eye, whether
placed high or low, at A or B. In this cafe, any ob¬
ject upon the earth or fea, would be vifible at any di¬
ftance which was not fo great as to make the appear¬
ance of it too faint, or the angle under which it ap¬
pears too fmall, to be feen by us. An objeft would
be vifible at the fame diftance, whether the eye were
high or low. Not the higheft, but the largeft, objects
would be vifible to the greateft diftance, fo that we
Ihould be able to fee the hulk of a (hip farther off than
the maft : All of which is contrary to experience.
4. Several navigators, fuch as Ferdinand Magellan,
Sir Francis Drake, Captain Cook, have failed round
the globe ; not in an exaft circle, the land preventing
them, but by going in and out as the ftlores happened
to ly. 5. All the appearances in the heavens are the
fame, whether at land or fea. 6. Eclipfes of the moon
arife from the (hadow of the earth, and this (hadow
is always circular. Although the earth prefents,
during feveral hours, different portions of its furface
to the moon, yet ftill the fhadow is round. The fmaU
inequalities upon the furface of the earth bear no kind
of proportion to its magnitude fufficicnt to alter the
appearance of its (hadow.
The earth’s axis makes an angle of 23' degrees
with the axis of its orbit, and keeps always the fame
oblique diredtion, inclining nearly to the fame fixed
ftars (a) throughout its annual courfe, which caufes
the returns of fpring, fummer, autumn and winter. 314
That the fun, and not the earth, is the centre of our^emon^ra*
folar fyftem, may be demonftrated beyond a poffi^ility ^a°r"h?sf ^
of doubt, from confidering the forces of gravitation t;ont
and projedtion, by which all the celeftial bodies are re¬
tained in their orbits. For, if the fun moves about
the earth, the earth’s attradlive power muft draw the
fun towards it from the line of projedtion fo as to
bend its motion into a curve: But the fun being at
lead 227,000 times as heavy as the earth, by being fo
much weightier as its quantity of matter is greater, it
muft move 227,000 times as (lowly towards the earth
as the earth does towards the fun ; and confequently
the earth would fall to the fun in a (hort time, if it
had not a very ftrong projedtile motion to carry it off.
The earth, therefore, as well as every other planet in
the fyftem, muft have a redfilineal impulfe, to prevent
its falling into the fua. To fay, that gravitation re¬
tains
(a) This is not ftridlly true, as will appear when we come to treat of the receflion of the equi-
nodtial pob. in the heavens, which recefiion is equal to the deviation of the earth’s axis from its paral-
lelifm : v ' is rather too fmall to be fenfible in an age, except to thofe who make very nice ob-
ferva. or;;
Sea. V. ASTRO
Particular tains all the other planets in their orbits without af-
Explicationfe(cHng the earth, which is placed between the orbits
kfthdPhe- ^ars an<^ ^ent,s» *s as abfurd as to Tuppofe that fix
nomcna. cannon-bullets might be projefled upwards to diffe-
—y—rent heights in the air, and that five of them (hould
fall down to the ground ; but the fixth, which is nei¬
ther the higheft nor the loweft, ihould remain fufpend-
ed in the air without falling, and the earth move round
about it.
There is no fuch thing in nature as a heavy body
moving round a light one as its centre of motion. A
pebble faftened to a mill-ftone by a firing, may by an
eafy impulfe be made to circulate round the mill-ftone :
but no impulfe can make a mill-ftone circulate round a
loofe pebble ; for the mill-(tone would go off, and car¬
ry the pebble along with it.
The fun is fo immenfely bigger and heavier than
the earth, that, if he was moved out of his place, not
only the earth, but all the other planets, if they were
united into one mafs, would be carried along with the
2^ fun as the pebble would be with the mill (lone.
From the By confidering the law of gravitation, which takes
proportion-place throughout the folar fyftem, in another light, it
al decreafe evident that the earth moves round the fun in a
ofgravity, year> antj not the fun r0und the earth. It has been
obferved, that the power of gravity decreafes as the
fquare of the diftance increafes 5 and from this it fol¬
lows with mathematical certainty, that when two or
- more bodies move round another as their centre of mo¬
tion, the fquares of their periodic times will be to one
another in the fame proportion as the cubes of their
diftances from the central body. This holds precifely
with regard to the planets round the fun, and the fa-
tellites round the planets 5 the relative diftances of all
which are well known. But, if we fuppofe the fun to
move round the earth, and compare its period with the
moon’s by the above rule, it will be found that the
fun would take no lefs than 173,510 days to move
round the earth ; in which cafe our year would be 475
times as long as it now is.. To this we may add, that
the afpefts of increafe and decreafe of the planets, the
times of their feeming to (land ftill, and to move diredf
and retrograde, anfwer precifely to the earth’s motion ;
but not at all to the fun’s, without introducing the moft
abfurd and monftrous fuppofitions, which would deftroy
all harmony, order, and fimplicity, in the fyftem*
Moreover, if the earth be fuppofed to (land ftill, and
the ftars to revolve in free fpaces about the earth in 24
hours, it is certain that the forces by which the ftars
revolve in their orbits are not directed to the earth, but
to the centres of the feveral orbits ; that is,' of the fe-
veral parallel circles which the ftars on different fides
of the equator defcribe every day : and the like infe¬
rences may be drawn from the fuppofed diurnal mo¬
tion of the planets, fince they arfe never in theequi-
no&ial but twice in their courfes with regard to the har¬
ry heavens. But, that forces fhould be directed to no
central body, on which they phyfically depend, but
to innumerable imaginary points in the axis of the
earth produced to the poles of the heavens, is an hypo-
thefis too abfurd. to be allowed, of .by any .rational
creature. And it is ftill more abfurd to imagine that
thefe forces fhould increafe exa&ly In proportion to
the diftances from this axis ; for this is an indication
ef SR increafe to infinity ; whereas the force, of aUrac-
N
M
515
tion is found to decreafe in receding from the fountain Particular
from whence it flows. But the farther any ftar is from ^xp'‘cat’on
the quiefeent pole, the greater muft be the orbit which
it deferihes ; and yet it appears to go round in thenomena.
fame time as the neareft ftar to the pole does. And ifn—-y—
we take into confideration the twofold motion obferved
in the ftars, one diurnal round the axis of the earth in
24 hours, and the other round the axis of the ecliptic in
25,920 year's, it would require an explication of fuch
a perplexed compofition of forces, as could by no means
be reconciled with any phyfical theory.
The ftrongeft objeftion that can be made again ft Objection
the earth’s motion round the fun is, that in oppofiteasah'fttl'^
points of the earth’s orbit, its axis, which always keepse.arth 5 mo"
a parallel dire&ion, would point to different fixed ftars
which is not found to be fa£t. But this objection is
eafily removed, by confidering theimmenfe diftance of
the ftars in refpeft of the diameter of the earth’s orbit ;
the latter being no more than a point when compared
to the former. If we lay a ruler on the fide of a table,
and along the edge of the ruler view the top of a fpire
at ten miles diftance ;• then lay the ruler on the oppo-
fite of the table in a parallel fituation to what it had
before, and the fpire will ftill appear along the edge of
the ruler ; becaufe our eyes, even when affifted by the
beft inftruments, are incapable of diftinguilhing fo (mail
a change at fo great a diftance*
Dr Bradley, our late aftronomer-royal, found by aEarth’smo*-
long feries of the moft accurate obfervations, that there1'011 de'
is a fmall apparent motion of the fixed ftars, occafioned ^onftrate’1
by the aberration of .their light ; and fo exaftly an-
fwering to an annual motion of the earth, as evinces0f light,
the fame, even to a mathematical demonftration. He
confidered this matter in the following manner : he
imagined CA, fig. 33- to be a ray o£ light falling per¬
pendicularly upon the line BD ; that, if the eye is at
reft at A, the objedh- muft appear in the direction AC,
whether light be propagated in time or in an inftant.
But if the eye is moving from B towards A, and light
is propagated in time, with a velocity that is to the
velocity of the eye, as CA to BA ; then light mo¬
ving from C to A’, whilft the eye moves from B to A,
that particle of it by which the objeft will be difeerned
when the eye comes to A, is at G when the eye is at
B. Joining, the points BC, he fuppofed the line CB
to be a tube, inclined to the line BD in the anglo
DBC, of fuch diameter as to admit but one particle-
of light. Then it was eafy to conceive, that the par¬
ticle of light at C, by which the objedt m-uft be feen*
when the eye, as it moves along, arrives at A, would
pafs through the tube BC, if it is inclined to BD, irv
the angle DBG, and accompanies the eye in its mo¬
tion from B to A ; and that it could not come to the
eye placed behind fuch a tube, if it had any other in¬
clination to the line BD:. If, inftead of fuppofing CB
fo fmall a tube, we imagine it to be the axis of a lar-, /
g-er ; then, for the fame.reafon, the particle of light at
C would not pafs through the axis, unlefs it is inclincdr
to BD in the angle CBD. In like manner, if the eye
moved the contrary way., from D towards. A, with'
the fame .velocity,, then the tube muft. be- inclined ‘tv
the angle BCD. Although, therefore, the true or real
place of an objedl is perpendicular to the line in which ,
the eye is moving, yet the vifible'place will not be fo ;
fig.ee. that, no doubt, muft be in the dire&ion of the
3 T 2 . tube 5.
5io
Particular
R O N O M Y.
Seel. V.
tube; but tlie difference between the true and appa- progrefijve motion. The motion of the earth is in-Particular
I be exteris paribus greater or iefs,
cording to the different proportion between the velo-
city of light and'that of the eye. So that, if we could
j fuppofe that light was propagated in an inftant, then
there would be no difference between the real and vi-
lible place of an objetl, although the eye was in mo¬
tion ; for in that cafe, AC being infinite with refpeft
to AB, the angle ACB, the difference between the
true and villble place, vanifhes. But if light be pro-
comparably more fmooth and uniform than that of aExFlicatio*
(hip, or any machine made and moved by human art
and therefore it is not to be imagined that we can feel nomena.1C*
its motion. » ^
We find that the fun, and thofe planets on which
there are vifible fpots, turn round their axes: for the
fpots move regularly over their diiks (b). From hence
we may reafonably conclude, that the other planets on
which we fee no fpots, and the earth, which is likewife
pagated in time, it is evident, from the foregoing con- a planet, have fuch rotations. But being incapable of
finn*. tRaf- there will he alwavs a rfiflerence he- leavino* fhr earth. anH viewinrr it nt rx rh’ftanr**. or*,!
iiderations, that there will be always a difierence be¬
tween the real and vifible place of an objefk, unlefs
the eye is moving either diredtiy towards or from the
objedt. And in all cafes the fine of the difference be-
leaving the earth, and viewing it at a diftance, and its
rotation being fmooth and uniform, we can neither fee
it move on its axis as we do the planets, nor feel our- ^4r
felves affedted by its motion. Yet there is one effedi of Argument
earth’s mo
tween the real and vifible place of the object will be to fuch a motion, which will enable us to judge with
the fine of the vifible inclination of the objedt to the tainty whether the earth revolves on its axis or not.
line in which the eye is moving, as the velocity of eye All globes which do not turn round their axes will be Its fbheroi-
is to the velocity of light.
perfedt fphercs, on account of the equality of the weight dal figur
He then fhows, that if the earth revolve round the of bodies on their furfaces; efpecially of the fluid parts.
fun annually, and the velocity of light be to the velo¬
city of the earth’s motion in its orbit, as 1000 to i,
But all globes which turn on their axes will be oblate
fpheroids; that is, their futfaces will be higher or far-
that a ftar really placed in the very pole of the ecliptic ther from the centre in the equatorial than in the po-
would, to an eye carried along with the earth, feem lar regions : for as the equatorial parts move quickeft,
to change its place continually ; and negledting the they will recede fartheft from the axis of motion, and
fmall difference on the account of the earth’s diurnal enlarge the equatorial diameter. That our earth it
revolution on its axis, would feem to deferibe a circle really of this figure, is demonftrable from the unequal
round that pole every way diftant from it 3I.; fo that vibrations of a pendulum, and the unequal lengths of
its longitude would be varied through all the points of degrees in different latitudes. Since then the earth is
the ecliptic every year, but its latitude would always higher at the equator than at the poles, the fea, which
remain the fame. Its right afeenfion would alfo change, naturally runs downward, or toward the places which
and its declination, according to the different fituation are neareft the centre, would run towards the polar
of the fun with refpeft to the equino&ial points, and regions, and leave the-equatorial parts dry, if the cen*
338
Velocity of
light.
its apparent diltance from the north pole of the equa¬
tor, would be 7' lefs at the autumnal than at the ver¬
nal equinox.
By calculating exactly the quantity of aberra¬
tion of the fixed ftars from their place, he found that
trifugal force of thefe parts, by which the waters were
carried thither, did not keep them from returning.
The earth’s equatorial diameter is 36 miles longer than
its axis. _ 34J
Bodies near the poles are heavier than thofe towards Weight »f
339
Errors in
the obfer-
vation of
fmall an¬
gles.
where the whole force of the earth’s attra&ion is accu-crcafe9 to“
mulated. They are alfo heavier, becaufe their centr>*poie^the
light came from the fun to us in B' I3,/; fo that its ve- the equator, becaufe they are nearer the earth’s centre, bodies
locity is to the velocity of the earth in its orbit ’ ’ ’ ‘
10,201 to 1.
It muff here be taken notice of, however, that Mr fugal force is lefs, on account of their diurnal motion
Nevil Mafkelyne, in attempting to find the parallax of being flower. For both thefe reafons, bodies carried
Sirius with a ten feet feftor, obferved, that by the from the poles toward the equator gradually lofe
fridlion of the plummet line on the pin which fufpend- their weight. Experiments prove, that a pendulum
«d it, an error of 10", 20", and fometimes 3c/, was which vibrates feconds near the poles, vibrates flower
committed. The pin was p-u of an inch diameter ; and near the equator, which fhews that it is lighter or lefs
though he reduced it to of an inch, the error (till attra&ed there. To make it ofcillate in the lame time,
amounted to 3". All obfervations, therefore, that have it is found neceffary to dimini/h its length. By com-
hitherto been made in order to difeover the parallax of paring the different lengths of pendulums Twinging
340
Another
objeftion
again ft the
earth’s mo¬
tion an-
fwered.
the fixed ftars, are to be difregarded.
It is alfo obje&ed, that the fun feems to change his
feconds at the equator and at London, it is found
that a pendulum muft be 2j-£gs lines fhorter at the
place daily, fo as to make a tour round the ftarry hea* equator than at the poles. A line is a twelfth part of
vens >n a year. But whether the fun or earth moves, an inch.
this appearance will be the fame ; for when the earth If the earth turned round its axis in 84 minutes 43
is in any part of the heavens, the fun will appear in sfeconds, the centrifugal force would be equal to the
the oppofite. And therefore, this appearance can power of gravity at the equator 5 and all bodies there
be no objeftion againft the motion of the earth. would entirely lofc their weight. * If the earth revolved
It is well known to every perfon who has failed on quicker, they would all fly off and leave it.
fmooth water, or been carried by a ftream in a calm, A perfon on the earth can no more be fenfible of its
that, however faft the veffel goes, he does not feel iti undifturbed motion on its axis, than one in the cabin
of
(b) This, however, muft be underftood with fome degree of limitation, as will evidently appear from
■what has been already faid concerning the variable motion both of the fpots of the fun and planet*.
Tlate L XXVTI.
Astronomy.
Sea. V. A S T R
Particular of a Hup on fraootli water can be fenfible of the fhip’s
^•fXPj^c^onmotion when it turns gently and uniformly round. It
leftial Phe- ‘5 therefore no argument again!! the earth’s diurnal
oomena. motion, that we do not feel it : nor is the apparent
* revolutions of the celeftial bodies every day a proof of
the reality of thefe motions; For whether we or they
revolve, the appearance is the very fame. A perfon
looking through the cabin-windows of a !hip, as
ftrongly fancies the objefts on land to go round when
343 the (hip turns as if they were aftually in motion.
Earth’s mo- If we could tranflate ourfelves from planet to planet,
tion proved we fhould {till find that the ftars-would appear of the
Ce"^aine magnitudes, and at the fame dittances from each
pearances as tl)c)r d° to 118 here ; becaufe the width of the
from differ- remote!! planet’s orbit bears no fenfible proportion to
cat planets, the diftance of the ftars. But then the heavens would
feem to revolve about very different axes 5 and confe*
quently, thofe quiefcent points, which are our poles in
the heavens, would feem to revolve about other points,
which, though apparently in motion as feen from the
earth, would be at reft as feen from any other planet.
Thus the axis of Venus, which lies at right angles to
the axis of the earth, would have its motionlefs poles
in two oppofue points of the heavens lying almol! in
our equinodiial, where the motion appears quickeft,
becaule it is feemingly performed in the greateft circle :
and the very poles, which are at reft to us, have the
quickeft motion of all as feen from Venus. To Mars
and Jupiter the heavens appear to turn round with
very different velocities on the fame axis, whofe poles
are about 234- degrees from ours. Were we on Jupi¬
ter, we fhould be at firl! amazed at the rapid motion of
the heavens; the fun and ftars going round in 9 hours
56 minutes. Could we go from thence to Ventis, we
fhould be as much furprifed at the flownefs of the hea¬
venly motions; the fun going but once round in 584
hours, and the ftars in 540. And could we go from
Venus to the moon, we fhould fee the heavens turn
round with a yet flower motion 5 the fun iti 708 hours,
the ftars in 655. As it is impoffible thefe various cir¬
cumvolutions in fuch different times, and on fuch dif¬
ferent axes, can be real, fo it is unreafonable to fuppofe
the heavens to revolve about our earth more than it
does about any other planet. When we refledt on the
vaft diftance of the fixed ftars, to which 190,000,006
of miles, the diameter of the earth’s orbit, is but a
point, we are filled with amazement at the immenfity
bf their diftance. But if we try to frame an idea of
the extreme rapidity with which the ftars muft move,
if they move round the earth in 24 hours, the thought
becomes fo much too big for our imagination, that we
can no more conceive it than we do infinity or eternity.
If the fun was to go round the earth in 24 hours, he
muft travel upwards of 300,000 miles in a minute t but
the ftars being at leal! 400,000 times as far from the
fun as the fun is from us, thofe about the equator muft
move 400,000 times as quick. And all this to ferve
no other purpofe than what can be as fully and much
more fimply obtained by the earth’s turning round eaft-
ward, as on an axis, every 24 hours, caufing thereby
an apparent diurnal motion of the fun weftward, and
344 bringing about the alternate returns of day and night.
Another As to the common ofcjedtions againf! the earth’s
objeftion motion on its axis, they are all eafily anfweted and fet
an were . That it may turn without being feen or felt
O N O M Y, 517
by us to do fo, has been already fhown. But fome Particular
are apt to imagine, that if the earth turns eat!ward (asExPlication
it certainly does if it turns at all), a ball fired PerPen’Uftiafphc-
dicularly upward in the air muft fall confiderably weft-nomena.
ward of the place it was proje&ed from. The objec-1. j
tion, which at firft feems to have fome weight, will be
found to have none at at all, when we confider that the
gun and ball partake of the earth’s motion ; and there¬
fore the ball being carried forward with the air as
quick as the earth and air turn, muft fall down on the
fame place. A ftone let fall from the top of a main-
maft, if it meets with no obftacle, falls on the deck as
near the foot of the maft when the flop fails as when
it does not. If an inverted bottle full of liquor be
hung up to the ceiling of the cabin, and.a fmall hole
be made in the cork to let the liquor drop through on
the floor, the drops will fall juft as far forward on the
floor when the (hip fails as when it is at reft. And
gnats or flies can as eafily dance among one another
in a moving cabin as in a fixed chamber. As for
thofe feripture exprefiions which feem to contradifi the
earth’s motion, this general anfwer may be made to
them all, viz. It is plain from many inftances, that the
feriptures were never intended to inftruft us in philo-
fophy or aftronomy j and therefore on thofe fubje&a
expreffions are not always to be taken in the literal
fenfe, but for the moft part as accommodated to the
common apprehenfions of mankind. Men of fenfe in
all ages, when not treating of the fciences purpbfely,
have followed this method : and it would be in vain to
follow any other in addrefling ourfelves to the vulgar,
or bulk of any community.
The following experiment will give a plain idea ofDiurnal
the diurnal or annual motions of the earth, together n)otl6n
with the different lengths of days and nights, and
the beautiful variety of feafons, depending on thofe rent chan-
motions. gesofthe
Take about feven feet of ftrong wire, and bend it feafons, il-
into a circular form, as a b e d, which being viewed ob- luftrated by
liquely, appears elliptical, as in the figure. Place a
lighted candle on a table j and having fixed one end of
a lilk thread K to the north pole of a fmall terreftrial
globe H, about three inches diameter, caufe another
perfon to hold the wire circle, fo that it may be paral¬
lel to the table, and as high as the flame of the candle
I, which fhould be in or near the centre. Then ha¬
ving twitted the thread as towards the left hand, that
by untwifting it may turn the globe round eaftward,
or contrary to the way that the bands of a watch move,
hang the globe by the thread within this circle, al-
moft contiguous to it; and as the thread untwifts, the
globe (which is enlightened half round by the candle
as the earth is by the fun) will turn round its axis, and
the different places upon it will be carried through the
light and dark hemifpheres, and have the appearance
of a regular fucceffion of days and nights, as our earth
has in reality by fuch a motion. As the globe turns,
move your hand flowly, fo as to carry the globe round
the candle according to the order of the letters abed,
keeping its centre even with the wire circle; and you
will perceive, that the candle, being ftill perpendicular
to the equator, will enlighten the globe from pole to
pole in its whole motion round the circle ; and that
every place on the globe goes equally through the
light and the dark, a$ it turns round by the untwift-
5i 8 ASTRO
Particular ;ng 0f the thread, and therefore has a perpetual equi-
Jf‘P“>n°x. The globe thus turning round reprefents the
^ial Phe. earth turning round its axis ; and the motion of the
pomena. globe round the candle reprefents the earth’s annual
V—y—J motion round the fun ; and fhows, that if the earth’s
orbit had no inclination to its axis, all the days and
nights of the year would be equally long, and there
■would be no different feafons. Hence alfo it appears
why the planets Mars and Jupiter have a perpetual e-
quinox, namely, becaufe their axis is perpendicular to
the plane of their orbit, as the thread round which the
globe turns in this experiment is perpendicular to the
plane of the area inclofed by the wire.—But now de¬
fire the.perfon who holds the wire to hold it obliquely
in the pofition ABCD, raifing the fide 25 juft as much
as he depreffes the fide VJ, that the flame may be ftill
in the plane of the circle ; and twilling the thread as
before, that the globe may turn round its axis the fame
■way as you carry it round the candle, that is, from
•weft to eaft ; let the globe down into the lowermoft
part of the wire circle at : and if the circle be pro¬
perly inclined, the candle will fhine perpendicularly
on the tropic of Cancer; and the frigid zone, lying
within the arflic or north polar circle, will be all in
the light, as in the figure ; and will keep in the light,
let the globe turn round its axis ever fo often. From
the equator to the north polar circle, all the places have
longer days and fhorter nights ; but from the equator
to the fouth polar circle, juft the reverfe. The fun
does not fet to any part of the north frigid zone, as
fhown by the candle’s fhining on it, fo that the motion
of the globe can carry no place of that zone into the
dark ; and at the fame time the fouth frigid zone is
involved in darknefs,. and the turning of the globe
brings none of its places into the light. If the earth
were to continue in the like part of its orbit, the fun
would never fet to the inhabitants of the north frigid
zone, nor rife to thofe of the fouth. At the equator
it would be always equal day and night; and as places
are gradually more and more diftant from the equator
towards the arftic circle, they would have longer days
and fhorter nights ; whilft thofe on the fouth fide of
the equator would have their nights longer than their
days. In this cafe, there would be continual fummer
on the north fide of the equator, and continual winter
on the fouth fide of it.
But as the globe turns round it axis, move your
hand flowly forward, fo as to carry the globe from H
towards E, and the boundary of light and darknefs
will approach towards the north pole, and recede to¬
wards the fouth pole ; the northen places will go
through lefs and lefs of the light, and the fouthern
places through more and more of it; (hawing.how the
northern days decreafe in length and the fouthern days
increafe, whilft the globe proceeds from H to E,
When the globe is at E, it is at a mean ftate between
the lowed and higheft parts of its orbit ; the candle is
dire£lly over the equator, the boundary of light and
darknefs juft reaches to both the poles, and all places
op the globe go equally through the light and dark
bemifpheres, fhowing that the days and nights are then
equal at all places of the earth, the poles only except¬
ed ; for the fun is then fetting to the north pole and
rlfing to the fouth pole.
Gputinue mpying the globe,forward, and as it goes
N O M Y. Sea. V.
through the quarter A, the north pole recedes ftill far-Particular
ther into the dark hcmifphere, and the fouth pole ad-ExPl'cati°n
vances more into the light, as the globe comes nearer
to 25 •' and when it comes there at F, the candle iSn0^cna **
diredlly over the tropic of Capricorn ; the days are at. t »
the fhorteft and nights at the longeft, in the northern
hemifphere, all the way from the equator to the ar£lic
circle; and the reverfe in the fouthern hemifphere
from the equator to the antarftic circle ; within which
circles it is dark to the north frigid zone, and light to
the fouth.
Continue both motions ; and as the globe moves
through the quarter B, the north pole advances to¬
wards the light, and the fouth pole recedes towards the
dark; the days lengthen in the northern hemifpherc
and fhorten in the fouthern ; and when the globe comes
to G, the candle will be again over the equator (as
when the globe was at E), and the days and nights will
again be equal as formerly ; and the north pole will
be juft coming into the light, the fouth pole going out
of it.
Thus we fee the reafon why the days lengthen and
fhorten from the equator to the polar circles every
year ; why there is fomctimes no day or night for
many turnings of the earth, within the polar circles ;
why there is but one day and one night in the whole
year at the poles ; and why the days and nights are
equally long all the year round at the equator, which
is always equally cut by the circle bounding light and
darknefs.
The inclination of an axis or orbit is merely relative,
becaufe we compare it with fome other axis or orbit
which we confider as not inclined at all. Thus, our
horizon being level to us, whatever, place of the earth
we are upon, we confider it as having no inclination ;
and yet, if we travel 90 degrees from that place, we
(hall then have an horizon perpendicular to the former 5
but it will ftill be level to us. ^
Let us now take a view of the earth in its annual Different
courfe round the fun, confidering its orbit as having nofeafons par-
inclination ; and its axis as inclining 23 f degrees from t*cu^a.r^y
a line perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, and keep-explainc<1^
ing the fame oblique direction in all parts of its annual
courfe; or, as commonly termed, keeping always pa¬
rallel to itfelf.
L.z\. a,b,c, d, be the earth in eight diffe-Fig 174.
rent parts of its orbit, equidiftant from one another;
N/ its axis, N its north pole, j its fouth pole, and S
the fun nearly in the centre of the earth’s orbit. As
the earth goes round the fun according to the order of
the letters abed, Ike. its axis Nr keeps the fame ob¬
liquity, and is ftill parallel to the line MNj. When
the earth is at a, its north pole inclines towards the
fun S, and brings all the northern places more into the
light than at any other time of the year. But when
the earth is at e in the oppofite time of the year, the
north pole declines from the fun, which occafions the
northern places to be more in the dark than in the
light, and the reverfe at the fouthern places ; as is evi¬
dent by the figure which is taken from Dr Long’s a-
ftronomy. When the earth is either at c or g, its axis
inclines not either to or from The fun, but lies fide-
wife to him, and then the poles are in the boundary of
light and darknefs ; and the fun, being diredtiy over
the equator, makes equal day and night at all places.
W.ben
Sea. V. A S T O F
Particular When the earth is at b, it is half-way between the
Exphca- fummer folftice and harvell equinox ; when it is at d,
Celeftial^e ‘t *s lia'f'way from ^le harveft equinox to the winter
Phenome- : athalf-way from the winter folftice to the
na. fpring equinox; and at half-way from the fpring
v—^ equinox to the fummer folftice.
From this oblique view of the earth’s orbit, let us
fuppofe ourfelves to be raifed far above it, and placed
juft over its centre S, looking down upon it from its
north pole ; and as the eartn’s orbit differs but very
little from a circle, we fhall have its figure in fuch a
Jig. 177. view reprefented by the circle ABCDEFG. Let
us fuppofe this circle to be divided into 1 a equal parts,
c&Wz&Jigns, having their names affixed to them ; and
each fign into 30 equal parts, called degrees, number¬
ed 10, 20, 30, as in the outermoft circle of the figure,
which reprefents the great ecliptic in the heavens.
The earth is ffiown in eight different pofitions in this
circle ; and in each pofition iE is the equator, T the
tropic of Cancer, the dotted circle the parallel of Lon¬
don, U the anftic or north polar circle, and P the
north pole, rvhere all the meridians or hour-circles
meet. As the earth goes round the fun, the north
pole keeps conftantly towards one part of the heavens,
as it keeps in the figure towards the right-hand fide of
the plate.
When the earth is at the beginning of Libra, name¬
ly on the 20th of March, in this figure the fun S as
feen from the earth, appears at the beginning of A-
ries in the oppofite part of the heavens, the north pole
is juft coming into the light, and the fun is vertical to
the equator ; w'hich, together with the tropic of Can¬
cer, parallel of London, and arftic circle, are all e-
qually cut by the circle bounding light and darknefs,
coinciding with the fix-o’clock hour-circle, and there¬
fore the days and nights are equally long at all places ;
for every part of the meridian JETLa comes into the
light at fix in the morning, and, revolving with the
earth according to the order of the hour-letters, goes
into the dark at fix in the evening. There are 24
meridians or hour-circles drawn on the earth in this
figure, to fhew the time of fun-rifing and fetting at
different feafons of the year.
As the earth moves in the ecliptic according to the
order of the letters ABCD, &c. through the figns
Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius, the north pole P
comes more and more into the light; the days increafe
as the nights decreafe in length, at all places north of
the equator JE ; which is plain by viewing the earth
at b on the 5th of May, when it is in the 13th degree
of Scorpio, and the fun as feen from the earth appears
in the 15th degree of Taurus. For then the tropic of
Cancer T is in the light from a little after five in the
morning till almoft feven in the evening ; the parallel of
London, from half an hour paft four till half an hour
paft feven ; the polar circle U, from three till nine ;
and a large track round the north pole P has day all
the 24 hours, for many rotations of the earth on its
axis.
When the earth comes to c (fig. 174.) at the be¬
ginning of Capricorn, and the fun as feen from the
earth appears at the beginning of Cancer, on the 21 ft of
June, as in this figure, it is in the pofition C in fig.177 ;
and its north pole inclines towards the fun, fo as to bring
•all the north frigid zone into the light,-and the northern
N O M Y. 519
parallels of latitude more into the light than the dark Particular
from the equator to the polar circle ; and the more fo a8QfX^ieCCe°a
they are farther from the equator. The tropic of Can-p{ie_
cer is in the light from five in the morning till feven at nomena.
night, the parallel of London from a quarter before —v ■"
four till a quarter after eight; and the polar circle juft
touches the dark, fo that the fun has only the lower
half of his difk hid from the inhabitants on that circle
for a few minutes about midnight, fuppofing no ine¬
qualities in the horizon, and no refraftions.
A bare view of the figure is enough to ftrow, that as
the earth advances from Capricorn towards Aries, and
the fun appears to move from Cancer towards Li¬
bra, the north pole recedes from the light, which caufes
the days to decreafe, and the nights to increafe in
length, till the earth comes to the beginning of Aries,
and then they are equal as before ; for the boundary of
light and darknefs cuts the equator and all its parallels
equally or in halves. The north pole then goes into the
dark, and continues therein until the earth goes half¬
way round its orbit; or, from the 23d of September
till the 20th of March. In the middle between thefe
times, viz. on the 22d of December, the north pole
is as far as it can be in the dark, which is 2 3f degrees,
equal to the inclination of the earth’s axis from a per¬
pendicular to its orbit ; and then the northern paral¬
lels are as much in the dark as they were in the light
on the 21 ft of June ; the winter nights being as long
as the fummer days, and the winter days as fhort as
the fummer nights. Here it muft be noted, that of all
that has been faid of the northern hemifphere, the con¬
trary muft be underftood of the fouthern ; for on dif¬
ferent fides of the equator the feafons are contrary, be-
caufe, when the northern hemifphere inclines towards
the fun, the fouthern declines from him.
The earth’s orbit being elliptical, and the fun con-why^he
ftantly keeping in its lower focus, which is 1,617,941 fun appears
miles from the middle point of the longer axis, the earth bigger in
comes twice fo much, or 3,235,882 miles nearer the fUn.winJertlia»»
at one time of the year than at another: for the fun111 unun01*
appearing under a larger angle in our winter than fum¬
mer, proves that the earth is nearer the fun in winter.
But here this natural queftion will arife, Why have we
not the hotteft weather when the earth is neareft the
fun ? In anfwer it muft be obferved, that the eccen¬
tricity of the earth’s orbit, or 1,617,941 miles, bears
no greater proportion to the earth’s mean diftance from
the fun than 17 does to 1000; and therefore this
fmall difference of diftance cannot occafion any great
difference of heat or cold. But the principal caufe of
this difference is, that in winter the fun’s rays fall fo
obliquely upon us, that any given number of them is
fpread over a much greater portion of the earth’s fur-
face where we live, and therefore each point muft then
have fewer rays than in fummer. Moreover, there
comes a greater degree of cold in the long winter-
nights than there can return of heat in fo Ihort days ;
and on both thefe accounts the cold muft increafe. But
in fummer the fun’s rays fall more perpendicularly upon
us ; and therefore come with greater force, and in
greater numbers, on the fame place ; and by their long
continuance, a much greater degree of heat is impart-
ted by day than can fly off by night. Befides, thofe
parts which are once heated, retain the heat for fome
time ; which, with the additional heat daily imparted,
-makes
520
R O
Particular makes it continue to increafe, though the fun declines
ofTlilfct0” towards the fouth ; and this is the reafon why July is
lethal Phe- hotter than June, although the fun has withdrawn
yiomeua. from the fummer tropic ; as we find it is generally
hotter at three in the afternoon, when the fun has gone
towards the weft, than at noon when he is on the me*
ridian. Likewife thofe places which are well cooled
require time to be heated again ; for the fun’s rays do
not heat even the furface of any body till they have
been fome time upon it. And therefore we find Janu¬
ary for the moft part colder than December, altho’ the
fun has withdrawn from the winter tropic, and begins
to dart his beams more perpendicularly upon us. An
iron bar is not heated immediately upon being in the
fire, nor grows cold till fome time after it has been ta¬
ken out.
It has been already obferved, that by the earth’s mo¬
tion on its axis, there is more matter accumulated all
around the equatorial parts than any where elfe on the
earth.
The fun and moon, by attra&ing this redundancy
of matter, bring the equator fooner under them in e-
very return towards it, than if there was no fuch accu¬
mulation. Therefore, if the fun fets out, as from any
liar, or other fixed point in the heavens, the moment
when he is departing from the equino&ial or from ei¬
ther tropic, he will come to the fame equinox or tropic
again 20 min. 174. fee. of time, or 5ofeconds of a de¬
gree, before he completes his courfe, fo as to arrive
at the fame fixed ftar or point from whence he fet out.
For the equinodtial point* recede 50 feconds of a de¬
gree weftward every year, contrary to the fun’s annual
progreffive motion.
When the fun arrives at the fame equinoftial or fol-
ftitial point, he finifties what we call the Tropical Tear ;
which, by obfervation, is found to contain 365 days
5 hours 48 minutes 57 feconds : and when he arrives at
the fame fixed ftar again, as feen from the earth, he
completes the fiderial year, which contains 365 days
6 hours 9 minutes 14-f feconds. The fiderial year
is therefore 20 minutes tyf feconds longer than the
folar or tropical year, and 9 minutes 14-*- feconds long¬
er than the Julian or the civil year, which we (late at
365 days 6 hours, fo that the civil year is almoft a mean
between the fideria! and tropical.
As the fun deferibes the whole ecliptic,, or 360 de¬
grees, in a tropical year, he moves 59' 8W of a degree
every day at a mean rate ; and confequently 50" of a
degree in 20 minutes 1 feconds of time : therefore
be will arrive at the fame equinox or folftice when he
is 50" of a degree ftiort of the fame ftar or fixed point
in the heavens from which he fet out the year before.
So that, with refpedt to the fixed ftars, the fun and e-
quino&ial points fall back (as it were) 30 degrees in
2160 years, which will make the ftars appear to have
gone 30 deg. forward with refpeft to the figns of the
ecliptic in that time : for the fame figns always keep
in the fame points of the ecliptic, without regard to
348 the conftellations.
yreceflion To explain this by a figure, let the fun be in con-
of the equi-jun&ion with a fixed ftar at S, fuppofe in the 3.0th
Koxesex- (]egree 0f ^ at any given time. Then, making
JigTlS'i. 2160 revolutions through the ecliptic VWX, at the
end of fo many fiderial years, he will be found again
at S: but at the end of fo many Julian years, he
M° 33.
N O M Y, Sea. V.
will be found at M» fh°rt °f $ : and at the end of fo Particular
many tropical years he will be found (hort of M, in theExP1!cat!ot,
30th deg. of Taurus at T, which has receded back|O^h.eir0‘
from S to T in that time, by the preceffion of the e- nomena.'*"
quinoflial points CY’ .Aries and Libra. The arc'——y—j
ST will be equal to the amount of the preceflion of
the equinox in 2160 years, at the rate of 5c." of a de¬
gree, or 20 minutes 17^. feconds of time annually:
this, in fo many years, makes 30 days 10J hours, which
is the difference between 2160 fiderial and tropical
years ; and the arc MT will be equal to the fpace mo¬
ved through by the fun in 2160 times 11 min. 8 fee. or
16 days 13 hours 48 minutes, which is the difference
between 2160 Julian and tropical years. 349
The anticipation of the equinoxes, and confequent- Anticipa-
ly of the feafons, is by no means owing to the precef-tI0n.of tfie
fion of the equino&ial and folftitial points in the hea- explained
^rens ( which can only affedt the apparent motions, places,
and declinations, of the fixed ftars), but to thedifference
between the civil and folar year, which is ri minutes
3 feconds ; the civil year containing 365 days 6 hours*
and the folar year 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 57 fe¬
conds.
The above 11 minutes 3 feconds, by which the ci¬
vil or Julian year exceeds the folar, amounts to 11 days
in 1433 years ; and fo much our feafons have fallen
back with refpeft to the days of the months, fince the
time of the Nicene council in A. D. 325 ; and there¬
fore, in order to bring back all thefafts and feftivals to
the days then fettled, it was requifite to fupprefs 11 no¬
minal days : and, that the fame feafons might be kept
to the fame times of the year for the future, to leave
out the biffextile-day in February at the end of every
century of years not dfvifible by 4 ; reckoning them
only common years, as the 17th, 18th, and 19th cen¬
turies, viz. the years 1700, 1800, 1900, &c. becaufe
a day intercalated every fourth year was too much ;
and retaining the biflextile-day at the end of thofe cen¬
turies of years which are divifible by 4, as the i6tb,
20th, and 24th centuries, viz. the years 1600, 2000,
2400, &c.; otherwife, in length of time, the feafons
would be quite reverfed with regard to the months of
the year ; though it would have required near 23,783
years to have brought about fuch a total change. If
the earth had made exaftly 365^ diurnal rotations on
its axis, whilft it revolved from any equino&ial or fol¬
ftitial point to the fame again, the civil and folar years
w’ould always have kept pace together, and the ftyle
would never have needed any alteration.
Having thus mentioned the caufe of the preceflion of
the equino£Hal points in the heavens, which occafions
a flow deviation of the earth’s axis from its parallel-
ifm, and thereby a change of the declination of the
ftars from the equator, together with a flow apparent
motion of the ftars forward with refpedt to the figns of
the ecliptic, we fhall now explain the phenomena by a
Let NZSVL be the earth, SONA its axis produ-Flg. 182,
eed to the ftarry heavens,, and terminating in A, the
prefent north pole of the heavens, which is vertical to
N the north pole of the earth. Let EOQ^be the e-
quator, TopZ the tropic of Cancer, and VIV? the
tropic of Capricorn ; VOZ the ecliptic, and BO its
axis, both which are immoveable among the ftars. But
as the e«juiao£tial points recede in the ecliptic, the earth’s
TJa te LXXYUJL.
A S T R O N O MY .
Sea. V.
RON
Particular axis SON is in motion upon the earth’s centre O, in
Explication fuch a manner as to defcribe the douBle cone NO» and
leftiaTPhe-SOx, round the axis o-f the ecliptic BO, in the time
nomena. that the equinofliial points move quite round theec-
t——y—liptic, which is 25,920 years ; and in that length, of
time, the north pole of the earth’s axis produced, de-
fcribes the circle ABCDA in the flarry heavens, round
the pole of the ecliptic, which keeps immoveable in the
centre cf that circle. The earth’s axis being 23^ de¬
grees inclined to the axis of the ecliptic, the circle
ABCDA defcribed by the north pole of the earth’s
axis produced to A, is 47 degrees in diameter, or-dou¬
ble the inclination of the earth’s axis. In confequence
of this, the point A, which at prefent is the north pole
of the heavens, and near to a ftar of the fecond magni¬
tude in the tail of the conftellation called the LittleBear,
muft be deferted by the earth’s axis ; which moving
backwards a degree every 72 years, will be diredied to¬
wards the ftar or point B in 6480 years hence ; and in
double of that time, or in 12,960 years, it will be di-
re&ed towards the ftar or point C, which will then be the
north pole of the heavens, although it is at prefent 81-
degrees fouth of the zenith of London L. The pre¬
fent pofition of the equator EOQjvill then be changed
into eOy, the tropic of Cancer T.25Z into V/.2o> and
the tropic of Capricorn VTvj into ; as is evident
by the figure. And the fun, in the fame part of the
heavens where he is now over the earthly tropic of Ca¬
pricorn, and makes the ftiorteft days and longeft nights
in the northern hemifphere, will then be over the earth¬
ly tropic of Cancer, and make the days longeft and
nights fhorteft. So that it will require 12,960 years
yet more, or 25,920 from the then prefent time, to
bring the north pole N quite round, fo as to be diredt-
ed toward that point of the heavens which is vertical
to it at prefent. And then, and not till then, the fame
ftars which at prefent defcribe the equator, tropics,
and polar circles, &c, by the earth’s diurnal motion,
will defcribe them over again.
From the drifting of the equinodbial points, and with
them all the figns of the ecliptic, it follows that thofe
liars which in the infancy of aftronomy were in Aries
are now got into Taurus; thofe of Taurus into Gemi¬
ni, &c. Hence likewife it is that the ftars which rofe
or fet at any particular feafon of the year, in the times
of Hefiod, Eudoxus, Virgil, Pliny, &c. by no means
afffwer at this time to their defcriptions.
Of ihe moon is not a planet, but only a fatellite, or at-
moon. tendant of the earth, going round the earth from
change to change in 29 days 12 hours and 44 minutes,
and round the fun with it every year. The moon’s dia¬
meter is 2180 miles ; and her diftance from the earth’s
centre is 240,000. 6he goes round her orbit in 27 days
7 hours 43 minutes, moving about 2290 miles every
hour ; and turns round her axis exadlly in the time that
fhe goes round the earth, which is the reafon of her
keeping always the fame fide towards us, and that her
day and night taken together is as long as our lunar
month.
Reflects The moon is an opaque globe like the earth, and
the fun’s ftiines only by refledting the light of the fun : there-
fcs1*- fore, whilft that half of her wh.ch is towards the fun is
enlightened^ the other half muft be dark and inviiible.
Hence (he difappears when ftie comes between us and the
fun ; becaufe her dark fide is then towards us. When-
Von. II. Part II.
M T.
fhe is gone a little way forward, we fee a little of her Particular
enlightened fide : which (fill increafes to our view as^■xP*'cat'on
fhe advances forward, until fhe comes to be oppofite toj^J^p^
the fun ; and then her whole enlightened fide is towards rfonwna.'
the earth, and fhe appears with a round illumined orb,—y ■—.j
which we call the full moon ; her dark fide being then
turned away from the earth. From the full fhe feems
to decreafe gradually as fhe goes through the other half
of her courfe ; fhowing us lefs and lefs of her enlight¬
ened fide every day, till her next change or conjundftion
with the fun, and then fhe difappears as before.
The moon has fcarce any difference of feafons ; her
axis being almoft perpendicular to the ecliptic. What
is very fiugular, one half of her has no darknefs at all ;
the earth conftantly affording it a ftrong light in the
fun’s abfence ; while the other half has a fortnight’s
darknefs and a fortnight’s light by turns.
Our earth is thought to be a moon to the moon JEanhap-
waxirvg and waning regularly, but appearing 13 timespearsa
as big, and affording her 13 times as much light as Ihemoon to
does ua. When fhe changes to us the earth appearsour In00II•
full to her; and when fhe is in her firft quarter to us,
the earth is in its third quarter to her ; and viceverfa.
But from one half of the moon the earth is never
feen at all : from the middle of the other half, it is al¬
ways feen over head ; turning round almoft 30 times as
quick as the moon does. From the circle which limits
our view of the moon, only one half of the earth’s fide
next her is feen ; the other half being hid below the
horizon of all places on that circle. To her the earth
feems to be the biggeft body in the univerfe ; for it ap¬
pears 13 times as big as fhe does to us.
As the earth turns round its axis, the feveral conti¬
nents, feas, and iflands, appear to the moon’s inhabi¬
tants like fo many fpots of different forms and bright-
nefs, moving over its furface ; but much fainter at fome
times than others, as our clouds cover them or leave
them. By thefe fpots the Lunarians can determine the
time of the earth’s diurnal motion, juft as we do the
motion of the fun : and perhaps they meafure their time
by the motion of the earth’s fpots ; for they cannot
have a truer dial. ^
The moon’s axis is fo nearly perpendicular to the How the
ecliptic, that the fun never removes fenfibly from herLuoar in¬
equator ; and the obliquity of her orbit, which is next ^a*3’tants
to nothing as feen from the fun, cannot caufe the fun^^j
to decline fenfibly from her equator. Yet her inbabi-rear,
tants are not deftitute of means for afeertaining the
length of their year, though their method and ours muft
differ. For we can know the length of our year by the
return of our equinoxes; but the Lunarians, having al¬
ways equal day and night, muft have recourfe to an¬
other method : and we may fuppofe, they meafure their
year by obferving when either of the poles of our earth
begins to be enlightened and the other to difappear,
which is always at our equinoxes ; they being conve¬
niently fituated for obferving great trails of land about
our earth’s poles, W'hich are entirely, unknown to us.
Hence we may conclude, that the year is of the fame
abfolute length both to the earth and moon, though,
very different as to the number ofdays; we having 365^
natural days, and the Lunarians only 12^, every day.
and night in the moon being as long as 29^ on the
earth.
The moon’s inhabitants on the fide next the earth;
3, U may
ASTRO
may as eafiiy find the longitude of their places as we
can find the latitude of ours. For the earth keeping
conftantly, or very nearly fo, over one meridian of the
moon, the call or weft diftances of places from that me¬
ridian are as eafily found as we can find our diftance
from the equator by the altitude of our celeftial poles.
As the fun can only enlighten that half of the earth
which is at any moment turned towards him, and, be¬
ing withdrawn from the oppofite half, leaves it in dark-
nefs 5 fo he likewife doth to the moon ; only with this
difference, that as the earth is furrounded by an at-
mofphere, we have twilight after the fun fets; but if
the moon has none of her own, nor is included in that
of the earth, the lunar inhabitants have an immediate
tranfition from the brighteft fun-ffiine to the blackeft
darknefs. For, let t r k s w be the earth, and A, B,
®2- 183. C, D, E, F, G, H, the moon in eight different parts of
her orbit. As the earth turns round its axis from weft
to eaft, when any place comes to t, the twilight begins
there, and when it revolves from thence to’ r the fun S
rifes ; when the place comes to s the fun fets, and when
it comes to w the twilight ends. But as the moon
turns round her axis, which is only once a month, the
moment that any part of her furface comes to r (fee
the moon at G), the fun rifes there without any previous
warning by twilight ; and when the fame point comes
to j- the fun fets, and that point goes into darknefs as
-3^ black as at midnight.
JHer phafes The moon being an opaque fpherical body (for her
^plained, hills take off no more from her roundnefs than the ine¬
qualities on the furface of an orange takes off from its
roundnefs), we can only fee that part of the enlighten¬
ed half of her which is towards the earth. And there¬
fore, when the moon is at A, in conjundlion with the
fun S, her dark half is towards the earth, and fhe dif-
appears, as at a, there being no light on that half to
render it vifible. When (he comes to her firft oftant
at B, or has gone an eighth part of her orbit from her
eonjun&ion, a quarter of her enlightened fide is to¬
wards the earth, and ihe appears horned, as at b.
When ihe has gone a quarter of her orbit from be¬
tween the earth and fun to C, fhe fhows us one half of
her enlightened fide, as at c, and we fay fhe is a quar¬
ter old. At D, fhe is in her fecond odlant ; and by
fhowing us more of her enlightened fide fhe appears
gibbous, as at d. At E, her whole enlightened fide is
towards the earth ; and therefore fhe appears round, as
at e ; when we fay it is full moon. In her third oft-
ant at F, part of her dark fide being towards the
earth, fhe again appears gibbous, and is on the de-
creafe, as at f. At G, we fee juft one half of her en¬
lightened fide ; and fhe appears half decreafed, or in
her third quarter, as at g. At H, we only fee a quar¬
ter of her enlightened fide, being in her fourth oftant.;
where fhe appears horned, as at h. And at A, ha¬
ving completed her courfe from the fun to the fun a-
gain, fhe difappears ; and we fay it is new moon,
'ihus, in going from A to E, the moon feems conti¬
nually to increafe 5 and in going from E to A, to de-
creafe in the fame proportion ; having like phafes at
•equal diftances from A to E, but as feen from the fun
S ihe is always full.
?7cver ap- n'|,e nip0n appears not perfeftly round when fhe is
7-..1S pa- pujj jn t],c h^heft or loweft part of her orbit, bccaufe
N O M Y. Sea. V.
we have not a full view of her enlightened fide at that Particular
time. When full in the higheft part of her orbit, aExphcatioii
fmall deficiency appears on her lower edge ; and
contrary when full in the loweft part of her orbit. nomena.
It is plain by the figure, that when the moon chan-1 v ■■ .1
ges to the earth, the earth appears full to the moon ;
and vice verfa. For when the moon is at A, new to
the earth, the whole enlightened fide of the earth is
towards the moon ; and when the moon is at E, full
to the earth, its dark fide is towards her. Hence a
new moon anfwers to a full earth, and a full moon to
a new earth. The quarters are alfo reverfed to each
other- . . 337
Between the third quarter and change, the moon is-Agreeable
frequently vifible in the forenoon, even when the funreprefenta-
fhines ; and then fhe affords us an opportunity of fee-tion of her
ing a very agreeable appearance, wherever we find aphafes*
globular ftone above the level of the eye, as fuppofe on
the top of a gate. For, if the fun ftnnes on the ftone,
and we place ourfelves fo as the upper part of the ftone
may juft feem to touch the point of the moon’s lower-
moft horn, we fhall then fee the enlightened part of the
ftone exaftly of the fame fhape with the moon ; horned
as fhe is, and inclined the fame way to the horizon.
The reafon is plain j for the fun enlightens the ftonc
the fame way as he does the moon : and both being
globes, when we put ourfelves into the above fitua-
tion, the moon and ftone have the fame pofition to our
eyes ; and therefore we muft fee as much of the illu¬
minated part of the one as of the other.
The pofition of the moon’s cufps, or a right line
touching the points of her horns, is very differently
inclined to the horizon at different hours of the fame
days of her age. Sometimes fhe ftands, as it were, up¬
right on her lower horn, and then fuch a line is per¬
pendicular to the horizon : when this happens, fhe is
in what the aftronomers call the nonagefimal degree; Nonagefi-
which is the higheft point of the ecliptic above the ho-mal degree,
rizon at that time, and is 90 degrees from both fides
of the horizon where it is then cut by the ecliptic.
But this never happens when the moon is on the meri¬
dian, except when fhe is at the very beginning of Can¬
cer or Capricorn.
That the moon turns round her axis in the time
that fhe goes round her orbit, is quite demonftrable ;
for, a fpeftator at reft, without the periphery of the
moon’s orbit, would fee all her fides turned regularly
towards him in that time. She turns round her axis
from any ftar to the fame ftar again in 27 days 8 hours ;
from the fun to the fun again in 29^ days : the former
is the length of her fidereal day, and the latter the
length of her folar day. A body moving round the
fun would have a folar day in every revolution, without
turning on its axis ; the fame as if it had kept all the
while at reft, and the fun moved round it : but with¬
out turning round its axis it could never have one fi¬
dereal day, becaufe it would always keep the fame fide
towards any given ftar.
If the earth had no annual motion, the moon would
go round it fo as to complete a lunation, a fidereal,
and a folar dayr, all in the fame time. But, becaufe
the earth goes forward in its orbit while the moon goes
round the earth in her orbit, the moon muft go as
much more than round her orbit from change to change
Sea. V.
A
T R G N O M
T.
5 2 3,
Particular in completing a folar day, as the earth has gone for-
Explication war(j ;n ;ts orb;t Jurincr that time, i. e. aimoft a twelfth
k^Ph"Part of ,
nomena, “ the earth had no annual motion, the moon s mo-
e—»-v ; tion round the earth, and her track in open fpace,
would be always the fame (c). But as the earth and
3.59 _ moon move round the fun, the moon’s real patli in the
of he*^)ath ^e*vens '* very different from her vifible path round
round the the earth ; the latter being in a progreffive circle, and
fun. the former in a curve of diifercnt degrees of concavity.
is always concave to the fun in the centre of the earth’s Particular
annual orbit. Explication
In this diagram, the thickefl curve line ABCDE,
with the. numeral figures fet to it, reprefents as much nomena.
of the earth’s annual orbit as it defcribes in 32 days —v——^
from weft to eaft ; the little circles at A, B, C, D, E,
fhow the moon’s orbit in due proportion to the earth’s ;
and the fmalleft curve a Cf reprefents the line of the
moon’s path in the heavens for 32 days, accounted
from any particular new moon at a. The fun is fup-
which would always be the fame in the fame parts of pofed to be in the centre of the curve A1234567B,
Kg. 184.
the heavens, if the moon performed a complete number
of lunations in a year without any fraftion.
Let a nail in the end of the axle of a chariot-wheel
reprefent the earth, and a pin in the nave the moon ; if
the body of the chariot be propped up fo as to keep
that wheel from touching the ground, and the wheel
be then turned round by hand, the pin will defcribe a
circle both round the nail and in the fpace it moves
through. But if the props be taken away, the horfes
put to, and the chariot driven over a piece of ground
which is circularly convex ; the nail in the axle will
defcribe a circular curve, and the pin in the nave will
{till defcribe a circle round the progreffive nail in the
axle, but not in the fpace through which it moves.
In this qafe, the curve defcribed by the nail will re-
femble in miniature as much of the earth’s annual path
round the fun, as it defcribes whjlft the moon goes as
often round the earth as the pin does round the nail :
and the curve defcribed by the pin will have fome re-
femblance of the moon’s path during fo many luna¬
tions.
Let us now fuppofe that the radius of the circular
curve defcribed by the nail in the axle is to the radius
of the circle which the pin in the nave defcribes round
the axle, as 3374-to 1 5 (D) which is the proportion of
the radius or femidiameter of the earth’s orbit to that
of the moon’s, or of the circular curve A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B,
&c. to the little circle a 5 and then, whilft the pro¬
greffive nail defcribes the faid curve from A to E, the
pin will go once round the nail with regard to the
centre of its path, and in fo doing will defcribe the
curve a b c d e. The former will be a true repre*
fentation of the earth’s path for one lunation, and the
latter of jthe moon’s for that time.. Here we may fet
afide the inequalities of the moon’s motion, and alfo
-the earth’s moving round its common centre (.f gra¬
vity and the moon’s 5 all which, if they were truly co¬
pied in this experiment, would not fenfibly alter the
figure of the paths defcribed by the nail and pin, even
though they ffiould rub againft a plain upright fur-
face all the way, and leave their tracks vifible upon it.
And if the chariot were driven forward on fuch a con¬
vex piece of ground, fo as to turn the wheel feveral
times round, the track of the pin in the nave would
Hill be concave towards the centre of the circular curve
defcribed by the nail in the axle; as the moon’s path
&c. and the fmall dotted circles upon it reprefent the
moon’s orbit, of which the radius is in the fame pro¬
portion to the earth’s path in this fcheme, that the
radius of the moon’s orbit in the heavens was fuppofed
to bear to the radius of the earth’s annual path round
the fun; that is, as 240,000 to 8i,ooo,oco, or as I
to 337t*
When the earth is at A, the new moon is at ^; and
in the feven days that the earth defcribes the curve
1 234567, the moon in accompanying the earth
defcribes the curve ab ; and is in her firft quarter at k
when the earth is at B. As the earth defcribes the
curve B 8 9 to 11 12 13 14, the moon defcribes the
curve b c ; and is at c, oppofite to the fun, when the
earth is at C. Whilft the earth defcribes the curve C
15 16 17 i 8 19 20 21 22, the moon defcribes the curve
c d; and is in her third quarter at d when the earth is
at D. And laftly, whilft the earth defcribes the curve
D 23 24 25 26 27 28 29, the moon defcribes the curve
d e; and is again in conjundlion at e with the fun when
the earth is at E, between the 29th and 30th days of
the moon’s age, accounted by the numeral figures
from the new moon at A. In deferibing the curve
a Q e, the moon goes round the progreffive earth as
really as if flie had kept in the dotted circle A, and
the earth continued immoveable in the centre of that
circle. 360
And thus we fee, that although the moon goes Her path
round the earth in a circle, with refpeft to the earth’s always
centre, her real path in the heavens is not very diffe-c_ave t0
rent in appearance from the earth’s path.: To fhowfun‘
that the moon’s path is concave to the fun, even at the
time of change, it is carried on a little farther into a
fecond lunation as to f.
The curves which Jupiter’s fatellites defcribe, are
all of different forts from the path-defcribed by our
moon, although thefe fatellites go round Jupiter as
the moon goes round the earth. Let ABCDE,. &c. Fig. 18
be as much of Jupiter’s orbit as he defcribes in 18 days
from A to T; .and the curves c, will be the
paths of his four moons going round him in his pro¬
greffive motion. Now let us fuppofe all thefe moons to
fet out from a conjunftion with the fun, as feen from
Jupiter at A ; then, his firft or neareft moon will be
at a, his fecond at his third at r, and his fourth
at d. - At the end of 24 terreftrial hours after this
3 U 2 con.
the -■
(c) In this place, we may confider the orbits of all the fatellites as circular, with refpe& to their primary
planets ; becaufe the eccentricities of their orbits are too fmall to affeft the phenomena heTe defcribed.
(d) The figure by which this is illuftrated is borrowed from Mr Fergufon. Later obfervations have dete;--v
mined the proportions to be different: but we cannot find that any delineation of this kind hath been given by
aftronomers, according to the new- proportions. .
524 ASTRO
Particular conjunfxion, Jupiter has moved to B, his firft moon or
Implication[atcjj;te has defcribed the curve a I, his fecond the
MIH Phe- curve ^ ^'s third c I, and his fourth d i. The next
nomena. when Jupiter is at C, his firft fatellite has de-
fcribed the curve a 2 from its conjunction, his fecond
the curve ^ 2, his third the curve c 2, and his fourth
the curve d 2, and fo on. The numeral figures under
the capital letters fhow Jupiter’s place in his path
every day for 18 days, accounted from A to T ; and
the like figures fet to the paths of his fatellites, fltow
where they are at the like times. The rirft fatellite,
almoft under C, is ftationary at -}“ as ^een fro03 the
fun, and retrograde from 4. to 2 : at 2 it appears fta¬
tionary again, and thence it moves forward until it has
pafled 3, and is twice ftationary and once retrograde be¬
tween 3 and 4. The path of this fatellite interfeCts it-
felf every 424-hours, making fuch loops as in the dia¬
gram at 2. 3. 5. 9. 10. 12. 14. 16. 18. a little after
every conjundtion. The fecond fatellite b, moving
llower, barely croffes its path every 3 days 13 hours ;
as at 4. 7. ir. 14. 18. making only five loops and as
many conjundtions in the time that the firft makes ten.
The third fatellite c moving ftill flower, and having
defcribed the curve c 1.2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. comes to an
angle at 7 in conjundtion with the fun at the end of
7 days 4 hours; and fo goes on to defcribe fuch ano¬
ther curve 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. and is at 14 in
its next conjunction. The fourth fatellite d is al¬
ways progreffive, making neither loops nor angles in
the heavens 5 but comes to its next conjundtion at e be¬
tween the numeral figures t6 and 17, or in 16 days 18
hours.
The method ufed by Mr Fergufon to delineate the
paths of thefe fatellites was the following. Having
drawn their orbits on a card, in proportion to their re¬
lative diftances from Jupiter, he meafured the radius of
the orbit of the fourth fatellite, which was an inch
and 4^- parts of an inch-; then multiplied this by 424
for the radius of Jupiter’s orbit, becaufe Jupiter is 424
times as far from the fun’s centre as his fourth fatellite
is from his centre; and the produdt thence arifing was
483,1^. inches. Then taking a fmall cord of this
length, and fixing one end of it to the floor of a long
room by a nail, with a black-lead pencil at the other
en'd, he drew the curve ABCD, See. and fet off a de¬
gree and half thereon from A to T ; becaufe Jupiter
moves only fo much, whilft his outermoft fatellite goes
once round him, and fomewhat more ; fo that this fmall
portion of fo large a circle differs but very little from a
ftraight line. This done, he divided the fpace AT in¬
to 18 equal parts, as AB, BC, &c. for the daily pro-
grefs of Jupiter ; and each part into 24 for his hourly
progrefs. The orbit of each fatellite was alfo divided
into as many equal parts as the fatellite is hours in fi-
niftiing its fynodical period round Jupiter. Then draw¬
ing a right line through the centre of the card, as a
diameter to all the four orbits upon it, he put the card
upon the line of Jupiter’s motion, and transferred it
to every horary divifion thereon, keeping always the
faid diameter-line on the line of Jupiter’s path ; and
running a pin through each horary divifion in the or¬
bit of each fatellite as the card was gradually transfer¬
red along the line ABCD, &c. of Jupiter’s motion,
-he marked points for every hour through the card for
the curves defcribed by the fatellites, as the primary
N O M Y. Seel. V.
planet in the centre of the card was carried forward on Particular
the line; and fo finifhed the figure, by drawing the Explication
lines of each fatellite’s motion through thofe (almoft in-
numerable) points : by which means, this is perhaps as nomena.
true a figure of tlie paths of the fatellites as can be de-
fired. And in the fame manner might thofe of Saturn’s
fatellites be delineated.
It appears by the fcheme, that the three firft fatel¬
lites come almoft into the fame line or pofition every
feventh day ; the firft being only a little behind with
the fecond, and the fecond behind with the third. But
the period of the fourth fatellite is fo incommenfurate
to the periods of the other three, that it cannot be
gueffed at by the diagram when it would fall again in¬
to a line of conjunftion with them, between Jupiter
and the fun. And no wonder; for fuppofing them
all to have been once in conjunction, it will require
3,087,043,493,260 years to bring them in conjunction
again.
The moon’s abfolute motion from her change to her
firft quarter, or from a to b, is fo much flower than
the earth’s that fhe falls 240,000 miles (equal to the
femidiameter of her orbit) behind the earth at her firfl:
quarter in b, when the earth is in B ; that is, (he falls
back a fpace equal to her diftance from the earth. From
that time her motion is gradually accelerated to her
oppofition or full at c ; and then (he is come up as far
as the earth, having regained what fhe loft in her firfl:
quarter from a to b. From the full to the laft quarter
at d, her motion continues accelerated fo as to be juft
as far before the earth at d as fhe was behind it at
her firft quarter in b. But from d to e her motion is
retarded fo, that fhe lofes as much with refpeCl: to the
earth as is equal to her diftance from it, or to the fe¬
midiameter of her orbit; and by that means fhe comes
to e, and is then in conjunction with the fun as feen
from the earth at E. Hence we find, that the moon’s
abfolute motion is flower than the earth’s from her
third quarter to her firft, and fwifter than the earth’s
from her firft quarter to her third; her path being
lefs curved than the earth’s in the former cafe and
more in the latter. Yet it is ftill bent the fame way
towards the fun; for if we imagine the concavity of
the earth’s orbit to be meafured by the length of a per¬
pendicular line C g, let down from the earth’s place
upon the ftraight line b g d *t the full of the moon,
and c&nneding the places of the earth at the end of
the moon’s firft and third quarters, that length will
be about 640,000 miles; and the moon when new
only approaching nearer to the fun by 240,000 miles
than the earth is, the length of the perpendicular let
down from her place at that time upon the fame ftraight
line, and which fhows the concavity of that part of her
path, will be about 400,000 miles. 361
The moon’s path being concave to the fun through- A difficulty
out, demonitrates that her gravity towards the fun, at
her conjun&ion, exceeds her gravity towards the earth;
and if we coniider that the quantity of matter in the
fun is vaftly greater than the quantity of matter in the
earth, and that the attraction of each body diminifhea
as the fquare of the diftance from it increafes, we (hall
foon find, that the point of eqtij^ attraction between
the earth and the fun, is much nearer the earth than
the moon is at her change. It may then appear fur-
prifing that the moon does not abandon the earth
when
Seel. V. ASTRONOMY. 525
Particular when ftie is between it and the fun, becaufe the is con-
:Explicationflt|crab]y more attra&ed by the fun than by the earth
HHaTphV at t^iat t‘me* ^Ut l^‘s difficulty when we con-
nomena. £ flder> ^bat a common impulfe on any fyftem of bodies
' affefts not their relative motions ; but that they will
continue to attract, impel, or circulate round one ano¬
ther, in the fame manner as if there was no fuch im¬
pulfe. The moon is fo near the earth, and both of
them fo far from the fun, that the attradlive power of
the fun may be confidered as equal on both ; and there¬
fore the moon will continue to circulate round the earth
in the fame manner as if the fun did not attradl them
at all : like bodies in the cabin of a fhip, which may
move round or impel one another in the fame manner
when the fhip is under fail as when it is at reft ; be¬
caufe they are all equally affedted by the common mo¬
tion of the fliip. If by any other caufe, fuch as the
near approach of a comet, the moon’s diftance from
the earth (hould happen to be fo much increafed, that
the difierence of their gravitating forces towards the
fun ftiould exceed that of the moon towards the earth ;
in that cafe, the moon, when in conjundtion, would a-
bandon the earth, and be either drasvn into the fun,
or comet, or circulate round about it.
The ruggednefs of the moon’s furface mentioned
n° 146, 147. is of great ufe to us, by refledting the fun’s
light to all fides: for if the moon were fmooth and
poliftied like a looking-glafs, or covered with water, fhe
could never diftribute the fun’s light all round ; only
in fome pofitions Ihe would (how us his image- no big¬
ger than a point, but with fuch a luftre as would be hurt¬
ful to our eyes.
The moon’s furface being fo uneven, many have won¬
dered why her edge appears not jagged, as well as the
curve bounding the light and dark places. But if we
ways even. conpJcjerj wj,at we caj] the e(fgg 0f t},c moon’s dijk
is not a (ingle line fet round with mountains, in which
cafe it would appear irregularly indented, but a large
zone having many mountains lying behind one another
from the obferver’s eye, we (hall find that the moun¬
tains in fome rows will be oppofite to the vales in
others; and fo fill up the inequalities as to make her
appear quite round : juft as when one looks at an
orange, although its roughnefs be very difcernible on
the fide next the eye, efpecially if the fun or a candle
(hines obliquely upon that fide, yet the line terminating
the vifible part ftill appears fmooth and even.
Having faid thus much of the moon’s Period, Pha-
fes, Path, &c. it may not be amifs to deferibe, in a
fummary manner, the irregularities of her motion 5 and
though thefe have been already treated of on the prin¬
ciples of the Newtonian fyftem, yet as the fubjeft has
much embarraffed the aftronomical world, it is hoped,
that the following explanation of the planetary irre¬
gularities upon common mechanical principles, from
Mr Nicholfon’s Natural Philofophy, may not appear
fuperfluous to uninformed readers.
“ If the fun were at reft, and the planets did not
mutually gravitate towards each other, they would de¬
feribe ellipfes, having the fiin in the common focus: But
fince they mutually aft on the fun and on each other,
it muft follow that the fun is perpetually moved about
the centre of gravity of all the planets ; which centre is
the common focus of all their orbits. This centre, by
jeafon of the fun’s very great bulk, can in no fituation
36a
Why her
edge ap-
exceed the diftance of its femidiameter from its furface. Particular
Some fmall irregularities arife from thefe mutual ac-®xI’*lca"
tions, but much lefs would enfue if the fun were atCeleftial *
reft, or not fubjeft to the reaftion of the other planets. pj,enome.
The irregularities in the motions of the primary pla- na.
nets are fcarcely confiderable enough to come under' 1 v ,,,(
obfervation in the courfe of many revolutions ; but
thofe of the moon are very perceptible on account of
its nearnefs to us, and from other caufes. It will
therefore be fufficient to explain the latter, and apply
the explanation to the former, being effefts of the fame
^ind.
“ If the aftions of the fun upon the earth and moon
were equal upon each, according to their maffes, and
tended to.produce motions in parallel direftions, their
relative motions would be the fame as if no fuch force
afted upon them. But thefe forces vary both in quan¬
tity and direftion according to the various relative fi-
tuations of the earth and moon.
“ Let the point S’(fig. 162.) reprefent the fun, and
ADBC the orbit of the moon. Then if the moon be
at the quadrature A, the diftances ES and AS of the
earth and moon from the fun being equal, their gravi¬
ties towards S will alfo be equal, and may be repre-
fented by thofe lines ES and AS. Draw the line A
parallel and equal to ES, and join LS, which will be
parallel to AE. The force AS may be refolved (from
principles of compound motion) into the two forces AL
and AE; of which AL, by reafoh of its parallelifm
and equality to ES, will not difturb their relative mo¬
tions or fituation : but the force AE confpiring with
that of gravity, will caufe the moon to fall farther be¬
low the tangent of its orbit than it would have done if
no fuch difturbing force had exifted. Therefore, at or
near the quadratures, the moon’s gravity towards the
earth is increafed more than according to the regular
courfe, and its orbit is rendered more curve.
“ When the moon is at the conjunftion C, the di¬
ftances ES and GS not being equal, the moon’s gra¬
vitation towards the fun exceeds that of the earth in
the fame proportion as the fquare of ES exceeds the
fquare of CS. And becaufe the excefs afts contrary
to the direftion of the moon’s gravity towards the
earth, it diminilhes the effeft thereof, and caufes the
moon to fall lefs below the tangent of its orbit than it
would if no fuch difturbing force exifted. A like and
very nearly equal effeft follows, when the moon is at
the oppofition D, by the earth’s gravitation towards
the fun being greater than that of the moon ; whence
their mutual gravitation is diminilhed as in the former
cafe. Therefore, at or near the conjunftion or oppo¬
fition, the moon’s gravity is diminiftied, and its orbit
rendered lefs curve.
“ It is found that the force added to the moon’s
gravity at the quadratures, is to the gravity with which
it would revolve about the earth in a circle, as its pre¬
fect mean diftance, if the fun had no effeft on its mo¬
tion, as 1 to 190; and that the force fubdufted from
its gravity at the conjunftion or oppofition is about
double this quantity. The influence of the fun, then,
on the whole, increafes the moon’s diftance from the
earth, and augments its periodical time : and fince this
influence is moft confiderable when the earth is neared
the fun, or in its perihelium, its periodical time muft
then be the greateft and it is fo found by obfervation-
526 ASTRO
Particular « To (how the effeft of the fun in difturbing the
Explication moon’s motion at any fituation between the conjunction
leftialPhe- anc^ one t^ie clua^raturcs» fuppofe at M, let ES re-
nomena. prefent the earth’s gravity towards the fun 5 draw the
line MS, which continue towards G ; from M fet off
MG, fo that MG may be to ES as the fquare of the
earth’s diftance ErS is to the fquare of the moon’s dif-
tance MS ; and MG will reprefent the moon’s gravity
towards the fun. From M draw MF parallel and e-
qual to ES ; join EG, and draw MH parallel and e-
qualtoFG. The force MG may be refolved into
MF and MH ; of which MF, by reafon of its paral*
kiifm and equality to ES, will not dillurb the relative
motions or iituations of the moon and earth : MH
then is the difturbing force. Draw the tangent MK
to the moon’s orbit, and continue the radius EM to¬
wards I j draw HI parallel to KM, and interfe&ing
MI in I, and complete the parallelogram by drawing
HK parallel to IM, and interfering MK in K. The
force MH may be refolved into MI and MK ; of which
MI affeCIs the gravity, and MK the velocity, of the
moon. When the force MH coincides with the tan¬
gent, that is, when the moon is 350 16' diftant from
the quadrature, the force MI, which affeCts the gra¬
vity, vanifhes ; and when the force MH coincides with
the radius, that is, when the moon is either in the
conjundion or quadrature, the force MK vanilhes.
Between the quadrature and the diftance of 350 16'
from it, the line or force MH falls within the tangent,
and confequcntly the force MI is direded towards E,
and the moon’s gravity is increafed : but, at any great¬
er diftance from the quadrature, the line MH falls
without the tangent, and the force MI is direCted from
E, the moon’s gravity being diminifhed. It is evident
that the force MK is always direded to fome point in
the line which paffes through the fun and earth ; there¬
fore it will accelerate the moon’s motion while it is ap¬
proaching towards that line, or the conjundion, and
limilarly retard it as it recedes from it, or approaches
towards the quadrature, by confpiring with the motion
in one cafe, and fubduding from it in the other.
“ As the moon’s gravity towards the fun, at the
conjundion, is diminiftied by a quantity which is as
the difference of the fquares of their diftances-; and as
this difference, on account of the very great diftance of
the fun, is nearly the fame when the moon is at the
oppofition, the mutual tendency to feparate, or dimi¬
nution of gravity, will be very nearly the fame.
Whence it eafily follows, that all the irregularities which
have been explained as happening between the qradra-
tures and conjundion, muft, in like circumftances, take
place between the quadratures and oppofttion.
“ If the moon revolved about the earth in a circu-
lar orbit, the fun’s difturbing influence being fuppofed
not to ad, then this influence being fuppofed to ad
would convert the orbit into an ellipfis. For the in-
creafe of gravity renders it more curve at the quadra¬
tures, by caufing the moon to fall further below the
tangent; and the diminution of gravity, as well as the
increafed velocity, render the orbit lefs curve at the
conjundion and oppofition, by canfing the moon to
fall lefs below the tangent in a given time. Therefore,
an ellipfis would be deferibed whofe lefs or more convex
parts would be at the quadratures, and vvhofe longeft
diameter would pafs through them; Confequently the
N O M Y. Sea. V,
moon would be fartheft from the earth at the quadra- Particular
tores, and neareft at the conjundion and oppofition. Explicatioa
Neither is it ftrange that the moon fliould approach or p^"
come nearer to the earth at the time when its eravitv
. 1 1 a r 1 1 • , o / nomcna.
is the leait, imee that approach is not the immediate
confequence of the decreafe of gravity, but of the cur-
vity ot its orbit near the quadratures ; and in like man¬
ner, its recefs from the earth does not arife immediately
from its diminifhed gravity, from the velocity and di-
redion acquired at the conjundtion or oppofition. But
as the moon’s orbit is, independent of the fun’s adicn,
an ellipfis, then effeds take place only as far as cir¬
cumftances permit. The moon’s gravity towards the
earth being thus fubjed to a continual change in its
ratio, its orbit is of no conftant form. The law of its
gravity being nearly in the inverfc proportion of the
fquares of the diftances, its orbit is nearly a quiefeent
ellipfis ; but the deviation from this law occafions its
apfides to move dired or retrograde, according as thofe
deviations are in defed or in excefs. Aftronomers, to
reduce the motion of the apfides to computation, fup-
pofe the revolving body to move- in an ellipfis, whofe
tranfverfe diameter, or line of the apfides, revolves at
the fame time about the focus of the orbit. When
the moon is in the conjundion or oppofition, the fun
fubduds from its gravity, and that the more the great¬
er its diftance is from the earth j^fo that its gravity fol¬
lows a greater proportion than the inverted ratio of the
fquare of the diftance, and confequently the apfides of
its orbit muft then move in cor.fequentia or dired. In
the quadratures the fun adds to the moon’s gravity ;
and that the more the greater its diftance from the
earth : fo that its gravity follows a lefs proportion than
the inverted ratio of the fquare of her diftance, and
.confequently the apfides of its orbit muft then move in
antecedentia or retrograde. But becaufe the adion of'
the fun fubduds more from the moon’s gravity in the
conjundion and oppofition than it adds to it in the
quadratures, the dired motion exceeds the retro¬
grade, and at the end of each revolution the apfides
are found to be advanced according to the order of
the figns.
“ If the plane of the moon’s orbit coincided with that
of the ecliptic, thefe would be the only irregularities
arifing from the fun’s adion 5 but becaufe it is inclined
to the plane of the ecliptic in an angle of about .5 de¬
grees, the whole difturbing force does not ad upon the
moon’s motion in its orbit; a fmall part of the force
being employed to draw it out of the plane of the or¬
bit into that of the ecliptic.
“ Of the forces MK and MI (fig. 162.) which difturb
the moon’s motion, Ml, being always in the diredion
of the radius, can have no effed in drawing it out of
the plane of its orbit: And if the force MK really
coincided with the tangent, as we, negleding the
fmall deviation arifing from the obliquity of the moon’s
orbit, have hitherto fuppofed, it is evident that its
only effed would be that of accelerating or retarding
the moon’s motion, without affeding the plane of its
orbit : But becaufe that force is always direded to
fome point in the line which paffes through the centres
of the fun and earth, it is evident that it can coincide
with the tangent only when that line is in the plane
of the moon’s orbit; that is to fay, when the nodes
are in the conjundion and oppofition. At all other
times
Sea. V. AS T II O
Particular times the force MK muft decline to the northward or
■Explication fouthward of the tangent, and, compounding itfelf
kfHafphe- with the moon’s motion, will not only accelerate or
nomena. retard it, according to the circumftances before ex-
'*■»—Y——' plained, but will likewife alter its direflion, defle&ing
it towards that fide of the orbit on which the point,
the force MK, tends to is fituated. This deftedlion
caufes the moon to arrive at the ecliptic either fooner
or later than it would otherwife have done j or, in o-
ther words, it occafions the interfe&ion of its orbit
with the ecliptic to happen in a point of the ecliptic,
either nearer to or farther from the moon, than that
in which it would have happened if fuch defle&ion
had not taken place.
“ To illuftrate this, let the elliptical proje&ion
COQN (fig. 163.) reprefent a circle in the plane of
the ecliptic, MOPN the moon’s orbit interfering the
ecliptic in the nodes N and O. Suppofe the moon to
be in the northern part of its orbit at M, and moving
towards the node Oj the difturbing force MK, which
tends towards a point in the line SE to the fouthward
©f the tangent MT, will be compounded with the tan-
gental force, and will caufe the moon to defcribe the
arc Mm, to which MR is tangent, inftead of the arc
MO ; whence the node O is faid to be moved to m.
In this manner the motion of the nodes may be ex¬
plained for any other fituation.
“ This motion evidently depends on a twofold cir-
cumftance ; namely, the quantity and direftion of the
force MK. If the force MK be increafed, its direc¬
tion remaining the fame, it will defter the curve of
the moon’s path from its orbit in a greater degree;
and, on the other hand, if its direrion be altered fo
as to approach nearer to a right angle with the tangent,
it will caufe a greater defterion, though its quantity
remain the fame. When the moon is in the quadra¬
tures, the force MK vanifhes, confequently the nodes
are then flationary. When the moon is at the orant,
or 45 degrees from the quadrature, the force MK is
the greatell of all; and therefore the motion of the
nodes is then mofl confiderable, as far as it depends on
the quantity of MK: But the direction of this force
in like circumftances depends on the fituation of the
line of the nodes. If the line of the nodes coincides
with the line palling through the centres of the fun
and earth, the force MK coincides with the tangent
©f the moon’s orbit, and the nodes are ftationary; and
the farther the node is removed from that line, the
farther is that line removed from the plane of the
moon’s orbit, till the line of the nodes is in the qua¬
dratures ; at which time the line pafiing through the
centres of the fun and earth, makes an angle with the
plane of the moon’s orbit equal to its whole inclination,
or 5 degrees; confequently, the angle formed between
MK and the tangent, in like circumftances, is then
greateft, MK being diredled to a point in a line which
is farther from the plane of the moon’s orbit than at
any other time, and of courfe the motion of the nodes
is then moft confiderable.
“ To determine the quantity and dire&ion of the mo¬
tion of the nodes, fuppofe the moon in the quarter
preceding the conjundlion, and the node towards which
it is moving to be between it and the conjundlion ; in
this cafe its motion is directed to a point in the eclip-
-tic which is lefs diftant than the point towards which
N O M Y. 527
the force MK is diredled : the force MK then com-Particular
pounding with the moon’s motion, caufes it to be di-E^xplicatir.i
redled to a point more diftant than it would otherwife
have been ; that is to fay, the node towards which thenomena.
moon moves is moved towards the conjundtion. When —y—j
the moon has palled the node, its courfe is directed to
the other node, which is a point in the ecliptic more
diftant than the point to which MK is diredled, and
therefore MK compounding with its motion caufes it
to be diredled to a point lefs diftant than it would
otherwife have been ; fo that, in this cafe likewife, the
enfuing node is moved towards the Cbnjundtion. Af¬
ter the moon has pafled the conjundlion, the force MK
Hill continues to defledl its courfe towards the ecliptic;
and confequently the motion of the node is the fame
way till its arrival at the quadrature. Suppofe, again,
the moon to be at the conjunction, and the node to¬
wards which it is moving to be between it and the qua¬
drature 5 in this cafe, the force MK compounding with
the moon’s motion, caufes it to move towards a point
in the ecliptic lefs diftant than it would otherwife have
done; fo that the enfuing node is brought towards the
conjundlion.
“ When the moon has palled the node, the force
MK Hill continuing to dsftedl its courfe towards <he
fame fide of its orbit, produces a contrary effedl;
namely, as it before occafioned it to converge to the
ecliptic, fo it now caufes it to diverge from it; and its
motion, in confequence, tends continually to a point
in the ecliptic more diftant than it would otherwife
have done; the enfuing node in this ir.ftance being alfo
brought towards'the conjundlion.
“ As the difturbing forces are very nearly the fame
in the half of the moon’s orbit which is fartheft from
the fun, this laft paragraph is true when it moves in
that part of its orbit, if the word oppofttion be every
where inferted inftead of the word conjunction.
“ Whence it is eafy to deduce this general rule:
That when the moon is in the part of its orbit nearefl:
the fun, the node towards which it is moving is made
to move towards the conjundlion; and when it is in
the part of its orbit fartheft from the fun, the node
towards which it is moving is made to move towards
the oppofition.
“ Suppofe the moon at Q_(fig. 176.), or the qua¬
drature preceding the conjundtion, then the enfuing
node, if at 90® diftance, or at the conjundlion C, will
be flationary (as before obferved) ; but if it be at a
greater or lefs diftance, it will be brought toward* C.
J hus, if the nodes be in the pofition MN, the enfn-
ing node M, being at a lefs dillance from Qjhan 90°,
will move towards C, or diredt, white the moon moves
through the arc QM; after which N becomes the en¬
fuing node, and likewife moves towards the conjundlion
C, or retrograde during the moon’s motion through
the arc MR; and becaufe the arc MR exceeds QM,
the retrograde motion exceeds the dircdl. Again, if
the nodes be in the pofition nm, the enfuing node n
being at a greater diftance from Q_than 90*', will
move towards C, or retrograde during the moon’s mo¬
tion through the arc Q«; after which the node in be¬
comes the enfuing node, and likewife moves towards
the conjundlion C, or diredl, daring the moon’s mo¬
tion through the arc «R; and becaufe the arc Q/z ex¬
ceeds NR, the retrograde motion here alfo exceeds
the
528 ASTRO
Particular the d!re£h If the nodes be in the cniadratures QJli
Explicationthe enfuing n0de R
removes towards C, or retrograde,
of the Ce- , • , , . , , ,
kftial Phe- ^uriDg ^he moon s motion through the arc or
nomena. almoft the whole femiorbit. The fame may be Ihown
v—-'•n the other half of the orbit ROQ^with refpedl to
the oppofition O ; and therefore, in every revolution
of the moon, the retrograde motion of the nodes ex¬
ceeds the direft ; and, on the whole, the nodes are car¬
ried round contrary to the order of the figns.
“ The line of the conjun&ion is by the earth’s an¬
nual motion brought into every poffible fituation with
refpeft to the nodes in the courfe of a year, independ¬
ent of their own proper motion; which laft oecafions
the change of fituation to be performed in about nine¬
teen days lefs.
“ The inclination of the moon’s orbit being the
angle which its courfe makes with the plane of the
ecliptic, it is evident from what has been 'aid, that
this angle is almofl continually changing. Suppofe the
line of the norfes, by its retrograde motion,, to leave
the conjunftion C (fig. 175.) and become in the fecond
and fourth quarters as in the pofition MN, and the
moon to move from the node M to the node N; then,
becaufe the enfuing node N moves towards the con-
jun&ion C, while the moon is in the nearer half of its
orbit, the moon’s courfe muft be continually more and
more infle&ed towards the ecliptic till its arrival at R.
This infieftion in the firft 90°, or MA from M, pre¬
vents its diverging fo much from the ecliptic as it
would otherwife have done; that is to fay, it dimi-
nifhes the angle of the moon’s inclination. From A
to R its courfe begins to converge towards the eclip¬
tic; and this convergence is increafed by the inflexion
•which, in the preceding yo4*, prevented its divergence ;
in the arc A R, then, their inclination is increafed.
During the moon’s motion from R to N, the node is
moved towards the oppofition O, and confequently the
angle of its courfe to N is rendered lefs than it would
have been if the node has not moved ; or, in other
words, the inclination is diminilhed. And becaufe the
arc MA added to the arc RN is greater than the arc
AR, the inclination at the fubfequent node is lefs than
at the precedent node; and the fame may be ftiown in
the other half revolution NQM.
“ Therefore, while the nodes are moving from the
conjunction and oppofition to the quadratures, the in¬
clination of the moon’s orbit on the whole diminifhes
in every revolution till they arrive in the quadratures,
at which time it is leaft of all. "When the line of the
nodes has pafied the quadratures, and is in the firft
and third quarters, as in the pofition it is eafiiy
Jhown by the fame kind of argument, that the incli¬
nation is increafed while the moon paifes from m to
then diminifhes for the remainder of the firft 90°, or
Qrr, and is afterwards increafed for the other 90°, or
an; and the fame may be proved for the other half
revolutiorr.«R;.v. Confequently, while the nodes are
moving from the quadratures to the conjunction and
oppofition, the inclination is increafed by the fame de¬
grees as it before was diminifhed, till they arrive at
the conjunction and oppofition ; at which time it re¬
turns to its firft quantity, being then greateft of all.
“ The line of the nodes in the courfe of one entire
revolution with refpeCt to the fun, is twice in the qua¬
dratures, and twice in the conjunction and oppofition.
N° 34°.
N O M Y. Sea. V.
Therefore, the inclination of the moon’s orbit to tbeParticular
ecliptic is diminifhed and increafed by turns, twice inExPlicabon
every revolution of the nodes. *he Ce-
“ All the irregularities of the moon’s motion
a little greater when in the half of its orbit neareft the1 - ’ r
fun, than when it is in the other half; the chief rea-
fon of which is, that the difference between the fquares
of the moon’s and earth’s diftances from the fun is
greater in proportion to the fquares themfelves, in the
former than in the latter cafe at equal elongations from
the quadrature; and confequently the difturbing forces
muft be more confiderable.
“ Although the moon in reality revolves about the
common centre of gravity between her and the earth,
and not about the earth itfelf, and confequently their
motions and irregularities are fimilar, and not confin¬
ed to the moon alone; yet it may be eafiiy conceived,
that the conclufions are not affeCted in any degree that
may be here regarded, when, for the fake of concife-
nefs, we fuppofe oneof the two bodies to be quiefeent,*
and the other to revolve about it.
“ Irregularities of the fame kind take place among
the primary planets, by their mutual aftions on each
other; but the quantities are not confiderable. Hence
the apfides of the planets are found to move in confe-
quentia, but fo very flowly that fome have doubted
whether they move at all. The motions of the aphe-
lia of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Earth, Venus, and
Mercury, as deduced from the comparifon of diftant
obfervations, are refpeftively 2" 30’, i° 43' 2c", I® 5 i/
40", 1° 49' 10", 40 to', i° 57' 4c", in a century.
“ The adions of the inferior planets on each other are
very minute, on account of the fmallnefs of their bulks;
but thofe of Jupiter and Saturn are not altogther in-
fenfible. When Jupiter is between the Sun and Sa¬
turn, its whole attraction aCts upon the latter, and in-
creafes the gravity of that planet towards the fun.
This is found by comparing the refpe&ive maffes of
Jupiter and the Sun 5 and the refpeCtive fquares of
their diftances from Saturn, to be equal to of the
Sun’s aCtion upon Saturn. That planet, on the other
hand, at the conjunction, aCts upon Jupiter and the
Sun in the fame direction ; and therefore difturbs their
relative pofition only fo far as its aCtions on each are
not equal.. The difference of thefe aCtions is found,
by the fame principles, to be Jupiter’8 whole
gravity.”
Se£t. VI. Of the Ebbing and Flowing of the Sea,
and the Phenomena of the Harvejl and Horizontal
Moon.
The caufe of the tides was difeovered by Kepler,Cauft^of
who, in his Introduftion to the Pkyfics of tbe Heavens-,^ tides
thus explains it : “ The orb of the attracting power‘hoovered-
which is in the moon, is extended as far as the earth ;byKeple*
and draws the waters under the torrid zone, aCting
upon places where it is vertical, infenfibly on confined
feas and bays, but fenfibly on the ocean, whofe beds are
large, and where the waters have the liberty of recipro¬
cation, that is, of rifing and falling.” And in the 70th
page of his Lunar dflronomy — “ But the caufe of the
tides of the fea appears to be the bodies of the fun and
moon drawing the waters of the fea.” This hint be¬
ing given, the immortal Sir Ifaac Newton improved it.
A S rr K O AT o M Y .
f late LXS1X.
Sea. vr. astro
Ebbing and and wrote fo amply on the fubjeft, as to make the
flowing of theory of the tides in a manner quite his own, by dif-
the Sea. ^ cover{ng the caufe of their rifing on the fide of the
earth oppofite to the moon. For Kepler believed that
the prefence of the moon occafioned an impulfe which
caufed another in her abfence.
It has been already obferved, that the power of gra¬
vity diminifhes as the fquare of the diftance increafes ;
Pig. 189. and therefore the waters at Z on the fide of the earth
ABCDEFGH next the moon M, are more attfa&ed
than the central parts of the earth O by the moon, and
the central parts are more attrafted by her than the wa¬
ters on the oppofite fide of the earth at ».• and therefore
the diftance between the earth’s centre and the waters
on its furface under and oppofite to the moon wrill be
increafed. For, let there be three bodies at H, O, and
1): if they are all equally attra&ed by the body M,
they will all move equally fall toward it, their mutual
diftances from each other continuing the fame. If the
attra&ion of M is unequal, then that body which is
moft ftrongly attracted will move fafteft, and this will
increafe its diftance from the other body. Therefore,
by the law of gravitation, M will attra& H more
ftrongly than it does O, by which the difiance between
H and O will be increafed ; and a fpe&ator on O will
perceive H rifing higher toward Z. In like manner,
O being more ftrongly attra&ed than D, it will move
farther towards M than D does : confequently, the di¬
ftance between O and D will be increafed ; and a fpec-
tator on O, not perceiving his own motion, will fee D
receding farther from him towards n: all effcdls and
appearances being the fame, whether D recedes from
O, or O from D.
Suppofe now there is a number of bodies, as A, B,
G, D, £, F, G, H, placed round O, fo as to form a flex¬
ible or fluid ring : then, as the whole is attracted to¬
wards M, the parts at H and D will have their di¬
ftance from O increafed ; whilft the parts at B and F
being nearly at the fame diftance from M as O is, thefe
parts will not recede from one another ; but rather, by
the oblique attra&ion of M, they will approach nearer
to O. Hence, the fluid ring will form itfelf into an
ellipfe ZIBLwKFNZ, whofe larger axis »OZ pro¬
duced will pafs through M, and its fhorter axis BOF
will terminate in B and F. Let the ring be filled with
fetid particles, fo as to form a fphere round O ; then,
as the whole moves towards M, the fluid fphere being
lengthened at Z and ny will affume an oblong or oval
form. If M is the moon, O the earth’s centre, ABC
DEFGH the fea covering the earth’s furface, it is evi¬
dent, by the above reafoning, that whilft the earth by
its gravity falls toward the moon, the water dire&ly
below her at B will fwell and rife gradually towards
her ; alio the water at D will recede from the centre
[ftriftly fpeaking, the centre recedes from D], and
rife on the oppofite fide of the earth ; whilft the water
at B and F is deprefled, and falls below the former le-
Vol. II. Part II.
N O M Y. 529
vel. Hence as the earth turns round its axis from the EFonig and
moon to the moon again in 24-f hours, there will be ot
two tides of flood and two of ebb in that time, as we,
find by experience.
As this explanation of the ebbing and flowing of the why the
fea is deduced from the earth’s conftaruly falling to-tides are
wards the moon by the power of gravity, fome may fi’gh at
find a difficulty in conceiving how this is poffibie, when™0011'
the moon is full, or in oppofition to the fun ; fince the
earth revolves about the fun, and muft continually fall
towards it, and therefore cannot fall contrary ways at
the fame time : or if the earth is conftantly falling to¬
wards the moon, they muft come together at laft. To
remove this difficulty, let it be conlidered, that it is not
the centre of the earth that deferibes the annual orbit
round the fun, but the (e) common centre of gravity
of the earth and moon together : and that whilft the
earth is moving round the fun, it alfo deferibes a circle
round that centre of gravity ; going as many times
round it in one revolution about the fun as there are
lunations or courfes of the moon round the earth in a
year : and therefore'the earth is conftantly falling to¬
wards the moon from a tangent to the circle it deferibes
round the faid common centre of gravity. Let M be Fig. 1904
the moon, TW" part of the moon’s orbit, and C the
centre of gravity of the earth and moon ; whilft the
moon goes round her orbit, the centre of the earth de¬
feribes the circle d ge round C, to which circle £ rt k
is a tangent; and therefore when the moon has gone
from M to a little paft W, the earth has moved from
^ to <?,• and in that time has fallen towards the moon,
from the tangent at a\.o e: and fo on, round the whole
circle. 365
The fun’s influence in raifing the tides is but fmali ,nfiuencf Q?
in comparifon of the moon’s ; for though the earth’s m
diameter bears a confiderable proportion to its diftance
from the moon, it is next to nothing when compared
to its diftance from the fun. And therefore the difter-
ence of the fun’s attraction on the fides of the earth un¬
der and oppofite to him, is much lefs than the differ¬
ence of the moon’s attraction on the fides of the earth
under and oppofite to her ; and therefore the moon muft
raife the tides much higher than they can be raifed by
the fun. _ 366
On this theory, the tides ought to be higheft direCt- Why they
ly under and oppofite to the moon ; that is, when thea!!e not
moon is due north and fouth. But we find, that in ^e^fthe
open feas, where the water flows freely, the moon M js ;n
is generally paft the north and fotuh meridian, as aC/>, the mui-.
when it is high water at Z and at ». The reafon is<fian-
obvious : for though the moon’s attraction was to ceafe
altogether when fhe was paft the meridian, yet the mo¬
tion of afeent communicated to the water before that
time would make it continue to rife for fome time af¬
ter ; much more muft it do fo when the attraction is
only diminifhed ; as a little impulfe given to a moving
ball will caufe it ftill to move farther than otherwife it
3 X could .
(e) This centre is as much nearer the earth’s centre than the moon’s as the earth is heavier, or contains a
greater quantity of matter than the moon, namely, about 40 times. If both bodies were fufpended on it, they'
would hang in tcqutlibr'm. So that dividing 240,000 miles, the moon’s diftance from the earth’s centre, by 40, .
the excefs of the earth’s weight above the moon’s, the quotient will be 6eoo miles, which is the diflanccof the -
common centre of gravity of the earth and moon from the earth’s centre.
530 ASTRO
Jibbing and could have dotie ; and as experience fhows that the
flowing of jgy js hotter about three in the afternoon, than when
l;he S^a~ , the fun is on the meridian, becaufe of the increafe made
to the heat already imparted.
The tides anfwer not always to the fame diftance of
the moon from the meridian at the fame places 5 but
are varioufly affedfed by the adtion of the fun, which
brings them on fooner when the moon is in her firft
and third quarters, and keeps them back later when fhe
is in her fecond and fourth : becaufe, in the former
eafe, the tide raifed by the fun alone would be earlier
than the tidfc raifed by the moon ; and, in the latter
cafe, later.
The moon goes round the earth in an elliptic orbit j
and therefore, in every lunar month, fhe approaches
nearer to the earth than her mean diftance, and recedes
farther from it. When fhe is neareft, fhe attra&s
ftrongeft, and fo raifes the tides moft : the contrary
happens when fhe is fartheft, becaufe of her weaker at-
traftion. When both luminaries are in the equator,
and the moon in perigee, or at her leaft diftance from
the earth, fhe raifes the tides higheft of all, efpecially
at her conjundtion and oppofition ; both becaufe the
equatorial parts have the greateft centrifugal force from
their defcribing the largeft circle, and from the concur¬
ring adlions of the fun and moon. At the change, the
attradtive forces of the fun and moon being united,
they diminifhthe gravity of the waters under the moon,
and their gravity on the oppofite fide is diminifhed by
means of a greater centrifugal force. At the full,
whilft the moon raifes the tide under and oppofite to
her, the fun, adting in the fame line, raifes the tide un¬
der and oppofite to him ; whence their conjoint effedt is
the fame as at the change 5 and, in both cafes, occafion
■what we call the Spring Tides. But at the quarters the
fun’s adlion on the waters at O and H diminifhes the
effedt of the moon’s adtion on the waters at Z and N 5
fo that they rife a little under and oppofite to the fun
at O and H, and fall as much under and oppofite to
the moon at Z and N; making what we call the Neap
Tides, becaufe the fun and moon then aft crofs-wife to
each other. But thefe tides happen not till fome time
after ; becaufe in this, as in other cafes, the aftions do
not produce the greateft effeft When they are at the
flrongeft, but fome time afterward.
The fun, being nearer the earth in winter than in
fummer, is of courfe nearer to it in February and Oc¬
tober than in March and September 5 and therefore
the greateft tides happen not till fomc time after the
autumnal equinox, and return a little before the ver¬
nal.
The fea, being thus put in motion, would continue
to ebb and flow for feveral times, even though the fun
and moon were annihilated, or their influence fliould
• ceafe ; as, if a bafon of water were agitated, the wa¬
ter would continue to move for fome time after the
bafon was left to (land (till ; or like a pendulum,
which, having been put in motion by the hand, con¬
tinues to make feveral vibrations without any new im-
pulfe.
When the moon is in the equator, the tides are e-
qually high in both parts of the lunar day, or time of
the moon’s revolving from the meridian to the meridian
again, which is 24 hours 50 minutes. But as the
«roon declines from the equator towards either pole,
N O M Y. Sea. VL
the tides are alternately higher and lower at places ha-Ebbingand
ving north or fouth latitude. For one of the higheft fi°w^n6 of
elevations, which is that under the moon, follows her. e ^ea'
towards the pole to which fhe is neareft, and the other
declines towards the oppofite pole 5 each elevation de¬
fcribing parallels as far diftant from the equator, on
oppofite iides, as the moon declines from it to either
fide ; and confequently the parallels defcribed by thefe
elevations of the wrater are twice as many degrees from
one another as the moon is from the equator ; increa-
fing their diftance as the moon increafes her declina¬
tion, till it be at the greateft, when the faid parallels
are, at a mean ftate, 47 degrees from one another : and
on that day, the tides are moft unequal in their heights.
As the moon returns towards the equator, the parallels
defcribed by the oppofite elevations approach towards
each other, until the moon comes to the equator, and
then they coincide. As the moon declines towards the
oppofite pole, at equal diftances, each elevation de-
fcribes the fame parallel in the other part of the lunar
day, which its oppofite elevation defcribed before.
Whilft the moon has north declination, the greateft
tides in the northern hemifphere are when fhe is above
the horizon ; and the reverfe whilft her declination is
fouth. Let NESQ^be the earth, NSC its axis, EQ^ig. 192,
the equator, T Sd the tropic of Cancer, t the tro-^.b 19b
pic of Capricorn, a b the arftic circle, c d the antarftic,
N the north pole, S the fouth pole, M the moon, F
and G the two eminences of water, whofe loweft parts
are, at a and d, at N and S, and at h and c, always 90
degrees from the higheft. Now, when the moon is in
her greateft north declination at M, the higheft eleva¬
tion G under her is on the tropic of Cancer T
and the oppofite elevation F on the tropic of Capri¬
corn / Trj ; and thefe two elevations deferibe the tropics
by the earth’s diurnal rotation. All places in the
northern hemifphere ENQJiave the higheft tides when
they come into the pofition b iE under the moon;
and the loweft tides when the earth’s diurnal rotation
carries them into the pofition aTE, on the fide oppo¬
fite to the moon ; the reverfe happens at the fame time
in the fouthern hemifphere ESQ^as is evident to fight.
The axis of the tides «C</had now its poles a and d,
(being always 90 degrees from the higheft elevations)
in the ar&ic and antar&ic circles ; and therefore it is
plain, that at thefe circles there is but one tide of
flood, and one of ebb, in the lunar day. For, when
the point a revolves half round to b in 12 lunar hours,
it has a tide of flood ; but when it comes to the fame
point a again in 12 hours more, it has the loweft ebb.
In feven days afterward, the moon M comes to the e-
quino&ial circle, and is over the equator EQ^ when
both elevations deferibe thp equator ; and in both he-
mifpheres, at equal diftances from the equator, the
tides are equally high in both parts of the lunar day.
The whole phenomena being reverfed, when the moon
has fouth declination, to what they were when her de¬
clination was north, require no farther defeription.
In the three laft-mentioned figures, the earth is or-
thographically projefted on the plane of the meridian ;
but in order to deferibe a particular phenomenon, we
now projedt it on the plane of the ecliptic. Let
HZON be the earth and fea, FED the equator, TPig. 19*.
the tropic of Cancer, C the arftic circle, F the north
pole, and the curves, 1, 2, 3, &c. 24 meridians or
hour-
Sea. VI. ASTRO
Ebbing and hour-circles, interfering each other in the poles:
flowing of AGM is the moon’s orbit, S the fun, M the moon, Z
the Sea. ^ water eleVated under the moon, and N the oppofite
equal elevation. As the lowed parts of the water are
always 90 degrees from the highed, when the moon is
in either of the tropics (as at M), the elevation Z is on
the tropic of Capricorn, and the oppofite elevation N on
the tropic of Cancer ; the low-water circle HCO touch¬
es the polar circles at C 5 and the high-water circle
ETP6 goes over the poles at P, and divides every pa¬
rallel of latitude into two equal fegments. In this cafe,
the tides upon every parallel are alternately higher and
lower ; but they return in equal times : the point T,
for example, on the tropic of Cancer, (where the depth
of the tide is reprefented by the breadth of the dark
fhade), has a diallower tide of flood at T than when it
revolves half round from thence to 6, according to the
order of the numeral figures ; but it revolves as foon
from 6 to T as it did from T to 6. When the moon
is in the equinoftial, the elevations Z and N are tranf-
ferred to the equator at O and PI, and the high and
low-water circles are got into each other’s former pla¬
ces 5 in which cafe the tides return in unequal times,
but are equally high in both parts of the lunar day ; for
a place at 1 (under D) revolving as formerly, goes
fooner from 1 to 11 (under F) than from 11 to 1, be-
caufe the parallel it defcribes is cut into unequal feg¬
ments by the high-water circle HCO : but the points
1 and 11 being equidiftant from the pole of the tides
at C, which is dire&ly under the pole of the' moon’s
orbit MGA, the elevations are equally high in both
3g7 parts of the day.
Tides turn And thus it appears, that as the tides are governed
on the axis by the moon, they mult turn on the axis of the moon’s
of the orbit, which is inclined 23 ^ degrees to the earth’s axis
moons or- gt a rnean ftate : and therefore the poles of the tides
muft be fo many degrees from the poles of the earth, or
in oppofite points of the polar circles, going round thefe
circles in every lunar day. It is true, that according
to fig.4. when the moon is vertical to the equator ECQ^
the poles of the tides feem to fall in with the poles oF
the world N and S ; but when we confider that FGH
is under the moon’s orbit, it will appear, that when the
moon is over H, in the tropic of Capricorn, the north
pole of the tides ( which can be no more than 90 degrees
from under the moon) mull be at G in the ardtic circle,
not at P the north pole of the earth ; and as the moon
afcends from H to G in her orbit, the north pole of the
tides mutt fliift from c to a \n the arftic circle, and the
fouth poles as much in the antar&ic.
It is not to be doubted, but that the earth’s quick
rotation brings the poles of.the tides nearer to the poles
of the world, than they would be if the earth were at
reft, and the moon revolved about it only once a month ;
for otherwife the tides would be more unequal in their
heights and times of their returns, than we find they
are. But how near the earth’s rotation may bring the
poles of its axis and thofc of the tides together, or hew
far the preceding tides may affedl thofe which follow,
fo as to make them keep up nearly to the fame heights
and times of ebbing and flowing, is a problem more fit
to be folved by obfervation than by theory.
Thofe who have opportunity to make obfervatioiw,
and choofe to fatisfy themfelves whether the tides are
ppally affedted in the above, manner by the different po-
N O M Y. s$i
fitions of the moon, efpecially as to the unequal times Elan’S and
of their returns, may take this general rule for know- of
ing when they ought to be fo affedled. When the. , 1
earth’s axis inclines to the moon, the northern tides, if
not retarded in their paffage through Ihoals and chan¬
nels, nor affedted by the winds, ought to be greateft
when the moon is above the horizon, lead when Ihe is
below it, and quite the reverfe when the earth’s axis
declines from her ; but in both cafes, at equal intervals
of time. When the earth’s axis inclines fidewife to
the moon, both tides are equally high, but they hap¬
pen at unequal intervals of time. In every lunation the
earth’s axis inclines once to the moon, once from her,
and twice fidewife to her, as it does to the fun every
year ; becaufe the moon goes round the ecliptic every
month, and the fun but once in a year. In fummer, tbe
earth’s axis inclines towards the moon when new ; and
therefore the day-tides in the north ought tobehighett,
and night-tides lowed, about the change : at the full,
the reverfe. At the quarters, they ought to be equally
high, but unequal in their returns : becaufe the earth’s
axis then inclines fidewife to the moon. In winter, the
phenomena are the fame at full moon as in fummer at
new. lo autumn the earth’s axis inclines fidewife to
the moon when new and full ; therefore the tides
ought to be equally high and uneven in their returns at
thefe times. At the firft quarter, the tides of flood
fhould be leaft when the moon is above the horizon,
greateft when fhe is below it; and the reverfe at her
third quarter. In fpring, the phenomena of the firtt,
quarter anfwer to thofe of the third quarter in au¬
tumn ; and vice verfa. The nearer any tide is to ei¬
ther of the feafons, the more the tides partake of the
phenomena of thefe feafons ; and in the middle between
any two of them the tides are at a mean ftate between
thofe of both.
In open feas, the tides rife but to very final] heights,
in proportion to what they do in wide-mouthed rivers,
opening in the dire&ion of the ftream of tide. For in
channels growing narrower gradually, the water is ac¬
cumulated by the oppolition of the contradling bank : .
like a gentle wind, little felt on an open plain, but.
ftrong and brifk in a ftreet ; efpecially if the wider end
of the ftree-t be next the plain, and in the.way of the
wind. _ _
The tides are fo retarded in their paffage thro’ dif-Irregular;--
ferent fhoals and channels, and otherwife fo varioufly ties °f ticks*
affc&ed by ftriking againft capes and headlands, that^Ulnte<i“'
to different places they happen at all diftances of theIor’
moon from the meridian, confequently at all hours of
the lunar day. The tide propagated by the moon in
the German ocean, when fhe is three hours paft the
meridian, takes 12 hours-to come from thence to Lout
don bridge, where it arrives by the time that a new
tide is raifed in the ocean. And therefore, when the
moon has north declination, and we (hould expeft the
tide at London to be greateft when the moon is above:
the horizon, we find it is leaft ; and the contrary when
Ihe has fouth declination. At feveral places it is high,
water three hours before the moon comes to the meri¬
dian ; but that tide which the moon putties as it were
before her, is only the tide oppofife to that which was
raifed by her when (he was nine hours paft the oppofite
meridian.
There.are no. tides in lakes, becaufe they are gene--
3 A* rrA/
532 ASTRO
Ebbing a-.:! rally fo Tmal), that when the moon is vertical fhe at-
fi.jiving of tr9^s every part of them alike, and therefore by ren-
! ie bcj' , dering all the water equally light, no part of it can be
raifed higher than another. The Mediterranean and
Baltic feas have very fmall elevations, becaufe the in¬
lets by which they communicate with the ocean are
fo narrow, that they cannot, in fo Ihort a time, receive
or difcharge enough to raife or fink their furfaces fen-
369 fitly.
Why the A*i* being lighter than water, and the furface of the
moon does atmofphere being nearer to the moon than the furface
not afTeft 0f the fea, it cannot be doubted that the moon raifes
meter10" muc^ k'gfier t,(^es *n ^ a'r t*lan 'n lfie ^ea*
therefore many have wondered why the mercury does
not fink in the barometer when the moon’s a&ion on
the particles of air makes them lighter as file paffes over
the meridian. But we mull confider, that as thefe
particles are rendered lighter, a greater number of them
is accumulated, until the deficiency of gravity be made
up by the height of the column ; and then there is an
equilibrium, and confequently an equal preflure upon
the mercury as before 5 fo that it cannot be affedted by
the aerial tides. It is very probable, however, that
the ftars which are feen through an aerial tide of this
kind will have their light more refradfed than thofe
which are feen through the common depth of the at-
mofphere ; and this may account for the fuppofed re-
fradtions by the lunar atmofphere that have been fome-
times obferved.
<©f th°har- ^ ‘s genera^7 believed that the moon rifes about 50
vefi moon, minutes later every day than on the preceding : but
this is true only with regard to places on the equator.
In places of cohfiderable latitude there is a remarkable
difference, efpecially in the harvetl time. Here the
autumnal full moon riles very foon after fun-fet for fe-
veral evenings together. At the polar circles, where
the mild feafon is of very ftiort duration, the autumnal
full moon rifes at fun-fet from the firfi to the third
quarter. And at the poles, where the fun is for half
a year abfent, the winter full-moons fhine conftantly
without fetting from the firfi to the third quarter.
All thefe phenomena are owing to the different
angles made by the horizon and different parts of the
moon’s orbit ; and may be explained in the following
manner.
The plane of the equinodtial is perpendicular to the
earth’s axis 5 and therefore as the earth turns round
its axis, all parts of the equinodlial make equal angles
with the horizon both at riling and fetting ; fo that
equal portions of it always rjfe or fet in equal times.
Confequently, if the moon’s motion were equable, and
4n the equinodlial, at the rate of 12 degrees 11 min.
from the fun every day, as it is in her orbit, (he would
■rife and fet 50 minutes later every day than on the
preceding : for 1 2 deg. 1 1 min. of the equinodiial rife
or fet in 50 minutes of time in all latitudes.
But the moon’s motion is fo nearly in the ecliptic,
that we mny confider her at prefent as moving in it.
3sfow the different parts of the ecliptic, on account of
N O M Y. Sea. VI.
its obliquity to the earth’s axis, make very different Ebbing and
angles with the horizon as they rife or fet. Thofe flowing of
parts or figns which rife with the fmalleft angles fet bea‘ ,
with the greateft, and vice verfa. In equal times, v
whenever this angle is lead, a greater portion of the
ecliptic rifes than when the angle is larger ; as may be
feen by elevating the pole of a globe to any confider-
able latitude, and then turning it round its axis in the
horizon. Confequently, when the moon is in thofe
figns which rife cr fet with the fmallelt angles, fiie
rifes or fets with the lead difference of time ; and with
the greateft difference in thofe figns which rife or fet
with the greateft angles.
Let FUP be the axis of a globe, SL TR the tropic Fig. i8y«
of Cancer, Tut VS the tropic of Capricorn, 05 EU VS
the ecliptic touching both the tropics, which are 47
degrees from each other, and AB the horizon. The
equator, being in the middle between the tropics, is cut
by the ecliptic in two oppofite points, which, are the
beginnings of Aries and Libra ; K is the hour-circle
with its index, F the north pole of the globe elevated
to a conliderable latitude, fuppofe 40 degrees above
the horizon ; and P the fouth pole depreffed as much
below it. Becaufe of the oblique pofition of the fphere
in this latitude, the ecliptic has the high elevation
N .25 above the horizon, making the angle NU .25'
of 734- degrees with it when Cancer is on the meridian,
at which time Libra rifes in the eaft. But let the
globe be turned half round its axis, till Capricorn comes
to the meridian and Aries rifes in the eaft ; and then
the ecliptic will have the low elevation NL above the
horizon, making only an angle NUL of 264. degrees
with it; which is 47 degrees lefs than the former angle,
equal to the diftance between the tropics.
In northern latitudes, the fmalleft angle made by
the ecliptic and horizon is when Aries rifes, at which
time Libra fets ; the greateft when Libra rifes, at
which time Aries fets. From the riling of Aries to
the riling of Libra (which is twelve (a) lidereal hours)
the angle increafes 5 and from the rifing of Libra to the
rifing of Aries, it decreafes in the fame proportion.
By this article and the preceding, it appears, that the
ecliptic rifes fafteft about Aries, and fioweft about
Libra.
On the parallel of London, as much of the ecliptic
rifes about Pifces and Aries in two hour^as the moon
goes through in fix days : and therefore, whilft the
moon is in thefe figns, fire differs but two hours in
rifing for fix days together ; that is, about 20 minutes
later every day or night than on the preceding, at a
mean rate. Butin 14 days afterwards, the moon comes
to Virgo and Libra, which are the oppofite figns to
Pifces and Aries ; and then fhe differs aimoft four times
as much in rifing ; namely, one hour and about fifteen
minutes later every day or night than the former, whilft
fire is in thefe figns.
As the moon can never be full but when fhe is op¬
pofite to the fun, and fun is never in Virgo and
Libra but in our autumnal months, it is plain that the
moon
'{a) The ecliptic, together with the fixed ftars, make 366^ apparent diurnal revolutions about the earth in a
year; the fun only 365.4. Therefore the ftars gain 3 minutes 56 feconds upon the fun every day ; fo that a
Tidereal day contains only 23 hours 56 minutes ot mean folar time, and a natural or folar day 24 hours. Hence
»2 Tider.eal hours are 11 minates 58 feconds fhorter than 12 folar.
. ;/j is*.
Sea. VI.
R
N O M
Why the
moon is never full in tbe oppofite figns, Pifces and
Aries, but in thefe two months. And therefore we
can have only two full moons in the year, which rife
f fo near the time of fun-fet for a week together, as a-
bovementioned. The former of thefe is called the
harveft moon, and the latter the hunter's moon.
Here it will probably be afked, why we never ob-
533
feme phe- ferve remarkable rifing of the moon but in harveft,
feeing (he is in Pifces and Aries twelve times in the year
ved at otherkefkles> and mull then rife with as little difference of
times. time as in harveft ? The anfwer is plain : for in winter
thefe figns rife at noon ; and being then only a quarter
of a circle diftant from the fun, the moon in them is in
her firft quarter: but when the fun is above the hori¬
zon, the moon’s rifing is neither regarded nor per¬
ceived. In fpring, thefe figns rife with the fun, be-
caufe he is then in them ; and as the moon changeth
in them at that time of the year, fhe is quite invifible.
In fummer they rife about midnight; and the fun being
then three figns, or a quarter of a circle, before them,
the moon is in them about her third quarter ; when
rifing fo late, and giving but very little light, her rifing
paffes onobferved. And in autumn, thefe figns, being
oppofite to the fun, rife when he fets, with the moon
in oppofition, or at the full, which makes her rifing
very confpicuous.
At the equator, the north and fouth poles lie in the
horizon ; and therefore the ecliptic makes the fame
angle fouthward with the horizon when Aries rifes, as
it does northward when Libra rifes. Confequently,
as the moon rifes and fets nearly at equal angles with
the horizon all tbe year round, and about 50 minutes
later every day or night than on the preceding, there
can be no particular harveft-moon at the equator.
The farther that any place is from the equator, if
it be not beyond the polar circle, the more the angle
is diminifhed which the ecliptic and horizon make when
Pifces and Aries rife : and therefore when the moon is
in thefe figns, (he rifes with a nearly proportionable
■difference later every day than on the former ; and is for
that reafon the more remarkable about the full, until
we come to the polar circles, or 66 degrees from the
equator ; in which latitude the ecliptic and horizon be¬
come coincident every day for a moment, at the fame
fidereal hour (or 3 minutes 56 fecor.ds fooner every
day than the former), and the very next moment one
half of the ecliptic containing Capricorn, Aquarius, Pif¬
ces, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini, rifes, and the oppo¬
fite half fets. Therefore, whilft the moon is going
from the beginning of Capricorn to the beginning of
Cancer, which is almoft 14 days, fhe rifes at the fame
fidereal hour ; and in autumn juft at fun-fet, b'ecaufe
all that half of the ecliptic, in which the fun is at that
time, fets at the fame fidereal hour, and the oppofite
half rifes; that is, 3 minutes 56 feconds of mean fo-
lar time, fooner every day than on the day before. So,
whilft the moon is going from Capricorn to Cancer,
ihe rifes earlier every day than on the preceding ; con¬
trary to what (he does at all places between the polar
circles. But during the above 14 days, the moon is
24 fidereal hours later in fetting : for the fix figns
w hich rife all at once on the eaftern fide of the horizon
are 24 hours in fetting on the weftern fide of it.
in northern latitudes, the autumnal full moons are in
Pifces and Aries, and the vernal full moons in Virgo Harveft
and Libra; in fouthern latitudes, juft the reverfe, be-and
caufe the feafons are contrary. But Virgo and Libra
rife at as fmall angles with the horizon in fouthern la.,
titudes, as Pifces and Aries do in the northern ; and
therefore the harveft-moons are juft as regular on one
fide of the equator as on the other.
As thefe figns, which rife with the leaft angles, fet
with the greateft, the vernal full moons differ as much
in their times of rifing every night as the autumnal full
moons differ in their times of fetting ; and fet with as
little difference as the'autumnal full moons rife ; the one
being in all cafes the reverfe of the other.
Hitherto, for the fake of plainnefs, we have fup-
pofed the moon to move in the ecliptic, from which
the fun never deviates. But the orbit in which the
moon really moves is different from the ecliptic; one
half being elevated yf degrees above it, and the other
half as much depreffed below it. The moon’s orbit
therefore interfedts the ecliptic in two points diametri¬
cally oppofite to each other; and thefe interfe&ions
are called the Moon's Nodes. So the moon can never
be in the ecliptic but when fhe is in either of her nodes,
which is at leaft twice in every courfe from change to
change, and fometimes thrice : For, as the moon goes
almoft a whole fign more than around her orbit from
change to change ; if fhe paffes by either node about
the time of change, (he will pafs by the other in
about 14 days after, and come round to the former
node two days again before the next change. That node
from which the moon begins to afeend northward, or
above the ecliptic, in northern latitudes, is called the
Afcending Node ; and the other the Defcending Node,
becaufe the moon, when fhe paffes by it, defeends be¬
low the ecliptic fouthward.
The moon’s oblique motion with regard to the
ecliptic, caufes fome difference in the times of her ri¬
fing and fetting from what is already mentioned. For
when fhe is northward of the ecliptic, fhe lifes fooner
and fets later than if fhe moved in the ecliptic : and
when fhe is fouthward of the ecliptic, fhe rifes later
and fets fooner. This difference is variable, even in
the fame figns, becaufe the nodes fhiffbackward about
I9r degrees in the ecliptic every year; and fo go
round it contrary to the order of figns in 18 years 225
days.
When the afeending node is in Aries, the fouthern
half of the moon’s orbit makes an angle of 5-*- degrees
lefs with the horizon than the ecliptic does, when A-
ries rifes in northern latitudes: for which reafon the
moon rifes with lefs difference of time whilft ftie is in
Pifces and Aries, than (he would do if fhe kept in the
ecliptic. But in 9 years and 112 days afterward, the
defcending node comes to Aries ; and then the moon’s
orbit makes an angle 5-j- degrees greater with the ho¬
rizon when Aries rifes, than the ecliptic docs ar that
time ; which caufes the moon to rife with greater dif¬
ference of time in Pifces and Aries than it fhe moved
in the ecliptic.
To be a little more particular : When the afeending
node is in Aries, the angle is only ^ degrees on the
parallel of London when Aries rifes'; but when the
defcending node comes to Aries, the angle is 2cl- de¬
grees. This occafions as great a difference of the
R O
373
Long
moon-light
the poles.
moon’s riling in the fame figns every nine years, as
there would be on two parallels tOy degrees from one
another, if the moon’s courfe were in the ecliptic.
As there is a complete revolution of the nodes in 18y
years, there mull be a regular period of all the varie¬
ties which can happen in the riling and fetting of the
moon during that time. But this Ihifting of the nodes
never affefts the moon’s riling fo much, even in her
quickeft defeending latitude, as not to allow us ftill the
benefit of her rifing nearer the time of fun- fet for a few
days together about the full in harveft, than when (lie
is full at any other time of the year.
At the polar circles, when the fun touches the fum-
mer tropic, he continues 24 hours above the horizon 5
and 24 hours below it when he touches the winter
tropic. For the fame reafon, the full moon neither
rifes in fummer nor fets in winter, confidering her as
moving in the ecliptic. For the winter full moon be¬
ing as high in the ecliptic as the fummer fun, muft
therefore continue as long above the horizon ; and the
fummer full moon being as low in the ecliptic as the
winter fun, can no more rife than he does. But thefe
are only the two full moons which happen about the
tropics, for all the others rife and fet. In fummer,
the full moons are low, and their ftay is fhort above
the horizon, when the nights are fliort, and we have
lead occafion for moon-light: in winter they go high,
and ftay long above the horizon, when the nights are
long, and we want the greateft quantity of moon¬
light.
At the poles, one half of the ecliptic never fets,
and the other half never rifes: and therefore, as the fun
is always half a year in deferibing one half of the eclip¬
tic, and as long in going through the other half, it is
natural to imagine that the fun continues half a year
together above the horizon of each pole in its turn,
and as long below it ; rifing to one pole when he fets
to the other. This would be exadtly the cafe if there
were no refraftion : but by the atmofphere’s refradting
the fun’s rays, he becomes vifible fame days fooner, and
continues fome days longer in fight, than he would
otherwife do : fo that he appears above the horizon of
either pole before he has got below the horizon of the
other. And, as he never goes more than 234 degrees
below the horizon of the poles, they have very little
dark night 5 it be»ng twilight there as well as at o-
iher places, till the fun be 18 degrees below the hori¬
zon. The full moon, being always oppofite to the fun,
can never be feen while the fun is above the horizon,
except when Ihe is in the northern half of her orbit;
for whenever any point of the ecliptic rifes, the op¬
pofite point fets. Therefore, as the fun is above the ho¬
rizon of the north pole from the 20th of March till
23d of September, it is plain that the moon, when full,
being oppofite to the fun, muft be below the horizon
during that half of the year. But when the fun is in
the fouthern half of the ecliptic, he never rifes to the
north pole; during which half of the year, every full
moon happens in fome part of the northern half of the
ecliptic which never fets. Confequently, as the polar
inhabitants never fee the full moon in fummer, they have
her always in the winter, before, at, and after, the full,
fiiining for 14 of our days and nights. And when the
fun is at his greateft diprefiion below the horizon, be-
ipg theu in Capricorn, the moon is at her third quarter
N O M Y. Sea. vr.
in Aries, full in Cancer, and at her firft quarter in Li- Harveft
ting point, the moon rifes at her firft quarter in Aries
is moft elevated above the horizon, and full, in Cancer ;
and fets, at the beginning of Libra, in her third quarter,
having continued vifible for 14 diurnal rotations of the
earth. Thus the poles are fupplied one half of the
winter-time with conftant moon-light in the fun’s ab-
fence ; and only lofe fight of the moon from her third
to her firft quarter, while (he gives but very little light
and could be but of little and fometimes of no fervice
to them. A bare view of the figure will make this
plain : in which let S be the fun ; e, the earth in fummer, Fig. 18&;
when its north pole n inclines toward the fun ; and E
the earth in winter, when its north pole declines from
him. SEN and NWS is the horizon of the north
pole, which is coincident with the equator ; and, in
both thefe pofitions of the earth, T V? is the
moon’s orbit, in which flic goes round the earth, ac¬
cording to the order of the letters abed, A B C D.
When the moon is at a, (he is in her third quarter to the
earth at e, and juft rifing to the north pole « ; at i file
changes, and is at the greateft height above the hori¬
zon, as the fun likewife is; at c ftte is in her firft quarter,
fetting below the horizon ; and is loweft of all under
it at d, when oppofite to the fun, and her enlightened
fide toward the earth. Bnt then ftie is full in view to
the fouth pole p : which is as much turned from the
fun as the north pole inclines toward him. Thus, in our
fummer, the moon is above the horizon of the north
pole whilft (he deferibes the northern half of the eclip¬
tic 'Y’ 3L sQ;» or from her third quarter to her fit ft ;
and below the horizon during her progrefs through the
fouthern half •, higheft at the change, moft
depreffed at the full. But in winter, when the earth
is at E, and its north pole declines from the fun, the
new moon at D is at her greateft depreffion below the
horizon NWS, and the full moon at B at her greateft
height above it; rifing at her firft quarter A, and keep¬
ing above the horizon till (lie comes to her third quar¬
ter C. At a mean ftate (he is 234 degrees above the
horizon at B and b, and as much below it at D and </,
equal to the inclination of the earth’s axis F. S
or S vy, are, as it were, a ray of light proceeding
from the fun to the earth ; and (hows that when the
earth is at e, the fun is above the horizon, vertical to
the tropic of Cancer ; and when the earth is at E, he
is below the horizon, vertical to the tropic of Capri-
corn. 374
The fun and moon generally appear larger when near Horizontal
the horizon than when at a diftance from it; for which moon ac-
there have been various reafons affigned. The follow-£ou^cd f°r
ing account is given by Mr Fergufon ; “ Thefe lum>-gyfonr Fer~
naries, although at great diftances from the earth, ap¬
pear- floating as it were on the furface of our atmo-
fphere, HGF/cC, a little way beyond the clouds ; of Fig. 170,..
which, thofe about F, direftly over our heads at E,
are nearer us than thofe about H or c in the horizon
HEc. Therefore, when the fun or moon appear in the
horizon at e, they are not only feen in a part of the (ky
which is really farther from us than if: they were at
any confiderable altitude, as about f; but they are al-
fo feen through a greater quantity of air and vapours
at c than at f Here we have two concurring appear¬
ances
Sea, Vt,
R 0 N O M Y.
■fey Mr
i)unn.
ances which deceiva our imagination, and caufe us to
refer the fun and moon to a greater diftance at their
rifing or fetting about c, than when they are confider-
j ably high, as at f: firft, their feeming to be on a
part of the atmofphere at c, which is really farther
thany from a fpeftator at E ; and, fecondly, their be¬
ing feen through a groffer medium when at c than when
at f, which, by rendering them dimmer, caufes us to
imagine them to be at a yet greater diftance. And as,
in both cafes, they are feen much under the fame angle,
we naturally judge them to be largeft when they feem
fartheft from us.
« Any one may fatisfy himfelf that the moon appears
under no greater angle in the horizon than on the me¬
ridian, by taking a large fheet of paper, and rolling it
up in the form of a tube, of fuch a width, that, ob-
ferving the moon through it when fhe rifes, (he may as
it were juft fill the tube : then tie a thread round it
to keep it of that fize 5 and when the moon comes to
the meridian, and appears much lefs to the eye, look at
her again through the fame tube, and (he will fill it juft
as much, if not more, than (he did at her rifing.
« When the full moon is in her perigee, or at her
leaft diftance from the earth, (he is feen under a larger
angle, and muft therefore appear bigger than when (lie
is full at other times : And if that part of the atmo¬
fphere where fhe rifes be more replete with vapours
than ufual, fhe appears fo much the dimmer; and
therefore we fancy her to be (till the bigger, by refer¬
ring her to an unufually great diftance, knowing that
no objedls which are very far diftant can appear big
unlefs they really be fo.”
To others this folutiori has appeared unfatisfaftory ;
and accordingly Mr Dunn has given the following dif-
fertation on this phenomenon, Phil. Tranf. Vol.LXIV.
“ 1. The fun and moon when they are in or near the
horizon, appear to the naked eye of the generality of
perfons, fo very large in Comparifon with theifapparent
magnitudes when they are in the zenith, or fomewhat
elevated, that fcveral learned men have been led to in¬
quire into the caufe of this phenomenon ; and after en¬
deavouring to find certain reafons, founded on the prin¬
ciples of phyfics, they have at laft pronounced this
phenomenon a mere optical illufion.
“ 2. The principal di(fertations which I have feen
conducing to give any information on this fubjeft, or
helping to throw any light on the fame, have been thofe
printed in the Tranfadtions of the Royal Society, the
Academy of Sciences at Paris, the German Adis, and
Dr Smith’s Optics; but as all the accounts which I
have met with in thefe writings any way relative to
this fubjedt, have not given me that fatisfadlion which
I have defired, curiofity has induced me to inquire after
the caufe of this fingular phenomenon in a manner
fomewhat different from that which others have done
before me, and by fuch experiments and obfervations
as have appeared to me pertinent; fome of which have
been as follows, viz.
“ 3. I have obferved the rifing and fetting fun near
the vifible horizon, and near rifing grounds elevated
above the vifible horizon about half a degree, and found
him to appear largeft when near to the vifible horizon ;
and particularly a confiderable alteration of his magni¬
tude and light Has always appeared to me from the
-time of his .being in the horizon at rifing, to the time
535
of his being a degree or two above the horizon, andHarveft
the contrary at his fetting; which property I have *nd H°ri'
endeavoured to receive as a prejudice, and an impofi-^^*
tion on my fight and judgment, the ufual reafons for 1 —<
this appearance.
“ 4. I have alfo obferved that the fun near the ho¬
rizon appears to put on the figure of a fpheroid, having
its vertical diameter appearing to the naked eye fhorter
than the horizontal diameter; and, by meafuring thofe
diameters in a telefcope, have found the vertical one
fhorter than the other.
“ 5. I have made frequent obfervations and compa-
rifons of the apparent magnitude of the fun’s difk, with
objects dire&Iy under him, when he has been near the
horizon, and with fuch obje£ls as I have found by
meafurement to be of equal breadth with the fun’s dia¬
meter ; but in the bidden tranfition of the eye from
the fun to the objett, and from the objeft to the fun,
have always found the fun to appear leaft ; and that
when two right lines have been imaginarily produced
by the Tides of thofe equal magnitudes, they have not
appeared to keep parallel, but to meet beyond the
fun.
“ 6. From thefe and other like circumftances, I firft
began to fufpeft that a bidden dip of the fun into the
horizontal vapours, might fomehow or other be the
caufe of a fudden apparent change of magnitude, al¬
though the horizontal vapours had been difallowed to
be able to produce any other than a refradtion in a
vertical diredlion ; and, reducing things to calculation,
found, that from the time when the fun is within a di¬
ameter or two of the horizon, to the time when he is
a femidiameter below the horizon, the fun’s rays be¬
come paflable through fuch a length of medium, reck¬
oning in the diredlion of the rays, that the total quan¬
tity of medium (reckoning both depth and denfity)
through which the rays pafs, being compared with
the like total depth and denfity through which they
pafs at feveral elevations, it Was proportionable to the
difference of apparent magnitude, as appearing to the
naked eye.
“ 7. This circurhftance of fudden increafe and de-
cfeafe of apparent magnitude, and as fudden decreafe
and increafe of light (for they both go together), feem-
ed to me no improbable caufe of the phenomenon, al¬
though I could not then perceive how bich vapours
might contribute toward enlarging the diameter of the
fun in a horizontal dire&ion.
“ 8. I therefore examined the fun’s difk again and
again, by the naked eye and by telefcopes, at different
altitudes ; and, among feveral circumftances, found the
folar macula; to appear larger and plainer to the naked
eye, and through a telefcope, the fun being near the
horizon, than they had appeared the fame days when
the fun was on the meridian, and to appearance more
ftrongly defined, yet obfcured.
“ (j. A little before fun-fetting, I have often feen the
edge of the fun with fuch protuberances and indentures
as have rendered him in appearance a very odd figure ;
the protuberances (hooting out far beyond, and the
indentures prefiing into the difk of the fun ; and always,
through a telefcope magnifying 55 times, the lower
limb has appeared with a red glowing arch beneath it,
and clofe to the edge of the fun; while the other parts
have been clear.
“ 10. At
ASTRO
“ ro. At fun-fetting, thefe protuberances and inden¬
tures have appeared to Aide along the vertical limbs,
from the lower limb to the higher, and there vaniih-
,/ing, fo as often to form a fegment of the fun’s upper
limb, apparently feparated from the dife for a imail
fpace of time.-
<! 11. At fun-rifing I have feen the like protuberan¬
ces, indentures, and ilices, above deferibed ; but with
this difference of motion, that at fun-rifing they firil
appear to rife in the fun’s upper limb, and Aide or move
downward to the lower limb ; or, which is the fame
thing, they always appear at the riling and fetting' of
the fun, to keep in the.fame parallels of altitude By the
telefcope. This property has been many times fo dif-
cernable, even by the naked eye, that I have obferved
the fun’s upper limb to fiioot out towards right and left,
and move downwards, forming the upper part of the
dilk an apparent portion of a lefier fpheroid than the
lower part at rifing, and the contrary at fetting.
Through the telefcope this has appeared more plain in
proportion to the power of magnifying.
“ 12. Thefe protuberances and indentures fo eafily
meafureable by the micrometer, whilit the telefcope
wires appeared ftrait, enabled me to conclude, that
N O M Y.
Sea. VI.
magnitudes when feen through feme mediums than o-Harveft
fliers. and Hori-
“ But more particularly, Vocm
“ 15. I took a cylindrical glafs-vtfTel about two x * t
highland having graduated its fides to inches, I placed
it upright on a table, with a piece of paper under the
bottom of the glafs, on which paper were drawn pa¬
rallel right lines at proper diftances from each other ;
and having placed a fhilling at the bottom of the veflel,
it was nearly as low as the paper. Pouring water into
the velfel, and viewing the fliilling through the medium
of water with one eye, whilll I beheld with the other
eye where the edges of the (hilling were proje&ed on
the paper and its parallels, I found the (hilling appear
larger at every additional inch depth of the water; and
this was the cafe if either eye was ufed ; and the fame
when the eye was removed far from the furface or near
to it, or in any proportion thereto.
“ 16. I took large veffels; and, filling them with wa»-
ter, placed different bodies at the bottoms of thofe vef¬
fels. It always followed, that the greater depth of water
I looked through, in the diredtion from my eye to the
obje&s in the water, the nearer thofe objedts appeared
.  Thus light bodies appeared more mellow and
certain (trata of the atmofphere have different refradfive faint, and dark bodies rather better defined, than out of
powers; and, lying horizontally acrofs the conical or
cycloidal fpace traced out by the rays between the eye
and that part of the atmofphere firft. touched by the
rays, mud have been the caufe of fuch apparent pro¬
tuberances and indentures in a horizontal diredtion a-
erofs the fun’s vertical limbs; and alfo that the bot¬
toms of thofe protuberances and indentures muft be
connderably enlarged, and removed to appearance far¬
ther from the centre of the difk than they would have
been had there been no fuch ftrata to refradt.
“ 13. Before fun-rifing, when the fun has been near
the tropic; and the (ky, at the utmoft extent of the
horizon, hath appeared very clear ; and when certain
fogs have appeared in ftrata placed alternately between
the hills, and over intervening rivers, valleys, &c» fo
as to admit a fight of the rifing fun over thofe fogs ; I
have obferved with admiration the moft diftant trees
and bufhments, which at other times have appeared
fmall to the naked eye, but while the fun has been
palling along a little beneath the horizon obliquely un¬
der them, juft before fun-rifing, when the fun has been
thus approaching towards trees and bufhments, they
have grown apparently very large to the naked eye,
and alfo through a telefcope ; and they have.loft that
apparent largenefs as the fun has been paffed by them.
Thus a few trees (landing together on the rifing
ground, at the diftance of a few miles, have appeared
to grow up, into an apparent mountain.. Such apparent
mountains formed from trees put on all forms and (hapes,
as (loping, perpendicular, over-leaning, &c. but foon
recover their natural appearance when the fun is paiTfcd
by them, or got above the horizon.
“ 14. Mountains themfelves, at a diftance, fometimes
appear larger than at other times. Beads and cattle,
in the midft of, and being furrounded with, water,
appear nearer to us than when no water furrounds them.
Cattle, houfe's, trees, all objedfs on the fummit of a
hill, when feen through a fog, and at a proper diftance,
appear enlarged. All bodies admit of larger apparent
N° 34.
the water, when they were not deeply immerfed. And
thus they appeared under whatever diredtions or pofi-
tions I viewed the bodies.
“ 17. I placed different bodies in proper velfels of fair
water, and immerfed my face in the water; viewing the
bodies in and through the water. They all appeared
to me plain, when not too far from the eye; and altho’
a little hazy at the edges, they appeared much en¬
larged, and always larger through a greater depth of
water. Thus a drilling appeared nearly as large as half
a crown, with a red glowing arch on that fide oppofite
to the fun, when the fun (hined on the water. From
this experiment I concluded, that divers fee light objedls
not only larger, but very diftindfly, in the water.”
From thefe experiments he draws a confirmation of1
his dodfrine, that the appearances treated of arife from .
the different ftrata of the atmofphere ; and then con¬
cludes, that the rays coming from the fun are by the
horizontal vapours “ firft obftrudted, and many of
them totally abforbed ; the reft proceeding with a re¬
tarded motion, are thereby firft rede-died, and then lefs
refradied through the humours of the eye ; and; laftly, ,
that hereby the image on the retina becomes enlarged.”
Sect. VII. Of drawing a Meridian Line. Of Solar
and Sidereal Time) and of the Equation of Time.
The foundation of all aftronomical obfervations is-a
knowledge of the exadl time when the fun, or any o-
ther of .the celeftial bodies, comes to the meridian; and
therefore aftronomers have been very attentive to the
moft proper methods of drawitig a meridian line, by
which only this can be exadlly known. The eafteft
method of doing this is the following, recommended by
Mr Fergufon, and is found a very good method of
placing a fun-dial horizontally on its pedeftal. 37<5 >
Make four or five concentric circles (fig. 5.), about a^eerlE]^n,s
quarter of an inch from one another, on a dat board a-
bout a foot in breadth ; and let the outmoft circle be but meriaian
little line.
Sea. VII. ASTRO
Equation little lefs than the board will contain. Fix a pin per-
of Time, pendicularly in the centre, and of fuch a length that its
whole fhadow may fall within the innermoft circle for
v at leaft four hours in the middle of the day. The pin
ought to be about the eighth part of an inch thick, and
to have a round blunt point. The board being fet
exactly level in a place where the fun (hines, fuppofe
from eight in the morning till four in the afternoon,
about which hours the end of the (hadow fhould fall
without albthe circles ; watch the times in the forenoon
when the extremity of the fhortening fhadow juft touch¬
es the feveral circles, and there make marks. Then,
in the afternoon of the fame day, watch the lengthen¬
ing fhadow ; and where its end touches the feveral cir¬
cles in going over them, make marks alfo. Laftly,
with a pair of compafles, find exaftly the middle point
between the two marks on any circle, and draw a ftraight
line from the centre to that point ; which line will be
covered at noon by the fhadow of a fmall upright wire,
which fhould be put in the place of the pin. The rea-
fon for drawing feveral circles is, that in cafe one part
of the day fhould prove clear, and the other part fome-
what cloudy, if you mifs the time when the point of
the fhadow fhould touch one circle, you may perhaps
catch it in touching another. The pin is ufually about
five inches in length. The bed time for drawing a
meridian line in this manner is about the fummer fol-
ftice ; becaufe the fun changes his declination floweft,
and his altitude fafteft, in the longeft days.
If the cafement of a window on which the fun {hines
at noon be quite upright, you may draw a line along
the edge of its fhadow on the floor, when the fhadow
of the pin is exaftly on the meridian line of the board :
and as the motion of the fhadow of the cafement will be
much more fenfible on the floor than that of the fhadow
of the pin on the board, you may know to a few feconds
when it touches the meridian line on the floor.
Another This method may fuffice for ordinary purpofes; but
from the for aftronomers the following is preferable. Take the
PhiLTranf. gn0mon of an horizontal dial for the latitude of the
place, and to the hypotenufa fix two fights, whofe cen¬
tres may be parallel to the fame : let the eye-fight be a
fmall hole, but the other’s diameter muft be equal to
the tangent of the double diftance of the north-ftar from
the pole ; the diftance of the fights being made radius,
let the ftile be rivetted to the end of a ftraight ruler ;
then when you would make ufe of it, lay the ruler on
an horizontal plane, fo that the end to which the ftile
is fixed may overhang; then look through the eye-fight,
moving the inftrument till the north ftar appears to
touch the circumference of the hole in the other fight,
on the fame hand with the girdle of C^ffiopeia, or on
the oppofite fide to that whereon the ftar in the Great
Bear’s rump is at that time ; then draw a line by the
378 edge of the ruler, and it will be a true meridian line.
To find the A meridian line being by either of thefe methods
cxaft time exadtly drawn, the time when the fun or any other
of noon. 0f the celeftial bodies is exaftly in the meridian may
be found by a common quadrant, placing the edge of
it along the line, and obferVing when the fun or other
luminary can be feen exactly through its two fights,
and noting exa&ly the time; which, fuppofing the lu¬
minary viewed to be the fun, will be exaftly noon, or
IZ o’clock ; but as the apparent diameter of the fun
is pretty large, it ought to be known exactly when
his centre is in the meridian, which will be fpme ftiort
Yoi,. II. Part 1L.
N O M Y. 537
fpace after his weftern limb has arrived at it, and be-Equation
fore his eaftern limb comes thither. It will be proper, ^cT‘me,
therefore, to obferve exattly the time of the two limbs ■
being feen through the fights of the quadrant; and the
half of the difference between thefe times added to the
one or fubtra&ed from the other, will give the exaft
time when the fun’s centre is in the meridian. What
we fay with regard to the fun, is alfo applicable to the
moon ; but not to the ftars, which have no fenfible
diameter. To render this more intelligible, the fol¬
lowing fhort defeription of the quadrant, and method
of taking the altitudes of celeftial bodies by it, is fub-
joined. 379
Let HOX (fig. 195.) be a horizontal line, fup-Totakethe
pofed to be extended from the eye at A to X, where altitudes of
the fky and earth feem to meet at the end of a long^'f6^**^
and level plain ; and let S be the fun. The arc XYbodies*
will be the fun’s height above the horizon at X, and
is found by the inftrument EDC, which is a quadrant-
al hoard, or plate of metal, divided into 90 equal parts
or degrees on its limb DPC ; and has a couple of little
brafs plates, as a and b, with a fmall hole in each of
them, caWe&Jight-holts, for looking through, parallel
to the edge of the quadrant whereon they ftand. To
the centre E is fixed one end of a thread F, called the
plumb-line, which has a fmall weight or plummet P
fixed to its other end. Now, if an obferver holds the
quadrant upright, without inclining it to either fide,
and fo that the horizon at X, is feen through the fight-
holes a and b, the plumb-line will cut or hang over
the beginning of the degrees at o, in the edge EC :
but if he elevates the quadrant fo as to look through
the fight-holes at any part of the heavens, fuppofe to
the fun at S ; juft fo many degrees as he elevates the
fight-hole b above the horizontal line HOX, fo many
degrees will the plumb-line cut in the limb CP of the
quadrant. For, let the obferver’s eye at A be in the
centre of the celeftial arc XYV (and he may be faid
to be in the centre of the fun’s apparent and diurnal
orbit, let him be on what part of the earth he will), in
which arc the fun is at that time, fuppofe 25 degrees
high, and let the obferver hold the quadrant fothat he
may fee the fun through the fight-holes ; the plumb-
line freely playing on the quadrant will'cut the 25th de¬
gree in the limb CP, equal to the number of degrees
of the fun’s altitude at the time of obfersation. (N. B-.
Whoever looks at the fun, muft have a fmoked glafs
before his eyes, to fave them from hurt. The better
way is,, not to look at the fun through the fight-holes,
but to hold the quadrant facing the eye, at a little di¬
ftance, and fo that, the fun fnining through one hole,
the ray may be feen to fall on the other.)
By obfervation made in the manner above di'refted,
it is found, that the ftars appear to go round the earth between fo
in 23 hours56minutes 4feconds, andthefunin 24’hours: larandfide.-
fo that the ftars gain three minutes 56 feconds upon real days,
the fun every day, which amounts to one diurnal revo¬
lution in a year ; and therefore, in 365 days as meafu-
red by the returns of the fun to the meridian, there are
3.66.days as meafured by the ftars returning to it : the
former are called filar dap, and the latter fidereal.
If the earth had only a diurnalmotion, without an
annual, any given meridian would revolve from the fun-
to the fun again in the fame quantity of time as from
any fiar to the fame ftar again ; becaufe the fun would;
never change his place with refpedt to the ftars.. But,
1X 'a*
53^
A S T
Equation of as the earth kdv?!nces almoft a degree eauward in its
jrimg» orbit in the time that it turns eaftward round its axis,
J-—J ^ar pajyes over the meridian on any day with
the fun, will pafs over the fame meridian on the next
day when the fun is almolt a degree fhort of it; that
is, 3 minutes 56 feconds fooner. If the year contain¬
ed only 360 days, as the ecliptic does 360 degrees,
the fun’s apparent place, fo far as his motion is equa¬
ble, would change a degree every day ; and then the
fidereal days would be juft 4 minutes {hotter than the
Tolar.
Let ABCDEFGHIKLM (fig. 179.) be the earth’s
orbit, in which it goes round the fun every year, accord¬
ing to the order of the letters, that is, from weft to
eaft ; and turns round its axis in the fame way from the
fun to the fun again in every 24 hours. Let S be the
fun, and R a fixed ftar at fuch an immenfe diftance, that
the diameter of the earth’s orbit bears no fenfible pro¬
portion to that diftance. Let Nw be any particular
meridian of the earth, and N a given point or place
upon that meridian when the earth is at A, the fun S
bides the ftar R, which would always be hid if the earth
never removed from A ; and confequently, as the earth
turns round its axis, the poipt N would always come
round to the fun and ftar at the fame time. But when
the earth has advanced, fuppofe a twelfth part of its
orbit, from A to B, its motion round its axis will bring
the point N a twelfth part of a natural day, or two
hours, fooner to the ftar than to the fun 5 for the angle
‘ofNB/ris equal to the angle ASB ; and therefore
any ftar, which comes to the meridian at noon with
the fun when the earth is at A, will come to the me¬
ridian at to in the forenoon when the earth is at B.
When the earth comes to C, the point N will have
the ftar on its meridian at 8 in the morning, or four
hours fooner than it comes round to the fun ; for it
muft revolve from N to «, before it has the fun in its
meridian. When the earth comes to D, the point N
'will have the ftar on its meridian at 6 in the morning ;
but that point muft revolve fix hours more from N to
before it has mid-day by the fun : for now the angle
ASD is a right angle, and fo is ND»; that is, the
earth has advanced 90 degrees in its orbit, and muft
turn 90 degrees on its axis to carry the point N from
the ftar to the fun ; for the ftar always comes to the
meridian when Not is parallel to RSA ; becaufe DS
is but a point in refpedt of RS. When the earth is
at E, the ftar comes to the meridian at 4 in the morn¬
ing ;• at F, at two in the morning ; and at G, the
earth having gone half round its orbit, N points to the
ftar R at midnight, it being then diredfly oppofite to
the fun 5 and therefore, by the earth’s diurnal motion,
the ftar comes to the meridian 12 hours before the fun.
When the earth is at H, the ftar comes to the meridian
at 10 in the evening ; at I, it comes to the meridian at
8, that is, 16 hours before the fun at K, 18 hours
before him ; at L, 20 hours ; at M, 22 ; and at A, e-
qually with the fun again.
'Sidereal ’^^l3S lt ’3 p'ain> l^at an abfolute turn of the earth
year con- on its axis (which is always completed when any par-
tains 366 ticular meridian comes to be parallel to its fituation at
any time of the day before) never brings the fame me¬
ridian round from the fun to the fun again ; but that
the earth requires as much more than one turn on its
axis to finifh a natural day, as it has gone forward in
N O M Y. Sea. VII.
that time; which, at a mean ftate, is a 365th part ofEquationof
a circle. Hence, in 365 days, the earth turns 366'rime* &c-
times round its axis ; and therefore, as a turn of the v "
earth on its axis completes a fidereal day, there muft
be one fidereal day more in a year than the number
of folar days, be the number what it will, on the earth
or any other planet ; one turn being loft with refpedt
to the number of folar days in a year, by the planet’s
going round the fun ; juft as it would be loft to a travel¬
ler, who, in going round the earth, would fofe one day
by following the apparent diurnal motion of the fun ;
and confequently would reckon one day lefs at his re¬
turn (let him take what time he would to go round
the earth) than thofe who remained all the while at the
place from which he fet out. So if there were two earths
revolving equally on their axes, and if one remained
at A until the other had gone round the fun from A
to A again, that earth which kept its place at A would
have its folar and fidereal days always of the fame
length ; and fo would have one folar day more than
the other at its return. Hence, if the earth turned
but once round its axis in a year, and if that turn was
made the fame way as the earth goes round the fun,
there would be continual day on one fide of the earth,
and continual night on the other. 381
The earth’s motion on its axis being perfeftly uni-Inequality
form and equal at all times of the year, the fidereal °.f foliir
days are always precifely of an equal length ; and fotiine‘
would the folar or natural days be, if the earth’s orbit
were a perfeft circle, and its axis perpendicular to its
orbit. But the earth’s diurnal motion on an inclined
axis, and its annual motion in an elliptic orbit, caufe
the fun’s apparent motion in the heavens to be unequal :
for fometimes he revolves from the meridian to the me¬
ridian again in fomewhat lefs than 24 hours, ftiown by
a well-regulated dock ; and at other times in fomewhat
more : fo that the time fliown by an equal going clock
and a true fun-dial is never the fame but on the rjth
of April, the 16th of June, the 31 ft of Auguft, and the
24th of December. The clock, if it goes equably
and true all the year round, will be before the fun
from the 24th of December till the 15th of April;
from that time till the 16th of June, the fun will be be¬
fore the clock ; from the 16th of June till the 31ft of
Auguft, the clock will be again before the fun ; and
from thence to the 24th of December, the fun will be
fafter than the dock. 383
As the equation of time, or difference between the Equation of
time fliown by a well-regulated clock and a true fun-t!m'e c*‘
dial, depends upon two caufes, namely, the obliquityp ame ’
of the ecliptic, and the unequal motion of the earth in
it, we fhall firft explain the effe&s of thefe caufes fepa-
rately confidered, and then the united effefts refulting
from their combination.
The earth’s motion on its axis being perfedlly equa¬
ble, or always at the fame rate, and the plane of the
equator being perpendicular to its axis, it is evident
that in equal times equal portions of the equator pafs
over the meridian ; and fo would equal portions of the
ecliptic, if it were parallel to, or coincident with,
the equator. But, as the ecliptic is oblique to the
equator, the equable motion of the earth carries un¬
equal portions of the ecliptic over the meridian in
equal times, the difference being proportionate to the
obliquity } and as fome parts of the ecliptic- are much
IDOTC
Sea. VII. ASTRO
Equation of more oblique than others, thofe differences are un-
Time, &c. equal among themfelves. Therefore, If two funs (hould
v~~~l ftart from the beginning either of Aries or Libra, and
continue to move through equal arcs in equal times,
one in the equator and the other in the ecliptic, the
equatorial fun would always return to the meridian in
24 hours time, as meafured by a well-regulated clock :
but the fun in the ecliptic would return to the meridian
fometimes fooner and fometimes later than the equa¬
torial fun ; and only at the fame moments with him
on four days of the year ; namely, the 20th of March,
when the fun enters Aries ; the 21ft of June, when he
enters Cancer; the 23d of September, when he enters
Libra; and the 21 ft of December, when he enters Ca¬
pricorn 5 and tothis fi&itious fun the motion of a well-
regulated clock always anfwers.
Fig. 180. _Let ZqpssTu be the earth ; ZFRz, its axis; abode,
&c. the equator; ABCDE, &c. the northern half of the
ecliptic from qp to -r~u. qn the fide of the globe next
the eye ; and MNOP, &c. the fouthern half on the op.-
pofite lide from iQ; to ^ Let the points at A, B,
C, D, E, F, &c. quite round from qp to qp again
bound equal portions of the ecliptic, gone through in
equal times by the real fun ; and thofe at a, b, c, d, e, f,
&c. equal portions of the equator defcribed in equal
times by the fi&itious fun ; and let Zqpz be the me¬
ridian.
As the real fun moves obliquely in the ecliptic, and
the fiftitious fun direftly in the equator, with refpedl
to the meridian ; a degree, or any number of degrees,
between and F on the ecliptic, muft be nearer the
meridian Z'Y’z, than a degree, or any correfponding
number of degrees, on the equator from qp to/"; and
the more fo, as they are the more oblique : and there¬
fore the true fun comes fooner to the meridian every
day whilft he is in the quadrant qp F, than the fi&i-
tious fun does in the quadrant qp/'; for which reafon,
the folar noon precedes noon by the clock, until the
real fun comes to F, and the fictitious to_/"; which two
points, being equidiftant from the meridian, both funs
will come to it precifely at noon by the clock.
Whiift the real fnn defcribes the fecond quadrant of
the ecliptic FGHIKL from Cancer to -TV. he comes
later to the meridian every day than the fictitious fun
moving through the fecond quadrant of the eq.uator
from/to ^ ; for the points at G, H, I, K, and L,
being farther from the meridian, their correfponding
points at g, h, i, and /, muft be later of coming to it.;
and as both funs come at the fame moment to the
point they come to the meridian at the moment
of noon by the clock.
In departing from Libra,, through the third qua¬
drant, the real fun going through MNOPQ^towards
VJ at R, and the fictitious fun through rw/zepy.towards
r, the former comes to the meridian every day fooner
than the latter, until the real fun comes to fcj, and the
fictitious to r, and then they come both to the meridian
at the fame time.
Laftly, as the real fun moves equably thro’ STUVW,
from vy. towards <^5 and the fictitiousiunthro’ .r/afty,
from r towards qp, the former comes later every day
to the meridian than the latter, until they both arrive
at the point ry?, and then they make it noon at th»
fame time with the clock.
Having explained one caufe of the difference of time.
N O M Y. 539
fhown by a well-regulated clock and a true fun-dial, Equation of
and confidered the fun, not the earth, as moving in the >'1‘‘ne’ &c,t
ecliptic ; we now proceed to explain the other caufe of v
this difference, namely, the inequality of the fun’s ap¬
parent motion ; which is floweft in fummer, when the
fun is fartheft from the earth, and fwiftell in winter when
he is neareft to it. But the earth’s motion on its axis is
equable all the year round, and is performed from weft
to eaft ; which is the way that the fun appears to change
his place in the ecliptic.
If the fun’s motion were equable in the ecliptic, the
whole difference between the equal time as ftiown by
the clock, and the unequal time as (hewn by the fun,
would arife from the obliquity of the ecliptic. But the
fun’s motion fometimes exceeds a degree in 24 hours,
though generally it is lefs : and when his motion is
floweft, any particular meridian will revolve fooner to
him than when his motion is quickeft ; for it will over¬
take him in lefs time when he advances a lefs fpace than
when he moves through a larger.
Now, if there were two funs moving in the plane of
the ecliptic, fo as to go round it in a year ; the one
deferibing an equal arc every 24 hours, and the other
deferibing fometimes a lefs arc in 24 hours, and at
other times a larger, gaining at one time of the year
what it loft at the oppofite.; it is evident, that either
of thefe funs would come fooner or later to the meri¬
dian than the other, as it happened to be behind or
before the other ; and when they were both in con-
jun&ion, they would come to the meridian at the fame
moment.
As the real fun moves unequably in the ecliptic, let
us fuppofe a fiftitious fun to move equably in a circle
coincident with the plane of the ecliptic. Let A BCD
(fig. 181.) be the ecliptic or orbit in which the real
fun moves, and the dotted circle abed the imaginary or¬
bit of the fi&itious fun ; each going round in a year
according to the order of letters, or from weft’ to eaft.
Let HIKL be the earth turning round its axis the
fame way every 24 hours ; and fuppofi both funs to
ftart from A and a, in a right line with the plane of the
meridian EH, at the fome moment : the real fun at
A, being then at his greateft diftance from the
earth, at which time his motion is floweft; and the
fidlitious fun at a, whofe motion is always equable,
becaufe his diftance from the earth is fuppofed to be
always the fame. In the time that the meridian re¬
volves from H to H again, according to the order of
the letters HIKE, the real fun has moved from A to
F; and the fiftitious with a quicker motion from a to
f, through a large arc: therefore, the meridian EH
will revolve fooner from H.to h under the real fun at F,
than from H E to i under the fi&itious fun at/;-and
confequently it will then be noon by the fun-dial foon-
er than by the clock..
As the real fun moves front A towards C, the fwift-*
nefs of his motion increafes all the way to G, where it
is at the quickeft. But notwitbftauding this, the fic¬
titious fun gains fo much upon the real,' foon after his
departing from A‘, that the increafing velocity of the
real fun does not bring him up with the equally moving,
fi&itious fun till the former com.es to C, and the latter
to c, when each has gone, half round its refpe&ive or¬
bit ; and then being in conjunction, the meridian EH,,
revolving to EK, comes to both funs at the fame.time,
g Y.‘ a. sad:;
540 ASTRO
"Calculating an3 therefore it is noon by them both at the fame mo-
the Diftan-rnent;
the*Planets t'ie increafed velocity of the real fun, now being
< 1 - j at the quickeft, carries him before the fictitious one ;
and therefore, the fame meridian will come to the ficti¬
tious fun fooner than to the real: for whilft the ficti¬
tious fun moves from c to P", the real fun moves through
a greater arc from C to G : confequently the point K
has its noon by the clock when it comes to k, but not
its noon by the fun till it comes to /. And although
the velocity of the real fun diminifhes all the way from
C to A, and the fictitious fun by an equable motion
is ftill coming nearer to the real fun, yet they are not
in conjunction till the one comes to A and the other
to a, and then it is noon by them both at the fame
moment.
Thus it appears, that the folar noon is always later
than noon by the clock whilft the fun goes from C to
A ; fooner, whilft; he goes from A to C ; and at thefe
two points the fun and clock being equal, it is noon by
them both at the fame moment.
The point A is called the fun’s apogee, becaufe
when he is there he is at his greateft diftance from the
earth ; the point C his perigee, becaufe when in it he
is at his leaft diftance from the earth : and a right line,
as AEC, drawn through the earth’s centre, from one
of the points to the other, is called the line of the Ap-
Jtdes.
The diftance that the fun has gone in any time from
his apogee (not the diftance he has to go to it, though
ever fo little) is called his mean anomaly, and is reckon¬
ed in figns and degrees, allowing 30 degrees to a fign.
Thus, when the fun has gone fuppofe 174 degrees from
his apogee at A, he is faid to be 5 figns 14 degrees
from it, which is his mean anomaly ; and when he is
gone fuppofe 355 degrees from his apogee, he is faid
to be 11 figns 25 degrees from it, although he be but
5 degrees fhort of A in coming round to it again.
From what was faid above, it appears, that when the
fun’s anomaly is lefs than 6 figns, that is, when he is
any where between A and C, in the half ABC of his
orbit, the folar noon precedes the clock noon ; but
when his anomaly is more than 6 figns, that is, when
he is any where between C and A, in the half CDA
of his orbit, the clock noon precedes the folar. When
his anomaly is o figns O degrees, that is, when he is in
his apogee at A ; or 6 figns o degrees, which is when
he is in his perigee at C; he comes to the meridian at
the moment that the fi&itious fun does, and then it is
noon by them both at the fame inftant.
Sect. VIII. Of calculating the Di/lances, Magni¬
tudes, &c. of the Sun, Moon, and Planets.
To find the This is accompliftied by finding out the horizontal
moon’s fi°‘ parallax of the botfy whofe diftance you defire to know;
-fP-that t^ie ang^e under which the femidiameter of the
earth would appear provided we could fee it from that
body ; and this is to be found out in the following
manner.
N O M Y. Sea. VIII.
Let BAG (fig. 171.) be one half of the earth, AC Calculating
its femidiameter, S the fun, m the moon, and EKOLthe D'fian-
a quarter of the circle defcribed by the moon in re-thepk',^
volving from the meridian to the meridian again. Let.
CRS be the rational horizon of an obferver at A, ex¬
tended to the fun in the heavens ; and HAO, his fen-
fible horizon extended to the moon’s orbit. ALC is
the angle under which the earth’s femidiameter AC is
feen from the moon at L ; which is equal to the angle
OAL, becaufe the right lines AO and CL which in¬
clude both thefe angles are parallel. ASC is the angle
under which the earth’s femidiameter AC is feen from
the fun at S : and is equal to the angle OAyj becaufe
the lines AO and CRS are parallel. Now, it is found
by obfervation, that the angle OAL is much greater
than the angle OA/’; but OAL is equal to ALC,
and OA/ is equal to ASC. Now as ASC is much
lefs than ALC, it proves that the earth’s femidiameter
AC appears much greater as feen from the moon at L
than from the fun at S ; and therefore the earth is much
farther from the fun than from the moon. The quan¬
tities of thefe angles may be determined by obfervation
in the following manner.
Let a graduated inftrument, as DAE (the larger
the better), having a moveable index with fight-holes,
be fixed in fuch a manner, that its plane furface may
be parallel to the plane of the equator, and its edge
AD in the meridian : fo that when the moon is in the
equioo&ia], and on the meridian ADE, fhe may be
feen through the fight-holes when the edge of the
moveable index cuts the beginning of the divifions at
o, on the graduated limb DE j and when fhe is fo feen,
let the precife time be noted. Now as the moon re¬
volves about the earth from the meridian to the meri¬
dian again in about 24 hours 48 minutes, (he will go a
fourth part round it in a fourth part of that time, viz.
in 6 hours 12 minutes, as feen from C, that is, from
the earth’s centre or pole. But as feen from A, the
obferver’s place on the earth’s furface, the moon will
feem to have gone a quarter round the earth when flic
comes to the fenfible horizon at O ; for the index
through the fights of which fhe is then viewed will be
at d, 90 degrees from D, where it was when fhe was
feen at E. Now let the exaft moment when the moon
is feen at O (which will be when fhe is in or near the
fenfible horizon) be carefully noted (g) that it may be
known in what time fhe has gone from E to O ; which
time fubtrafted from 6 hours 12 minutes (the time
of her going from E to L) leaves the time of her going
from O to L, and affords an eafy method for finding
the angle OAL (called the moon's horizontal parallax,
which is equal to the angle ALC) by the following
analogy : As the time of the moon’s deferibing the arc
EO is to 90 degrees, fo is 6 hours 12 minutes to the
degrees of the arc D E, which meafures the angle
EAL; from which fubtrad 90 degrees, and there re¬
mains the angle OAL, equal to the angle ALC, un¬
der which the earth’s femidiameter AC is feen from
the moon. Now, fince all the angles of a right-lined
triangle are equal to 180 degrees, or to two right
angles.
(g) Here proper allowance muft be made for the refra&ion, which being about 34 minutes of a degree in
the horizon, will caufe the moon’s centre to appear 34 minutes above the horizon when her centre is really
ia it.
Sea. VIII. A S T R
Calculating angles, and tlie fides of a triangle are always propor-
the diftan- tjona] to t|,e f,ne8 0f the oppofite angles, fay, by the
the'pianets ^■u^e Three, As the fine of the angle ALC at the
■ t moon L, is to its oppofite fide AC, the earth’s femi-
diameter, which is known to be 3985 miles ; fo is ra¬
dius, viz. the fine of 90 degrees, or of the right angle
ACL, to its oppofite fide AL, which is the moon’s
diftance at L from the obferver’s place at A on the
earth’s furface ; or, fo is the fine of the angle CAL
to its oppofite fide CL, which is the moon’s dillance
from the earths centre, and comes out at a mean rate
to be 240,000 miles. The angle CAL is equal to
what OAL wants of 90 degrees.
Another Other methods have been fallen upon for determi-
method. B;ng the moon’s parallax ; of which the following is re¬
commended as the beft, by Mr Fergufon, tho’ hither¬
to it has not been put in practice, “ Lot two obfervers
be placed under the fame meridian, one in the northern
hemifphere and the other in the fouthern, at fuch a
diftance from each other, that the arc of the celeftial
meridian included between their two zeniths may beat
leaft 80 or 90 degrees. Let each obferver take the
'diftance of the moon’s centre from his zenith, by means
of an exceeding good inftrument, at the moment of
her pafiing the meridian i and thefe two Zenith diftan-
ces of the moon together, and their excefs above the
diftance between the two zeniths, will be the diftance
between the two apparent places of the moon. Then,
as the fum of the natural fines of the two zenith-dif-
tances of the moon is to radius, fo is the diftance be¬
tween her two apparent places to her horizontal pa¬
rallax : which being found* her diftance from the
earth’s centre may be found by the analogy mentioned
above.
Thus, in fig. 199. let VECQJ>e the earth, M the
moon, and "Zbaz an arc of the celeftial meridian. Let
V be Vienna, whofe latitude EV is 48° 20' north ; and
C the Cape of Good Hope, whofe latitude EC is 34®
30' fouth : both which latitudes we fuppofe to be ac¬
curately determined before-hand by the obfervers. As
thefe two places are on the fame meridian kVEGt, and
in different hemifpheres, the fum of their latitudes
82° 50' is their diftance from each other. Z is the
zenith of Vienna, and z the zenith of the Cape of
Good Hope 5 which two zeniths are alfo 82® 50' di*
ftant from each other, in the common celeftial meri¬
dian Zz. To the obferver at Vienna, the moon’s
centre will appear at a in the celeftial meridian ; and at
the fame inftant, to the obferver at the Cape, it will
appear at b. Now fuppofe the moon’s diftance Z a
from the zenith of Vienna to be 38® 1' 53", and her
diftance z b from the zenith of the Cape of Good Hope,
to be 46° 4' 41" : the fum of thefe two zenith-diftan-
ces (Za+zb) is 84° 6' 34"; from which fubtraft
82° 50', the diftance of Zz between the zeniths of thefe
two places, and there will remain 1® 16'34" for the
arc ba, or diftance between the two apparent places of
the moon’s centre, as feen from V and from C. Then,
fuppofing the tabular radius to be 10,000,000, the na¬
tural fine of 38° 1' 53" (thearcZrf) is 6,160,816, and
the natural fine of 46° 4' 41" (the arc zb) is 7,202,821:
the fum of both thefe fines is 13,363,637. Say there¬
fore, As 13,363,637 is to 10,000,000, fo is i° 16' 34,/
to 57; iS7, which is the moon’s horizontal parallax.
If the two places of obfervation be not exa&ly un-
O N
M Y.
54*
der the fame meridian, their difference of longitude Calculating
muft be accurately taken, that proper allowance may ^
be made for the moon’s declination whilft (he is Pafiing the’pianet.s.
from the meridian of the one to the meridian of thee—y—j
other.
The parallax, and confequently the diftance and
bulk, of any primary planet, might be found in the
above manner, if the planet was near enough to the
earth, fo as to make the difference of its two apparent
places fufficiently fenfible : but the neareft planet is too
remote for the accuracy required.
The fun’s diftance from the earth might be found Parallax of
the fame way, though with more difficulty, if his hori-the fun dif-
zontal parallax, or the angle OAS equal to the angle ^cult h> b«
ASC (fig. 171.), were not fo fmall as to be hardlyfoun<1,
perceptible, being found in this way to be fcarce 10 fc-
donds of a minute, or the 360th part of a degree.
Hence all aftronomers, both ancient and modern have
failed in taking the fun’s parallax to a fufficient degree
of exa&nefs ; but as fome of the methods ufed are very
ingenious, and (hew the great acutenefs and fagacity of
the ancient attronomers, we (hall here give an account 3gy
of them. The firft method was invented by Hip-Hippar-
parchus ; and has been made ufe of by Ptolemy and chus’s me-
his followers, and many other aftronomers. It depends of.
on an obfervation of an ecltpfe of the moon : And the”n 1115 lt:*
principles on which it is founded are, 1/?, In a lunar
eclipfe, the horizontal parallax of the fun is equal to
the difference between the apparent femidiameter of the
fun, and half the angle of the conical (hadow 5 which
is eafily made out in this manner. Let the circle AEG
(fig. 87.) reprefent the fun, and DHC the earth ; let
DHM be the (hadow, and DMC the half angle of the
cone. Draw from the centre of the fun the right line Fig. 8#
SD touching the earth, and the angle DSC is the ap¬
parent femidiameter of the earth, feen from the fun,
which is equal to the horizontal parallax of the fun ;
and the angle ADS is the apparent femidiameter of the
fun feen from the earth : The external angle ADS is
equal to the two internals DMS and DSM, by the
32d Prop. Elem. I. And therefore the angle DSM,
or DSC, is equal to the difference of the angles ADS
and DMS. idfy, Half the angle of the cone is equal
to the difference of the horizontal parallax of the moon
and the apparent femidiameter of the (hadow, feen from
the earth at the diftance of the moon. For let CTEpig. iyj,]
be the earth, CME the (hadow, which at the diftance
of the moon being cut by a plane, the fe&ion will be
the circle ELK, whofe femidiameter is EG, and is feen
from the centre of the earth under the angle FTG.
But by the 32d Prop. Elem. I. the angle CFT is equal
to the two internals FM I’ and FTM. Wherefore the
angle FMT is the difference of the two angles CFT
and GTF: But the angle CFT is the angle under
which the femidiameter of the earth is feen from the
moon, and this is equal to the hortzontal parallax of
the moon ; and the angle GTF is the apparent femi-
diameter of the (hadow feen from the earth’s centre-
It is therefore evident that the half angle of the cone
is equal to the difference of the horizontal parallax of
the moon, and the apparent femidiameter of the (ha¬
dow feen from the earth. Wherefore, if to the appa¬
rent femidiameter of the fun there be added the appa¬
rent femidiameter of the (hadow, and from the fum you
take away the horizontal parallax of the moon, there
will
542 ASTRO
Calculating will remain the horizontal parallax of the fun ; which
t,'e therefore, if thefe were accurately known, would be
the Planets kew*fe known accurately : But none of them can be
> w— , fo exaftly and nicely obtained, as to be fufficient for
3gg determining the parallax of the fun ; for very Imall
This me- errors, which cannot be eafily avoided in meafuring
thod infuf- thefe angles, will produce very great errors in the pa-
tJuent. rallax 5 and there will be a prodigious difference in the
diftances of the fun, when drawn from thefe parallaxes.
For example, Suppofe the horizontal parallax of the
moon to be 6or 15", the femidiameter of the fun 16',
and the femidiameter of the fhadow 44' 30", we fliall
conclude from thence, that the parallax of the fun
was 15", and his diflance from the earth about
13,700 femidiameters of the earth. But if there be
an error committed, in determining the femidiame¬
ter of the fhadow, of 12" in defeft (and certainly
the femidiameter of the fhadow cannot be had fo pre-
cifely as not to be liable to fuch an error), that is, if
inflead of 44' 30" we put 44' 18" for the apparent dia¬
meter of the fhadovv, all the others remaining as before,
we (hall have the parallax of the fun 3", and its diftance
from the earth almofl 70,000 femidiameters of the
earth, which is five time's more than what it was by the
firft pofition. But if the fault were in excefs, or the
diameter of the fhadow exceeded the true by 12", fo
that we fhould put in 44' 42", the parallax would arife
to 27'', and the diftance of the fun only 7700 of the
earth’s femidiameters; which is nine times lefs than
what it comes to by a like error in defe£f. If an er¬
ror in defeft was committed of 1 j", which is ftill but
a fmall miflake, the fun’s parallax would be equal to
nothing, and his diftance infinite. Wherefore, fince
from fo fmall miftakes the parallax and diftance of the
fun vary fo much, it is plain that the diftance of the
38^ fun cannot be obtained by this method.
Ariftar- Since therefore, the angle that the earth’s femidia-
chus’s me- meter fubtends at the fun, is fo fmall that it cannot be
th°d, determined by any obfervation, Ariftarchus Samius,
an ancient and great philofopher and aftronomer, con¬
trived a very ingenious way for finding the angle wdiich
the femidiameter of the moon’s orbit fubtends when
yfeen from the fun : This angle is about 60 times big¬
ger than the former, fubtended only by the earth’s fe¬
midiameter. To find this angle, he lays down the fol¬
lowing principles.
From the phafes of the moon, it hath been de-
monftrated, that if a plane paffed through the moon’s
centre, to which the line joining the fun and moon’s
centre was perpendicular, this plane would divide the
illuminated hemifphere ef the moon from the dark one :
And therefore, if this plane Ihould likewife pafe through
the eye of a fpetlator on the earth, the moon would
appear bife&ed, or like a half circle j and a right line,
drawn from the earth to the centre of the moon,
would be in the'plane of illumination, and confequent-
ly would be perpendicular to the right line which joins
90. the centres of the fun and moon. Let S be the fun,
and T the earth, ALy a quadrant of the moon’s or¬
bit; and let the line SL, drawn from the fun, touch
the orbit of the moon in L ;• the angle TLS will be a
right angle : And therefore, when the moon is feen in
L, it will appear bifedfed, or juft half a circle. At
fche fame time take the angle LTS, the elongation of
TPQfl- from the fun, aud then we ftiall hav.e. the angle
N O M Y. Sea. VIII.
LST, its compliment to a right angle. But we haveCalculatinj
the fide TL, by which we can find the fide ST, the1*16 ®i^un*
diftance of the fun from the earth. the Planets
But the difficult point is to determine exa&ly thp < t- .*
moment of time when the moon is bifedled, or in its
true dichotomy; for there is a confiderable fpace ofThisme-
time both before and after the dichotomy, nay even inth?d inf«f'
the quadrature, when the moon will appear bifedted,60'61’1,
or half a circle ; fo that the exadl moment of bifedtion
cannot be known by obfervation, as experience tells us;
And confequently, the true diftance of the fun from
the earth cannot be obtained by this method.
Since the moment in which the true dichotomy hap¬
pens is uncertain, but it is certain that it happens be- ^
fore the quadrature; Ricciolus takes that point ofR;ccloius>j
time which is in the middle, between the time that the mcthoU.
phafis begins to be doubtful whether it be bifedled or
not, and the time of quadrature: but he had done
better, if he had taken the middle point between the
time when it becomes doubtful whether the moon’s fide
is concave or ftraight, and the time agai» when it is
doubtful whether it is ftraight or convex ; whicf\ point
of time is after the quadrature : and if he had done
this, he would have found the fun’s diftance a great
deal more than he has made it.
There is no need to confine this method to the pha-Another by
fis of a dichotomy or bifedfion, for it can be as wellDrKeil.
performed when the moon has any other phafis bigger
or lefs than a dichotomy ; for obferve by a very good
telefcope, with a micrometer, the phafis of the moon,
that is, the proportion of the illuminated part of the
diameter to the whole; and at the fame moment of
time take her elongation from the fun : The illuminated
part of the diameter, if it be lefs than the femidiame¬
ter, is to be fubdudted from the femidiameter ; but if
it be greater, the femidiameter is to be fubdu&ed from
it, and mark the refidue: then fay, As the femidia¬
meter of the moon is to the refidue, fo is the radius to
the fine of an angle, which is therefore found : this
angle added to, or fubtrafted from, a right angle, gives
the exterior angle of the triangle at the moon : but we
have the angle at the earth, which is the elongation
obferved; which therefore being fubdu&ed from the
exterior angle, leaves the angle at the fun. And in
the triangle SLT, having all the angles and one fide
LT» we can find the other fide ST, the diftance of 393
the fun from the earth. But it is almoft impoffible to All thefe;
determine accurately the quantity of the lunar phafis,
fo that there may not be an error of a few feconds^9101®"1*
committed ; and confequently, we cannot by this me¬
thod find precifely enough the true diftance ofithe fun.
However, from fuch obfervations, we are fure that the
fun is above 7000 femidiameters of the earth diftant
from us. Since therefore the true diftance of the fun can
neither be found by eclipfes nor by the phafes of the
moon, the aftronomers are forced to have recourfe to
the parallaxes of the planets that are next to us, as Mars
and Venus, which are fometimes much nearer to us
than the fun is.. Their parallaxes they endeavour to
find by fome of the methods above explained and if
thefe parallaxes were known, then the parallax and
diftance of the fun, which jeannot diredlly by any ob¬
fervations be attained, would eafily be deduced from,
them. For from the theory of the motions of the
earth and planets,, we know at any time the proportion
Sea. VIII. ASTRO
Calculating of the diftances of the fun and planets from us ; and
the the horizontal parallaxes are in a reciprocal proportion
the Planets t0 t^ie^e ^‘^ances> Wherefore,knowing the parallax of a
i planet, we may from thence find the parallax of the fun.
294 Mars, when he is in an achronycal pofition, that is,
Another oppofite to the fun, is twice as near to us as the fun is;
method and therefore his parallax will be twice as great. But
^arallajfof ^enU8» w^en >8 *n ^er inferior conjunction with the
Mars/* 01 ^un» ,s ^our t‘mes fearer to us than he is, and her pa¬
rallax is greater in the fame proportion : Therefore,
though the extreme fmallnefs of the fun’s parallax ren¬
ders it unobfervable by our fenfes, yet the parallaxes of
Mars or Venus, which are twice or four times greater,
may become fenfible. The aftronomers have bellowed
much pains in finding out the parallax of Mars ; but
fome time ago Mars was in his oppofition to the fun,
and alfo in his perihelion, and confequently in his
neareft approach to the earth : And then he was moil
accurately obferved by two of the molt eminent aftro¬
nomers of our age, who have determined his parallax
to have been fcarce 30 feconds ; from whence it was
inferred, that the parallax of the fun is fcarce 11 fe¬
conds, and his diftance about 19,000 femidiameters of
. the earth.
Prom that As the parallax of Venus is Hill greater than that of
®f Venus. Mars, Dr Halley propofed a method by it of finding
the diftance of the fun to within a joodth part of the
whole. The times of obfervation were at her tranfits
over the fun in 1761 and 1769. At thefe times the
greateft attention was given by aftronomers, but it
was found impoffible to obferve the exaCt times of im-
merfion and emerfion with fuch accuracy as had been
expeCted ; fo that the matter is not yet determined fo
exaCtly as could be wilhed. The method of calcula¬
ting the fun’s diftance by means of thefe tranfits, is as
follows.
In fig. 91. let DBA be the earth, V Venus, and
TSR the eaftern limb of the fun. To an obferver at
B, the point / of that limb will be on the meridian,
its place referred to the heaven will be at E, and Ve¬
nus will appear juft within it at S. But at the fame
inftant, to an obferver at A, Venus is eaft of the fun,
fig. 6. in the right line AVF; the point t of the fun’s limb
appears at e in the heaven ; and if Venus were then
irifible, ihe would appear at F. The angle CVA is the
horizontal parallax of Venus, which we feek ; and is
equal to the oppofite angle FVE, whofe ineafure is the
arc FE. ASC is the fun’s horizontal parallax, equal
to the oppofitc angle e SE, whofe meafure is the arc
e E ; and FAe (the fame as VAv) is Venus’s horizon¬
tal parallax from the fun, which may be found by ob-
ferving how much later in abfolute time her total in-
grefs on the fun is, as feen from A than as feen from
B, which is the time fhe takes to move from V to in
her orbit OVt;. *
It appears by the tables of Venus’s motion and the
fun’s, that at the time of her tranfit in 1761 fhe mo¬
ved 4' of adegreeon the fun’s dilk in 6ominutes of time,
and confequently 4" of a degree in one minute of time.
Now let us fuppofe, that A is 90® weft of B, fo that
when it is noon at B it will be fix in the morning at
A; that the total ingrefs as feen from B is at one mi¬
nute paft 13, but that as feen from A it is at feven
minutes 30 feconds paft fix ; deduCt fix hours for the
difference of meridians of A and B, and the remainder
N O M Y. 543
will be fix minutes 30 feconds for the time by which Calculating
the total ingrefs of Venus on the fun at S, is later a8^jDi^an*f
feen from A than as feen from B y which time being
converted into parts of a degree, is 26", or the arc F '
of Venus’s horizontal parallax from the fun for, as 1
minute of time is to 4 feconds of a degree, fo is 6^ mi¬
nutes of time to 26 feeonds of a degree.
The times in which the planets perform their annual
revolutions about the fun* are already known by obfer¬
vation.—From thefe times, and the univerfal power of
gravity by which the planets are retained in their or¬
bits, it is demonftfable, that if the earth’s mean di¬
ftance from the fun be divided into 100,000 equal
parts, Mercury’s mean diftance from the fun muft be
equal to 38,710 of thefe parte—Venus’s mean diftance
from the fun, to 72,333 Mars’s mean diftance,
152,369—Jupiter’s, 520,096—and Saturn’s, 954,006.
Therefore, when the number of miles contained in the
mean diftance of any planet from the fun is known, we
can by thefe proportions find the mean diftance in
miles of all the reft.
At the time of the above-mentioned tranfit, the
earth’s diftance from the fun was 1015 (the mean di¬
ftance being here confidered as 1000), and Venus’s di¬
ftance from the fun 726 (the mean diftance being con¬
fidered as 723), which differences from the mean di-
ftances arife from the elliptical figure of the planets or¬
bits—Subtracting 726 parts from 1015, there remain
289 parts for Venus’s diftance from the earth at that
time.
Now, fince the horizontal parallaxes of the planets
are inverfely as their diftances from the earth’s centre,
it is plain, that as Venus was between the earth and
the fun on the day of her tranfit, and confequently her
parallax at that time greater than the fun’s, if her ho¬
rizontal parallax was then afcertained by obfervation,
the fun’s horizontal parallax might be found, and con¬
fequently his diftance from the earth.—Thus, fuppofe
Venus’s horizontal parallax was found to be 36".348o,
then, As the fun’s diftance 1015 is to Venus’s di¬
ftance 289, fo is Venus’s horizontal parallax 36".348c>
to the fun’s horizontal parallax io".3493 on the day of
her tranfit. And the difference of thefe two parallaxes,
viz. 25".Q987 (which may be efteemed 26"), will be
the quantity of Venus’s horizontal parallax from the
fun.
To find the fun’s horizontal parallax at the time of
his mean diftance from the earth, fay, As 1000 part*
of the fun’s mean diftance from the earth’s centre, is to
1015, his diftance therefrom on the day of the tranfit,
fo is io".3493, his horizontal parallax on that day, to
io,'.5045, his horizontal parallax at the time of hi*
mean diftance from the earth’s centre. 395
The fun’s parallax being thus (or any other wayMethodaf
fuppofed to be) found, at the time of his mean diftancec®R1Put)in5
from the earth, we may find his true diftance tbete-
from, in femidiameters of the earth, by the following
analogy. As the fine (or tangent of fo fmall an arc
as that) of the fun’s parallax xo".5C>45 is to radius, fo
is unity or the earth’s femidiameter to the number of
femidiameters of the earth that the fun is diftant from
its centre ; which number, being multiplied by 3985,
the number of miles contained in the earth’s femidia¬
meter, will give the number of mile* by which the fun
is diftant from the earth’s centre.
Thcnji
544 ASTRO
Calculating Then, As 100,000, the earth’s mean diftance from
the Diftaiw^g run jn partSj js to 38,710, Mercury’s mean diftance
the Planets ^rom l^e ^un *n Part8j fo 18 the earth’s mean diftance
» t i from the fun in miles to Mercury’s mean diftance from
397 the fun in miles.—And,
Diftancesof As 100,000 is to 72,333, fo is the earth’s mean di-
the other ftance from the fun in miles to Venus’s mean diftance
planets,ho\vfrom the fun in miles—Likewife,
oun ’ As ioo.ooo is to 152,369, fo is the earth’s mean
diftance from the fun in miles to Mars’s mean diftance
from the fun in miles.—Again,
As ico.ooo is to 520,096, fo is the earth’s mean
diftance from the fun in miles to Jupiter’s mean di¬
ftance from the fun in miles.—-Laftly,
As 100,000 is to 954,006, fo is the earth’s mean
diftance from the fun in miles to Saturn’s mean diftance
from the fun in miles.
And thus, by having found the diftance of any one
of the planets from the fun, we have fufficient data for
finding the diftances of all the reft. And then from
their apparent diameters at thefe known diftances,
their real diameters and bulks may be found. Accord¬
ing to the calculations made from the tranfit in 1769,
we have given the diftance of each of the primary and
fecondary planets from one another, and from the fun,
in fig. 119. In fig. 153. their proportional bulks are
fhown, according to former calculations by Mr Fer-
gufon ; and in fig. 18. their relative magnitudes ac¬
cording to the lateft calculations by Mr Dunn. The
proportional diftances of the fatellites of Jupiter and Sa¬
turn, with the magnitudes of the fun, and orbit of our
398 moon, by Mr Fergufon, are reprefented fig. 186.
Pittance of With regard to the fixed ftars, no method of afeer-
the fixed taining their diftance hath hitherto been found out.
mcafurable who have formed conje&ures concerning them,
'have thought that they were at leaft 400,000 times
farther from us than we are from the fun.
They are faid to be fixed, becaufe they have been
generally obferved to keep at the fame diftances from
each other ; their apparent diurnal revolutions being
caufed folely by the earth’s turning on its axis. They
Why they aPPear a fenfible magnitude to the bare eye, becaufe
feem fo big the retina is affe&ed not only by the rays of light which
to our na- are emitted direftly from them, but by many thoufands
ked eye. more, which falling upon our eye-lids, and upon the
aerial particles about us, are refle&ed into our eyes fo
ftrongly as to excite vibrations not only in thofe points
of the retina where the real images of the ftars are form¬
ed, but alfo in other points at fome diftance round
about. This makes us imagine the ftars to be much
bigger than they would appear if we faw them only
by the few rays which come dire&ly from them, fo
as to enter our eyes without being intermixed with
others. Any one may be fenfible of this, by looking
'at a ftar of the firft magnitude through a long narrow
tube ; which, though it takes in as much of the Iky as
would hold iccQ fuch ftars, yet fcarce renders that
one vifible^
The more a telefcope magnifies, the lefs is the aper¬
ture through, which the ftar is feen.; and confeq.uently
the fewer rays it admits into the eye. Now, fince the
ftars appear lefs in a telefcope which magnifies 2,00
times, than they do to the bare eye, infomuch that
they feem to be only indivifible points, it proves at
once that the ftars are at immenfe diftanecs from us^
N O M Y. Sea. vnr.
and that they fhine by their own proper light. If Calculating
they fhone by borrowed light, they would be as invi-the
fible without telefcopes as the fatellites of Jupiter are JthePlwiets
for thefe fatellites appear bigger when viewed with «■
good telefcope than the largeft fixed ftars do.
Dr Herfchel has propofed a method of afeertaining
the parallax of the fixed ftars, fomething fimilar, but
more complete, than that mentioned by Galileo and o-
thers 5 for it is by the parallax of the fixed ftars that
we fhould be beft able to determine their diftance.
The method pointed out by Galileo, and firft attempt
ed by Hooke, Flamftead, Molineux, and Bradley, of
taking diftances of ftars from the zenith that pafs very
near it, has given us a muchjufter idea of the immenfe
diftance of the ftars, and furnifhed us with an approxi¬
mation to the knowledge of their parallax, that is much
nearer the truth than we ever had before. But Dr
Herfchel mentions the infufficiency of their inftru-
ments, which were fimilar to the prefent zenith fedfors,
the method of zenith diftances being liable to confi-
derable errors on account of refradtion, the change of
pofition of the earth’s axis arifing from nutation, pre-
ceffion of the equinoxes, and other caufcs, and the
aberration of light. The method of his own is by
means of double liars ; which is exempted from thefe
errors, and of fuch a nature that the annual parallax,
even if it ftiould not exceed the tenth part of a fecond,
may Hill become more vifible, and be afeertained, at
leaft to a much greater degree of approximation than
it has ever been done. This method is capable of eve¬
ry improvement which the telefcope and mechanifm of
micrometers can furnifti. The method and its theory AW. Trmf.
will be feen by the following inveftigation, extradtedvo1-
from his paper on the fubjedl. Let O, E, (fig. i64.)p* 8a‘
be two oppofite points in the annual orbit, taken in
the fame plane with two ftars a, b, of unequal magni¬
tudes. Let the angle a O b be obferved when the
earth is at O, and « E £ be obferved when the earth is
at E. From the difference of thefe angles, if there
{hould be any, we may calculate the parallax of the
ftars, according to the theory fubjoined. Thefe two
ftars ought to be as near each other as poffible, and al¬
fo to differ as much in magnitude as we can find
them.
Dr Herfchel’s theory of the annual parallax of
double ftars, with the method of computing from thence
what is generally called the parallax of the fixed ftars,
or of Angle ftars of the firft magnitude, fuch as are near-
eft to us, fuppofes,yfr/?, that the ftars, one with ano¬
ther, are about the fize of the fun : ini, fecondly, that
the difference of their apparent magnitudes is owing to
their different diftances ; fo that the ftar of the fecond,
third, or fourth magnitude, is two, three, or four times
as far off as one of the firft. Thefe principles which
he premifes as poftulata, have fo great a probability in
their favour, that they will hardly be objected to by
thofe who are in the leaft acquainted with the doc¬
trine of chances. Accordingly, let OE (fig. 165.) be
the whole diameter of the earth’s annual orbit; and
let a, b, c, be three ftars fituated in the ecliptic, in
fuch a manner that they may be feen all in one line O
a b c, when the earth is at O. Let the line O a b c
be perpendicular to OE, and draw PE parallel to cO :
then, if O a, a b, b c, are equal to each other, # will
be a ftar of the; firft magnitude, k of the fecond, and
Sea. VIII. ASTRONOMY. jT45'
Let us now fuppofe the angle O a E, be compounded with the former, fo that the ditlanceCalculating
of the ftars in the conjunction and oppofition will then^® &c^oT
be reprefented by the diagonal of a Para)!£!°gramJ thePlanets,
whereof the two femiparallaxes are the fides; a general
Calculatingg of the third.
the or parallax of the whole orbit of the earth, to be t" of
the*Planets a degree ; then we have P E a—O a E= i" : and be-
1 ^  . ranfe very fmall angles, having the fame fubtenfe OE,
may be taken to be in the inverfe ratio of the lines
Q a, O b, V) c, &c. we (hall have O b E = ^", O c E=:
&c. Now when the earth is removed to E, we
(hall have PE b— E b err and P E a—P E b = a E b
— ; i. e, the ftars a, b, will appear to be diftant.
We alfo have P E crrE c Orry", and P E a—P E err
a E c=Y; i. e. the ftars a, c, will appear to be y"
diftant when the earth is at E. Now, fince we have
b E P=f", and c E Prrf", therefore b E P—c E Prr.
b E e=f"—; i. e. the ftars b, o, will appear to
be only removed from each other when the earth
is at E. Whence we may deduce the following ex-
preffion, to denote the parallax that will become vi-
fible in the change of diftance between the two ftars,
by the removal of the earth from one extreme of its
orbit to the other. Let P exprefs the total parallax
of a fixed ftar of the firft magnitude, M the magnitude
of the largeft of the two ftars, m the magnitude of
the fmalleft, and p the partial parallax to be obferved
by the change in the diftance of a double ftar; then
A—hQ* bS
expreflion for which will be sj 2 -,ri P r * RR ' 1 *
for the ftars will apparently deferibe two ellipfes in the
heavens, whofe tranfverfe axis will be to each other in
the ratio of M to it: (fig. 167.), and A a, ii b, C<r,
D d, will be the cotemporary lunations. Now, if b Q__
be drawn parallel to AC, and the parallelogram b q
B Q_be completed, we ftiall have £ Qjec-^C A f
ca~\Q>c—\pJ or femiparallax 90° before, or after
the fun, and B b may be refolved into, or is compound¬
ed of, b Q^and b q ; but b q= *- B D—f b d =: the fe¬
miparallax in the conjundion or oppofition. We alfo.
ll, ,
have R : 8 : : i Qj b q=
2 R
i therefore the diftance -
B£ (or D</) :
i and by fubftituting
will give us P
P ; and />, being found by obfervation,
pUt
the value of p into this exprefiion, we obtain
y:
m—M
above. When the flare '
-M*
E. G. Suppofe a ftar of
X —+1
2 M m I A RR ‘
are in the pole of the ecliptic, £ y will become equal
m—M
to £ Q, and B £ will be 7071 P —  Again, let
Mm 0
the firft magnitude ftiould have a fmall ftar oFthe , - ,.r 1 „ . . ,
,„£lfth magmtude „ca, U , ,he„ Jll .he partial paral- ^ hi°ia^rc-
lax we are to expeft to fee be 1 ; 2
total parallax of a fixed ftar of the firll magnitude ;
and if we ftiould, by obfervation, find the partial paral¬
lax between two fuch ftars to amount to 1", we fhall
1 X 1 X 1
. of the folvable into the firft ; for imagine the ftar a (fig. 166.)
to ftand at x, and in that fituation the ftars x '
have the total parallax P = -
- = x".0909.. If
the ftars are of the third and twenty-fourth magnitude,
the partial parallax will be and if, by
3X24 qi
obfervation, p is found to be a tenth of a fecond, the
whole parallax will come out ——3.—— =,o".342 8.
2+—3
Farther, fuppofe the ftars, being ftill in the ecliptic,
to appear in one line, when the earth is in any other
part of its orbit between O and E ; then will the pa¬
rallax ftill be exprefled by the fame algebraic formula,
and one of the maxima will ftill lie at O, the other at
E ; but the whole effeft will be divided into two parts,
which will be in proportion to each other as radius —
fine to radius -f.: fine of the ftars diftance from the
neareft conjunftion or oppofition..
When the ftars are any where out of the ecliptic,
fituated fo as to appear in one line O ^ perpendicu¬
lar to O E, the maximum of parallax will ftill be ex^
prefled by — P ; but there will arife another ad¬
ditional parallax in the conjunflion and oppofition,
which will be to that which is found 90° before or aL
ter the fun, as the fine (5) of the latitude of the ftars
one line, and their parallax exprefled by-
But the angle a E x may be taken to be
equal to a O x ; and as the foregoing formula gives
us the angles x E 3, x E e, we are to add a E x or 5" '
to x E 3, and we fhall have a E 3. In general, let the
diftance of the ftars be d, and let the obferved diftance
at E be D, then will Dzrd’-f/, and, therefore the.
whole parallax of the annual orbit will be exprdfed by
D M m—d M m __
m—M
Suppofe the two ftars now to differ only in latitude,
one being in the ecliptic, the-other, g. 5 north,
when feen at O. This cafe may alfo be refolved by
the former ; for imagine the ftars 3, c, (fig. 165.) to
be elevated at right angles above the plane of the fi¬
gure, fo that a O 3, or a O e, may make an angle of 5"
at O $ then, inftead of the lines O « 3 e, E «, E 3, E e,.
E P, imagine them all to be planes at right angles to
the figure; and it will appear that the parallax of the
ftars in longitude muft be the fame as if the fmall ftar
had been without latitude.. And fince the ftars 3,
by the motion of the earth from O to E, will not .
change their latitude, we fnall have the following con-
ftru&ion fur finding the diftance of the ftars a b, a c,
at E, and from thence the parallax P. Let the tri¬
angle « 3 & {fig. 168.) reprefent the fituation of the
ftars ; a 3 is the fubtenfe of 5", the angle under which
feen at O is to the radius (R) ; and the effeA of this they are fuppofed to bc.feen at O. The quantity 3/S ;
parallax will be divided into two parts ; half of it ly- , ^ , . ni—
by the former theorem is found, •
—P, which is
lag on one fide of the large ftar, the other half on the
other fide of it. This latter parallax; moreoverj will the partial parallax that would have been feen by the
¥.01.. II. Part II. ' 3 Z earth’s
A
ii o
Calculating earth’s moving froiti G to E, if both ftars had been in
the Diflan- t}ie ec]|pt;c . but on account of the difference in lati-
ihe Pknetsf1 ude> h wil1 be now reprefented by a (S, the hypothe-
« - - t. . neufe of the triangle a b & : therefore, in general, put-
yDD—MXMm
m—M
— P. Hence D being taken by obfervation, and d,
*M, and>«, given, we obtain the total parallax.
If the fkuation of the ftars differs in longitude as well
'as latitude, we may vefolve this cafe by the following
method. Let the triangle a £ 0 (fig. 169.) heprefent
the fituation of the liars, a b—d being their diftance
feen at O, «jSe=D their diftance feen at E. That the
change b (i, which is produced by the earth’s motion
-will be truly expreffed by -^--P may be proved as
before, by fuppofing the ftar a to have been placed at
fe. Now let the angle of pofition b a«.bz taken by a
micrometer, or by any other method fufficiently exa6t;
then, by folving the triangle a b x, we fhall have the lon¬
gitudinal and latitudinal differences ax and b a of the
two ftars. Put^«=x, b cc=ey, and it willbex-{-£ff
••sz aqy whence D:
V D*—yxivL;
/
— sj x +
P + yyi and
If neither of the ftars fhould be in the ecliptic, nor
"have the fame longitude or latitude, the laft theorem
will ftiil ferve to calculate the total parallax whofe ma-
'ximum will lie in E. There will, moreover, arife
•another parallax, whofe maximum will be in the con-
junftion and oppofition, Which will be divided, and lie
on different fides of the large ftar ; but as we know the
whole parallax to be exceedingly fmall, it will not be
neceffary to inveftigate every particular cafe of this kind;
for by reaftHi of the divifion of the parallax, which
renders obfe'ftrattons taken at any other time, except
where it is greateft, very unfavourable, the formula
would be of little ufe. Dr Herfchel clofes his account
Tof this theory with a general obfervation on the time
and place where the maxima of parallax will happen;
When two unequal ftars are both in the ecliptic, or,
not being in the ecliptic, have equal latitudes, north
or fouth, and the largeft ftar has moft; longitude; the
maximum of the apparent diftance will be when the
fun’s longitude is 90 degrees more than the ftars, or
when obferved in the morning ; and the minimum
when the longitude of the fun is 90 degrees lefs than
that of the ftars, or when obferved in the evening.
When the fmall ftar has moft longitude, the maximum
and minimum, as well as the time of dbfervation, will
be the reverfe of the former. When the ftars differ in
latitudes, this makes no alteration in the place of the
•maximum or minimum, nor in the time of obferva¬
tion ; i. e. it is immaterial whether the largeft ftar
400 bas the leaft or the greateft diftance of the two ftars.
'Different The ftars, on account of their apparently various
magnitudes magnitude ljave been diftributed into feveral ■ claffes,
ef the ftars. or or(]crs< Thofe which appear largeft are called Jiafs
■vf the firji magnitudethe next to them in luftre, Jiars
of the fecond magnitude ; and fo on to the fxth, which
vere the fmalleft that are vifible to the bare eye. This
N o M Y> s«a. vin.
diftributfen having been made long before the inven-Calculating
tion of telefcopes, the ttars which cannot be feen with-^®
out the afliftance of thefe inftruments are diftinguifhedthe’plai;ets>
by the name of telcfcapicJiars. c——
The ancients divided the ftarry fphere into particu- 4oi
lar conftellations, or fyftems of ftars, according as they lelelcopic
jay near one another, fo as to occupy thofe fpacesftars*
which the figures of different forts of animals or things
would take up, if they were there delineated. Unformed
thofe ftars which could not be brought into any parti-ftars>
cular conftellation were called unformedfars. 403
This divifion of the ftars into different conftellations, Uftsoftheir
or afterifms, ferves to diftinguifh them from one ano-^ivi(‘°^1j1_"
ther, fo that any particular ftar may be readily 6
in the heavens by means pf a celeftial globe ; on which
the confteliations are fo delineated, as to put the moft
remarkable ftars into fuch parts of the figures as are
moft eafily diftinguifhed; The number of the ancient
conftellations is 48, and upon our prefent globes about
70; On Senex’s globes are inferred Bayer’s letters ;
the firft in the Greek alphabet being put to the biggeft
ftar in each conftellation, the fecond to the next, and
fo on : by which means, every ftar is as eafily found as
if a name were given to it. Thus, if the ftar y in the
conftellation of the ram be mentioned, every aftrono-
mer knows as well what ftar is meant as if it were
pointed out to him in the heavens. See fig. 205, 206.
where the ftars are reprefented with the figures of the
animals from whence the conftellations are marked. 404
There is alfo a divifion of the heavens into threeDivifion of
parts. 1. The Zodiac (£<»<f <«*(>{■), from zbdiM, the heavens;
“ an animal,” becaufe moft of the conftellations in it,FiS-a6,29;
which are 12 in number, have the names of animals :
As dries the ram, Taurus the bull, Gemini the twins,
Cancer the crab, Libra the balance, Scorpio the fcor-
pion, Sagittarius the archer, Capricornus the goat,
dquarius the water-bearer, and Pifces the fifties. The
Zodiac goes quite round the heavens : it is about 16
degrees broad, fo that it takes in the orbits of all the
planets, and likewife the orbit of the moon. Along
the middle of this zone or belt is the ecliptic, or
circle which the earth deferibes annually as feen from
the fun, and which the fun appears to deferibe as
feen from the earth. 2. All that region of the hea¬
vens which is on the north fide of the zodiac, contain¬
ing 21 conftellations. And, 3. That on the foutb
fide, containing 15. 40j
The ancients divided the zodiac into the above 12 Zodiac how
conftellations or figns in the following manner. They divided,
took a veffel with a fmall hole in the bottom, and, ha¬
ving filled it with water, fuffered the fame to diftil drop
by drop into another veffel fet beneath to receive it;
beginning at the moment when fome ftar rofe, and con¬
tinuing till it rofe the next following night. The wa¬
ter falling down into the receiver, they divided into
twelve equal parts ; and havihg two other fmall veffels
in readinefs, each of them fit to contain one part,
they again poured all the water into the upper veffel;
and, obferving the rifing of fome liar in the zodiac,
they at the fame time fuffered the water to drop in¬
to one of the fmall veffels; and as foon as it was
full, they Ihifted it, and fet an empty one in its place.
When each, veffel was full, they took notice what ftar
of the zodiac rofe ; and though this could not be done
Sea. VIII. ASTRO
Calculating in one night, yet in many they obferved the rifing of
the Diftan-' i 2 ftars or points, by which they divided the zodiac
ces, &c. of •
N
M Y.
547
the'Planets. parts.
The names of the conftellations, and the number of Calculating
ftars obferved in each of them by different aftronomers, thcI^ftan‘
3 'ces, &c. of
The ancient Conftellations.
406
Catalogue
of the con¬
ftellations.
Urfa minor
Urfa major
Draco
Cepheus
Bootes, ArSophilax
Corona Borealis
Hercules, Engonafm
Lyra
Cygnus, Gallinct
Caffiopeia
Perfeus
Auriga
Serpentarius, Opiuchus
Serpens
Sagitta
Aquila, Vultur
Antinous
Delphinus
Equulus, Equi feflh-
Pegafus, Equus
Andromeda
Triangulum
Aries
Taurus
Gemini
Cancer
Leo
Coma Berenices
Virgo
Libra, Chela
Scorpius
Sagittarius
Capricornus
Aquarius
Pi fees
Cetus
Orion
Eridanus, Fluvius
Lepus
Canis major
Canis minor
Argo Navis
Hydra
Crater
Corvus
Gentaurus
Lupus
Ara
Corona Auftralis •.
Pifces Auftralis
The Little Bear
The Great Bear
The Dragon
Cepheus
The Northern Crown
Hercules kneeling
The Harp
The Swan
The Lady in her Chair
Perfeus
The Waggoner
Serpentarius
The Serpent
The Arrow
The Eagle 1
Antinous y
The Dolphin
The Horfe’s Head
The Flying Horfe
Andromeda
The Triangle
The Ram
The Bull
The Twins
The Crab
The Lion
Berenice's Hair
The Virgin
The Scales
The Scorpion
The Archer
The Goat
The Water-bearer
The Fifties
The Whale
Orion
Eridanus, the River
The Hare
The Great Dog
The Little Dog
The Ship
The Hydra
The Cup
The Crow
The Centaur
The Wolf
The Altar
The Southern Crown
The Southern Fifh
[air \
Ptolemy.
8
35
31
J3
23
>3
29
H
29
23
4
18
• 44
25
23
35
32
‘7
24
31
28
45
3»
22
38
34
45
27
7
7
37
19
7
J3
Tycho.
7
29
32
■ 4
18
18
26
29
9
*5
>3
5
4
»9
23
4
21
43
25
15
3°
14
33
28
4‘
36
J3
13
The new Southern Conftellations.
Columba Noachi
Robur Carolinum
Grus
Phoenix,
Ihdus
Bavo
Noah’s Dove
The Royal Oak
The Crane
The Phenix
The Indian
The Peacock
Apus, Avis bidica
Apis, Mufca
JO Chamteleon
12 Triangulum Auftfalis-
13 Pifcis volans, Pajfer
j 3 Dorado, X'iphias
j 2 Toucan
14. Hydros
Hevelius.
12
73
40
51
52
8
45
17
47
37
46
40
40
22
5
23
19
14
6
38
47
12
27
5l
38
29
49
29
47
39
45
62
27
13
4
31
Flamjlead.
24
87
80
35
54
21
55
59
66
74
64
18
71
18
10
89
66
16
66
141
85
83
95
43
110
5i
44
69.
5i
108
113
97
78
84
19
3*
14.
64
60
31
9
35
24
9
The Bird of Paradife
The Bee or Fly
The Chameleon
The South Triangle
The Flying. Fifti
The Sword Fifti
The American Goofe
The Water Snake
3Z2
.548
ASTRONOMY. Sea. IX.
CaTcuhtfng
the m\,u- Hev(iL
CCS, l&C. of
thePiancts.
Lynx ^
Leo' minor
Atterion & Chara
Cerberus
Vulpecnla & Anfer
Scutum Sobieiki
Lacerta
Camdopardaius
Monocerns
Sextans
ions made out of the unformed Stars.
Hevel. Flantf.
The Lynx 19 44
The Little Lion 53
The Greyhounds 23 2j
Cerberus 4
The Fox and Goofe 27 35
Sobieilci’s Shield 7
The Lizard 10 16
The Camelopard 32 58
The Unicorfr^ 19 31
The Sextant 11 41
Change in The obliquity of the ecliptic to the equinoftial is
the oblique-found at preient to be above the third part of a degree
of the Jefs than Ptolemy found it. And moll of the obfervers
-sc p ic. after j-dm found it to decreafe gradually down to Ty¬
cho’s time. If it be objected, that we cannot depend
on the obfervations of the ancients, becaufe of the
incorredtnefs of their inftruments; vve have to anfwer,
that both Tycho and Flamftead are allowed to have
been very good obfervers 5 and yet we find that Flam-
Head makes this obliquity 24- minutes of a degree lefs
than Tycho did about 100 years before him ; and as
Ptolemy was 13-24 years before Tycho, fo the gradual
decreafe anfwers nearly to the difference of time be¬
tween thefe three aftronomers. If we confider, that
the earth is not a perfeft fphere, but an oblate fphe-
roid, having its axis fhorter than its equatorial diame¬
ter ; and that the fun and moon are conftantly adting
obliquely upon the greater quantity of matter about
the equator, pulling it, as it were, towards a nearer
and nearer coincidence with the ecliptic; it will not
appear improbable that thefe adlions (hould gradually
diminilh the angle between thofe planes. Nor is it lefs
probable that the mutual attradlions of all the planets
fhould have a tendency to bring their orbits to a coin¬
cidence : but this change is too finall to become fen-
fible in many ages.
Sect. IX. Of calculating the periodical Tinies,
Places, &C. of the Sun, Moon, and Planets ;
Delineation of the Phafes of the Moon.for any
particular Time; and the ConfruElion of Afro-
nomical Tables.
This title includes aim oft all of what may be called
the Practical part of Aftronomy ; and as it is by far
‘the moft difficult and abltrufe, fo the thorough invefti-
gation of it would neceffarily lead us into very deep
geometrical demonftrations. The great labours of for¬
mer aftronomers have left little for fucceeding ones to
do in this refpedl : tables of the motions of all the ce-
Jeftial bodies have been made long ago, the periodical
times, eccentricities, &c. of the planets determined 5
and as we fuppofe few will defire to repeat thefe labo¬
rious operations, we fhall here content ourfelves with
giving fome general hints of the methods by which
rhefe things have been originally accomplilhed, that fo
the operations of the young aftronomer who makes ufe
©f tables already formed to his hand may not be merely
mechanical.
It hath been already obferved, that the foundation Of calcula-
cf all aftronomical operations was the drawing a me-ti.n£.t*lc Pc~
ridian line.' This being done, the next thing is t0
find out the latitude of the place where the obferva-
lions are to be made, and for. which the meridian line &c. *
is drawn. From what hath been faid, n° 39. it will^—v—
eafily be underftood that the latitude of a place mud 408
always be equal to the elevation either of the north orLatitude
fouth pole above the horizon; ^ecau^e w^en we are how found
exaftly on the equator, both poles appear on the ho¬
rizon. There is, however, no ftar exactly in either
of the celeftial poles; therefore, to find the altitude of
that invifible point called the Pole of the: heavens, we
muft choofe fome ftar near it which does not fet; and
having by feveral obfervations, according to the direc¬
tions giv^n n0 377, found its greateft and lead alti¬
tudes, divide their difference by 2 ; and half that diffe¬
rence added to the lead, or fubtra&ed from the great-
eft, altitude of the ftar, gives the exaft altitude of the
pole or latitude the place. Thus, fuppofe the great-
eft altitude of the ftar obferved is 60° and its leaft
500, we then know that the latitude of the place
where the obfervation was made is exaftly 550. 409
The latitude being once found, the obliquity of the Obliquity^
ecliptic, or'the angle made by the fun’s annual path the ecliptic
with the earth’s equator, is eafily obtained by the fol-found.
lowing method. Obferve, about the fummer folftice,
the fun’s meridian diftance from the zenith, which is
eafily done by a quadrant with a moveable index fur-
nifhed with fights; if this diftance is fubtradted from
the latitude of the place, provided the fun is nearer the
equator than the place of obfervation, the remainder
will be the obliquity of the ecliptic : But if the place
o‘f obfervation is nearer the equator than the fun at that
time, the zenith diftance muft be added. By this me¬
thod, the obliquity of the ecliptic hath been determi¬
ned to be 230 29'. 4I9
By the fame method the declination of the fun from Sun’s decli--
the equator for any day may be found; and thus a nab01!,
table of his declination for every day in the year might
be conftru&ed : thus alfo the declination of the ftars
might be found. 4II
Having the declination of the fun, his right afeen-His place In
fion and place in the ecliptic may be geometrically tbe ecliptic
found by the folution of a cafe in fpherical trigono-^?w fou',d*
metry. For let EQ^reprefent the ccleftial equator, 6‘1,5 *
91 the fun, and_yX the ecliptic; then, in the right-
angled fpherical triangle ECy, we have the fide £/,
equal to the fun’s declination : the angle ECy is always
23° 29', being the angle of the ecliptic with the equa¬
tor ; and the angle jEC is 90°, or a right angle.
From thefe data we can find the fide EC the right
afcenfion ; and Cy the fun’s place in the ecliptic, or his
diftance from the equinoctial point; and thus a table
df the fun’s place for every day in the year, anfwerable
to his declination, may be formed. 4Ia
Having the fun’s place in the ecliptic, the right a-To find the
ffeenfion of the ftars may be found by the help of it, and right afcei^
a good pendulum clock : For which purpofe the mo-,10n ^
tion of the clock muft be fo adjufted, that the hand may ftars*
run through the 24 hours in the fame time that a ftar
leaving the meridian will arrive at it again ; which time
is fomewhat fhorter than the natural day, becaufe of the
fpace the fun moves through in the mean time eaft-
ward.
Sea. it.
k O N 0 M Y.
549
Of calcula- ward. The clock being thus adjufted, when the fun
ting the pe-is ;n the meridian, fix the hand to th^e point from
Times of w ‘ience we are t0 begin to reckon our time ; and then
the Planets obferve when the ftar comes to the meridian, and mark
&c. ’the hour and minute that the hand then (hows : The
v—; hours and minutes defcribed by the index, turned irito
degrees and minutes of the equator, will give the dif¬
ference between the right afcenfion of the fun and liars ;
which difference, being added to the right afcenfion of
the fun will give the right afcenfion of the ftar. Now,
if we know the right afcenfion of any one ftar, we may
from it find the right afcenfions of all the others which
we fee, by marking the time upon the clock between
the arrival of the ftar whofe right afcenfion we know
to the meridian, and another ftar whofe afcenfion is to
be found. This time converted into hours and minutes
bf the equator, will give the difference of right afcen¬
fions ; from whence, by addition, we colledt the right
4x3 afcenfion of the ftar which was to be found out.
Their Ion- The right afcenfion and declination of a ftar being
-k'tudes and known, its longitude and latitude, or diftance from
Tound'k* the firft ftar of Aries, and north or fouth from the
ecliptic, may thence be eafily found, from the folution
of a cafe in fpherical trigonometry, fimilar to that al¬
ready mentioned concerning the fun’s place; and the
places of the fixed liars being all marked in a catalogue
according to their longitudes and latitudes, it may
thence be conceived how the longitude and latitude
of a planet or comet may be found for any particular
time by comparing its diftance from them, and its ap¬
parent path may thus be traced ; and thus the paths
of Mercury and Venus were traced by M. Caflini,
though Mr Fergufon made ufe of an orrery for that
4x4 purpofe.
To find the With regard to the planets, the firft thing to be done
periodical is to find out their periodical times, which is done by
times of the0bferving when they have no latitude. At that time
T>anets. p]anet {s in the ecliptic, and confequently in one of
its nodes ; fo that, by waiting till it returns to the fame
node again, and keeping an exaft account of the time,
the periodical time of its revolution round the fun may
be known pretty ejca&ly. By the fame obfervations,
from the theory of the earth’s motion we can find the
pofition of the line of the nodes ; and when once the
pofition of this line is found, the angle of inclination of
that planet’s orbit to the earth may alfo be known,
kcetntrici- The eccentricity of the earth’s orbit may be deter-
ty of the mined by obferving the apparent diameters of the fun
earth’s orbit at different times: when the fun’s diameter is leall, the
earth is at the greateft diftance ; and when this diame¬
ter is greateft, the earth is at its lead diftance from
him. But as this method mull neceffarily be precari¬
ous, another is recommended by Dr Keil, by obferving
the velocity of the earth in its orbit, of the apparent
velocity of the fun, which is demonftrated to be always
reciprocally as the fquare of the diftance.
Ofthe other •*'^e eccentricities of the orbits of the other planets
planets. may be likewile found by obferving their velocities at
different times 5 for all of them obferve the fame pro-
.pottions with regard to the increafe or decreafe of their
velocity that the earth does; only, in this cafe, care muft
be taken to obferte the real, not the apparent, veloci¬
ties of the planets, the laft depending on the motion of
the earth at the fame time. Their aphelia, or points of
their orbits where they are fartheft from the fun, may calcula-
be known by making feveral obfervations of their di-^“|.thc Pe"
fiances from him, and thus perceiving when fhefe di-^jJ^ of
fiances ceafe to increafe. the Planets
The pofition of the aphelion being determined, the&c.
planet’s diftance from it at any time may alfo be found '——v-1
by obfervation, which is called its true or coequated 417
anomaly ; but by fuppofing the motion of the P'aHel
to be regular and uniform, tables of that motion mayjn their or-*
eafily be conftrufted. From thence the planet’s meanfts.
place in its orbit may be found for any moment of
time ; and one of thefe moments being fixed upon as an
epocha or beginning of the table, it is eafy to under-
ftand, that from thence tables of the planet’s place in
its orbit for any number of years either precedirtg or
confequent to that period may be conftru^led. Thefe
tables are to be conftrudled according to the meridian
of equal time, and not true or apparent time, becaufe of
the inequalities of the earth’s motion as well as of that
of the planet, and equations muft be made to be ad¬
ded to or fubtrafted from the mean motion of the pla¬
net as occafion requires j which will be readily under¬
flood from what we have already mentioned concern¬
ing the unequal motion of the earth in its orbit. When
all the neceffary tables are conftrudled by this or fi-
milai1 methods* the calculating of the planetary pla¬
ces becomes a mere matter of mechanifm, and confifts
only in the proper additions and fubtradlions according
to the dire&ions always given along with fuch tables.
It muft be obferved, however, that the accidental ‘n*jnac^„^.
terferenCe of the planets with one another by their cjes fron^
mutual attra&ions, render it impoflible to conftrudl any the mutual
tables that (hall remain equally perfeft ; and therefore attraftion
frequent aflual obfervations and correftions of the tables of thc PlaV
will be neceffary. This difturbance, however, is incon- ncts*
fiderable, except in the planets Jupiter and Saturn, and
they are in conjunftion only once in 800 years. 4x9
What hath been already mentioned with regard to Difficulties
the planets, is alfo applicable to the moon ; but with withreSar3
more difficulty, on account of the greater inequalities ofto thc
her motions, the caufe of which has been already ex-m°0n’
plained; She indeed moves in an ellipfe as the reft
do, and its eccentricity may be better computed from
obferving her diameter at different times than that of
the earth’s orbit ; but that eccentricity is not always
the fame. The reafon of this, and indeed of all the
other lunar inequalities, is, that the fun has a fenfible
effeft upon her by his attraflion, as well as the earth.
Confequently, when the earth is at its leaft diflance
from the fun, her orbit is dilated, and fhe moves more
(lowly ; and, On the contrary, when the earth is in its
aphelion, her orbit contrails, and fhe moves more
fwiftly. The eccentricity is always greateft when the
line of the apfides coincides with that of the fyzygies,
and the earth at its leaft diftance from the fun. When
the moon is in her fy zygies, i. e. in the line that joint
the centres of the earth and fun, which is cither in her
conjun&ion or oppofition, fhe moves fwifter, caterispa-
ribus, than in the quadratures. According to the dif¬
ferent diftarices of the moon from the fyzygies, fhe
changes her motion ; from the conjunction to her firft
quadrature, fhe moves fomewhat flower ; but recovers
her velocity in the ftcond quarter. In the third quar¬
ter fhe again lofes, and in the laft again recovers it.
The
pliably o
l?cr axis.
550 A b
Of caloila-The apogeon of the moon is alfo irregular; being
King the pt-founcj t0 move forward when it coincides with the line
Times of t^le fyzyg,es’ anc^ backwards when it cuts that line
the Planets at rig^t a'’gies. Nor is this motion in any degree equal:
&c. in the conjunftion or oppofition, it goes brifkly for-/
—v~~'-1 wards,' and in the quadratures moves either flowly for¬
wards, Hands ftill, or goes backward. The motion of
the nodes has been already taken notice of: but this
motion is not uniform more than the reft ; for when the
line of the nodes coincides with that of the fyzygies,
they Hand ftill ; when their line cuts that at right
angles, they go backwards with the velocity, as Sir
Ifaac Newton hath ftiown, of 16" 19"'24'"' an hour.
The only equable motion the moon has, is her revolu¬
tion on her axis, which fhe always performs exactly in
the fpace of time in which fhe moves round the earth.
From hence arifes what is called the moan’s libration ;
for as the motion round her axis is equable, and that
in her orbit unequal, it follows, that when the moon
is in her perigee, where fhe moves fwifteft, that part
of her furface, which on account of the motion in her
orbit would be turned from the earth, is not fo, by
reafon of the motion on her axis. Thus fome parts
in the limb or margin of the moon fometimes recede
from, and fpmetimes approach towards the centre of
the difk. Yet this equable rotation produces an ap¬
parent irregularity ; for the axis pf the moon not be¬
ing perpendicular, but a little inclined to its orbit,
and this axis maintaining its parallelifm round the
earth, it muft neceflarily change its fituation with re-
^fpeft to an obferver on the earth, to whom fometimes-
the one and fometimes the other pole of the moon be¬
comes, vifible; whence it appears to have a kind of
wavering or vacillatory motion.
From all thefe irregularities it may well be concluded,
. . . that the calculation of the moon’s place in her orbit is
accounted*a very difficult matter; and indeed, before Sir Ifaac
Wr by Sir Newton, aftronomers in vain laboured to fubjefl the
Ifaac New-lunar irregularities to any rule. By his labours, how-
ton. ever, and thofe of other aftronomers, thefe difficulties
are in a great meafure overcome ; and calculations with
regard to this-luminary may be made with as great
.411 certainty as, concerning any other. Her periodical
■^"P^l^time may be determined from the obfervation of two
determined lunar eclipfes, at as great a diftance from one ano-
biy Copcrni-ther as poffible ; for in the middle of every lunar
cus. eclipfe, the moon is exaftly in oppofition to the fun.
Compute the time between thefe two edipfes or op-,
pofuions, and divide this by the. number of lunations
that have intervened, and the quotient will be the
fynodical month, or time the moon takes-to pafs from
one conjun&ion to another, or from one oppofttion to
another. Compute the fun’s mean motion in the time
of the fy nodical month, and add this to the entire circle-
deferibed by the moon. Then, As that ftim is to 260°,
fo is the quantity of the- fy nodical month to the perio¬
dical, or time that the moon takes to move from one
point of her orbit to the farae.point again. Thus, Co¬
pernicus, in the year 1500, November 6th, at 2 hours
20 minutes, obferved an eclipfe of the moon at Rome ;
ajid-Au^uft. ift 1523, at 4 hours 25 minutes, another
R O N O M Y.
Sea. IX.
at Cracow : hence the quantity of the fynodical monthOf calcula-
is thus determined: tingthepe-
Y. D* H. M. ™d!calf
Obferv. 2d 1523 237 4 25 Slancts,
Obferv. ift 1500 310 2 20 &c.
Interval of time 22 292 2 5
Add the intercalary ^ 5
Exaft interval 22 297 2 5,on 1991005'.
This interval divided by 282, the number of months
elapfed in that time, gives 29 days rz hours 41 mi¬
nutes for the length of the fynodical month. But from
the obfervations of two other eclipfes, the fame author
more accurately determined the quantity of the fynodi¬
cal month to be 29 degrees 11 hours 45 minutes 3 fe-
conds ; from whence the mean periodical time of the
moon comes to be 27 degrees 7 hours 43 minutes 5 fe-
conds, which exactly agrees with the obfervations of
later aftronomers.
The quantity of the periodical month being given, Her4^rnaj
by the Rule of Three, we may find the moon’s diurnal and horary
nnrl Vinrarv mot inn • sinrl thus mav tahlpQ nf tVif* mnnn’fl mntinn.
Jiunar ir-
and horary motion 5 and thus may tables of the moon’s motion,
mean motion be conftru&ed ; and if from the moon’s
mean diurnal motion that of the fun be fubtrafted,
the remainder will be the moon’s mean diurnal motion
from the fun.
Having the moon’s diftance from the fun, her pha-
fis for that time may be eafily delineated by the fol¬
lowing method laid down by Dr lieil. “ Let the cir-H
cle COBP reprefent the difk of the moon, which is deiineatejf
turned towards the earth ; and let OP be the line in Fig. 157,
which the femicirele OMP is projefted, which fuppofeijS.
to be cut by the diameter BC at right angles ; and
making LP the radius, take LF equal to the cofine
of the elongation of the moon from the fun : And
then upon BC, as the great axis, and LF the leffer
axis, deferibe the femi-eliipfe BFC. This ellipfe will
cut off from the difk of the moon the portion BFCP
of the illuminated face, which is vifible to us from the
earth.” #
Since in the middle of a total eclipfe the moon is ex- piaceof the
a&ly in the node, if the fun’S place be found for that nodes how
time, and fix figns added to it, if the eclipfe is a lunar found,
one the fun will give the place of the node, or if the
eclipfe obferved is a folar one, the place of the node
and of the fun are the fame. From comparing two
eclipfes together, the mean motion of the nodes will
thus be found out. The apogee of the moon may be
known from her apparent diameter, as already obfer¬
ved ; and by comparing her place when in the apogee
at different times, the motion of the apogee itfelf may
a}fo be determined.
Thefe fhort hints will be fuffieient to give a general
knowledge of the methods ufed for the folution of fome
of the mqft difficult problems in aftronomy. As for
the proper equations to be added or fubtrafled, in or¬
der to find out the true motion and place of the moon,
together with the particular methods of conftru&ing
tables for calculating eclipfes, they are given from Mr
Fergufon, in the following fedtion.
SfCT,,
Sea. X. ASTRO
Of calcula¬
ting eclip-
feS'j &c.
Sect. X. Of Eclipfes : With Tables for their Cal¬
culation ; the Method of conjlrutding them ; Rules
• for Calculation^ and Directions for the Delinea¬
tion, of Solar and Lunar Eclipfes.
Every planet and fatellite is illuminated by the fun ;
and cafts a (hadow towards that point of the heavens
which is oppolite to the fun; This lhadow is nothing
but a privation of light in the fpaee hid from the fun
416 by the opaque body that intercepts his rays.
ficlipfe de- When the fun’s light is fo intercepted by the moon,
fined. that: to any place of the earth the fun appears partly
or wholly covered, he is faid to undergo an eclipfe ;
though, properly fpeaking, it is only an eclipfe of that
part of the earth where the moon’s (hadow or penum¬
bra falls. When the earth comes between the fun and
moon, the moon falls into the earth’s (hadow ; and
having no light of her own, (he fuffers a real eOlipfe
from the interception of the fun’s rays. When the
fun is eclipfed to us, the moon’s inhabitants, on the
fide next the earth, fee her (hadow like a dark fpot tra¬
velling over the earth, about twice as fad as its equa¬
torial parts move, and the fame way as they movew
When the moon is in an eclipfe, the fun appears eclip¬
fed to her, total to all thofe parts on which the earth’s
fhadow falls, and of as long continuance as they are
417 in the (hadow.
Tigureof That the earth is fpherical (for the hills take off no
the earth more from the roundnefs of the earth, than grains of
tp encal. fr0|11 r0l!nc]nefs of a common globe) is evi¬
dent from the figure of its (hadow on the moon ; which
is always bounded by a circular line, although the earth
is inceffantly turning its different Tides to the moon, and
very feldom (hows the fame fide to her in difterent e-
clipfes, becaufe they feldom happen at the fame hours.
Were the earth (haped like a round flat plate, its (ha¬
dow would only be circular when either of its Tides di-
re£Hy faced the moon, and more or lefs elliptical as
the earth happened to be turned more or lefs obliquely
Moon’s fi- towar^s t^e moon when (he is eclipfed. The moon’s
jure the different phafes prove her to be round s for as (he keeps
feme. ftill the (ame fide towards the earth, if that fide were
flat, as it appears to be, (he would never be vifible from
the third quarter to the firft ; and from the firft quar-
tei^to the third, (he would appear as round as when we
fay Jht is full; becaufe, at the end of her firft quarter,
the fun’s light would come as fuddenly on all her fide
next the earth, as it does on a flat wall, and go off as
abruptly at the end of her third quarter.
Shadows of tlie earth anc* we,re equally large, the earth’s
the earth (hadow would be infinitely extended, and all of the
and moon fame bulk ; and the planet Mars, in either of its nodes
conical. and oppofite tt> thefun, would be eclipfed in the earth’s
(hadow. Were the earth larger than the fun, its (ha¬
dow would increafe in bulk the farther it extended,
and would eclipfe the great planets Jupiter and Saturn,
with all their moons, when they were oppofite to the
fun. But as Mars, in oppofition, never foils into the
earth’s (hadow, altho’ he is not then above 4-2,000,000
miles from the earth, it is plain that the earth is
much lefs than the fun 5 for otherwife its (hadow could
not end in a point at fo fmall a diftance. If the fun and
■ moon were equally large, the moon’s lhadow would go
©u to the earth with an equal breadth, and cover a.por-
N O M Y. 551
tion of the earth’s furface more than 2000 miles broad, Of calcula-
even if it fell diredtly againll the earth’s centre, as feen tin& ecliP“
from the moon ; and much more if it fell obliquely on fes’ 8cc' :
the earth : But the moon’s (hadow is feldom 150 miles ' T
broad at the earth, unlefs when it falls very obliquely
on the earth, in total eclipfes of the fun. In annular
eelipfes, the moon’s real (hadow ends in a point at fome
diftance from the eartln The moon’s fmall diftance
from the earth, and the (hortnefs of her (hadow, prove
her to be lefs than the fun. And, as the earth’s (ha¬
dow is large enough to cover the moon, if her diame¬
ter were three times as large as it is ( which is evident
from her long continuance in the (hadow when (he
goes through its centre), it is plain that the earth is
much bigger than the moon. 430
Though all opaque bodies, on which the fun (hines, Why there
have their (hadows, yet fuch is the bulk of the fun, and are.fo fcW
the diftances of the planets, that the primary planetscclipC:s*
can never eclipfe one another. A primary can eclipfe
only its fecondary, or be eclipfed by it; and never but
when in oppofition or conjunftion with the fun. The
primary planets are very feldom in thefe pofitions, but
the fun and moon are fo every month: Whence one
may imagine, that thefe two luminaries (hould be eclip¬
fed every month. But there are few eclipfes in refpeft
of the number of new and full moons j the reafon of
which we (hall now explain.
If the moon’s orbit were coincident with the plane
of the ecliptic, in which the earth always moves and
the fun appears to move, the moon’s (hadow would fall
upon the earth at every change, and eclipfe the fun to
fome parts of the earth. In like manner, the moon
would go through the middle of the earth’s (hadow,
and be eclipfed at every full ; but with this difference,
that (he would be totally darkened for above an hour
and an half; whereas the fun never was above four mi¬
nutes totally eclipfed by the interpofition of the moon.
But one half of the moon’s orbit is elevated yf degrees
above the ecliptic, and the other half as much depref-
fed below it; eonfequently, the moon’s orbit interfefts
the ecliptic in two oppofite points called the moon's nodes,
as has been already taken notice of. When thefe points
are in aright line with the centre of the fun at new or
full moon, the fun, moon, and earth, are all in a right
line; and if the moon be then new, her (hadow falls
upon the earth; if full, the earth’s (hadow falls upon
her. When the fun and moon are more than 17 de¬
grees from either of the nodes at the time of conjunc¬
tion, the moon is then generally too high or too low
in her orbit to caft any part of her (hadow upon the
earth ; when the fun is more than 12 degrees from ei¬
ther of the nodes at the time of full moon, the moon
is generally too high or too low in her orbit to go
through any part of the earth’s (hadow; and in both
thefe cafes there will be no eclipfe. But when the moon
is lefs than 17 degrees from either node at the time of
conjunftion, her (hadow or .penumbra falls more or lefs
upon the earth, as (he is more or lefs within this limit*
And when (lie is lefs than 1 2 degrees from either node
at the time of oppofition, (he goes through a greater
or lefs portion of the earth’s (hadow, as (he is more or
lefs within this limit. Her orbit contains 360 degrees.;
of which 17, the limit of folar eclipfes on either fide
of the nodes, and 12, the limit of lunar eclipfes, are
but fcnall.portions; And as the fun commonly .paffes
552 ASTRO
Of calcula-by the nodes but twice in a year, it is no wonder that
ting echp- we fQ many new an(j fu]| moons without eclipfes.
r5’ ^c' ■ To illuftrate this (fig. 196.) let ABCD be the
ecliptic, RSTU a circle lying in the fame plane with
the ecliptic, and VXYZ the moon’s orbit, all thrown
into an oblique view, which gives them an elliptical
fhape to the eye. One half of the moon’s orbit, as
VVVX, is always below the ecliptic, and the other
half XYV above it. The points V and X, where
the moon’s orbit interfe&s the circle RSTU, which
lies even with the ecliptic, are the moon’s nodes 5 and
a right line, as XEV, drawn from one to the other,
through the earth’s centre, is the line of the nodes,
which is carried almoft parallel to itfelf round the fun
in a year.
If the moon moved round the earth in the orbit
RSTU, which is coincident with the plane of the e-
cliptic, her fhadow would fall upon the earth every
time fhe is in conjunftion with the fun, and at every op-
pofnion fhe would go through the earth’s fhadow. Were
this the cafe, the fun would be eclipfed at every change,
and the moon at every full, as already mentioned.
Bu: althoug-h the moon’s fhadow N muft fall upon
the earth at a> when the earth is at E, and the moon
in conjun&ion with the fun at /, becaufe fhe is then very
near one of her nodes; and at her oppofition n fhe mull
go through the earth’s fhadow I, becaufe fhe is then
near the other node 5 yet, in the time that fhe goes
round the earth to her next change, according to the
order of the letters XYVW, the earth advances from
E to <?, according to the order of the letters EFGH ;
and the line of the nodes VEX, being carried nearly
parallel to itfelf, brings the point /"of the moon’s or¬
bit in conjunction with the fun at that next change ;
and then the moon being at f, is too high above the
ecliptic to cafl her fhadow on the earth : and as the
earth is ftill moving forward, the moon at her next op¬
pofition will be at g, too far below the ecliptic to go
through any partjpf the earth’s fhadow • for by that
time the point £ will be at a confiderable diftance from
the earth as feen from the fun.
When the earth comes to F, the moon in conjunc¬
tion with the fun Z is not at k in a plane coincident
with the ecliptic, but above it at Y in the higheft part
of her orbit ; and then the point b of her fhadow Q
goes far above the earth (as in fig. 2. which is an edge-
view of fig. 1.) The moon at her next oppofuion, is
not at 0 (fig. 1.), but at W, where the earth’s fhadow
goes far above her, (as in fig. 2.). In both thefe cafes,
the line of the nodes VFX (fig. 1.) .is about ninety de¬
grees from the fun, and both luminaries are as far as .
pofiible from the limits of the eclipfes.
When the earth has gone half round the ecliptic
from E to G, the line of the nodes VGX-is nearly, if
not exadlly, directed towards the fun at Z .j and then
the new-moon / cafts her firadow P on the earth G >
and the full moon p goes through the earth’s fhadow
X, ; which brings on eclipfes again, as when the earth
was at E.
When the earth comes to H, the new moon falls not
at 7ft in a plane coincident with the ecliptic CD, but
at W in her orbit below it; and then her fhadow
ffee fig. 197.) goes far below the earth. At the next
fall fhe is not at q (fig. 196.), but at Y in her orbit 5^-
^egrees above £, and at her greateft.height above the
No. 3^
N O M Y. Sea. X.
ecliptic CD ; being then as far as poflible, at any op-Of calcula-
pofuion, from the earth’s fhadow M, as in fig. 197. tinS ecliP-
So, when the earth is at E and G, the moon is a-fcs’ &c' .
bout her nodes at new and full, and in her greateft y ^
north and fouth declination (or latitude as it is gene¬
rally called) from the ecliptic at her quarters ; but when
the earth is at F or H, the moon is in her greateft
north and fouth declination from the ecliptic at new
and full, and'in the nodes about her quarters.
The point X, where the moon’s orbit crofles the
ecliptic, is called the afeending node, becaufe the moou
afeends from it above the ecliptic ; and the oppofite
point of interfedtion V is called the defending node, be¬
caufe the moon defeends from it below the ecliptic.
When the moon is at Y in the higheft point of her or¬
bit, fhe is in her greateft north latitude; and when fhe
is at W in the loweft point of her orbit, fhe is in her
greateft fouth latitude. 43r
If the line of the nodes, like the earth’s axis, was Appear-,
carried parallel to itfelf round the fun, there would be ance of e-
juft half a year between the conjundtions of the fun and chpf« de¬
nodes. But the nodes fhift backwards, or contrary
the earth’s annual motion, deg. every year; and^°™on *£
therefore the fame node comes round the fun 19 days the nodefo
fooner every year than on the year before. Confe-
quently, from the time that the afeending node X
( when the earth is at E) paffes by the fun as feen from
the earth, it is only 173 days (not half a year) till the
defending node V paffes by him. Therefore in what¬
ever time of the year we have eclipfes of the luminaries
about either node, we may be fure that in 173 days
afterward we ftiall have eclipfes about the other node..
And when at any time of the year the line of the nodes
is in the fituation VGX, at the fame time next year
it will be in the fituation rGs ; the afeending node ha-
ving gone backward, that is, contrary to the order of
figns, from X to x, and the defeending node from V
to t-; each 19 J-deg. At this rate, the nodes fhift
through all the figus and degrees of the ecliptic in 18
years and 225 days; in which time there would al¬
ways be a regular period of' eclipfes, if any complete
number of lunations were finifhed without a fraftion.
But this never happens : for if Both the fun and moon ,
fhould ftart from a line of conjunction with either of
the nodes in any point of the ecliptic, the fun would ■
perform 18 annual revolutions and 222 degrees over
and above, and the mpon 230 lunations and 85 degrees
of the 231ft, by the time the node came round to the
fame point of the ecliptic again ; fo that the fun would
then be 138'degrees from the node, and the moon 85
degrees from the fun.
But in 2.23 mean lunations, after the fun, moon,,
and nodes, have been once in a line of conjun&ion,
they return fo.uearly to the fame ftate again, as that
the fame node, which was in conjunction with the fun
and moon at the beginning of the firft of thefe lu-
nations, will be,within 28' 12" of a degree of . a line
of conjunction with the fun and moon again, when the
laft of thefe lunations is completed. And therefore
in that time there will be a regular period of eclipfes,
or return of the fame eclipfe, for many ages.- In this
period, .(which was firft difeovered by the Chaldeans)
there are 18 Julian years 11 days 7 hours 43 minutes
20 fcconds, when the laft day of February in leapryeara
is four times included i but when it is five times inclu-
AS TR 0X0 MY.
riate. LXXXJJ-.
f /A ^V4//.
Sea. X. ASTRO
Of calcu!a-ded, the period confifts of only 18 years todays 7 hours
ting Eclip- 43 minutes 20 feconds. Confequently, if to the mean
fes, &c. t-me 0£ any ec];pfe> either of the fun or moon, you
add 18 Julian years 1 t days 7 hours 43 minutes 20
When the feconds, when the laft day of February in leap-years
fameeclipfecomes in four times, or a day lefs when it comes in five
returns a- times, you will have the mean time of the return of
gain. fume ec]ipfe.
But the falling back of the line of conjun&ions or
oppofitions of^the fun and moon 28' 12" with refpeft
to the line of the nodes in every period, will wear it
out in procefs of time ; and after that, it will not re¬
turn again in lefs than 12,492 years.—Thefe eclipfes of
the fun, which happen about the afcending node, and
begin to come in at the north pole of the earth, will go
a little foutherly at each return, til! they go quite off
the earth at the fouth pole ; and.thofe which happen
about the defcending node, and begin to come in at
the fouth pole of the earth, will go a fittle northerly at
each return, till at laft they quite leave the earth at the
north pole.
Hiftory of r^0 exemplify this matter, we (hall firft confider the
the folar e-fun’s eclipfe (March 2 ill old ftyle, April ift new
cV’pfein ftyle), A. D. 1764, according to its mean revolutions,
I^4* without equating the times, or the fun’s dillance from
the node; and then according to its true equated
times.
This eclipfe fell in open fpace at each return, quite
clear of the earth, ever fince the creation, till A. D.
1295, June 13th old ftyle, at 12 h. 52 m. 59 fee./>«/?
meridiem, when the moon’s fhadovv firft touched the
earth at the north pole 5 the fun being then 70° 48'
27'' from the afcending node. In each period fince
that time, the fun has come 28' 12" nearer and nearer
the fame node, and the moon’s fhadovv has therefore
gone more and more foutherly—In the year 1962,
July iStb old ftyle, at 10 h. 36 m. 21 fee./>. m. when
the fame eclipfe will have returned 38 times, the fun
will be only 24' 45" from the afcending node, and the
centre of the moon’s fhadow will fall a little northward
of the earth’s centre..—At the end of the next follow¬
ing period, A. D. 1980, July 28th old ftyle, at t8.h.
19 m. 41 fee. p. m. the fun will have receded back 3'
27" from the afcending node, and the moon will have
a very frnall degree of fouthern latitude, which will
caufe the centre of her fhadow to pafs a very fmall mat¬
ter fouth of the earth’s ceiytre. — After which, in every
following period, the fun will be 28' 12" farther back,
from the afcending node than in the period laft before ;
and the moon’s fhadow will go ilill farther and farther
fouthward, until September 12th old ftyle, at 23. h.
46 m. 22 fee./, m. A. D. 2665 ; when the eclipfe will
have completed its 77th periodical return, and will go
quite off the earth at the fouth pole (the fun being then
170 55' 22" back from the node), and cannot come
in at the north pole, fo as to begin the fame courfe
over again, in lefs than 12,492 years afterwards.—And
fuch will be the cafe of every other eclipfe of the fun :
For, as there is about t 8 degrees on each fide of the
node within which there is a poffibility of eclipfes,
their whole revolution goes through 36 degrees about
that node, which, taken from 360 degrees, leaves re¬
maining 324 degrees for the eclipfes to travel in ex~
panfum. And as this 36 degrees is not gone, through
is lefs than 77 periods, which takes up 1388 years,
Von. IL Part IJ,
N O M Y. ^ 553
the remaining 324 degrees cannot be fo gone through Of calcula-
in lefs than 12,492 years. For, as 36 is to 1388, fo isJ.insEcl,P-
324 to ! 2,492. _ _ , ’ &C' ,
To illuftiate this a little farther, we fhall examine 434
fome cf the moft remarkable circumftances of the re-of the e-
turns of the eclipfe which happened July 14th 1748,clipfe in
about noon. This eclipfe, after traverfing the voids 1748.
of fpace from the creation, at laft began to enter the
Terra Auftralis Incognita about 83 years after the
conqueft, which was the laft of king Stephen’s reign :
every Chaldean period it has crept more northerly, but
was (till invifiblein Britain before the year 1622 ; when,
on the 30th of April, it began to touch the fouth parts
of England about two in the afternoon ; its central
appearance rifing in the American fouth feas, and tra¬
verfing Peru and the Amazons country, through the
Atlantic ocean into Africa, and fetting in the jE-
thiopian continent, not far from the beginnino: of the
Red fea.
Its next vifible period was, after three Chaldean revo¬
lutions, in 1676, on the firft of June, rifing central in
the Atlantic ocean, palling us about nine in the morn¬
ing, with four digits eclipfed on the under limb, and
fetting in the gulf of Cochinchina in the Eaft Indies.
It being now near the folftice, this eclipfe was vi¬
fible the very next return in 1694, in the evening 5 and
in two periods more, which was in 1730, on the 4th
of July, was feen about half eclipfed juft after fun-rife,
and obferved both at Wirtemberg in Germany, and
Pekin in China, foon after which it went off.
Eighteen years more afforded us the eclipfe which
fell on the 14th of July 1748.
The next vifible return happened on July 25th 1766.
in the evening, about four digits eclipled; and, after
two periods more, will happen on Auguft 16th 1S02,
early in the morning, about five digits, the centre co¬
ming from the north frozen continent, by the capes of
Norway, through Tartary, China, and Japan, to the
Eadrone iflands, where it goes off.
Again, in 1820, Auguft 26th, between one and two,,
there will be another great eclipfe at London, about
10 digits 5 but, happening fo near the equinox, the
centre will leave every part of Britain to the weft, and.
enter Germany at Embden, palling by Venice, Naples,
Grand Cairo, and fet in the gulf of Baffora near that
city.
It will be no Qiore vifible till 1874, when five digits
will be obfeured (the centre being now about to leave
the earth) on September 28th. In 1892, the fun will
go down eciipfed in London ; and again, in 1928, the
paffage of the centre will be in the expanfum, though
there will be two digits eclipfed 'at London, Oftober
the 3 ill of that year, and about the year 2090 the
whole penumbra will he wore off; whence no more re¬
turns of this eclipfe can happen.till after a revolution
of ic.ooo years. _ 43r
From thefe remarks on the entire revolution of this Period in
eclipfe, we may gather, that a thoufand years more or which the
lefs (for there are fome irregularities that may protra£l.Pnenomyns;.
or lengthen tliis period 100 years),complete the wholeof 1111 ecI‘p^e
terrellrial phenomena of any fingle eclipfe: and fince looted111"
periods of 54 years each, and about 33 days, compre¬
hend the entire extent of their revolution, it is evident,
that the times t f the returnswill pafs through a cir¬
cuit vf.oiu year and ten months, every Chaldean period
4(A- - being;
554
ASTRONOMY. Sea. X.
Of calcula- being tc or ll clays later, and of the equable appear-
fl" &c *P" anc,:'s> al30Ut 32 or 33 days. Thus, though this eclipfe
■ ^ ' ■ happens about the middle of July, no other fubfe-
quent eclipfe of this period will return till the middle
of the.fame month again; but wear contlantly each
period to or it days forward, and at lad appear in
43(5 winter, but then it begins to ceafe from affefting us*
Seldom Another conclufion from this revolution may be
more than drawn, that there will feldom be any.more than two
ecli fes'in 8reat eclip^s the fun in the interval of this period,
this period. anc* thefe follow fometimes next return, and ofj^n at
greater diftances. That of 1715 returned again in
1 733 very great; but this pcefent eclipfe will not be
great till the arrival of 1820, which is a revolution of
four Chaldean periods ; fo that the irregularities of
their circuits muft undergo new computations to afiign
them exa&ly.
Eclipfes Nor do all eclipfes come in at the fouth pole : that
come in by depends altogether on the pofnioh of the lunar nodes,
the north which will bring in as many from the expanfum one
$oIes°Ut way as t^le other 5 antl fuch eclipfes will wear more
foutherly by degrees, contrary to what happens in the
prefent cafe.
The eclipfe, for example, of 1736 in September, had
its centre in the expanfum, and let about the middle of
its obfcurity in Britain ; it will wear in at the north
pole, and in the year 2600, or thereabouts, go off into
the expanfum on the fouth fide of the earth.
The eclipfes therefore which happened about the
creation are little more than half way yet of their
etherial circuit ;.and will be 4000 years before they en¬
ter the earth any more. This grand revolution feems
g to have been entirely unknown to the ancients.
Very an- I1 *s particularly to be noted, that eclipfes which
cient e- have happened many centuries ago will not be found
clipfes can- by our prefent tables to agree exadiy with ancient ob-
culateYb** ^ervat‘ons> reaf°n °f the great anomalies in the lunar
•u/tableJ moticms ; which appears an inconteftable demonftration
of the non-eternity of the univerfe. For it feems con¬
firmed by undeniable proofs, that the moon now finiihes
her period in lefs time than formerly, and will conti¬
nue, by the centripetal law, to approach nearer and
nearer the earth, and to go fooner and fooner round it:
nor will the centrifugal power be fufficient to compen-
fate the different gravitations of fuch an affemblage of
bodies as conftitute the folar fyftem, which would come
to ruin of itfelf, without fome regulation and adjuft-
ment of their original motions.
We are credibly informed from the teftimony of the
ancients, that there was a total eclipfe of the fun pre-
di&ed by Thales to happen in the fourth year of the
48th Olympiad, either at Sardis or Miletus in AGa,
where Thales then refided. That year correfponds to
the 585th year before Chrift • when accordingly there
happened a very fignal eclipfe of the fun, on the 28th
of May, anfwering to the prefent 10th of that month,
central through North America, the fouth parts of
France, Italy, &c. as far as Athens, or the ifles in the
.iEgean fea ; which is the fartheft that even the Caro¬
line tables carry it; and confequently make it invifible
to any part of Afia, in the total chara&er ; though
there are good reafons to believe that it extended to
Babylon, and went down central over that city. We
are not however to imagine, that it was fet before it
paffed Sardis and the Afiatic towns, where the pre-Of calcula-
didlor lived; becaufe an invifible eclipfe could havetinS eclip-
been of no fervice to demonftrate his ability in affrono- fes’ &c‘
mical fciences to his countrymen, as it could give no ^ *
proof of its reality.
For a further illuftration, Thucydides relates, That
a folar eclipfe happened on a fummer’s day, in the af¬
ternoon, in t\ie firft year of the Peloponnefian war, fo
great, that the ftars appeared, llhodius was vi&or in
the Olympic games tjie fourth year of the faid war,
being alfo the fourth year of the 87th Olympiad, or
the 428th year before Chrift. So that the eclipfe
muft have happened in the 431ft year before Chrift;
and by computation it-appears, that on the third of
Auguft there was a fignal eclipfe which would have
paffed over Athens, central about fix in the evening,
but which our prefent tables bring no farther than the
ancient Syrtes on the African coaft, above 400 miles
from Athens ; which, fuffering in that cafe but nine
digits, could by no means exhibit the remarkable dark-
nefs recited by this hiftorian : the centre therefore feems
to have paffed Athens about fix in the evening, and
probably might go down about Jerufalem, or near it,
contrary to the conftruftion of the prefent tables. Thefe
things are only mentioned by way of caution to the
prefent aftronomers, in recomputing ancient eclipfes ;
and they may examine the eclipfe of Nicias, fo fatal
to the Athenian fleet; that which overthrew the Ma¬
cedonian army, &c. 439
In any year, the number of eclipfes of both lumi-Number of
naries cannot be lefs than two, nor more than feven .eciPesin*
the moft ufual number is four, and it is very rare to7ear"
have more than fix. For the fun paffes by both the
nodes but once a-year, unlefs he paffes by one of them
in the beginning of the year; and, if he does, he will
pafs by the fame node again a little before the year be
finifhed ; becaufe, as thefe points move 19J-degrees
backwards every year, the fun will come to either of
them 173 days after the other. And when either node
is within 17 degrees of the fun at the time of new
moon, the fun will be eclipfed. At the fubfequent
oppofition, the moon will be eclipfed in the other node,-
and come round to the next ednjunflion again ere the
former node be 17 degrees paft the fun, and will there¬
fore eclipfe him again. When three eclipfes fall a-
bout either node, the like number generally falls a-
bout the oppofite; as the fun comes to it in 173 days
afterward ; and fix lunations contain but four days
more. Thus, there may be two eclipfes of the fun
and one of the moon about each of her nodes. But
when the moon changes in either of the nodes, fhe
cannot be near enough the other node at the next full
to be eclipfed ; and in fix lunar months afterward (he
will change near the other node ; in thefe cafes, there
can be butvtvvo eclipfes in a year, and they are both
of the fun.
A longer period than the above mentioned, for com¬
paring and examining eclipfes which happen at long in¬
tervals of time, is 557 years, 21 days, 18 hours, 30 mi¬
nutes, 11 feconds; in which time there are 6890 mean
lunations; and the fun and node meet again fo nearly
as to be.but 1 1 feconds diftant ; but then it is not the
fame eclipfe that returns, as in the fhorter period above-
jnentioned.
Eclipfes
Sea. X. ASTRO
Of calcula- EcKpfes of the fun are more-frequent than of the
ting Echp- moon, becaufe the fun’s ecliptic limits arc greater than
fcs &c’ , the moon’s ; yet we have more vifihle eclipfes of the
v ' moon than of the fun, becaufe eclipfes of the moon are
Why^more ^een from parts of that hemifphere of the earth
eclipfes of which is next her, and are equally great to each of
the moon thofe parts $ but the fun’s eclipfes are vifible only to
than of the tiiat fmall portion of the hemifphere next him where-
fermT 0b"on - *le moon,s Shadow falls.
The moon’s orbit being elliptical, and the earth in
one of its focufes, fhe is once at her leaft diftance from
the earth, and once at her greateft, in every lunation.
Totafand ^ien t^ie moon changes at her leaft diftance from the
annulare- eart^j ancf f° near ^he node that her dark iliadow falls
clipfes. upon the earth, fhe appears big enough to cover the
whole diflc of the fun from that part on which her iha-
dow falls ; and the fun appears totally eclipfed there
for fome minutes : but when the moon changes at her
greateft diftance from the earth, and fo near the node
that her dark (hadow is dire£fed towards the earth, her
diameter fubtends a lefs angle than the fun’s ; and
therefore fhe cannot hide his whole difk from any part
of the earth, nor does her fhadow reach it at that time ;
and to the place over which the point of her fhadow
hangs, the eclipfe is annular, the fun’s edge appearing
like a luminous ring all around the body of the moon.
When the change happens within 17 degrees of the
rfode, and the moon at her mean diftance from the
earth, the point of her fhadow juft touches the earth,
and fhe eclipfeth the fun totally to that fmall fpot
whereon her fhadow falls j but the darknefs is not of a
moment’s continuance.
The moon’s apparent diameter, when largeft, ex¬
ceeds the fun’s, when leaft, only 1 minute 38 feconds
of a degree; and in the greateft eclipfe of the fun
that can happen at any time and place, the total
darkn^fs continues no longer than whilft the moon
is going 1 minute 38 feconds from the fun in her or¬
bit, which is about 3 minutes and 13 feconds of an
442 hour.
Extent of The moon’s dark fhadow covers only a fpot on the
the moon’s earth’s furface about 180 Englifh miles broad, when
lliadow and tpe moon>s diameter appears largeft, and the fun’s leaft ;
penunj ra. ^ totaj can extend no farther than the
dark fhadow covers.. Yet the moon’s partial fhadow
or penumbra may then cover a circular fpace 4900
miles in diameter, within all which the fun is more or
lefs eclipfed, as the places are lefs or more diftant from
the centre of the penumbra. When the moon changes
exattly in the node, the penumbra is circular on the
earth at the middle of the general eclipfe ; becaufe at
that time it falls perpendicularly on the earth’s furface $
but at every other moment it falls obliquely, and will
therefore be elliptical; and the more fo, as the time
is longer before or after the middle of the general
eclipfe ; and then much greater portions of the earth’s
443 furbee are involved in the penumbra.
•Beginning, When the penumbra firft touches the earth, the ge-
efa'fcL r'0' neral begins ; when it leaves the earth, the ge-
^ ,,e,al eeiipfe ends : from the beginning to the end the
fun appears eclipfed in fome part of the earth or other.
When the penumbra touches any place, the eclipfe be¬
gins at that place, and ends when the penumbra leaves
it. When the moon changes in the node, the pe-
Qunuhra goes over the centre of. the. earth’s’difk. as
N O M Y. SSS
feen from the moon ; and consequently, by deferibing ealcu/a'
the lonueft line poffibly on the earth, continues the ®cliP*
longelc upon it ; namely, at a mean rate, 5- hours cc. ^ f
minutes ; more, if the moon be at her greateft di¬
ftance from the earth, becaufe Ihe then moves floweft ;
lefs, if fhe be at her leaft diftance, becaufe of her
quicker motion.
To make feveral of the above and other phenomena
plainer, let S be the fun, E the earth, M the moon,
and AMP the moon’s orbit. Draw the right line W <?
from the weftern fide of the fun at W, touching the
weftern fide of the moon at c, and the earth at e :
draw alfo the fight line V J from the eafterh fide of
the fun at V, touching the eaftern fide of the moon at
and the earth at e : the dark fpace c e d included
between thofe lines is the moon’s fhadow, ending in a
point at s’, where it touches the earth ; becanfe in this
cafe the moon is fuppofed to change at M in the
middle between A the apogee, or fartheft point of her
orbit from the earth, and P the perigee, or neareft:
point to it. For, had the point P been at M, the
moon had been nearer the earth ; and her dark fhadow
at e would have covered a fpace upon it about 180-
miles broad, and the fun would have been totally dark¬
ened, with fome continuance : but had the point A
been at M, the moon would have been farther from
the earth, and her fhadow would have ended in a point
a little above e, and therefore the fun would have ap¬
peared like a luminous ring all around the moon. Draw
the right lines WKdb and YXcg, touching the con¬
trary fides of the fun and moon, and ending on thq
earth at a and b : draw alfo the right line SXM, from,
the centre of the fun’s difk, through the moorv’s centre,
to the earth ; and fuppofe the two former lines VJXdb'
and VXc g to revolve on the line SXM as an axis, and
their points a and b will dtferibe the limits of the pe¬
numbra TT on the earth’s furface, including the large
fpace a b a ; within which the fun appears more or lefs
eclipfed, as the places are mote or lefs diftant from thei
verge of the penumbra a b.
Draw the right line_y 12 acrofs the fun’s diflc, per¬
pendicular to SXM the axis of the penumbra : then
divide the line^y 12 into twelve equal parts, as in the
figure, for the twelve digits or equal parts of the fun’s
diameter ; and at equal diftanees from the centre of
the penumbra at e (on the earth’s furface YY) to its
edge a b, draw twelve concentric circles, marked with,
the numeral figures, 1234 &c. and remember that
the moon’s motion in her orbit AMP is from weft te>
eaft, as from s to ti Then
To an obferver on the earth at Ay the eaftern limb
of the moon at d feemsr to touch the weftern limb of
the fun at W, when the mpon is at M ; and the fun’s
eclipfe begins at bn, appearing as at A, fig. 20.3. at the
left hand.; hut at the fame moment of abfolute time,,
to an obferver at a in fig. 198-. the weftern edge of the
moon at e leaves the eaflern edge of the fun at V, and
the eclipfe ends, as at the right hand G, fig. 2S3. At:
the very fame inftant, to all thofe who live on the
circle marked i on the earth E, in fig. 198* the-rrioort
M cuts off or darkens a twelfth part of the fun Sy and.
eclipfes him one digit, as at 1 in fig. 203 : to thofe
who live on the circle marked 2-in fig. 198. the moon:
cuts off two twelfth parts of the fun, as- at 2 ia
fig. 203. : to thofe on the circle 3,,three parts ; and fo-
4, A. 2. am
55<5
R O
N
M Y,
Sea. X.
Of calcula-on to the centre at 12 in fig. 198. where the fun is
IfP- centrally eclipfed, as atlJ in the middle of fig. 203.;
. ’ ’ .under which figure there is a fcale of hours and mi¬
nutes, to flrow at a mean (late how long it is from the
beginning to the end of a central eclipfe of the fun on
•the parallel of London ; and how may digits are eclip¬
fed at any particular time from the beginning at A to
the middle at B, or the end at C. Thus, in 16 minutes
from the beginning, the fun is two digits eclipfed ; in
an hour and five minutes, eight digits 5 and in an hour
and 37 minutes, 12 digits.
By fig. 198. it is plain, that the fun is totally or
centrally eclipfed but to a Imall part of the earth at
any time, becaufe the dark conical lhadow e of the
moon M falls but on a fmall part of the earth ; and
that the partial eclipfe is confined at that time to the
fpace included by the circle a b, of which only one half
can be proje&ed in the figure, the other half being
fuppofed to be hid by the convexity of the earth L ;
and likevvife, that no part of the fun is eclipfed to the
large fpace YY of the earth, becaufe the moon is not
between the fun and any of that part of the earth 5
and therefore to all that part the eclipfe is invifible.
The earth turns eaftward on its axis, as from g to h,
•which is the fame way that the moon’s (hadow moves;
but the moon’s motion is much fwifter in her orbit
from / to / : and therefore, although eclipfes of the
fun are of longer duration on account of the earth’s
motion on its axis than they would be if that motion
was flopped, yet, in four minutes of time at moft, the
mnnn’c fwri'fYpr mntinn rarripa hpr da! k fhadow CJUltC
moon’s fwifter motion carries her
over any place that its centre touches at the time of
greateft obfcuration. The motion of the (hadow on the
earth’s diflc is equal to the moon’s motion from the
fun, which is about 30-*- minutes of a degree every
hour at a mean rate ; but fo much of the moon’s orbit
is equal to 30^- degrees of a great circle on the earth ;
and therefore the moon’s (hadow goes 30f degrees, or
1830 geographical miles on the earth in an hour, or
30^- miles in a minute, which is almoft four times as
i'wift as the motion of a cannon-ball.
As feen from the fun or moon, the earth’s axis ap¬
pears differently inclined every day of the year, on ac¬
count of keeping its parallelifm throughout its annual
courfe. In fig. 204. let EDON be the earth at the
two equinoxes and the two folftices, NS its axis, N
the north pole, S the fouth pole, iEQjhe equator,
T the tropic of Cancer, t the tropic of Capricorn, and
ABC the circumference of the earth’s enlightened di(k
as feemfrom the fun or new moon at thefe times. The
earth’s axis has the poiition NES at the vernal equinox,
lying towards the right hand, as feen from the fun or
new moon *, its poles N and S being then in the cir¬
cumference of the di(k ; and the equator and all its pa¬
rallels feem to be ftraight lines, becaufe their planes
pafs through the obferver’s eye looking down upon the
earth from the fun or moon directly over E, where the
ecliptic EG interfe&s the equator iE. At the fummer-
folftice the earth’s axis has the pofition NDS ; and
that part of the ecliptic EG, in which the moon is then
new, touches the tropic of Cancer i’ at D. 1 he north
pole N at that time inclining 23$ degrees towards the
fun, falls fo many degrees within the earth’s enlight¬
ened difk, becaufe the fun is then vertical to D 23£
degrees north of the equator iEQj and the equator,
with all its parallels feem elliptic curves Bendlng'down Of calcnla-
ward, or towards the fouth pole, as feen from the fun ; tmgEclip-
which pole, together with 23-*-degrees all round it, is fes' &c- .
hid behind the di(k in the dark hemifphere of the v
earth. At the autumnal equinox, the earth’s axis
has the pofition NOS, lying to the left hand as feen
from the fun or new moon, which are then vertical to
O, where the ecliptic cuts the equator Both
poles now ly in the circumference of the dilk, the north
pole juft going to difappear behind it, and the fouth
pole juft entering into it ; and the equator with all its
parallels, feem to be ftraight lines, becaufe their planes
pafs through the obferver’s eye, as feen from the fun,
and very nearly fo as feen from the moon. At the
winter folftice, the earth’s axis has the pofition NNS
when its fouth pole S inclining 23^ degrees towards the
fun, falls 23-5- degrees within the enlightened difk, as
feen from the fun or new moon, which are then verti¬
cal to the tropic of Capricorn t, 23*. degrees fouth of
the equator ^EQj and the equator, with all its pa¬
rallels, feem elliptic curves bending upward ; the north
pole being as far hid behind the difk in the dark he¬
mifphere as the fouth pole is come into the light. The
nearer that any time of the year is to the equinoxes or
folftices, the more it partakes of the phenomena rela¬
ting to them.
Thus it appears, that from the vernal equinox to the
autumnal, the north pole is enlightened; and the
equator and all its parallels appear elliptical as feen
from the fun, more or lefs curved as the time is nearer
to, or farther from the fummer folftice 5 and bending
downwards, or towards the fouth pole ; the reverfe of
which happens from the autumnal equinox to the
vernal. A little confideration will be fufficient to con¬
vince the reader, that the earth’s axis inclines towards
the fun at the fummer folftice ; from the fun at the
winter folftice ; and fidewife to the fun at the equi¬
noxes : but towards the right hand, as feen from the
fun at the vernal equinox ; and towards the left hand
at the autumnal. From the winter to the fummer fol¬
ftice, the earth’s axis inclines more or lefs to the right
hand, as feen from the fun ; and the contrary from the
fummer to the winter folftice. 444
The different pofitions of the earth’s axis, as feen EtliPres af*
from the fun at different times of the year, affe& n
eclipfes greatly with regard to particular places; yea^f-J^1 Ion
fo far as would make central eclipfes which fall at one earth’s axis,
time of the year invifible if they fell at another, even
though the moon (hould always change in the nodes,
and at the fame hour of the day ; of which indefinitely
various affe&ions, we (hall only give examples for the
times of the equinoxes and folftices.
In the fame diagram, let EG be part of the eclip¬
tic, and IK, i i k, i k, part of the moon’s orbit ;
both feen edgewife, and therefore proje&ed into right
and let the interfedlions NODE be one and the
fame node at the above times, when the earth hasahe
forementioned different pofitions; and let the fpaces
included by the circles ¥ppp be the penumbra at
thefe times, as its centre is palling over the centre of
the earth’s dilk. At the winter folftice, when the
earth’s axis has the pofition NNS, the centre of the
penumbra P touches the tropic of Capricorn / in N at
the middle of the genera! eclipfe ; but no part of the
penumbra touches the tropic of Cancer T. At the
fum-
Sea. X. ASTRO
Of calcu'.a- fummer fo](lice, wtien the earth’s axis has the pofition
f nS&Cl'^" (< D k being then part of the moon’s orbit
■ts’ e'c‘ . whofe node is at D), the penumbra p has its centre at
D, on the tropic of Cancer T, at the middle of the
general eclipfe, and then no part of it touches the tro¬
pic of Capricorn t. At the autumnal equinox, the
earth’s axis has the pofition NOS (; O k being then
part of^the moon’s orbit), and the penumbra equally
includes part of both tropics T and l at the middle of
the general eclipfe : at the vernal equinox it does the
fame, becaufe the earth’s axis has the pofnion NES •,
but, in the^former of thefe two laft cafes, the penum¬
bra enters the earth at A, north of the tropic of Can¬
cer T, and leaves it at m fouth of the tropic of Ca¬
pricorn t; having gone over the earth obliquely fouth-
ward, as its centre defcribed the line AOw: whereas,
in the latter cafe, the penumbra touches the earth at «,
fouth of the equator iEQ, and defcribing the line nbq
(fimilar to the former line AO#* in open fpace), goes
obliquely northward over the earth, and leaves it at q,
north of the equator.
In all thefe circumftances the moon has been fup-
pofed to change at noon in her defcending node : Had
fhc changed in her afcending node, the phenomena
would have been as various the contrary way, with re-
fpedt to the penumbra’s going northward or fouthward
over the earth. But becaufe the moon changes at all
hours, as often in one node as in the other, and at all
diftances from them both at different-times as it hap¬
pens, the variety of the phafes of eclipfes are a!moll
innumerable, even at the fame places 5 confidering
alfo how varioufly the fame places are fituated on the
enlightened difk of the earth, with refpedl to the pen¬
umbra’s motion, at the different hours when eclipfes
happen.
When the moon changes 17 degrees fhort of her de¬
fcending node, the penumbra Pi 8 juft touches the
northern part of the earth’s difk, near the north pole
N ; and as feen from that place, the moon appears to
touch the fun, but hides no part of him from fight.
Had the change been as far fhort of the afcending
node, the penumbra would have touched the fouthern
part of the difk near the fouth pole S. When the moon
changes 12 degrees fhort of the defcending node, more
than a third part of the penumbra Pi2 falls on the
northern parts of the earth at the middle of the gene¬
ral eclipfe : Had fhe changed as far paft the fame node,
as much of the other fide of the penumbra about P
would have fallen on the fouthern part of the earth j
all the reft in the expanfum, or open fpace* When
the moon changes 6 degrees from the node, almolt the
whole penumbra P6 falls on the earth at the middle
of the general eclipfe. And laftly, when the moon
changes in the node at N, the penumbra PN takes
the longed courfe pofiible on the earth’s difk ; its centre
falling on the middle thereof, at the middle of the ge¬
neral eclipfe. The farther the moon changes from ei¬
ther node, within 17 degrees of it, the Ihorter is the
penumbra’s continuance on the earth, becaufe it goes
over a lefs portion of the difk, as is evident by the
figure.
Duration of '^e rearer that the penumbra’s centre is to the
ecl'pfes in equator at the middle of the general edipfe, the longer
difFerert is the duration of the eclipfe at all thofe places where
parts of the jt central; becaufe, the nearer thftt any place is to
catth. ' ‘
N O M Y. 557
the equator, the greater is the circle it deferibes by 9^ca^cu.ia*
the earth’s motion on-its axis : and fo, the place mo-^^^1'!1'
ving quicker, keeps longer in the penumbra, whofe, ’ '
motion is the fame way with that of the place, though
fafter, as has been already mentioned. Thus (fee the
earth at D and the penumbra at 12) vvhilft the point
b in the polar circle a b c d h carried from £ to c by the
earth’s diurnal motion, the point d on the tropic of
Cancer T is carried a much greater length from d to
D ; and therefore, if the penumbra’s centre goes one
time over c and another time over D, the penumbra
will be longer in pafiing over the moving place d than
it was in parting over the moving place b. Confequent-
ly, central eclipfes about the poles are of the fhorteft
duration ; and about the equator, of the longeft.
In the middle of fummer, the whole frigid zone, in¬
cluded by the polar circle abed, is enlightened ; and if
it then happens that the penumbra’s centre goes over
the north pole, the fun will be eclipfed much the fame
number of digits at 3 as at c ; but whilft the penumbra
moves eaftward over c, it moves eaftward over a j be¬
caufe, with refpedt to the penumbra, the motions of a
and c are contrary : for c moves the fame way with the
penumbra towards d, but a moves the contrary way to¬
wards and therefore the eclipfe will be of longer
duration at c than at a. At a the eclipfe begins on
the fun’s eaftern limb, but at c on his weftern : at all
places lying without the polar circles, the fun’s eclip¬
fes begin on his weftern limb, or near it, and end cn
or near his eaftern. At thofe places where the penum¬
bra touches the earth, the. eclipfe begins with the ri¬
ling fun, on the top of his weftern or uppermoft edge ;
and at thofe places where the penumbra leaves the
earth, the eclipfe ends with the fetting fun, on the top
of his eaftern edge, which is then the uppermoft, juft
at its difappearing in the horizon.
If the moon were furrounded by an atmofphere of
any confiderable denfity, it would feem to touch the fun
a little before the moon made her appulfe to his edge,
and we fhould fee a little faintnefs on that edge before
it were eclipfed by the moon : but as no fuch faintnefs
has been obferved, it feems plain, that the moon has
no fuch atmofphere as that of the earth. The faint
ring of light furrounding the fun in total eclipfes, call¬
ed by Caflini la chevelure dufoleil, is (aid to be the at¬
mofphere'of the fun; becaufe it has been obferved
to move equally with the fun, not with the moon.
Seen’ 147. .
Having been fo prolix concerning eclipfes of the fun,Lunar e-
we firall drop that fubjedt at prefent, and proceed to theclipfesex*
dodlrine of lunar eclipfes ; which, being more fimple,?^"®^*
may be explained in lefs time.
That the moon can never be cclipfed but at the time
of her being full, and the reafon why fhe is not e-
clipfed at every full, has been fhown already. In
fig. 198. let S be the fun, E the earth, RR the earth’s
fhadow, and B the moon in oppofition to the fun : In
this fituation the earth intercepts the fun’s light in its
way to the moon ; and when the moon touches the
earth’s fhadow at v, fhe begins to be eclipfed on her
eaftern limb x, and continues eclipfed until her vveftern
limb j leaves the fhadow at w: at B fhe is in the mid¬
dle of the fhadow, and confequently in the middle of
the eclipfe.
The moon* when totally eclipfed, is not invifible if
flic
55S ASTRO
Of calcula- fhe be above the horizon and the fky be clear 5 but ap-
fes^&c^'P" Pears genera!]y a duflty colour, like tarnifhed cop-
.e ’ .uer. which fome have thought to be the moon’s native
447 light. But the true caufe of her being vifible is the
Why the fcattered beams of the fun, bent into the earth’s fha-
jnoon is vi-dow by going through the atmofphere 5 which, being
fible when more or lefs defife near the earth than at confiderable
eehpfed. }iejghts above it, refrafts or bends the fun’s rays more
inward, the nearer they are palling by the earth’s fur-
face, than thofe rays which go through higher parts of
the atmofphere, where it is lefs denfe according to its
height, until it be fo thin or rare as to lofe its refrac¬
tive power. Let the circle/'^/;/, concentric to the
earth, include the atmofphere whofe refradtive power
vanifhes at the heights f and i; fo that the rays W/w
and Vh go on llraight without fuffering the leaft re-
fradtion : but all thofe rays which enter the atmofphere
between/"and k, and between i and /, on oppofite fides of
thecarth,are gradually more bent inward as they go thro’
a greater.portion of the atmofphere, until the rays Wi
and V/ touching the earth at ?n and », are bent fo much
as to meet at y, a little fliort of the moon ; and there¬
fore the dark Hiadow of the earth is contained in thefpace
m 0 qp n, where none of the fun’s rays can enter; all the
reft RR, being mixed by the fcattered rays which are re-
fradled as above, is in fome meafure enlightened by
them 5 and fome of thofe rays falling on the moon, give
her the colour of tarnilhed copper, or of iron almoft
red hot. So that if the earth had no atmofphere, the
moon would be as invifible in total eclipfes as Ihe is
when new. If the moon were fo near the earth as to
go into its dark (hadow, fuppofe about p 0, ftie would
be irivifible during her ftay in it ; but vilible before and
after in the fainter fhadow RR.
When the moon goes thro’ the centre of the earth’s
fhadow, {he is diredlly oppofite to the fun ; yet the
moon has been often feen totally eclipfed in the horizon
when the fun was alfo vifible in the oppofite part of it a.
for the horizontal refr.idfion being almoft 34 minutes
of a degree, and the diameter of the fun and moon be¬
ing each at a mean ftate but 32 minutes, the refra&ion
ctaufes both luminaries to appear aboye the horizon
when they are really below it.
When the moon is full at 12 degrees from either of
her nodes, fhe juft touches the earth’s fhadow, but en¬
ters not into it. In fig. 204. let GH be the ecliptic,
e f the moon’s orbit where fhe is 12 degrees from the
node at her full, <r. d her orbit where fhe is 6 degrees
from the node, a b her orbit where fhe is full in the
node, AB the earth’s fhadow, and M the moon.
When the moon defcribes the line e,f fhe juft touches
the fnadow, but does not enter into it 5 when ftie de¬
fcribes the line c r/; fhe is totally, though not centrally,
immerfed in the fhadow and when fhe defcribes the
line ah, fhe paffes by the node at M in the centre of
the fliadow, and takes the longeft line pofiible, which
is a diameter, through it : and; fuch an e-clipfe beings
both total and central is of the longeft duration, name-,
ly, 3 hours 57 minutes 6 feconds.from the beginning
to the end, if the moon be at her greateft diftance (rom
the earth ; and-3 hours 3.7-minutes 26 feconds, if ftie
be at her leafb diftance. The reafon of this difference
. ifi, that when the moon is fartheft from the earth, fhe
spoves. floweft ; and when neareft to it, quickeft.
TiltfviMPA'ad/.rueierj.as well a.s the fun’s, is fuppo-
N O M Y. Sea. X.
fed to be divided into 12 equal parts, called ; and Of calcula-
fo many of thefe parts as are darkened by the earth’s *inS Ecl!P"
ihadow, fo many digits is the moon eclipfed. All that , ’ ^ .
the moon is eclipfed above 1 2 digits, fhows how far the
fhadow of the earth is over the body of thrmoon, on
that edge to which fhe is neareft at the middle of the
edipfe. ... 448
It is difficult to obferve exa&ly either the beginning Lunar e-
or ending of a lunar eclipfe, even with a good telefcope, clipfes dif-
becaufe the earth’s fhadow is fo faint and ill-defined a- ftcultly ob-
bout the edges, that when the moon is either juftlcrve *
touching or leaving it, the obfcuration of her limb is
fcarce fenfible ; and therefore the niceft obfervers ca «
hardly be cextain to four or five feconds of time. But
both the beginning and -ending of folar eclipfes are vi-
fibly inftantaneous ; for the moment that the edge of
the moon’s diflc touches the fun’s, his roundnefs feems
a little broke on that part; and the moment fhe leaves
it, he appears perfe&ly round again. 44^
In aftronomy, eclipfes of the moon are of great ufe Eclipfes
for afcertaining the periods of her motions ; efpecially useful inde~
fuch eclipfes as are obferved to be alike in all her cir-lerm.ini"S
cumftances, and have long intervals of time between ^"S1 u es*
them. In geography, the longitudes of pl^es are
found by eclipfes : but for this "pun-ofe eclipfes of the
moon are more ufeful than thofe of the fun, becaufe
they are more frequently vifible, and the fame lunar
eclipfe is of equal largenefs and duration at all places
where it is feen. In chronology, both folar and lunar
eclipfes ferve to determine exactly the time of any paft
event: for there are fo many particulars obfervable in
every eclipfe, with refpeft to its quantity, the places
where it is vifible (if of the fun), and the time of the
day or night, that it is impoffible there can be two folar
eclipfes in the courfe of many ages which are alike in
all circumftances. _ _ 4^0
From the above explanation of the do&rine of eclip-DarLnefsai*
fes, it is evident that the darknefs at our Saviour’s cru- ourSavi-
cifixion was fupernatural. For he fuffered on the day °ar"s crua-
on which the paflbver was eaten by the Jews, on which fixlon fu*
day it was impoffible that the moon’s fhadow could fallp
on the. earth; for the Jews kept the paffover at the
time of full moon : nor does the darknefs in total eclip¬
fes of the fun laft above four minutes in any place;
whereas the darknefs at the crucifixion lafted three
hours, Matth. xxviii. 15. and overfpread at leaft.all the
land of Judea.
The theory of eclipfes being now, we hope, pretty Gonflruc.
plainly laid down, the conftruAion of tables for their tion of ta-
calculation will be underftood from the following con-bles for cab
fiderations. culatinge-
The motions of the fun and moon are obferved to c Ip es*
be continually accelerated from the apogee to the
perigee, and as gradually retarded from the perigee
to the apogee ; being floweft of, all when the mean
anomaly is nothing, and fwifteft of all when it is fix,
%ns- ....
Whetv the luminary is in its apogee or perigee, its
place is the fame as it would be if its motion were e-
q.uable in all parts of its orbit. The fuppofed equable
motions are called mean; the unequable are juftly
called the true.
The mean place of the fun or moon is always for¬
warder than the true place, whilft the luminary is mo¬
ving from its apogee to its perigee ; and the true.:
Si&. X, A S T R
Of calcula- place is always forwarder than the mean, whillt the
ting Eclip- luminary is moving fro.m its perigee to its apogee. In
ub’ c‘ .the former cafe, the anomaly is always lefs than fix
figns ; and in the latter cafe, more.
It hasTbeen found, by a long feries of obfervations,
that the fun goes through the ecliptic, from the ver¬
nal equinox to the fame equinox again, in 365 days 5
hours 48 minutes 53 feconds ; from the hrll flar of
Aries to the fame ftar again, in 365 days 6 hours 9
minutes 24 feconds ; and from his apogee to the fame
again, in 365 days 6 hours 14 minutes o feconds.—■
The firfl of thefe is called the filar year; the fecond the
fiderealyear; and the third the anomaliftit year. So
that the folar year is 20 minutes 29 feconds fhorter
than the fidereal; and the fidereal year is four minutes
36 feconds fiiorter than the anomaliftic. Hence it ap¬
pears, that the equinodtial point, or interledlion of
the ecliptic and equator at the beginning of Aries,
goes backward with refpeft to the fixed ftars, and that
the fun’s apogee goes forward.
It is alfo obferved, that the moon goes through her
orbit, from any given fixed ftar to the fame ftar again,
in 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes 4 feconds at a mean rate;
from her apogee to her apogee again, in 27 days 13
hours 18 minutes 43 feconds; and from the fun to the
fun again, in 29 days i 2 hours 44 minutes 3-iI-5- feconds.
This ftiows, that the moon’s apogee moves forward in
the ecliptic, and that at a much quicker rate than the
fun’s apogee does : fince the moon is 5 hours 55 mi¬
nutes 39 feConds longer in revolving from her apogee
to her apogee again, than from any ftar to the fame
ftar again.
The moon’s orbit croffes the ecliptic in two oppo-
fite points, which are called her Nodes : and it is ob¬
ferved, that fhe revolves fooner from any node to the
node again, than from any ftar to the ftar again, by 2
hours 38 minutes 27 feconds; which ftiows, that her
nodes move backward, or contrary to the order of figns
in the ecliptic.
The time in which the moon revolves from the fun
to the fun again (or from change to change) is called
v. Lunation; which, according to Dr Pound’s mean
meafures, would always confift of 29 days 12 hours
44 minutes 3 feconds 2 thirds 58 fourths, if the mo¬
tions of the fun and moon were always equable. Hence
12 mean lunations contain 334 days 8 hours 48 mi¬
nutes 36 feconds 35 thirds 40 fourths, which is 10 days
21 hours 11 minutes 23 feconds 24 thirds 20 fourths
lefs than the length of a common Julian year, confifti
ing of 365 days 6 hours; and 13 mean lunations con¬
tain 383 days 21 hours 32 minutes 39 feconds 38
thirds 38 fourths, which exceeds the length of a com¬
mon Julian year, by 18 days 15 hours 32 minutes 39
feconds 38 thirds 38 fourths*
The mean time of new moon being found for any
given year and month, as fuppofe for March 1700,
old ftyle, if this mean new moon falls latter than the
11th day of March, then 12 mean lunations added
to the time of this mean new moon will give the time
of the mean new moon in March 1701, after having
thrown off 365 days. But when the mean new moon
happens to be before the nth of March, we muft add
13 mean lunations, in order to have the time of mean
new moon in March the year following ; always taking
O N O M Y. 559
care to fubtradl 365 days in common years, and 366Of calcula-
days in leap-years, from the fum of this addition. ting Echp-
Thus, A. D. 1700, old ftyle, the time of mean, ’ c' ,
new moon in March was the 8th day, at 16 hours it
minutes 25 feconds after the noon of that day (viz. at
11 minutes 25 feconds paft four in the morning of the
9th day), according to common reckoning. To this
we muft add 13 mean lunations, or 383 days 2 1 hours
32 minutes 39 feconds 38 thirds 38 fourths, and the
lum will be 392 days 13 hours 44 minutes 4 feconds
38 thirds 38 fourths: from which fubtraft 365 days,
becatife the year 1701 is a common year, and there will
remain 27 days 13 hours 44 minutes 4 feconds 38
thirds 38 fourths for the time of mean new moon in
March, A. D. 1701.
Carrying on this addition and fubtradfion till A. D.
1703, we find the time of mean new moon in March
that year to be on the 6th day, at 7 hours 21 mi¬
nutes 17 feconds 49 thirds 46 fourths paft noon ; to
which add 13 mean lunations, and the fum will be 390
days 4 hours 53 minutes 57 feconds 28 thirds 2ofourths;
from which fubtradt 366 days, becaufe the year 1704
is a leap-year, and there will remain 24 days 4 hours
53 minutes 57 feconds 28 thirds 20 fourths, for the
time of mean new moon in March, A. D. 1704.
In this manner was the firft of the following tables
conftrudled to feconds, thirds, and fourths ; and then
wrote out to the neareft feconds. The reafon why we
chofe to begin the year with March, was to avoid the
inconvenience of adding a day to the tabular time in
leap-years after February, or fubtradling a day there¬
from in January and February in thofe years; to which
all tables of this kind are fubjedt, which begin the year
with January, in calculating the times of new or full
moons.
The mean anomalies of the fun and moon, and the
fun’s mean motion from the afeending node of the
moon’s orbit, are fet down in Table III. from 1 to 13
mean lunations. Thefe numbers, for 13 lunations, be¬
ing added to the radical anomalies of the fun and moon,
and to the fun’s mean diilance from the afeending node,
at thetimeofmean new mooninMarch i70o(TableI.),
will give their mean anomalies, and the fun’s mean di-
ftance from the node, at the time of mean new moon
in March 1701 ; and being added for 12 lunations to
thofe for 1701, give them for the time of mean new
moon in March 1702. And fo on as far as you pleafe
to continue the table (which is here carried on to the
year 1800), always throwing off 12 figns when their
fum exceeds 12, and fetting down the remainder as the
proper quantity.
If the numbers belonging to A. D. 170® (in
Table I.) be fubtrafted from thofe belonging to 1800,
we (hall have their whole differences in iqo complete
Julian years ; which accordingly we find to be 4 days
8 hours 10 minutes 52 fdconds 15 thirds 40 fourths,
with refpeft to the time of mean new moon. Thefe
being added together 60 times (always taking care to
throw off a whole lunation when the days exceed 294-)
make up 60 centuries, or 6000 years, as in Table
VI. which was carried on to feconds, thirds, and
fourths ; and then wrote out to the neareft feconds.
In the fame manner were the refpe&ive anomalies and
the fun’s diftance from the node found, for thefe cen-
turial
560 A S T R O
Of calcuk- turidl years ; and then (for want of room) wrote out
f sS ^ on,y t0 ^'e neart^ minutes, which is fufficient in whole
, centuiies. By means of thefe two tables, we may
find the time of any mean new moon in March, toge¬
ther with the anomalies of the fun and moon, and the
fun’s diftance from the node at thefe times, within the
limits of 6000 years either before or after any given
year in the 18th century ; and the mean time of any
new or full moon in any given month after March, by
means of the third and fourth tables, within the fame
limits, as fhown in the precepts for calculation.
Thus it would be a very eafy matter to calculate the
time of any new or full moon, if the fun and moon
moved equably in all parts of their orbits. But we
have already fhown, that their places are never the fame
as- they would be by equable motions, except when
they are in apogee or perigee; which is, when their
jn&an anomalies are either nothing, or fix figns : and
that their mean places are always forwarder than their
true places, whilft the anomaly is lefs than fix figns ; ,
and their true places are forwarder than the mean,
whilft the anomaly is more.
Hence it is evident, that whilft the fun’s anomaly is
lefs than fix figns, the moon will overtake him, or be
oppofite to him, fooner than fhe could if his motion
were equable; and later w'hilft his anomaly is more
than fix figns. The greateft difference that can pof-
fibly happen between the mean and true time of new
or full moon, on account of the inequality of the fun’s
motion, is 3 hours 48 minutes 28 feconds : and that
is, when the fun’s anomaly is either 3 figns 1 degree,
or 8 figns 29 degrees; fooner in the firft cafe, and
later in the laft.- In all other figns and degrees of a-
nomaly, the difference is gradually lefs, and vanifhes
when the anomaly is either nothing or fix figns.
The fun is in his apogee on the 30th of June, and in
his perigee on the 30th of December, in the prefent
age : fo that he is nearer the earth in our winter than
in - our fummer.—The proportional difference of di-
llaoce, deduced from the difference of the fun’s appa¬
rent diameter at thefe times, is as 983 to 1017.
The moon’s orbit is dilated in winter, and contract¬
ed in fummer; therefore the lunations are longer in
winter than in fummer. The greateft difference is
found to be 2 2 minutes 2,9 feconds; the lunations in-
creafing gradually in length whilft the fun is moving
from his apogee to his perigee, and decreafing in length
whilft he is moving from his perigee to his apogee—On
this account, the moon will be later every time in co¬
ming to her conjunction with the fun, or being in op-
pofition to him, from December till June, and fooner
from June till December, than if her orbit had conti¬
nued of the fame fize all the year round.
As both thefe differences depend on the fun’s ano¬
maly) they may be fitly put together into one table,
and called. T/)e annual or firft equation of the mean to,
ike trueJyzygyt (fee Table V1L) This equational dif¬
ference is to be fubtra&ed from the time of the mean
fyzygy when the fun’s anomaly is lefs than fix figns,
and added when the anomaly is more.—At the greateft
it is four hours 10 minutes 5.7 feconds, viz. 3 hours 48
minutes 28 feconds, on account of the fun’s unequal
motion, and 22 minutes 29 feconds, on account of the
dilatation of the moon’s orbit.
This compound equation would be fufScient for. re*
' lj* 34f, ' ‘ -
N O M Y. Sea. X.
dicing the mean time of new or full moon to the trueOf calcula-
time thereof, if the moon’s orbit were of a circulartin£ Ecl'P*
form, and her motion quite equable in it. But tl!efes,&(|l ,
moon’s orbit is more elliptical than the fun’s, and her v
motion in it is fo much the more unequal. The diffe¬
rence is fo great, that fhe is fometimes in conjun&ion
with the fun, or in oppofition to him, fooner by 9 hours
47 minutes 54 feconds, than fhe would be if her mo¬
tion were equable; and at other times as much later.
The former happens when her mean anomaly is 9 figns
4 degrees, and the latter when it is 2 figns 26 de¬
grees. See Table IX.
At different diftances of the fun from the moon’s
apogee, the figure of the moon’s orbit becomes diffe¬
rent. It is longeft of all, or moft eccentric, when the
fun is in the fame fign and degree either with the moon’s
apogee or perigee ; fhorteft of all, or leaft eccentric,
when the fun’s diftance from the moon’s apogee is ei¬
ther three figns or nine figns ; and at a mean ftate
when the diftance is either 1 fign 15 degrees, 4 figns
15 degrees, 7 figns 15 degrees, or 10 figns 15 degrees.
When the moon’s orbit is at its greateft eccentricity,
her apogeal diftance from the earth’s centre is to her pe-
rigeal diftauce therefrom, as 1067 1810933; when
leaft eccentric, as 1043 is to 957 ; and when at the
mean ftate, as 1055 is to 945.
But the fun’s diftance from the moon’s apogee is
equal to the quantity of the moon’s mean anomaly at
the time of new moon, and by the addition of fix figns
it becomes equal in quantity to the moon’s mean ano¬
maly at the time of full moon. Therefore, a table
may be conftrmSted fo as to anfwer to all the various-
inequalities depending on the different eccentricities of
the moon’s orbit, in the fyzygies, and called The fe-
cond equation of the mean to the true fyzygy, (See Ta¬
ble IX.) : and the moon’s anomaly, when equated by
Table VIII. may be made the proper argument for
taking out this fecond equation of time ; which nuift
be added to the former equated time, when the moon’s
anomaly is lefs than fix figns, and fubtsa&ed when the
anomaly is more.
There are feveral other inequalities in the moon’s
motion, which fometimes bring on the true fyzygy a
little fooner, and at other times keep it back a little
later, than it would otherwife be ; but they are fo final),
that they may be all omitted except two ; the former
of which (fee Table X.) depends on the difference be¬
tween the anomalies of the fun and moon in the fyzy¬
gies, and the latter ^feeTable XI.) depends on the fun’s
diftance from the moon’s nodes at thefe times.—The
greateft difference arifing from the former is 4 minutes
58 feconds ; and from the latter, 1 minute 34 feconds.
The tables here inferted being calculated by Mr E'er- Diredtions-
gufon according to the methods already given, he gives for theufe.
the following dire£bions for their ufe. °f ^hofe
To calculate the true Time of New or Full Moon.
Pilecept L If the required time be within the li¬
mits of the 18th century, write out the mean time of
new moon in March, for the propofed year, from Table
I. in the old ftyle, or from Table II. in the new; to¬
gether with the mean anomalies of the fun and moon,
and the fun’s mean diftance from the moon’s afeending
node. If you want the time of full moon in March,
add the half, lunfttiop.at the foot of Table III. with.
tables.
Tlate LXXX1II
Sea. X. A S T R <
Of calcula- its anomalies, &c. to the former numbers, if the new
tins' Echp- m00H falls before the 15th of March ; but if it falls af-
&c ter, fubtraft the half lunation, with the anomalies, &c.
belonging to it, from the former numbers, and write
down the refpedtive fums or remainders.
II. In thefe additions or fubtraftions, obferve, that
60 feconds make a minute, 60 minutes make a degree,
» 30 degrees make a fign, and 12 figns make a circle.
When you exceed 12 figns in addition, rejeft 12, and
fet down the remainder. When the number of figns
to be fubtrafted is greater than the number you fub-
traft from, add 12 figns to the leffer number, and then
you will have a remainder to fet down. In the tables
figns are marked thus s, degrees thus °, minutes thus',
and feconds thus".
Hi. When the required new or full moon is in any
given month after March, write out as many lunations
with their anomalies, and the fun’s diftance from the
node from Table III. as the given month is after March,
fetting them in order below the numbers taken out for
March.
IV. Add all thefe together, and they will give the mean
time of the required new or full moon, with the mean
anomalies and fun’s mean diftance from the afcending
node, which are the ^arguments for finding the proper
equations.
V. With the number of days added together, enter
Table IV. under the given month ; and againft that
number you have the day of mean new or full moon
in the left-hand column, which fet before the hours,
minutes, and feconds, already found.
But (as it will fometimes happen) if the faid num¬
ber of days fall ihort of any in the column under the
given month, add one lunation and its anomalies, &c.
(from Table IIL) to the forefaid fums, and then you
will have a new fum of days v/herewith to enter
Table IV. under the given month, where you are fure
to find it the fecond time, if the firft falls fhort.
VI. With the figns and degrees of the fun’s ano¬
maly, enter Table VII. and therewith take out the
annual or firft equation for reducing the mean fyzygy
to the true; taking care to make proportions in the
table for the odd minutes and feconds of anomaly, as
the table gives the equation only to whole degrees.
Obferve, in this and every other cafe of finding equa¬
tions, that if the figns are at the head of the table,
their degrees are at the left hand, and are reckoned
downwards; but if the figns are at the foot of the table,
their degrees are at the right hand, and are counted
upward ; the equation being in the body of the table,
under or over the figns, in a collateral line with th.e
) N O M Y. 561
degrees. The titles Add or Suit raft at the head or Of calcula-
foot of the tables where the figns are found, Ihow whe-
ther the equation is to be added to the mean time of l~ ’ ^ ,
new or full moon, or to be fubtra&ed from it. In this
table, the equation is to be fubtradled, if the figns of
the fun’s anomaly are found at the head of the table ;
but it is to be added, if the figns are at the foot.
VII. With the figns and degrees of the fun’s mean
anomaly, enter table VIII. and take out the equation
of the moon’s mean anomaly; fubtraift this equation
from her mean anomaly, if the figns of the fun’s anoma¬
ly be at the head of the table, but add it if they are at
the foot; the refult will be the moon’s equated ano¬
maly, with which enter Table IX. and take out the
fecond equation for reducing the mean to the true time
of new or full moon; adding this equation, if the figns
of the moon’s anomaly are at the head of the table,
but fubtra&ing it if they are at the foot; and the re¬
fult will give you the mean time of the required new
or full moon twice equated, which will be fufficiently
near for common almanacs.—But when you want to
calculate an eclipfe, the following equations muft be
ufed: thus,
VIII. Subtract the moon’s equated anomaly from the
fun’s mean anomaly, and with jthe remainder in figns
and degrees enter Table X. and take out the third
equation, applying it to the former equated time, as
the titles Add or Subtraft do direcft.
IX. With the fun’s mean diftance from the afcend¬
ing node enter Table XI. and take out the equation
anfwering to that argument, adding it to, or fubtradl-
ing it from, the former equated time, as the titles dire<ft,
and the refult will give the time of new or full moon,
agreeing with well regulated clocks or watches very-
near the truth. But to make it agree with the folar,
or apparent time, you muft apply the equation of na¬
tural days, taken from an equation-table, as it is leap-
year, or the firft, feeond, or third after. This, how¬
ever, unlefs in very nice calculations, needs not be re¬
garded, as the difference between true and apparent
time is never very confiderable.
The method of calculating the time of any new or
full moon without the limits of the 18th century, will
be (hown further on. And a few examples compared
with the precepts will make the whole work plain.
N.B. The tables begin the day at noon, and reckon
forward from thence to the noon following Thus,
March the 31ft, at 22 ho. 30 min. 25 fee. of tabular
time is April ift (in common reckoning) at 30 min.
25 fee. after 10 o’clock in the morning. '
| B EX-
Vot. II. Part II.
5^2
Of calcula¬
ting Eclip-
fes, &c.
By the Precepts.
March 1764,
Add x Lunation,
Mean New Moon,
Firit Equation,
Time once equated,
Second Equation,
Time twice equated.
Third Equation,
Time thrice equated,
Fourth Equation,
True New Moon,
Equation of days.
Apparent time.
5 T R O N O M Y.
E X A M P L E I.
Required the true thne of New Moon in April 1764, New Style?
Qu.
By the Precepts.
March 1762,
Add 2 lunations,.
■ New Moon, May,
Subt. 4- Lunation,
Full moon, May,
Firft Equation, -
Time once equated,
Second Equation,
Time twice equated,
Third Equation,
Time thrice equated,
Fourth Equation,
The Full moon,
D. H. M. S.
31 21 39 39
-{- 4 10 40
New Moon.
8 55 36
12 44 3
32 1 5° *9
— 3 24 49
31 22 25 30
-1- 4 37
31 22 30
+
22 30 25
— 3 48
31 22 26 37
Sun’s Anomaly.
Moon’s Anomaly,
o 29 6 19
9 1 26 19
1 10 59
9 20 27
Arg. 3d equation.
13 35
25 49
9 24
1 34 57
10 59 18
Arg. 2d equation
4 54 48
o 40 14
Sun from Node)
and Arg. 4th e-
quation.
EXAMPLE II.
The true time of the Full Moon in May 1762, New Style?
D. H. M. S,
15 18 24
1286
16 46 30
7 22 24 28
+ 3 16 36
1 41 4
— 9 47 53
7 15 53
— 2 36
7 15 5° 35
+ 15
7 »5 50 50
Sun’s Anomaly. Moon’s Anomaly. Sun from Node.
8 23 48 16
1 28 12 39
o 7 27 45
9 3 57 18
3 30 ,27
Arg. 3d equation,
* 23 59
121 38
jo 18 49 14
1 20 28
3 15 37
6 12 54 30
42 42
H 36
9 3 57
Arg. 2d equation.
20 9 42
«5 20 7
Sun from Node,
and Arg. 4th e-
quation.
Sea. X.
So the true time is 22 h. 30 min. 25 fee. after
the noon of the 3x11 March; that is, April ift,
at 30 min. 25 fee. after ten in the morning. Bu,t
the apparent time is 26 min. 37 fee. after ten in the
morning.
Anf. May 7th at 15 h. 50 min. 50 fee. pad
noon, viz. May 8th at 3 h. 50 min. 50 fee. in the
morning.
To calculate the. time of New and Full Moon in a given
year and month of any particular century between the
Chrijlian eera and the 1 %th century.
Precept I. Find a year of the fame number in the
18th century with that of the year in the century pro-
pofed, and take out the mean time of new moon in
March, old dyle, for that year, with the mean anoma¬
lies and fun’s mean didance from the node at that
time, as already taught.
II. Take as many complete centuries of years from
Table VI. as, when fubtrafted from the abovefaid year
in the 18th century, will anfwer to the given year; and
take out the fird mean new moon and its anomalies, &c.
belonging to the faid centuries, and" fet them below
thofe taken out for March in the 18th century.
III. Subtraft the numbers belonging to thefe centu¬
ries from thofe of the 18th century, and the remainders
will be the mean time and anomalies, &c. of new moon,
in March,, in the given year of the century propofed,—
Then, work in all refpefts for the true time of new or
full moon, as fliown in the above precepts and examples.
IV. If the days annexed to thefe centuries exceed the
number of days from the beginning of March taken out
in the 18th century, add a lunation and its anomalies,
Sec. from Table III. to the time and anomalies of new'
moon in March, and then proceed in all refpefts as above.
—This circumdance. happens in Example V.
EXAMPLE
By the Precepts.
March 1730,
Add i Lunation,
Full moon,
1700 years fubtr.
Full J) March A. D. 30.
Add 1 Lunation,
Full Moon, April,
Fir ft Equation,
Time once equated,
Second Equation,
Time twice equated,
Third Equation,
Time thrice equated,
Fourth Equation,
True Full Moon, April,
ASTRONOMY.
EXAMPLE III.
Required the true time of Full Moon in /Jpril, Old Style, A. D. $0 ?
From 1730 fubtraft 1700 (or 17 centuries) and there remains 30.
D. H. M. S,
New Moon.
7 12 34
14 18 22
:z 6 56 1
4 17 36 42
7 13 *9
29 !2 44 3
6 2 3 39
+ 3 28 4
6 5 31 43
+ 2 57 48
6 8 29 3
~ 2 54
6 8 26 37
— 1 33
Sun’s Anomaly.
Moon’s Anomaly.
8 18 43
o 14 33 10
9 2 37 41
11 28 46
9 3
o 29
51 4i
6 19
o 2 58 05
5 10 58 40 -
9 o 32 17
6 12 54 30
3 *3 26 4’
10 29 36 c
4 13 50 47
o 25 49
9 39 4'.
1 18 53
4 21 59 20 5 10 58 40
Arg. 3d equation.IArg. 2d equation,
1 23 17
o 15 20
2 8 37 23
4 29 23
9 9 H 23
1 o 40
3 9 54 37
Sun from Node,
and Arg. fourth
equation.
Hence it appears, that the true time of Full Moon
in April, A. D. 30,’ old ftyle, was on the 6th day,
at 2 5 m. 4. f. paft eight in the evening.
456 To calculate the true time of New or Full Moon in any fubtraft the time and anomalies belonging to it from
given year and month before the Chriftian xra. thofe of the mean new moon in March, the above found
Precept I. Find a year in the 18th century, which year of the 18th century ; and the remainder will de-
being added to the given number ofyears before Chrift note the time and anomalies, &c. of mean new moon
diminiflied by one, fhall make a number of complete in Mai-ch, the given year before Chrift.—Then, for the
centuries. . true time thereof in any month of that year, proceed
II. Find this number of centuries in Table VI. and as above taught.
EXAMPLE IV.
Required the true time of New Moon in May, Old Style, the year lefore Chrijl 585 ?
The years 584 added to 1716, make 2300, or 23 centuries.
By the Precepts. New Moon. Sun’s Anomaly. Moon’s Anomaly. Sun from Node.
D. H. M. S,
March 1716,
2300 years fubtraft
March before Chrift 585,
Add 3 Lunations,
May before Chrift 585,
Firft equation,
Time once equated,
Second Equation,
Time twice equated,
Third Equation,
Time thrice equated,
Fourth equation,
True new moon,
11 35 36
88 14 12 9
*7 33 29
5 57 53
28 1 47 45
— 1 37
1 46
2 15
4
+
28 4
8 22 50 39
1 J9 47
9 3 3 39
2 27 18 58
o o 22 37
5 15 4i >7
6 14 41 2C
Arg. 3d equation,
4 14
5 59
2 28 15
2 l7 27
5 J5 4* 3
_ 46
5 15 41 .17
Arg. 2d equation.
4 27 17
7 25 27
5° 5
o 42
Sun from Node,
and Arg. fourth
equation.
So the true time was May 28th, at 2 minutes 30
feconds paft four in the afternoon.
28 4 2 30
Thefe Tables are calculated for the meridian of Lon- degree that the meridian of the given place is weft ward
don; but they will ferve for any other place, by fub- of London, or adding four minutes for every degree
trading four minutes from the tabular time, for every that the meridian of the given place is eaftward : as in
4 B 2 EXAM„
5^4
Of caknta-
S T R
EXAM
O N
P L E
o
v.
M
Sea. X.
Of calculi'
ting Edip- ReqUired the true- time of Full Mom at Alexandria /« Egypt in September, Old Style, the year lefore ChriJ} 201 ? tin£ EcliP*
les, occ. rpp _    _ vi „ j .. o  i     . „  J fes, &c.
By the Precepts.
The ears 200 added to 1800, make 2000, or 20 centuries.
March 1800,
Add x Lunation,
From the fum,
Subtraft 2000 years,
N. M. bef. Chr. 201,
. ,, 56 Lunations,
(_ half Lunations,
Full Moon, September,
Firft Equation,
Time once equated,
Second Equation,
Time twice equated,
Third Equation,
Time thrice equated,
Fourth Equation,
True time at London,
Add for Alexandria,
True time there,
D. H. M. S.
13 o 22 17
29 12 44 3
42 13
27 18
6
9 19
14 18 57
177 4 24 18
18 22
22 17 43
— 3 52
22 13 51
_ 8 25
22 5 26 11
- 58
22 5 25 13
22 5 25
2 1 27
22 7 2.6 .28
Sun’s Anomaly. Moon’s Anomaly. Sun from Node.
8 23
o 29
19 55
6 19
9 22 26 14
o 8 50
9 lS H
5 24 37 56
° 14 33
3 22 47 20
o 4 19 55
7 52 36
25 49
3 4i 36
15 42
o 17 59 36
5 4 54 3
6 12 54 30
5 48 9
— 1 28 14
5 18 27 2510 4 19 55
Arg. 3d equation. Arg. 2d equation.
3 58 24
o 40 14
o 4 38 38
6 27 45
6 53 3:
4 1 2
15 20 7
1 26 ly 9
Sun from Node,
ind argument
fourth equation.
Thus it appears, that the true time of Full Moon?
at Alexandria, in September, old ftyle, the year,
before Chrift 201, was the 22d day, at 26 minutes^
28 feconds after feven in the evening.
EXAMPLE VI.
Required the true time of Full Moon at Babylon in October, Old Style, the 4008 year before the firft year f
Chrift, or 4007 before the year of his birth?
The years 4007 added to 1793^ make 5800, or 58 centuries.
By the Precepts..
March 1793,
Subtract 5800 years,
N. M. bef,.Chr. 4007,
... 5 7 Lunations,
£ half Lunations..
Full Moon, Odober,
Firfi. Equation,
Time once equated,
Second Equation,
Time twice equated,
Third Equation,
Time thrice equated,
Fourth Equation,
Full Moon at London,
Add for Babylon,
True time there,
(4 20 35 48
206 17 8>
14: 18 22
New Moon.
D. H. M. S.
3° 9 13 55
ly 12 38 7
10 18 41
6 23 44
° 14 33
— 13 26
7 52 45
8 29
16 22 6
— 4 10
22 16 17 56
— 51
22 16 17 5
2 25 ,41
22 18 42 46
Sun’s Anomaly. Moon’s Anomaly. Sun from Node.
9 10 16 11
to 21 35 o
5 26 58 36
1 26 27 26
8 7 37 58
6 24 43
1 12 54 58
6 o 43 3
6 12 54, 30
1 26 32
~ 5
4 o 31 10 1 26 27 26
Arg. 3d equation. Arg. 2d equation.
7 6 18 26
9 *3 1
9 23 17
7 4 41
o 15 20
5 l3 >9 11
Sun from Node;
ind Argument
fourth equation.
So that, on the meridian of London, the true time
was Oftober 23d, at 17 minutes 5 feconds pail four
in the morning; but at Babylon, the true time was
Oftober 23d, at 42 minutes 46 feconds paft fix in
the morning.—This is fuppofed by fome to have
been the year of the creation.
Sea.X, ASTRONOMY. 565
Of calcula- To calculate the true time of New or Full Moon in any- will anfwer to the given year in which the new or full 9^ cs)ci'.'la*
ting Eclip- given year and month after the \^>th century. moon is required ; and take out the firft: new moon,
fo, &c. ^ Precept I. Find a year of the fame number in the with its anomalies for thefe complete centuries. .es’
18th century with that of the year prppofed, and take III. Add all thefe together, and then work in all
out the mean time and anomalies, &c. of new moon in refpe&s as above drown, only remember to fubtraA a
March, old ftyle, for that year, in Table I. lunation and its anomalies, when the abovefaid addition
II. Take fo many years from Table VI. as when carries the new moon beyond the 31II of March; as-
added to the abovementioned year in the 18th century in the following example.
458
EXAMPLE VII.
Required the true time of New Moon in July, Old Style, A. D. 2180 P
Four centuries (or 400 years) added to A. D. 1780, make 2180.
By the Precepts.
March 1780,
Add 400 years,
From the fum
Subtract 1 Lunation,
New Moon March 2180,
Add 4 Lunations,
New Moon July 2 180,
Firlt Equation,
Time once equated,
Second Equation,
Time twice equated*
Third Equation,
Time thrice equated,,
Fourth Equation,
True time, July,
In keeping by the old ftyle, we are always fare to
be right, by adding or fubtra&ing whole hundreds of
years to or from any given year in the 18th century.
But in the new ftyle we may be very apt to make mif-
takes, on account of the leap year’s not coming in re¬
gularly every fourth year : and therefore, when we go
without the limits of the 18th century, we had bell
keep to the old ftyle; and at the end of the calculation
reduce the time to the new. Thus, in the 220 cen¬
tury there will be fourteen days difference between the
ftyles ; and therefore the true time of new moon in
this laft example being reduced to the new ftyle, will
be the 2 2d of July, at 22 minutes 55 feconds paft fix
in the evening.
To calculate the true place of the Sun for any given
moment of time.
4J9 . Precept I. In Table XII. find the next leffer year
in number to that in which the fun’s place is fought,
and write out his mean longitude and anomaly an-
fwering thereto; to which add his mean motion and
anomaly for the complete refidueof years, months, days*
hours, minutes, and feconds, down to the given time,
and this will be the fun’s mean, place and anomaly at
that time, in the old ftyle, provided the faid time be
in any year after the Chriftian sera. See the firf fol¬
lowing example.
II. Enter Table XIII. with the fun’s mean anoma¬
ly, and making proportions for the odd minutes and
feconds thereof, take out the equation of the fun’s cen¬
tre : which, being applied to his mean place as the
title Add or Subtrali diredts, will give his true place
or longitude from the vernal equinox, at the time for
which it was required.
III. To calculate the fun’s place for any time in a
given year before the Chriftian sera, take out his mean
longitude and anomaly for the firft year thereof, and
from thefe numbers fubtradl the mean motions and
anomalies for the complete hundreds or thoufands next
above the given year; and to the remainders, add thofe
for the refidue of years, months, &c. and then work in
all refpefts as above. See the fecond example following.
6
E X*
ASTRONOMY.
566
Of calcula-
Se& X.
Of calcula¬
ting Eclip- EXAMPLE I. ting EcKp-
fes, &c. fes, &c.
u—y—Required ine Surfs true place, March 20th Old Style, 1764, at 22 hours 30 minutes 25 feconds paji neon ? v'—-*
In common reckoning, March 21ft, at jo hours 30 minutes 25 feconds in the forenoon.
To the radical year after Chrift
Add complete years —
— 1701
- {•;
March
— — 20
Biflextile Days
Hours — — 22
Minutes — 30
Seconds — 25
Sun’s mean place at the given time —- — —
Equation of the Sun’s centre, add — — —
Sun’s true place at the fame time — — —
EXAMPLE
Sun’s Longitude. Sun’s Anomaly.
11 29
1 28
20 43 50
27 12
17 o
9 ”
41 55
54 l3
1 14
10 14 36
1 55 36
T3 1
29 26
11 29
1 28
9 1 27 23
Mean Anomaly.
Required the Sun's true place, Oftober 23d, Old Style, at 16 hours 57 minutes pafl noon, in the 4008th year be¬
fore the year ofChrift x; which was the 4007 th before the year of his birth, and the year of the Julian period q 06.
By the precepts.
From the radical numbers after Chrift:
Subtradl thofe for 5000 complete years
Remains for a new radix
To which add,
to bring it to
the given time
complete years
Sun’s mean place at the given time
Equation of the fun’s centre fubtracl
Sun’s true place at the fame time
Oftober
Days 2 3
Hours 16
Minutes 5 7
Sun’s Longitude. Sun’s Anomaly.
9 7 53 10
1 7 46 40
6 30
48 o
36 16
8 29
5
4 54
22 40 12
39 26
6 28 48 o
10 13 25 o
8 15 23 o
11 21 37 o
11 29 15 o
II 29 53 O
8 29 4 o
22 40 12
39 26
2 20
3 4 5 28 33 58
3 4 Sun’s Anomaly.
So that in the meridian of London, the fun was then
juft entering the fign Libra, and confequently was
upon the point of the autumnal equinox.
If to the above time of the autumnal equinox at
London, we add 2 hours 25 minutes 41 feconds for
the longitude of Babylon, we fhall have for the time
of the fame equinox, at that place, Oftober 23d, at
19 hours 22 minutes 41 feconds; which, in the common
way of reckoning, is Oftober 24th, at 22 minutes 41
feconds paft feven in the morning.
And it appears by Example VI. that in the fame
year the true time of full moon at Babylon was Ofto-
ber 23d, at 42 minutes 46 feconds after fix in the morn¬
ing ; fo that the autumnal equinox was on the day next
after the day of full moon.—The dominical letter for
3
that year was G, and confequently the 24th of O&ober
was on a Wednefday.
To find the Sun's difiance from the Moon's afeending node,
at the time of any given new or full moon: and con¬
fequently, to know whether there is an eclipfe at that
time or not.
The fun’s diftance from the moon’s afeending node
is the argument for finding the moon’s fourth equation
in the fyzygies; and therefore it is taken into all the
foregoing examples in finding the times thereof. Thus,
at the time of mean new moon in April 1764, the fun’s
mean diftance from the afeending node is 0s 50 35' 2".
See Example I. p. 562.
460
The
Sea.X. A S T R O
Of calcula- The defcendlng node i» oppofite to the afcending
ting Ecljp- 0ne, and they are juft fix figns diftant from each o-
fes’ &c' , ther.
v " When the fun is within 17 degrees of either of the
nbdes at the time of new moon, he will be eclipfed at
that thne; and when he is within 12 degrees of either of
the nodes at the time of full moon, the moon will be then
eclipfed. Thus we find, that there will be an eclipfe
of the fun at the time of new moon in April 1764.
But the true time of that new moon comes out by
the equations to be 50 minutes 46 feconds later than
the mean time thereof, by comparing thefe times in the
above example : and therefore we muft add the fun’s
motion from the node during that interval to the above
mean diftance os 50 35' 2 ', which motion is found in
Table XII. for 50 minutes 46 feconds, to be 2' 12".
And to this we muft apply the equation of the fun’s
mean diftance from the node in Table XV. found by
the fun’s anomaly, which, at the mean time of new
moon in Example I. is 9s i° 26' 19"; and then we
Ihall have the fun’s true diftance from the node, at the
true time of new moon, as follows :
At the mean time of new moon in ?
April 1764 5
Sun’s motion from the 7 S° minutes
node for 3 4*5 feconds
Sun from Node,
so' "
o 5 35 2
2 10
Sun’s mean diftance from node at 7
true new moon 3
Equation of mean diftance from 7
node, add 3
Sun’s true diftance from theafcend- 7
ing node 3
Which being far within the above limit of 17 degrees,
fhows that the fun muft then be eclipfed.
And now we Ihall ftiovv how to project this, or any
other eclipfe, either of the fun or moon.
7 42
Ta projett an Eclipfe of the Sun.
In order to this, ■ we muft find the 10 following ele¬
ments by means ox the tables.
I. The true time of conjunftion of the fun and
moon ; and at that time. 2. The femidiameter of the
earth’s dilk, as feen from the moon, which is equal to
the moon’s horizontal parallax. 3. The fun’s diftance
from the folftitial colure to which he is then neareft.
4. The fun’s declination. 5. The angle of the moon’s
vifible path with the ecliptic. 6. The moon’s latitude.
7. The moon’s true horary motion from the fun.
The fun’s femidiameter. 9. The moon’s. 10. The
femidiameter of the penumbra.
We Ihall now proceed to find thefe elements for the
fun’s eclipfe in April 1764.
46a e^° find the true time of neve moon. This, by Ex¬
ample I. p. 562, is found to be on the firft day of the
faid month, at 30 minutes 25 feconds after ten in the
mornfng.
463 2. Tofit^the moon’s horizontal parallax, or femidia¬
meter of the earth’s dijk, as feen from the moon. Enter
Table. XVII. with the figns and degrees of the moon’s.
N O M Y. 567
anomaly (making proportions, becaufe the anomaly is 9^calcu.la‘'
in the table only to every 6th degree), and thereby take
out the moon’s horizontal parallax ; which for the a- ■ ’ y /
bove time, anfwering to the anomaly 11*9° 24' 21',
is 54' 43''.
3. To find the fun’s difiance from the nearefi foljlice, 464
viz. the beginning of Cancer, ’which is f or 90° from
the beginning of Aries. It appears by Example I. on
p. 566 (where the fun’s place is calculated to the above
time of new moon), that the fun’s longitude from the
beginning of Aries is then os 1 z° 10' 12" : that is, the
fun’s place at that time is <Y> Aries, 120 xo'12".
so'"
Therefore from - - 3000
Subtraft the fun’s longitude or place o 12 10 12
Remains the fun’s diftance from 7 „
the folftice £5 ) ~~2 ^ ^ ^
Or 77° 49' 48"; each fign containing 30 degreesi
4. To find the fun's declination. Enter Table XIV.
with the ligns and degrees of the fun’s true place, viz.
os 120, and making proportions for the io' 12", take
out the fun’s declination anfwering to his true place,
and it will be found to be 40 49' north.
5. To find the moon’s latitude. This depends on her 466
diftance from her afcending node, which is the fame as
the fun’s diftance from it at the time of new moon;
and is thereby found in Table XVI.
But we have already found, that, the fun’s equated
diftance from the afcending node, at the time of new
moon in April 1764, is os 70 42' 147. See above.
Therefore, enter Table XVI. with o figns at the.
top, and 7 and 8 degrees at the left hand, and take out
36' and 39", the latitude for 70; and 41' 51", the lati¬
tude for 8°: and by making proportions between thefe
latitudes for the 42' 14", by which the moon’s diftance
from the node exceeds 7 degrees; her true latitude will
be found to be 40' 18'' north afcending.
6. To find the moon’s true horary motion from the 4&7
fun. With the moon’s anomaly, viz. \ i® 90 24' 2 1",
Table XVII. and take out the moon’s horary motion;
which, by making proportions in that Table, will be
found to be 30' 22''. Then, with the fun’s anomaly,
9s i° 26' 19", take out his horary motion 2' 28'' from
the fame table: and fubtra&ing the latter from the for¬
mer, there will remain 27' 54" for the moon’s true ho¬
rary motion from the fun.
7 . To find the angle of the moon's vifible path ’with the 468'
ecliptic. This, in the projection of eclipfes, may be al¬
ways rated at 50 35', without any fenlible error.
8, 9. To find the femidiarn’eters of the fun and moon. 469
Thefe are found in the fame table, and by the fame ar¬
guments, as their horary motions. In the prefent
cafe, the fun’s anomaly gives his femidiameters 16 6",
and the moon’s anomaly gives her femidiameter 14'
57"-
10. To find the femidiameter of the penumbra.
Add the moon’s femidiametep to the fun’s, and their
fum will be the femidiameter of the penumbra, viz.
3*'3"-
Now collect thefe elements, that they may be found
the more readily when they are wanted in the conllruc-
tion of this eclipfe.
1. True
A S T R
i. True time of new moon in
April, 1764. - - . 1 jo 30 25
2. Semidiameter of the earth’s diflc o 54 53
3. Sun’s diftance from the neareft fold. 77 49 48
4. Sun’s declination, north 4 49 0
5. Moon’s latitude, north afcending o 40 l8
6. Moon’s horary motion from the fun o 27 54
7. Angle of the moon’s vifible path 7
with the ecliptic J ^ 35 0
8. Sun’s femidiameter 16 6
9. Moon’s femidiameter 14 57
,1 o. Semidiameter ef the penumbra 31 3
To project an Eclipfe of the Sun geometrically.
Make a fcale of any convenient length, as AC, and
divide it into as many equal parts as the earth’s femi-
difk contains minutes of a degree ; which, at the time
of the eclipfe in April 1764, is 54' 53''. Then, with
the whole length of the fcale as a radius, defcribe the
-Fig.aoo. femicircle A MB upon the centre C ; which femicircle
%11 reprefent the northern half of the earth’s enlight¬
ened,diflt, as feen from the fun.
Unm the centre C raife the ftraight line CH, per¬
pendicular to the diameter ACB; fo ACB {hall be a
part of the ecliptic, and CH its axis.
Being provided with a good feftor, open it to the
radius CA in the line of chords.; and taking from
thence the chord of degrees in your compaffes, fet
it off both ways from H, to g and to h, in the peri¬
phery of the femidifk; and draw the ftraight line
in which the north pole of the diik will be always
found.
When the fun is in Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Can¬
cer, Leo, and Virgo, the north pole of the earth is en¬
lightened by the fun: but whilft the fun is in the other
fix figns, the fouth pole is enlightened, and the north
pole is in .the dark.
. And when the fun is in Capricorn, Aquarius, Pif-
ces, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini, the northern half of
the earth’s axis C XII P lies to the right hand of the
axis of the ecliptic, as feen from the fun ; and to the
left hand, whilft the fun is in the other fix figns.
Open the feftor till the radius (or diliance of the
two 90’s) of the fines be equal to the length of V h,
and take the fine of the fun’s diftance from the fol-
ftice (770 49' 48") as nearly as you can guefs, in your
compafles, from the 'line of the fines, and fet off that
diftance from V to P in the line gV b, becaufe the
earth’s axis lies to the right hand of the axis of
the ecliptic in this cafe, the fun being in Aries; and
draw the ftraight line C XII P for the earth’s axis,
of which P is the north pole. If the earth’s axis had
lain to the left hand from the axis of the ecliptic,
the diftance VP would have been fet off from V to¬
wards g.
To draw the parallel of latitude of any given place,
as fuppofe London, or the path of that place on the
earth’s enlightened diflc as feen from the fun, from fun-
rife till fun-fet, take the following method.
Subtract the latitude of London, 51 °' from 90°,
and the remainder 38°^ will be the co-latitude, which
take in your compaffes from the line of chords, making
N°35*
O N O M Y. Sed.X.
CA or CB the radius, and fet it from h (where the Of cakula-
earth’s axis meets the periphery of the diflc) to VI and J.inS cllP'
VI, and draw the occult or dotted line VI K VI. ~ * ^c'
Then, from the points where this line meets the earth’s
diflc, fet off the chord of the fun’s declination 40 49'
to D and F, and to E and G, and connect thefe points
by the two occult lines F XII G and DLF.
Bifeft LK XII in K, and through the point K
draw the black line VI K VI. Then making CB the
radius of a line of fines on the fe&or, take the colati¬
tude of London 38°4- from the fines, in your compafles,
and fet it both ways from IC to VI and VI. Thefe
hours will be juft in the edge of the diflc at the equi¬
noxes, but at no other time in the whole year.
With the extent K VI taken into your .compaffes,
fet one foot in K (in the black line below the occult
©ne) as a centre, and with the other foot defcribe the
femicircle VI 7 8 9 10, &c. and divide it into 12 equal
parts. Then from thefe points of divifion draw the
occult lines 77*, 80, gn, &c. parallel to the earth’s axis
C XII P.
With the fmall extent K XII as a radius, defcribe
the quadrantal arc XH/j and divide it into fix equal
parts, as XII a, ab, be, cd, de, and efi and through
the divifion-points a, b, c, d, e, draw the occult- lines
VII e V, VIII d IV, IX c III, X b II, and XI * I,
all parallel to VI K VI, and meeting the former occult
lines 7p 80, &c. in the points VII VIII IX X XI,
V IV III II and I : which points (hall mark the fe-
veral fituations of London on the earth’s diflc, at thefe
hours refpeftively, as feen from the fun ; and the ellip¬
tic curve VIVII VIII, &c. being drawn through thefe
points, {hall reprefent the parallel of latitude, or path
of London on the diflc, as feen from the fun, from its
rifing to its fetting.
N. B. If the fun’s declination had been fouth, the
diurnal path of London would have been on the up¬
per fide of the line VI K VI, and would have touched
the line DLE in L. It is requifite to divide the ho¬
rary fpaces into quarters (as fome are in the figure),
and, if poffible, into minutes alfo.
Make CB the radius of a line of chords on the lec¬
tor, and taking therefrom the chord of 50 35', the
angle of the moon’s vifible path with the ecliptic, fet
it off from H to M on the left hand of CH, the axis
of the ecliptic, becaufe the moon’s latitude is north
afcending. Then draw CM for the axis of the moon’s
orbit, and bifeft .the angle MCH by the right line Cz.
If the moon’s latitude had been north defeending, the
axis of her orbit would have been on the right hand
from the axis of the ecliptic. N. B. The axis of
the moon’s orbit lies the fame way when her latitude
is fouth afcending as when it is north afcending ; and
the fame way when fouth defeending as when north
defeending.
Take the moon’s latitude 40' iS'' from the fcale
CA in your compaffes, and fet it from i to x in the
bifefting line Cz, making ix parallel to Cy : and thro’
x, at right angles to the axis of the moon’s orbit CM,
draw the ftraight line N w.xy S for the path of the pe¬
numbra’s centre over the earth’s diflc.—The point w,
in the axis of the moon’s orbit, is that where the pe¬
numbra’s centre approaches neareft to the centre of the
earth’s diflc, and confequently is the middle of the ge¬
neral eclipfe: the point x is that where the conjunftion
As T R 01ST O MY.
riate I.XXXLV.
Se<51:. X. A S T R (
Of calcula- of the fun and moon falls, according to equal time by
ting Eclip- tables; and the pointis the ecliptical conjunc-
k 3’ &c , tion of the fun and moon.
~¥   Take the moon’s true horary motion from the fun,
27' 54", in your compafles, from the fcale CA (every
divifion of which is a minute of a degree), and with
that extent make marks along the path of the penum¬
bra’s centre ; and divide each fpace from mark to mark
into fixty equal parts or horary minutes, by dots; and
fet the hours to every 60th minute in fuch a manner,
that the dot fignifying the inftant of new moon by
the tables, may fall into the point x, half way between
the axis of the moon’s orbit and the axis of the eclip¬
tic : and then, the reft of the dots will fhow the points
of the earth’s difk, where the penumbra’s centre is at
the inftants denoted by them, in its tranfit overtheearth.
Apply one fide of a fquare to the line of the penum¬
bra’s path, and move the fquare backwards and for¬
wards until the other fide of it cuts the fame hour and
minute (as at m and ni) both in the path of London
and in the path of the penumbra’s centre ; and the
particular minute or ipftant which the fquare cuts
at the fame time in both paths, fhall be the inftant
of the vifible conjun&ion of the fun and moon, or
greateft obfcuration of the fun, at the place for which
the conftruftion is made, namely London, in the
prefent example ; and this inftant is at 47-'-minutes paft
ten o’clock in the morning; which is 17 minutes five
feconds later than the tabular time of true conjun&ion.
Take the fun’s femidiameter, t6' 6", in your com-
paffes, from the fcale CA, and fetting one foot in the
path of London, at m, namely at 474- minutes paft ten,
with the other foot defci ibe the circle UY, which fhall
reprefent the fun’s difk as feen from London at the
greateft obfcuration.—Then take the moon’s femidia¬
meter, 14' 57", in your compaffes from the fame fcale;
and fetting one foot in the path of the penumbra’s cen¬
tre at in the 474- minute after ten, with the other
foot defcribe the circle TY for the moon’s difk, as
feen from London, at the time when the eclipfe is at
the greateft, and the portion of the fun’s difk which is
hid or cut off by the moon’s will fhow the quantity
of the eclipfe at that time ; which quantity may be
meafured on a line equal to the fun’s diameter, and di¬
vided into 1 2 equal parts for digits.
Laftly, take the femidiameter of thepenumbra, 31' 3'',
from the fcale CA in your compaffes; and fetting one
foot in the line of the penumbra’s central path, on the
left hand from the axis of the ecliptic, diretft the other
foot toward the path of London; and carry that extent
backwards and forwards till both the points of the com¬
paffes fall into the fame inftants in both the paths: and
thefe inftants will denote the time when the eclipfe be¬
gins at London.—Then, do the like on the right hand
of the axis of the ecliptic; and where the points of the
compafles fall into the fame inftants in both the paths,
they will fhow at what time the eclipfe ends at London.
Thefe trials give 20 minutes after nine in the morning
for the beginning of the eclipfe at London, at the points
N and O ; 474- minutes after ten, at the points vi and
n, for the time of greateft obfcuration; and 18 minutes
after twelve, at R and S, for the time when the eclipfe
ends ; according to mean or equal time.
From thefe times we muft fubtraft the equation of
natural days, viz, 3 minutes 48 feconds, in leap-
year, April 1, and we fhall have the apparent times;
Voi.. II. Part II
) N O M Y. 569
namely, 9 hours 16 minutes 12 feconds for the be-Eft calcula.
ginning of the eclipfe, jo hours 43 minutes 42 feconds^°8&Eclip-
for the time of greateft obfcuration, and 12 hours 14. 1 ^' f
minutes 12 feconds for the time when the eclipfe ends.
But the beft way is to apply this equation to the true
equal time of new moon, before the projeftion be begun;
as is done in Example I. For the motion or pofition of
places on the earth’sdifk anfwer to apparent or folar time.
In this conftruftion it is fuppofed, that the angle
under which the moon’s difk is feen, during the whole
time of the eclipfe, continues invariably the fame; and
that the moon’s motion is uniform and reftifineal du¬
ring that time. But thefe fuppofitions do not exaftly
agree with the truth ; and therefore, fuppofing the e-
lements given by the tables to be accurate, yet the
times and phafes of the eclipfe, deduced from its con-
ftru&ion, will not anfwer exaftly to what paffeth in
the heavens ; but may be at leaft two or three minutes
wrong, though done with the greateft care. More¬
over, the paths of all places of confiderable latitudes,
are nearer the centre of the earth’s difk, as feen from
the fun, than thofe conftruftions make them : becaufe
the difk is proje&ed as if the earth was a perfeft fphere
although it is known to be a fpheriod. Confequently
the moon’s fhadow will go farther northward in all
places of northern latitude, and farther fouthward in
all places of fouthern latitude, than it is fhown to do
in thefe projeftions According to Meyer’s Tables,
this eclipfe was about a quarter of an hour fooner than
either thefe tables, or Mr Flamftead’s, or Dr Halley’s,
make it; and was not annular at London. But M. de
la Caille’s make it almoft central.
The projection of lunar eclipfes.
When the moon is within 12 degrees of either of
her nodes at the time when fhe is full, fhe will be e-
clipfed, otherwife not.
_ We find by example fecond, page 562, that at the
time of mean full moon in May 1762, the fun’s diftance
from the afcending node was only 40 49' 35"; and the
moon being then oppofite to the fun, muft have been juft
as near her defcending node, and was therefore eclipfed.
The elements for conftru&ing an eclipfe of the
moon, are eight in number, as follow :
1. The true time of full moon ; and at that time, 472
2. The moon’s horizontal paralax. 3. The fun’s fe¬
midiameter. 4. The moon’s. 5. The femidiameter of
the earth’s fiiadow at the moon. 6. The moon’s la¬
titude.. 7. The angle of the moon’s vifible path with
the ecliptic. 8. The moon’s true horary motion from
the fun. Therefore,
j. To find the true time ofnenu or full moon. Work 473
as already taught in the precepts.^—Thus we have the
true time of full moon in May 1762 (fee Example II.
page 562) on the.8th day, at 50 minutes 50 feconds
paft three o’clock in the morning.
2. To find the moor?s horizontal parallax. Enter 474
Table XVII. with the moon’s mean anamoly (at the
above full) 9* 20 42' 42", and thereby take out her
horizontal parallax; which by making the requifite
proportions, will be found to be 57' 23 '.
3,4. To find the femidiameters of the fun and moon. 475
Enter Table XVI. with their refpe&ive anomalies,
the fun’s being io! 7° 27'45" (by the above example)
and the moon’s 9s 2° 42' 42''; and thereby take out
their refpeftive femidiameters; the fun’s 15' 56", and
the moon’s x cr 38".
4 C 7V
570 ASTRO
of cakula- j\ To find ihefemidiameter of the earth'j Jhadow at the
fes^&c^" mcon’ fun’s horizontal parallax, which is
.e6 always id:, to the moon’s, which in the prefent cafe
476 ’8 23 * t^e ^"tim w'^ Si' SS"' ^rom which fub-
traft the fun’s femidiameter 15 56", and there will
remain 41' 37" for the femidiameter of that part of the
earth’s fhadow, which the moon then pafles through.
477 6. To find the moon’s latitude. Find the fun’s true
diftance from the afcending node (as already taught
in page 566) at the true time of full moon ; and this
dillance increafed by fix figns, will be the moon’s true
diftance from the fame node ; and confequently the ar¬
gument for finding her true latitude, as (hown in p. 566.
478 Thus, in Example II. the fun’s mean diftance from
the afcending node was os 40 49' jj'', at the time of
mean full moon : but it appears by the example, that
the true time thereof was fix hours 33 minutes 38 fe-
conds fooner than the mean time ; and therefore we
mult fubtraft the fun’s motion from the node (found
in Table XII.) during this interval, from the above
mean diftance os 40 49' 35", in order to have his
mean diftance from it at the true time of full moon.
Then to this apply the equation of his mean diftance
from the node, found in Table XV. by his mean ano¬
maly 10s 70 27' 45" ; and laftly add fix figns: fo ihall
the moon’s true diftance from the afcendiug node be
found as follows : so'"
Sun from node at mean full moon o 4 493?
r 6 hours 15 3s
His motion from it in < 33 minutes I a 6
C 38 feconds 2
Sum, fubtradl from (he upj erraoft line 173
Remains his mean diftance at true full moon o 4 32 3z
Equation of his mean diftance, add 1380
Sun’s true diftance from the node o 6 10 32
To which add 60 00
And the"fum will be 6 6 10 3a
Which is the moon’s true diftance from her afcending
node at the true time of her being full; and confe¬
quently the argument for finding her true latitude at
that time.—Therefore, with this argument, enter
Table XVI. making proportions between the lati¬
tudes belonging to the 6th and 7th degree of the ar¬
gument at the left hand (the figns being at top) for the
i o' 32'', and it will give 32' 21", for the moon’s true lati¬
tude, v/hich appears by the table to be fouth defcending.
479 7. 7 0 find the angle of the moon’s vijible path nxiith the
ecliptic. This may be ftated at 50 35 , without any er¬
ror of confequence in the projeftion of the eclipfe.
4g0 8. To find the moon's true horary motion ftom the fun.
With their refpe&ive anomalies take out their horary
motions from.Table XVII. and the fun’s horary mo¬
tion fubtrafted from the moon’s, leaves remaining the
moon’s true horary motion from the fun : in the pre¬
fent cafe 30' 52''.
.gj Now colled thefe elements together for ufe.
D H M S.
I. True time of full moon in May,, 1761 8 3 50 30
3 Moon’s horizontal parallax o 57 33
3. Sun’s femidiameter O 15 56
4. Moon’s femidiameter O 15 38
5. Semidii.metcr of the earth’s fhadow at the moon o 41 37
6. Moon’s true latitude, fouth defcending o 32 ai
7. Angle of her vitible path with the ecliptic 5 35 o.
8. Her true h irai y motion from the fun o 30 33
Thefe elements being found for the conftru&ion of
the moon’s eclipfe in May 1762, proceed as follows:
6
N O M Y. Sefl.X.
Make a fcale of any convenient length, as WXOf calcula.
(fig 201.), and divide it into 60 equal parts, each part1*"* Edip-
ftanding for a minute of a degree. fe8) &c
Draw the right line ACB (fig. 202.) for part of the v ' J
ecliptic, and CD perpendicular thereto for the fouth-
ern part of its axis; the moon having fouth latitude.
Add the femidiameters of the moon and earth’s fha-
dow together, which in this eclipfe will make 57'
15' ; and take this from the fcale in your compaffes,
and fetting one foot in the point C as a centre, with
the other foot defcribe the femicircle ADB; in one
point of which the moon’s centre will be at the begin¬
ning of the eclipfe, and in another at the end thereof.
Take the femidiameter of the earth’s ftiadow, 41'
37", in your compafles from the fcale, and fetting one
foot in the centre C, with the other foot deicribe the
femicircle KLM for the fouthern half of the earth’s fha¬
dow, becaufe the moon’s latitude is fouth in this eclipfe.
Make CD equal to the radius of a line of chords on
the fe&or, and fet off the angle of the moon’s vifible
path with the ecliptic, 50 35', from D to E, and draw
the right line CFE for the fouthern half of the axis of
the moon’s orbit lying to the right hand from the axis of
the ecliptic CD, becaufe the moon’s latitude is fouth de¬
fcending.—It would have been the fame way (on the
other fide of the ecliptic) if her latitude had been north
defcending ; but contrary in both cafes, if her latitude
had been either north afcending or fouth afcending.-
Bifeft the angle DCE by the right line Q g; in
which line the true equal time of oppofition of the fun
and moon falls, as given by the tables.
Take the moon’s latitude, 32' 21" from the fcale
with your compaffes, and fet it from C to G, in the
line CG^V and through the point G, at right angles
to CFE, draw the right line PHGFN for the path of
the moon’s centre. Then, F fhall be the point in the
earth’s fhadow, where the moon’s centre is at the
middle of the eclipfe: G, the point where her centre
is at the tabular time of her being full; and H, the
point where her centre is at the inftant of her eclipti-
cal oppofition.
Take the moon’s horary motion from the fun, 30'
52", in your compaffes from the fcale; and with that
extent make marks along the line of the moon’s path
PGN; then divide each fpace from mark to mark, in¬
to 60 equal parts, or horary minutes, and fet the hours
to the proper dots in fuch a manner, that the dot fig-
nifying the inftant of full moon (viz. 50 minutes 50
feconds after three in the morning) may be in the point
G, where the line of the moon’s path cuts the line that
bifetfts the angle DCE.
Take the moon’s femidiameter, 15' 38", in your
compaffes from the fcale, and with that extent, as a ra¬
dius, upon the points N, F, and P, as centres, defcribe
the circle Qf°r the moon at the beginning of the
cclipfe, whenThe touches the earth’s fhadow at V ; the
circle R for the moon at the middle of the eclipfe; and
the circle S for the moon at the end of the eclipfe, juft
leaving the earth’s fhadow at W.
The point N denotes the inftant when the eclipfe
began, namely, at J5 minutes 10 feconds after II in
the morning; the point F the middle of the eclipfe at
47 minutes 44 feconds paft III ; and the point P the
end of the eclipfe, at 18 minutes after V.—At the
greateft obfcuration the moon was 10 digits eclipfed.
TABLES
iTxmrr
ASTRONOMICAL TABLES for calculating ECLIPSES. 
""7%e mean time of Menu Moon in March,' Old Style ; with the mean Anomalies of the Sun and Moony and the Sun's
mean Dijiance from the Moon’s afcending Node, from A. D. i 700 to A D. 1800 inclufwe.
4 C :
TABLE IL
571
ASTRONOMICAL TABLES for calculating ECLIPSES.
TABLE II. Mean New Moon, &c. in March, Nevj
Style, from A. D. 1752 to A. D. 1800.
TABLE IIL Mean Anomalies, and Sun's mean Dijlance
from the Node, for 134- mean Lunations.
29 12 44
59 1 28
88 14 12 9
118 2 56 12
>47 >5 4° >5
D. H. M. S.
177 4 24 >8
206 17 8
236 5 52 24
265 18 36 27
295 7 20 30
324 20 4 33
354 8 4« 36
383 2t 32 40
Sun’s mean
Anomaly.
o 29 6 19
1 28 12 39
2 27 18 58
3 2<5 25 17
4 25 31 37
5 24 37 56
6 23 44 15
7 22 50 35
8 21 56 54
9 21 3 14
10 20 9 33
11 19 15 52
o 18 22 12
t] 14 >8 22 2 o 14 33 10 6 12 54 30 o 8 43 7
Moon’s mean
Anomaly.
o 25 49
1 21 38
2 17 27
3 >3 16
4 9 5
5 4 54 3
6 o 43 3
6 26 32 3
7 22 21
8 18 10 4
9 >3 59 5
10 9 48 5
u 5 37 6
li 7 22 34
o 8 2 47
o 15 20
'1 ABLE IV. "T kt days of the Year, reckoned from the beginning tf tAirch.
>3x3
14 >4
18 18
>9 >9
28 28
29
17 48
49
77 108
78 109
82 113
>4
J115
5 85 116
86 117
53 83,
5484:>
87418
8 88(i 19
89 120
j9I !22
92l
9 60 90:
« 61 q 1
“TABLE V.
PJate LXXXT.
AS TUOisTOMT.
O 123 4 5 6 7 j> p lO 11 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 4 4 3 21
i'p i'q l I1”) •<(' 4 1 n I-) 10 1'-. HI ;•>
ASTRONOMICAL TABLES
TABLE V. Mean Lunations from i t» 100000.
for calculating ECLIPSES.
90
loo
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
IOOO
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
BOOO
9000
IOOOO
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
SOOOC
90000
IOOOOO
Days. Decimal Parts.
29'53°5'9o85io8o
59.061181702x60
88.59177255324°
118.122363404320
147.652954255401
177.183545106481
206.714135957561
236.244726808641
265-775317659722
295.30590851080
590.6118170216c
885.91772553240
1181.22363404320
t476.529542554oi
'77'-83545io648i
2067.14135957561
2362.44726808641
2^57*75311^S9122
2953.059o85io8o
5906.1181702160
8859.177255324°
11812.2363404320
14765.2954255401
17718.3545106481
2o67i.4135957561
23624.4726808641
26577-53l7659722
29530.590851080
59061.181702160
88591.772553240
118122.363404320
147652.954255401
,77183.545io648i
206714.135957561
236244.726808641
265775‘317659722
2953°5-9°85io8o
590611.81702160
885917.72553240
1181223.63404320
1476529.54255401
1771835.451064.81
2067141.3595756:
2362447.2680864
2657753-I7659722
2953059-085io8o 2953059
Dajs. Hou. M. S. Th. Fo.
= 29
59
88
118
147'
177
206
236
265
295
590
885
1181
1476
‘771
2067
2362
2657
2953
5906
8859
11812
14765
17718
20671
23624
26577
29530
59061
88591
118122
147652
r77183
206714
236244
265775
295305
590611
885917
1181223
1476529
1771835
2067141
2362447
2657753
12 44 3
1 28 6
14 12 9
2 56 12
'15 40 15
4 24 18
17 821
5 52 24
!8 36 27
7 20 30
1441 o
22 I 31
5 22 I
12 42 32
20 3 2
3 23 33
10 44 3
18 4 34
1 25 4
2 50 9
4 15 i4
5 4° 19
7 5 24
8 30 29
9 55 34
11 20 39
12 45 44
14 10 49
4 21 39
18 32 28
8 43 18
22 54 7
13 4 57
3 15 46
17 26 36
7 37 25
21 48 15
19 36. 30
17 24 46
15 i3 1
13 1 16
10 49 32
8 37 47
6 25 2
4 14 18
2 2 33
2 58
5 57
8 55
11 53
14 52
'7 5°
20 48
23 47
26 45
29 43
59 26
29 10
58 53
28 36
58 19
28 2
57 46
27 29
57 12
54 24
5i 36
48 48
46
43 12
40 24
37 36
34 48
32
4
36
8
40
12
44
16
48
TABLE VI. The firJl mean Nenu Moon, ’with the mean
Anamolies of the Sun and Moon, and the Sun's mean
Difiance from the Afcending Node, next after complete
Centuries of Julian years.
Luna¬
tions.
1237
2474
37H
4948
6185
7422
8658
98 95
! D. H. M. S.
Anomaly.
IOO 4 8 IO 52 o 321
200 8 16 21 44 o 6 42
3oo i3 O 32 37 O 10 3
400 17 8 43 29 o 13 24
5ooj2i 16 54 21 o 16 46 6 16 50
600 26 1 5 14 o 20 73 2 12
700 O 20 32 310 24 2210 21 45
800I 5 4 42 55!< 1 27 43! 7 7
Anomaly
4 19 27
9 8 55
1 28 22
6 17 49
11 716
3 26 44
7 15 3'
o 4 58
Luna¬
tions.
1132
12369
13606
H843
i6o8<
17316
8553
19790
21027
22264
23501
24738
25974
272 1
28448
29685
1300
1400
1500
600
1700
1800
1900
2000
30922
32159
33396
346'32
39580
40817
42054
43290
4452 7
1200
26 21 37 16
1 17 4 6
6 i 14 58
o 9 25 50
14 17 36 42
r9 * 47 35
23 9 58 27
27 18 9 19
2100
2200
2300
2400
35869
37106
38343 3100
3200
2900
3000
33°°
3400
3500
3600
14 28
11 18 43
11 22
11 25 25
8 1
2 13 36
6 21 47
1 5 57 53
15 14 8 45
9 22 19 38
24 6 30 30
28 14 41 22
3 10 8
7 18 19 3
12 2 29 56
l6 IO 40 48
2018 51 40
S O
0 i 4
0 4 25
o 7 46
on 7
11 28 46
5 29
8 50
10 29 36
7 H 58
4 o 20
o 15 42
*3 5
11 16 26
u 19 47
23
26 29
11 29 50
3
7 26
11 10 47
11 14
11 i7 30
11 20 51
25 3 2 33 n 24
29 n 13 25 11 27 33
4 6 40 14 11 1 48
81451 611 5 9
45764
47001
48238
49475
5071
51948
53 ‘85
54422
37oo
3800
3900
4000
12 23 1 59
17 7 12 51
2i ‘5 23 43
25 23 34 35
55659
56896
58133
59369
60606
61843
63080 5100
643 2? 5200
4100
4200
4 3 00
4400
4500
4600
470°
4800
65554
6679
68028
69265
70502
71739
72976
742i2
4900
5C00
5300
5400
5500
5600
o 19 1 25
5 3 12 17
9 11 23 9
!3 '9 34
18 3 44 54
1 55 46
26 20 6 38
•5 33 27
10 22 48
10 26 9
10 29 31
2 52
5 23 44 20
o 7 55 12
14 16 6
19 o 16 56
23 8 27 49
27 16 38 4
2 12 5 30
6 20 16 22
5700 11 4 27 15 10 18 14
5800 15 12 38 7102135
5900 19 20 48 59 10 24 56
8 30
u 51
J5
18 33
3 22 29
0751
8 23 13
5 8 35
1 23 57
9 !3 3°'
5 28 52
2 14 14
8 5 15
4 20 37
1 5 59
9 21
6 6 43
2 22 4
1 7 26
6 26 59
4 24 25
9 !3 53
2 3 20
6 22 47
11 12 15
3 1 2
. 7 20 29
o 9 56
4 29 23
9 18 5
2 8 18
6 27 45
10 16 32
3 6
7 25 27
o 14 54
3 12 21
1 27 43
8 J3 5
4 28 27
10 21 30
3 10 58
o 25
19 52
1 *3 49
9 29
5 18.44
246
10 19 28
7 4 50
3 20 12
5 34
6 13
9 34
11 12 55
10 17 9
10 20 3
!3 52
10 27 13
° 34
3 55
7
10 11 31
io 14 52
10 26 29
3 25 56
8 5 23
o 24 50
7 25 7
4 10 29
o 25 5
9 11 13
5 26 35
2 11 57
10 27 19
6 16 52
2 14
17 36
2 58
18 20
1 3 42
9 19 .
5 8 37
1 23 59
6oooj24 4 39 52)10 28 17 ii 25 27
* 9
6 24 43
3 10
5 4 22
9 23 49
2 13 16
623
5 9 20
9 28 47
1 17 34
6 7
4 !3 37
9 3 5
1 22 32
6 11 59
1 127
3 20 54
8 10
11 29
4 18 36
9 8
1 27 30
6 16 57
1 6 25
2 25 52
7 H 39
4 23 3
9 13
2 2 28
6 21 56
TABLE VII.
ASTRONOMICAL TABLES for calculating E C LIP S E S.
'i firji Equation of the mean
Signs
b x2 56
H 3?
16
'7 47
J9 23
20 59
o 22 35
24
o 25 45
o 27 19
Q 28 52
30 25
° 31 57
33 29
35
o 36 32
o 38
o 39 29
Sign
o 40 591 17 57
o 42 261 18 52
0 43 54:i 19 47
O 45 19! I -20 40
O 46 45 I 21 32
Signs
Signs
Signs
Signs
34 43
1 34 33
1 34 22
* 34 9
33 53
( 26 6
1 26 48
i 27 2^
x 28 6
1 28 43
1 29 17
1 29 51
t 30 22
1 30 50
1 31 19
« 31 45 1 3i 5°
1 32 12 1 31 23
• 32 34;1 3° 55
1 32 57 1 30 25
1 33 17 1 29 54
« 33 37
1 33 20
1 33
i 32 38
x 32 14
Signs Signs
Add
Signs
l5 47
H 44
13 4i
80
o 39 21
16 480 37 49
36 15
34 40
o 33 5
12 370 31 31 19
n 330 29 54 18
10 260 28 18 i7(
o 26 40
25 3
6 580 23 23
5 46|o 21 45
4 3? ° 20 7
3 igjo 18 28
2 10 16 48
o 45 0 15
o 59 260 13 28
o 58 70 11 48
0 56 45 0 10 7
o 55 23.0 8 20
o 54 10
52 370
051 120
o 49 45 0
o 48 190
6 44
5 3
3 21
1 40
.7
Signs
6
Signs
T ABLE IX. Thefecood Equation of the mean to the true Sizygy %
Argument. Moon’s equated Anomaly.
Signs
5 4*
16 46
27 44
38 4c
49 33
o 23
11 10
2 21 54
32 34
43
Signs
H. M S. H. M. S. H. M. S. H. M S.
o o 0^5 12 48 8 47 8 9 46 44
10 58.5 21 56
21 56! 1 30 57
32 54 5 39 51
43 52 5 ij-8 37
o 54 50 5 57 17
8 8 s9
9 9 4° 3 7 33 36
3 9 38 >9,7 27 22
5 9 36 2417 21 2
4 9 34 18:7 14 30
29 32 i;7 7 5c
4 9 29 33 7 1 2
29 26 546 54 8
89 24 46 47 9
4 34 33
4 26 1
17 25
4 8 47
4 ° 7
3 5i J3
3 42 3 ■
3 33 3s
3 24 42
3 '5 44
3 6 45
2 57 43
2 48 39
2 39 34
7 9529^512921 3 6 4° 6230x8
9 7 7 9 9 37 H9 *7 5^6 32 ,'.2 2
TABLE IX
ASTRONOMICAL rABLE$ for calculating ECLIPSES.
162 S3 3^
3 4 3
3 14 24
i93 24 42
3 34 °
2ii3 45 n
22;3 55 2 1
2314 5 26
244 -5 26
254 25 2C
TABLE IX. Concluded.
Signs
H M.S
7 24 19
7 3 1
7 38 9
7 44 5
7 5' 2‘
4 35
2714 44 42
2«4 54 11
29^5 3
3°!5J_i
33 8
Signs
Sign
h 47
7 57 45
8 3 56
9
15 46
8 z 1 24
8 26 53
8 32
Signs
n-3
Signs
HITS,
9 4^ 44
9 39 8
9 40 51
9 42 21
9 43 42
H M. S.
9 14 28
9
9 7 9
9 3 13
546
9 44 53 8 59 _ 6
9 45 52!8 54 5~
9 46 38j8 5° -4
9 47 '3;8 45 48
9 47 36^8 4.
9 47 498 36
9 47 54l8 31
-5- ■1 9 47 46|8 25 44
8 37 i99 47 3318 2° 18
8 42 l8|9 47 Hi8 >4 33
8 47 8:9 46 44j8 8 59
Signs
9
Signs
8
Signs
,.5
Signs Signs
59
6 25 40
' 18. 18
6 10 49
6 3 16
5 55 38
47 54
5 40 4
32 9
5 2+ 910
i6_5
6 5
5 7 56°
4 59 4
4 51 r5
4 43
4 34 33
7 ,
Signs
2 53
53 3^
44 i<5
_34 54
25 31
i6 7
6 41
57 ‘3
47 44
38 !3
28 41
19 8
9 34
s>
6~
Signs
TX* Sub’j »fa/» Longitude, Motion,at
Old 'tyle. 
f Anomaly : ]
16 57
17 4a
18 27
•9 13
*9 58
29 49
29. 34
29 ao
11 29 36
29 22
28 48
26 5
24 9
*9 32!
18 36!
29 14
29 58(
it _29 4a
11 29 27.
29 .ijjtin.
29 55;
U 29 401
ir 29 24!
tl 29
| ^
• 36 16
45 20
30 40
17 ao
48
I O 33 18
I a8 9 11
a 28 4*
3 a8 16 40
4 28 49 58
5 28 24 8
6 28 57 26
7 29 30 44
8 29 4 54
9 29 38 1a
Motion and
Anomaly.
1 58
2 57
3 56
40
15 46
16 45
Sun’s mean
and dift. from Morion and
Anomaly. the Node Anomaly
19 43
22 11
24 - 38
27 '
•3 15
iao 29. 34
130 32
34 30
36 5a
39 26
3^17
38 18
47190 46 49
20 41 55 ao!o 49
II 4i 3'2ijo 51
22 40 12 22 0 54 13
23 39 2O.23I0 56 40
24 38 28 24I0 59
37 25
2? 37
26 36
27 35
28 35
29 34
o 33
59 35
35:36
1 * 137
47I38
23|39
5840
34 4
56
32 5
45,26! 1 4 4|i
53 27|I 6 321
2 28:1 9 01
10 29!i 11 28 1
18 3d * »3 55'i
28 42
31 10
48
50 53
to 36
13
S alter February, add one day, and o
Sun’s mea;
Anomaly.
29 48
29 37
29 26
1 18 ,
2 28 42
3 28 17
4 28 50
5 28 24
6 28 57
7 29 30
8 29
9. 29 37
29
Sun’s mean
dift. from
the Node.
20 30
23 6
25 42
28 18
30 54
33 29
J6 5
38 40
41 16
12 25
15 2
17 38
30 38
33 14
TABLE XIIL
576
JSrnONO MICJ L TABLES for calculating ECLIPSES.
TABLE XIII. Equation of the Sun's centre, or the dif¬
ference between his mean and true place.
Argument. Sun’s mean Anomaly.
Subtract.
O o
j Signs
056 47
1 59
3 57
5 56
7 54
9 52
6.0 11 50
70 13 ~
80 15 46
90 17 43
100 19 40
o 21 37
23 33
o 25 29
b 27 25
5 o 29 20
o 31 15
o 33 9
° 35
0 36 55
038 47
o 40 39
o 42 30
o 44 20
o 46 9
0 47 57
o 49 45
o 51 32
o 53 18
55 3
0 56 47
Signs
.3 I
Sign Signs Sigi
o 58 30
o 12
1 53
3 33
3
6 50
8 27
11 36
13
14 41
16 1 1
17 40
19
t 2Q 34
21 59
23 22
24 44
26 5
27 24
28 41
1 29 57
1 31 n
1 32 23
33 33
34 45
35 53
36 59
38 3
39 6
Signs
39
1 40
1 41
1 42
i 42 59
1 43 5
1 44 44
1 45 34
1 46 22
1 47
r 47 5<
48 35
49 J5
49 54
50 30
51 5
51 37
52
52 36
53 3
53
53 5°
54 10
54 28
54 44
55 10
55 20
55 28
55 34
55 37
55 37
55 39
55 38
55 36
55 3i
55 24
55 J5
55 3
54 5°
54 35
54 17
53 57
53 36
53 12
52 46
52 18
51 48
5r '5
50 41
5° 5
49 26
48 46
48 3
47 >9
46 32
45 44 ^
44 53
44 «
43 7
42 10 1
41
.9 ,8
Signs Signs
Signs
41 12
40 12
39 IO
38 '
37
35 52
34 43,
33 32
32
31
29 47
■7 24
5 23
0 47 5
o 46
9° 44
© 42 1621
o 40 21
28 29
27 _
25 48
24 25
21 34
20 6
18 36
>7 5
15 _33
J3 59
12 24
58 53
7
Signs
5 O
Signs
o 58 33 3°
o 57
° 55
53 3°
o 51 40
0 49 49
o 38 25
o 36 2818
° 34 3°
o 32 32
O 3° 33:
o 28 33
26 33
24 33
o 22 32
o 20 30
o 18 28
16 26
14 24
12 21
10 18
8 14
6 11
4 7
2 4
6
Signs
TABLE XIV. The Sun's Declination.
Signs | Signs
Arginnent. Sun’s true place.
N.
6 5,
4
4 45
5 9
5 S2
5 5
Signs
N.
7 6.
Signs
12 32
12 53
JJ 43
23 33
>3 53
14 12
H 31
5°
*5
J5
15 46
16 4
6
Sign
10 <5.
4 X.
20 36
20 48
20 59
21 21
31
41
21 50
22 16
24
3
22 38
Signs
9 S.
3 N-
Signs
N.
6 S.
6 18
6 41
7
7 27
7 50
25
10 47
Signs
Signs Signs
7 S-
u 3£
16 39
16 57
17 14
17 30
17 46
18
18 18
18 33
18 48
19  3
19 17
19 3'
‘9 45
19 58
20 11
Sigi
S.
4 N.
22 45
22 51
22 56
23
23
23
23
23 18
23 2]
23 23
23 23
23 27
23 28
23 29
23 29
Signs
9 5.
3
TABLE XVI
fbe Moot
Latitude in j
dipfes.
Arg. Mo m’l
equated D:-
ftance from
the Node.
North Afoend.
TABLE X V. Equation -j Ac Sun's mean Bijlance from the Node.
Argument. Sun’s n
Signs Signs Signs q
3ji 36
3 1 34
Signs -Signs
O S*gns ston Signs Si ft ns Siicns Sij
Add
Signs
Signs.
South Defend.
5 >5
10 3c
° 45
O 20 _
o a6 "13
31 26
36 39
4i 51
o 47
0 5^ 13
° 57 23
1 2 31
'13*.
1 12 44 >6
1 17 49
t 22 52 14
1 27 53113
* 32 52
' 37 49
Signs.
North Defend.
II Signs.
South Afend.
This Table
(hows
Moon’s Lati¬
tude a little
beyond
utmoft Limits
of Eclipfes.
TABLE XVII. The Moon's horizontal Parallax, nvitb
the Semidiameters and true Horary Motions of the Sun
and Moon, to every fxth degree of their mean Anoma¬
lies, the quantities for the intermediate degrees being
eafilj proportioned by ftght.
§
54 29
54 31
5 4 34
54 40
54
15 50
*5 5°
*5 5°
25 51
!5 51
55 56
56 12
56 29
56 48
57 8
57 30
57 52
58 12
58 31
58 49
59
59
59 35
59 48
60
r 3
!4 54
H 55
14 56
H 57
H 58
15 52
*5 53
15 54
15 55
15 56
60 1
60 21
60 3o[i6
60 38 16
60 45 16
23
I « 2!
r- p- =l
30 10
30
50 15
30 19
30 26
'4 59
l5
«5 4
l5
3° 34
3° 44
30 55
31 9
5
!5
«5
*5 -
5 36
15 41
5 46
r5 52
15 58
16 3
(6
6
16
16 24
16 28
6 31
[6 32
.6 37
16 38
16 39
060 4516 2316 3937 40 2 33 6
31 4°
31 56
17
39
33
33 23
33 4'
34 1
34 34
34 58
9 36
f£f
I ^ “
§ CO
FJate I,XXX\'I.
» 'Crflr//n/%'« JtY/^t/orfrot/ /
[ Sea. XI.
I Eclipfesot
N
M
577
dow are generally feen ; and their immerfions out of it Hclipfes of
Satellites ^ECT* method of finding; the Longitude by while the earth goes from G to B. Indeed, both thefe
ate Ites. the Eclipfes of Jupiter's Satellites; the amazing appearances may be feen of the fecond, third, and Sateli‘tts- ,
Velocity of Light demonftrated by thefe Eclipjes ,•
and of Cometary Eclipfes.
fourth fatellite when eclipfed, whilft the earth is be¬
tween D and E, or between G and A; but never of
the ftrft fatellite, on account of the fmallnefs of its or¬
bit and the bulk of Jupiter, except only when Jupiter
is dire&ly oppofite to the fun, that is, when the earth
of thefe
clipfes.
In the former feftion, having explained at great
length how eclipfes of the fun and moon happen at
certain times, it mud be evident, that fimilar eclipfes is at G; and even then, ftridlly fpeaking, we cannot
will be obferved by the inhabitants of Jupiter and Sa- fee either the immerfions or emerfions of any of his fa-
4gz turn, which are attended by fo many moons. Thefe tellites, becaufe his body being diredlly between us and
Frequency eclipfes indeed very frequently happen to the fatellites his conical fhadow, his fatellites are hid by his body a
*'f of Jupiter; and as they are of the greated fervice in few moments before they touch his lhadow; and are
determining the longitudes of places on this earth, a- quite emerged from thence before we can fee them, as
droriomers have been at great pains to calculate tables were juft‘dropping from him. And when the earth
for the eclipfes of thefe fatellites by their primary, for is at C, the fun, being between it and Jupiter,, hides
the fatellites themfelves have never been obferved to both him and his moons from us.
eclipfe one another. The conftru&ion of fuch tables In this diagram, the orbits of Jupiter’s moons are
is indeed much eafier for thefe fatellites than of any drawn in true proportion to his diameter; but in pro-
other celeftial bodies, as their motions are much more portion to the earth’s orbit, they ate drawn vaftly too
regular. large.
The Englifh tables are calculated for the meridian
of Greenwich, and by thefe it is very eafy to find how
many degrees of longhude any place is diftant either
eaft or weft from Greenwich q for, let an obferver,
who has thefe tables, with a good telefcope and a
well-regulated clock at any other place of the earth.
In whatever month of the year Jupiter is in conjunc¬
tion with the fun, or in oppofition to him, in the next
year it will be a month later at leaft. For whilft the
earth goes once round the fun, Jupiter defcribes a
twelfth part of his orbit. And therefore, when the
earth has finifhed its annual period, from being in a
obferve the beginning or ending of an eclipfe of one line with the fun and Jupiter, it muft go as much for-
of Jupiter’s fatellites, and note the precife moment of warder as Jupiter has moved in that time, to overtake
time that he faw the fatellite either immerge into, or him again; juft like the minute-hand of a watch, which
emerge out of, the fhadow, and compare that time
with the time fhown by the tables for Greenwich :
then 15 degrees difference of longitude being allow¬
ed for every hours difference of time, will give the
• longitude of that place from Greenwich; and if there
be any odd minutes of time, for every minute a quar-
muft, from any conjun&ion with the hour-hand, go
once round the dial-plate and fomewhat above a twelfth
part more, to overtake the hour-hand again. -
It is found by obfervation, that when the earth is Velocity oi
between the fun and Jupiter, as at G, his fatellites are light,
eclipfed about 8 minutes fooner than they fhould be
ter of a degree, eaft or weft, muft. be allowed, as according to the tables; and when the earth is at B
the time- of obfervation is later or earlier than the or C, thefe eclipfes happen about 8 minutes later than
time fhown by the tables. Such eclipfes are very con¬
venient for this purpofe at land, becaufe they happen
almoft every day; but are of no ufe at fea, becaufe the
rolling of the fhip hinders all nice telefcopical obferva-
tions.
To explain this by a figure, let J be Jupiter, K, L,
the tables predidl them. Hence it is ^undeniably cer¬
tain, that Ihe motion of light is not inftantaneous,
fince it takes about 16J- minutes of time to go through
a fpace equal to the diameter of the earth’s orbit,
which is 180,000,000 of miles in length; and confe*
quently the particles of light fly almoft 200,000 miles
M, N, his four fatellites . in their refpe&ive orbits, every fecond of time, which is above a million of times
1, 2, 3, 4,; and let the earth be at F (luppofe in No- fwifter than the motion of a cannon bullet. And as
vember, although that month is no otherwife mate- light is 16J- minutes in travelling acrofs the earth’s
rial than to find the earth readily in this fcheme, orbit, it muft be 8^ minutes in coming from the fun
where it is fhown in eight different parts of the orbit), to us: therefore if the fun were annihilated, we fhould
on the meridian of Greenwich, and fee him for 8^ minutes after; and if he were again
fome other meridian eaftward from created, he would be 8£ minutes old before we could
Let a perfon at R obferve the inftanta- fee him.
To illuilrate this progreffive motion of light, let A
and B be the earth in two different parts of its orbit,
whofe diftance from each other is 95,000,000 of miles,
equal to the earth’s diftance from the fun S. It is Fig. 178.
Let Q^be a pi;
R a place
Greenwich.
neous vanifhing of the firft fatellite K into Jupiter’s
fhadow, fuppofe at three o’clock in the morning; but
by the tables he finds the immerfion of that fatellite to
be at midnight at Greenwich; he then can immediately
determine, that as there are three hours difference of plain, that if the motion of light were inftantaneous,
time between Qjind K, and that R is three hours for- the fatellite 1 would appear to enter into Jupiter’s fha-
warder in reckoning than Q^it muft be 45 degrees of dow FF at the fame moment of time to a fpeftator in
eaft longitude from the meridian ofQ^ Were this me- A, as to another in B. But by many years obferva-
^ thod as pra&icable at fea as at land, any failor might tions it has been found, that the immerfion of the fa-
When the almoft as eafily, and with equal certainty, find the tellite into the fhadow is feen 8J: minutes fooner when
immerfions longitude as the latitude. the earth is at B than when it is at A. And fo, as
Con^ar1" Whilft the earth is going from C to F in its orbit, Mr Romeur firft; difcovered, the motion of light is
to’i^ykfgr. only the immerfion of Jupiter’s fatellites into his fha- thereby proved to be progreffive, and not inftanta-
ved. Vol. II. Part II. 4 D neout,
N O M Y.
578
T R O
Ecli;.fe« of neons, as was formerly believed. It is eafy to com-
iatelHte* Pute *n v'^at: t‘me t^le earth moves from A to B; for
, the chord of 60 degrees of any circle is equal to the
femidiameter of that circle: and as the earth goes
through all the 360 degrees of its orbit in a year, it
goes through 60 of thofe degrees in about 61 days.
Therefore, if on any given day, fuppofe the firft of
June, the earth is at A, on the firft of Auguft it will
be at B ; the chord, or ftraight line AB, being equal
to DS the radius of the earth’s orbit, the fame with
AS its diftance from the fun.
As the earth moves from D to C, thro’ the fide AB
of its orbit, it is conftantly meeting the light of Jupi¬
ter’s fatellites fooner, which occafions an apparent acce¬
leration of their eclipfes; and as it moves through the
other half H of its orbit, from C to D, it is receding
from their light, which occafions an apparent retarda¬
tion of their eclipfes, becaufe their light is then longer
4R5 before it overtakes the earth.
Accelera- That thefe accelerations of the immerfions of Jupi-
th°f *Cr,S ^ate^'tes *nt0 ^'s fr|ad°w> as the earth approaches
fes notow- towarc^s Jnpiter, and the retardations of their emerfions
ing to any out of his ftradow, as the earth is going from him, are
inequality not occafioned by any inequality arifing from the mo-
in the mo- jjong 0f the fatellites in eccentric Dibits, is plain, be-
fatellkes 6 cau^e affe&s them all alike, in whatever parts of their
orbits they are eclipfed. Befides, they go often round
their orbits every year, and their motions are no way
commenfurate to the earth’s. Therefore, a phenome¬
non not to be accounted for from the real motions of
the fatellites, but fo eafily deducible from the earth’s
motion, and fo anfwerable thereto, muft be allowed to
refult from it. This affords one very good proof of
486 the earth’s annual motion.
Eclipfes by From what we have faid in general concerning e-
comets. c]ipfeSj k is plain that fecondary planets are not the
only bodies that may occafion them. The primary
planets would ecltpfe one another, were it not for their
great diflances ; but as the comets are not fubjeit to
the fame laws with the planets, it is poffible they may
fometimes approach fo near to the primary planets, ^ to
caufe an eclipfe of the fun to thofe planets; and as the
body of a comet beats a much larger proportion to the
bulk of a primary planet than any fecondary, it is plain
that a cometary eclipfe would both be of much longer
continuance, and attended with much greater dark-
nefs, than that qccafioned by a fecondary planet. This
behoved to he the cafe at any rate: but if we fuppofe
the primary planet and comet to be moving both the
fame way, the duration pf fuch an eclipfe would be pro-
digioufly lengthened; and thus, inftead of four mi¬
nutes, the fun might be totally darkened to the inha¬
bitants of certain places for as many hours. Hence we
may account for that prodigious darknefs which we
•fometimes read of in hiftory at times when no eclipfe of
the fun by the moon could pofiibly happen. It is re¬
markable, however, that no comet hath ever been ob-
ferved paffing over the difk of the fun like a fpot, as
Venus and Mercury are; yet this muft certainly hap¬
pen, when the comet is in its perihelion, and the
earth on the fapre fide of its annual orbit. Such a phe¬
nomenon well deferves the watchful attention of aftro-
nomers, as it would be a greater confirmation of the
planetary nature of comets than any thing hitherto ob-
ferved.
Sea. xir.
AftrOno-
SeCT.XII. A Defcription of the Aflronomical
chinery ferving to explain and illujlrate the fore-c In<^y' .
going part of this Treatife.
The machine reprefented by fig. 207. is the 487.
Grand Orrery, firft made in this kingdom by Mr
Rowley for King George I. The frame of it, which
contains the wheel-work, &c. and regulates the whole
machine, is made of ebony, and about four feet in
diameter ; the outfide thereof is adorned with 12 pr-
laftres. Between thefe the 1 2 figns of the zodiac are
neatly painted with gilded frames. Above the frame
is a broad ring fupported with 12 pillars. This ring
reprefents the plane of the ecliptic; upon which are two
circles of degrees, and between thefe the names and
chara&ers of the 12 figns. Near the outfide is a circle
of months and days, exaftly correfponding to the fun’s
place at noon each day throughout the year. Above
the ecliptic (land fome of the principle circles of the
fphere, agreeable to their refptclive fituations in the
heavens : viz. N5 jo. are the two colures, divided into
degrees and half degrees; N° 1 1. is one-half of the equi-
no&ial circle, making an angle*of 231. degrees. The
tropic of cancer and the arftic circle are each fixed pa¬
rallel at their proper diftance from the equino&ial.
On the northern, half of the ecliptic is a brafs femicircle,
moveable upon two points fixed in <V> and This
femicircle ferves as a moveable horizon to be put to
any degree of latitude upon the north part of the me¬
ridian, and the whole machine may be fet to any lati¬
tude without difturbing any of the internal motions,
by two ftrong hinges (N° 13.) fixed to the bottom-
frame upon which the inftrument moves, and a ftrong
brafs arch, having holes at every degree, through
which a ftrong pin is put at every elevation. This
arch and the two hinges fupport the whole machine
when it is lifted up according to any latitude; and the
arch at other times lies conveniently under the bottom-
frame. When the machine is fet to any latitude
(which is eafily done by two men, each taking hold
of two handles conveniently fixed for the purpofe), fet
the moveable horizon to the fame degree upon the me¬
ridian, and hence you may form an idea of the refpec-
tive altitude or deprelfion of the planets both primary
and fecondary. The fun (N° 1.) ftands in the middle
of the whole fyftem upon a wire, making an angle with
the ecliptic of about 82 degrees. Next the fun is a
fmall ball (2) reprefenting Mercury. Next to Mer¬
cury is Venus (3) reprefented by a larger ball. The
earth is reprefented (N04.) by an ivory ball, having
fome circles and a map fketched upon it. The wire
which fupports the earth makes an angle with the e-
cliptic of 66-J degrees, the inclination of the earth’s
axis to the ecliptic. Near the bottom of the earth’s
axis is a dial-plate (N°9.), having an index pointing
to the hours of the day as the earth turns round its
axis. Round the earth is a ring fupported by two
fmall pillars, reprefenting the orbit of the moon ; and
the divifions upon it anfwer to the moon’s latitude.
The motion of this ring reprefents the motion of the
moon’s orbit according to that of the nodes, Within
this ring is the moon (No 5.), having a black cap or
cafe, by which its motion reprefents the phafes of the
moon according to her age. Without the orbits of
the
XII. A S T R c
Aftreno- the earth and moon is Mare (N° 6.) The next in or-
n'kal ma- jer t0 ]yia,.s ;s JUpJter and his four moons (N° 7.)
. Each of thefe moons is fupported by a wire fixed in a
focket which turns about the pillar fupporting Jupiter.
Thefe fatellites may be turned by the hand to any po*
fition, and yet when the machine is put into mo¬
tion, they will all move in their proper times. The
outermoft. of all is Saturn, his five moons, and his ring
(N° fc.). Thefe moons are fupported and contrived
fimilar to thofe of Jupiter. The machine is put into
motion by turning a fmall winch (N° 14.) ; and the
whole fyfiem is alfo moved by this winch, and by pull¬
ing out and pulhing in a fmall cylindrical pin above the
hftfidle. When it is pulhed in,all the planets,both prima¬
ry and fecondary, will move according to their refpe&ive
periods by rurning the handle. When it is drawn out,
the motions of the fatellites of Jupiter and Saturn will
be flopped while all the reft move without interrup¬
tion. There is alfo a brafs lamp, having two convex
glafies to be put in room of the fun ; and alfo a fmaller
earth and moon, made fomewhat in proportion to their
diftance from each other, which may be put on at
pleafure.'The lamp turns round at the fame time with
the earth, and the glafles cf it call a ftrong light upon
her. And when the fmaller earth and moon are pla¬
ced on, it will be eafy to ftrow when either of them
will be eclipfed. When this machine is intended to be
ufed, the planets muft be duly placed by means of an
ephemeris hereafter deferibed ; and you may place a
fmall black patch or bit of wafer upon the middle of
the fun. Right againft the firft degree of CV1, you
may alfo place patches upon Venus, Mars, and Jupiter,
right againft: fome noted point in the ecliptic. Put
in the handle, and pulh in the pin which is above it.
One turn of this handle anfwers to a revolution of the
ball which reprefents the earth about its axis; and
confequently to 24 hours of time, as ftiown by the
hour-index (9.), which is marked and placed at the
foot of the wire on which the ball of the earth is fixed.
Again, when the index has moved the fpace of ten
hours, Jupiter makes one revolution round its axis,
and fo of the reft. By thefe means the revolutions of
the planets, and their motions round their own axes,
will be reprefented to the eye. By obferving the mo¬
tions of the fpots upon the furface of the fun and of
the planets in the heavens, their diurnal was firft: dif-
•covtred, after the fame manner as we in this machine
obferve the motions of their reprefentatives by that of
the manks placed upon them.
The Orrery (fig. 208.} is a machine contrived by
4 the late ingenious Mr James Fergufon. It fhows the
motions of the fun, Mercury, Venus, earth, and moon ;
and occafionally the fuperior jjKnets, Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn, may be put on. Jupiter's four latellites
are moved round him in their proper times by a fmall
winch ; and Saturn has his five fatellites, and his ring
which keeps its parallelifm round the fun ; and by a
lamp put in the fun’s place, the ring ftiows all its vari¬
ous phafes already deferibed.
In the centre, N° 1. rtprefents the fun, fupported
by its axis, inclining almott 8 degrees from the axis of
the ecliptic, and turning round in 25J days on its axis,
of which the north pole inclines toward the eighth de¬
gree of Pifces in the great ecliptic (N° ii.), where¬
on the months and days are engraven over the fig ns and
) N O M Y. 579
degrees in which the fun appears, as feen fvam the Artrqno-
earth, on the different days of the year.
The neareft planet (N° 2.) to the fun is Mercury,chincr>j_--,
which goes round him in 87 days 23 hours, or
diurnal rotations of the earth; but has no motion round
its axis in the machine, becaufe the time of its diurnal
motion in the heavens is not known to us.
The next planet in order is Venus (N° 3,), which
performs her annual courfe in 224 days 17 hours, and
turns round her axis in 24 days 8 hours, or in 24-{-
diurnal rotations of the earth. Her axis inclines 75
degrees from the axis of the ecliptic, and her north
pole inclines towards the 20th degree of Aquarius, ac¬
cording to the obfervations of Bianchini. She ftiows all
the phenomena deferibed in Seft. ii.
Next, without the orbit of Venus, is the earth
(N9 4.), which turns round its axis, to any fixed point
at a great diftance, in 23 hours 56 minutes 4 feconds
of mean folar time; but from the fun to the fun again,
in 24 hours of the fame time. N2 6. is a fidereal dial-
plate under the earth, and N° 7. a folar dial-plate on
the cover of the machine. The index of the former
ftiows fidereal, and of the latter, folar time ; and hence
the former index gains one entire revolution on the lat¬
ter every year, as 365 folar or natural days contain
366 fidereal days, or apparent revolutions of the ftars.
In the time that the earrh makes 365* diurnal rotations
on its axis, it goes once round the fun in the plane of
the ecliptic; and always keeps oppofite to a moving
index (N° 10.) which ftiows the fun’s daily change of
place, and alfo the days of the months.
The earth is half covered with a black cap, for di¬
viding the apparently enlightened half next the fun from
the other half, which, when turned away from him, is
in the dark. The edge of the cap reprefents the circle
bounding light and darknefs, and fiiowjs at what time
the fun rifes arid fets to all places throughout the year.
The earth’s axis inclines 23k degrees from the axis of
the ecliptic; the north pole inclines toward the begin¬
ning of Cancer, and keeps its parallelifm throughout
its annual courfe; fo that in fummer the northern parts
of the earth incline towards the fun, and in winter from
him: by which means, the different lengths of days
and nights, and the caufe of the various lealbns, are
demonltrated to fight.
There is a broad horizon, to the upper fide of which
is fixed a meridian femicircle in the north and fouth
points, graduated on both fides from the horizon to
90° in the zenith or vertical point. The edge of the
horizon is graduated from the eaft and weft: to the iouth
and north points, and within thefe divilions are the
points of the compafs. From the lower fide of this
thin horizontal plate ftand out four fmall wires,to which
is fixed a twilight-circle 18 degrees from the graduated
fide of the horizon all round. This horizon may be
put upon the earth (when the cap is taken away), and
rectified to the latitude of any place ; and then by
a fmall wire called the folar ray, which may be put ou
lo as to proceed diredlly from the fun’s centre towards
the earth’s, but to come no farther than almoft to
touch the horizon. • The beginning of twilight, time
of fun rifing, with his amplitude, meridian altitude,
time of fetting, amplitude then, and end of twilight,
are ftiown for every day of the year, at that place to
which the horizon is redlified.
4 D 2 The
580 ASTRO
Aftrono- The moon (N° 5.) goes round the earth, from be-
nucal Ma- tween and any fixed point at a great diftance, in 27
? ine^y‘ , fiayS hours ^ minutes, or through all the figns and
degrees of her orbit, which is called her periodical re¬
volution , but fhe goes round from the fun to the fun
again, or from change to change, in 29 days 12 hours
35 minutes, which is her fynodical revolution ; and in
that time fhe exhibits all the phafes already defcribed.
When the abovementioned horizon is re&ified to
the latitude of any given place, the times of the moon’s
riiing and fetting, together with her 'amplitude, are
fhown to that place as well as the fun’s; and all the
various phenomena of the harveft-moon are made ob¬
vious to fight.
The moon’s orbit (N°9.) is inclined to the ecliptic
(N° 11), one-half being above, and the other below
it. The nodes, or points at o and o, lie in the plane
of the ecliptic, as before defcribed, and fhift backward
through all its fines and degrees in i8y years. The
degrees of the moon’s latitude to the higheft at NL
(north latitude) and lowelt at SL (fouth latitude),
are engraven both ways from her nodes at o and o, and
as the moon rifes and falls in her orbit according to its
inclination, her latitude and dillance from her nodes
are (hown for every day, having firft reftified her or¬
bit fo as to fet the nodes to their proper places in the
ecliptic ; and then as they come about at different
and almoft oppofite times of the-year, and then point
towards the fun, all the eclipfes may be fhown for hun¬
dreds of years (without any new reftification), by
turning the machinery backward for time paft, or for¬
ward for time to come. At 17 degrees diftance from
each node, on both fides, is engraved a fmall fun ; and
at 12 degrees diftance, a fmall moon, which fhow the
limits offolar and lunar eclipfes; and when, at any
change, the moon falls between either of thefe funs and
the node, the fuo will be eclipfed on the day pointed
to by the annual index (N° 10.) ; and as the moon
has then north or fouth latitude, one may eafily judge
whether that eclipfe will be vifible in the northern or
foiithern hemifphere : efpecially as the earth’s axis in¬
clines toward the fun or from him at that time. And
when at any full the moon falls between either of
the little moon’s and node, fhe will be eclipfed, and
the annual index fhows the day of that eclipfe. There
is a circle of 29! equal parts (NJ 8.) on the cover of
the machine, on which an index fhows the days of the
moon’s age.
There are two femicircles (fig. 216.) fixed to an el¬
liptical ring, which being put like a cap upon the
earth, and the forked part F upon the moon, fhows
the tides as the earth turns round within them, and
they are led round it by the moon. When the differ¬
ent places come to the femicircle AaEiB, they have
tides of flood ; and when they come to the femi¬
circle CED, they have tides of ebb ; the index on the
hour-circle (fig. 208.)'fhowing the times of thefe phe¬
nomena.
There is a jointed wire, of which one end being put
into a hole in the upright Item that holds the earth’s
cap, and the wire laid into a fmall forked piece which
may be occafionally put upon Venus or Mercury, fhows
the direft and retrograde motions of thefe two planets,
with their ftationary times and places, as feen from the
earth.
N O M Y. Sea. xrr.
The whole machinery is turned by a winch or handle Aftrono-
(N° 12.); and is fo eafily moved, that a clock might Ma’
turn it without any danger of flopping. ? mery, .
To give a plate of the wheel-work of this machine
would anfwer no purpofe, becaufe many of the wheels
lie fo behind others as to hide them from fight in any
view whatever.
The Planetarium (fig. 209 ) is an inftrument 489
contrived by Mr William Jones of Holborn, London,
mathematical inftrument maker, who has paid confi-
derable attention to thofe fort of machines, in order to
reduce them to their greateft degree of fimplicity and
perfeftion. It reprefents in a general manner, by va¬
rious parts of its machinery, all the motions and phe¬
nomena of the planetary fyftem. This machine con-
fifts of, the Sun (in the centre), with the planets,
Mercury, Venus, the Earth and Moon, Mars, Jupiter,
and his four moons, Saturn and his five moons ; and
to it is occafionally applied an extra long arm for the
Georgian planet and his two moons. To the earth
and moon is applied a frame CD, containing only four
wheels and two pinions, which ferve to preferve the
earth’s axis in its proper parallelifm in its motion round
the fun, and to give the moon her due revolution about
the earth at the fame time. Thefe wheels are con-
nedted with the wheel-work in the round box below,,
and the whole is fet in motion by the winch H. The
arm M that carries round the moon, points out on the
plate C her age and phafes for any fituation in her or¬
bit, and which accordingly are engraved thereon. In
the fame manner the arm points out her place in the
ecliptic B, in figns and degrees, called her geocentric
place; that is, as feen from the earth. The moon’s
orbit is reprefented by the flat rim A; the two joints
of which, and upon which it turns, denoting her nodes.
This orbit is made to incline to any defined angle.
The earth of this inftrument isufually made of a three
inch or i-J globe, papered, &c. for the purpofe; and
by means of the terminating wire that goes over it,
points out the changes of the feafons, and the different
lengths of days and nights more confpicuoufly. This
machine is alfo made to reprefent the Ptolemaic Sy-
ftem, or fuch as is vulgarly received ; which places the
earth in the centre, and the planets and fun revolving
about it. (It is done by an auxiliary fmall fun and an
earth, which change their places in the inftrument.)
At the fame time, it affords a moft manifeft confuta¬
tion of it: for it is plainly obferved in this conftruc-
tion, (1.) That the planets Mercury and Venus being
both within the orbit of the fun, cannot at any time
be feen to go behind it; whereas in nature we obferve
them as often to go behind as before the fun in the
heavens. (2.) It ftiows, that as the planets move in
circular orbits about the central earth, they ought at
all times to be-of the fame apparent magnitude;
whereas, on the contrary, we ohferve their apparent
magnitude in the heavens to be very variable, and fo
far different, that, for inftance, Mars will fometimes
appear as big as Jupiter nearly, and at other times you
will fcarcely know him from a fixed flar. (3.) It
Ihows that any of the planets might be feen at all di-
ftances from the fun in the heavens; or, in other words,
that when the fun is fetting, Mercury or Venus may
be feen not only in the fouth but even in the eaft ;
which circumltances were never yet obferved. (4,)
You
ASTRONOMY. rittte I .XXXVII.
l'jg.207 . The Grand ORUERY'bTllowley.
Sea. XII. ASTRO
Aftrono- You fee by this planetarium that the motions of the
micalMa- pjanet;S fhould always be regular and uniformly the
. J' fame ; whereas, on the contrary, we obferve them al¬
ways to move with a variable velocity, fometimes farter,
then flower, and fometimes not at all, as will be pre-
fently fhown. (5.) By the machine you fee the pla¬
nets move all the fame way, viz. from w'eft to eaft con¬
tinually : but in the heavens we fee them move fome¬
times direft from weft to eaft, fometimes retrograde
from eaft to weft, and at other times to be llationary.
All which phenomena plainly prove this fyftem to be
a falfe and abfurd hypothefis.
The truth of the Copernican or Solar Syftem of the
world is hereby moft clearly'reprefented. For taking
the earth from the centre, and placing thereon the
ufual large brafs ball for the fun, and reftoring the
earth to its proper fituation among the planets, then
every thing will be right and agree exaftly with-cele-
ftial obfervations. For turning the winch H, (1.)
You will fee the planets Mercury and Venus go both
before and behind the fun, or have two conjunftions.
(2.) You will obferve Mercury never to be more than
a certain angular diftance, 21°, and Venus 470, from
the fun. (3.) That the planets, efpecially Mars, will
be fometimes much nearer to the earth than at others,
and therefore muft appear larger at one time than at
another. (4.) You will fee that the planets cannot
appear atthe earth to move with an uniform velocity ;
for when neareft they appear to move farter, and flow¬
er when moft remote. (5.) You will obferve the pla¬
nets will appear at the earth to move fometimes direft-
ly from weft to eaft, and then to become retrograde
from eaft to weft, and between both to be ftationary
or without any apparent motion at all. Which par¬
ticulars all correfpond exaftly with obfervations, and
fully prove the truth of this excellent fyftem. Fig. 21 o.
represents an apparatus to ftiow thefe latter particulars
more evidently. An hollow wire, with a flit at top, is
placed over the arm of the planet Mercury or Venus
at E. The arm DG reprefents a ray of light coming
from the planet at D to the earth, and is put over the
centre which carries the earth at F. The planets, be¬
ing then put in motion, the planet D, as feen in the
heavens from the earth at F, will undergo the feveral
changes of pofition as above defcribed. The wire
prop that is over Mercury at E, may be placed over
the other fuperior planets, Mars, &c. and the fame
phenomena be exhibited.
By this machine you at once fee all the planets in
motion about the fun, with the fame refpeftive velo¬
cities and periods of revolution which they have in the
heavens ; the wheel-work being calculated to a minute
of time, from thelateft difcoveries.
You will fee here a demonftration of the earth’s,
motion about the fun, as well as thofe of the reft of
the planetsfor if the earth were to be at reft in the
heavens, then the time between any two conjun&ions
of the fame kind, or oppofitions, would be the fame
with the periodical time of the planets, viz. 88 days
in Mercury, 225 in Venus, &c.: whereas you here
obferve this time,, inftead of being 225 days, is no lefs
than 583 days in Venus, occafioned by the earth’s
moving in the meantime about the fun the fame way
with the planet. And this fpace of 583 days always
paifes between two like conjundions of. Venus in the
N O M Y. 581
heavens. Hence the moft important point of aftrono- Agrono¬
my is fatisfaftorily demonftrated. chiner^"
The diurnal rotation of the earth about its axis.c ine^y’ ,
and a demonftration of the caufe of the different fea-
fons of the year, and the different lengths of days and
nights, are here anfwered completely : for as the earth
is placed on an axis inclining to that of the ecliptic
in an angle of 23-r degrees, and is fet in motion by the
wheel-work, there will be evidently feen the different
inclination of the fun’s rays on the earth, the different
quantity thereof which falls on a given fpace, the dif¬
ferent quantity of the atmofphere they pafs through,
and the different continuance of the fun above the ho¬
rizon at the fame place in different times of the year ;
which particulars conftitute the difference betwixt heat
and cold in the fummer and winter feafons.
As the globe of the earth is moveable about its in¬
clined axis, fo by having the horizon of London drawn
upon the furface of it, and by means of the termina¬
ting wire going over it, by which is denoted, that on
that fide of the wire next the fun is the enlightened
half of the earth, and the oppofite fide the darkened
half, you will here fee very naturally reprefented the
caufe of the different lengths of day and night, by ob-
ferving the unequal portions of the circle which the
ifland of Great Btitain, or the city of London, or any
other place, defcribes in the light and dark hemifpheres
at different times of the year, by turning the earth on
its axis with the hand. But in fome of the better or¬
reries on this principle, the earth revolves about its
axis by wheel-work.
As to the eclipfes of the fun and moon, the true
caufes of them are here very clearly feen : for by pla¬
cing the lamp (fig. 211.) upon the centre, in room of
the brafs ball denoting the fun, and turning the winch
until the moon comes into a right line between the
centres of the lamp (or fun) and earth, the ftiadow of
the moon will fall upon the earth, and all who live on
that part over which the ftiadow paffes will fee the
fun eclipfed more or lefs. On the other fide, the
moon paffes (in the aforefaid cafe) through the ftia¬
dow of the earth, and is by that means eclipfed. And
the orbit A (fig. 209,) is fo moveable on the two
joints called nodes, that any perfon may eafily repre-
fent the due pofition of the nodes and intermediate
fpaces of the moon’s orbit; and thence ftiow when
there will or will not be an eclipfe of either luminary,
and what the quantity of each will be.
While the moon is continuing to move round the
earth, the lamp on the centre will fo illumine the moon,.,
that you will eafily fee all her phafes, as new, dichoto¬
mized, gibbous, full, Waining, &c. juft as they appear
in the heavens. You will moreover obferve all the fame
phafes of the earth as they appear at the moon.
The fatellites of Jupiter and Saturn are moveable
only by the hand ; yet may all their phenomena be
eafily reprefented, excepting the true relative motions
and diftances. Thus, if that gilt globe which before
reprefented the fun be made now to denote Jupiter,
and four of the primary planets only be retained, then
will the Jovian fyftem be reprefented ; and by candle
light only you will fee (the machine.being in motion)
the immerfions and emerfions of the fatellites into and
out of Jupiter’s ftiadow. You will fee plainly the.
manner in which, they tranfit his body, and their oc~
cultationss;
582
R
Aftrcuo- cultations behind it. You will obferve the various
mical Ma- ;n which one or more of thefe moons may at
times difappear. And if the machine be fet by a
white wall, &c. then by the projeftion of their flia-
dows will be feen the reafons why thofe moons always
appear on each fide of Jupiter in a right line, why
thofe which are moft remote may appear neareft, and
e contrario. And the fame may be done for Saturn’s
five moons and his ring.
The method of Reflifying the Orrery, and the proper
Manner of placing the Planets in their true Situa¬
tions.
Having dwelled thus much oh the defcription of
orreries, it may be ufeful to young readers, to point
out the method by which the orrery fhould be firll
reftified, previous to the exhibition or ufing of it:
and the following is extrafted from Mr William Jones’s
defcription of his new Portable Orrery. “ The me¬
thod of fhowing the places, and relative afpedls of the
N O M Y. Se£h XII.
planets on any day of the year in the planetarium, Aftrono-
muft be done by the alfiitance of an ephemeris or alma- mical Ma“
nac, which among other almanacs is publilhed annually chl“eiT-
by the Stationer’s Company. ’
“ This ephemeris contains a diary or daily account
of the planets places in the heavens, in figns, degrees,
and minutes, both as they appear to the eye fuppofed
to be at the fun, and at the earth, throughout the year.
The firll of thefe pofitions is called the heliocentric
place, and the latter, the geocentric place. The he¬
liocentric place is that made ufe of in orreries; the
geocentric place, that in globes. As an example
for finding their places, and fetting them right in the
orrery, we will fuppofethe ephemeris (by White, w\\\ch
for this purpofe is confidered the bell) at hand, where¬
in at the bottom of the left-hand page for every month
is the heliocentric longitudes (or places) of all the pla¬
nets to every fix days of the month ; which is near c-
nough for common ufe : A copy of one of thefe tables
for March i 784 is here inferred for the information of
the tyro.
O Day
increal.
Helioc.
long.
16 vy 47
<6 56
17 7
>7
17 28
Helioc.
long -4
H.-lioc. Helioc. Helioc.
long, c? long. © long. ?
1 £5 3°
4 23
7 1J
11 37
4 7 37
23 36
29 33
15—3°
Helioc.
long. $
0 / 33 7 ttb 58
10 725 23
19 38.1 p 59-
'9 8p8 33
8 Vf 38I15 yy 49
“How, as an example, we will fuppofe, that in order
to fet the planets of the orrery, we want their heliocen¬
tric places for the 2 ill of this month. Looking into
the table, we take the 19th day, which is the neareft
to the day wanted : then, accordingly we find the place
of Saturn (I)) is in 17° 17', or 17 degrees (rejecting
the minutes, being in this cafe ufelefs) ; of Capricor-
nus (vy), of Jupiter ( 1/. )> in 18° of Aquarius (^),
Mars ($), in io° of Cancer (£0), the earth (©), in
29° of Virgo ('!£)> Venus (,p) in 290 of Sagittarius
( 7 ), Mercury (^) in 28° of the fame fign; and in
the fame manner for any other day therein fpecilied.
Upon even this circumftance depends a very pleafing
allronomical praxis, by which the young tyro may at
any time be able to entertain himfelf in a moft rational
and agreeable manner, viz. he may in a minute or
two reprefent the true appearance of the planetary fy-
ftem juft as it really is in the heavens, and for any
day he pleafes, by affigning to each planet its proper
place in its orbit; as in the following manner: For
the 19th of March, as before, the place of Saturn is in
1 7rj of Capricornus (v?) ; now, laying hold of the arm
-of Saturn in the orrery, you place it over or againft
the 17° of Capricorn on the ecliptic circle, conftantly
placed on or lurrounding the inftrument: thus doing
the fame for the other planets, they will have their
proper heliocentric places for that day.
“ Now in this iituation of the planets, we obferve,
that if a perfon was placed on the earth, he would fee
yenus and Jupiter in the fame line and place of the
ecliptic, conl'equently in the heavens they would ap¬
pear together, or in conjunftion ; Mercury a little to
tire left or eaftward of them, and nearer to the lun
Saturn 4o the right, or the we ft ward, farther from the
Sun ; Mars directly oppofite to Saturn ; fo that when
Saturn appears in the weft, Mars appears in the eaft,
and vice verfa. Several other curious and entertaining
particulars as depending on the above, may be eafily
reprefented and fhown by the learner ; particularly the
foregoing, when the winch is turned, and all the pla¬
nets fet into their refpe&Ive motions.”
We cannot clofe this detail on orreries more agree- 49*
ably than by the following account of an inftrument
of that fort invented by Mr James Fergulbn, to which
he gives the name of a Mechanical Paradox, and
which is aftuated by means of what many, as he ob-
ferves, even good mechanics, would be ready to pro¬
nounce impoffible, viz. That the teeth of one wheel
taking equally deep into the teeth of three others,
fltould affedt them in fuch a manner, that in turning
it any way round its axis, it ftiould turn one of them
Hhz fame oxiay, another the contrary way, and the third
no way at all.
The folution of the paradox Is given under the arti¬
cle Mechanics ; after which our author proceeds to
give the following account of its ufes. “ This ma¬
chine is fo much of an orrery, as is fufficient to (how
the different lengths of days and nights, the vieiffitudes
of the feafons, the retrograde motion of the nodes of
the moon’s orbit, the diredl motion of the apogeal
point of her orbit, and the months in which the fun
and moon muft be eclipfed.
“ On the great immoveable plate A (fee fig. 213.)
are the months and days of the year, and the lignsand
degrees of the zodiac fo placed, that when the annual-
index h is brought to any given day of the year, it will
point to the degree of the fign in which the fun is on
that day. The index is fixt to the moveable frame
BC,
Sea. XII.
R O N O M Y.
Aftrono- BC, and Is carried round the Immoveable plate with the fun Z, and points always toward the centre of the Aftrono-
583
imcalfMa- jt> means Gf the knob ». The carrying this frame
f int^y‘ . and Index round the immoveable plate, anfwers to the
earth’s annual motion round the fun, and to the fun’s
apparent motion round the ecliptic in a year.
“ The central wheel D (being fixt on the axis a,
which is fixt in the centre of the immoveable plate)
turns the thick wheel E round its own axis by the
motion of the frame; and the teeth of the wheel E
take into the teeth of the three wheels F, G, H, whofe
axes turn within one another, like the axes of the
hour, minute, and fecond hands of a clock or watch,
where the feconds are fhown from the centre of the
dial-plate,
earth e; but toward different points of its furface at ™!.cal Jvla'
different times of the year, on account of the obliquityc, int:^' ,
of its axi», which keeps its parallelifm during the
earth’s annual courfe round the fun Z; and therefore
muff incline fometimes toward the fun, at other times
from him, and twice in the year neither toward nor
from the fun, but fidewife to him. The wire W is
called the folar ray.
“ As the annual-index h fhows the fun’s place in
the ecliptic for every day of the year, by turning the
frame round the axis of the immoveable plate A, ac¬
cording to the order of the months and figns, the folar
ray does the fame fn the fmall ecliptic OP : for as this
“ On the upper ends of thefe axes, are the round ecliptic has no motion on its axis, its figns and degrees
plates I, K, L; the plate I being on the axis of the
wheel F, K on the axis of G, and L on the axis of H.
So that whichever way thefe wheels are affe&ed, their
refpeftive plates, and what they fupport, muft be af-
fefted in.the fame manner; each wheel and plate be¬
ing independent of the others. ,
“ The two upright wires M and N are fixed into
the plate I; and they fupport the fmall ecliptic OP,
on which, in the machine, the figns and degrees of the
ecliptic are marked. This plate alfo fupports the fmail
terreftrial globe <?, on its inclining axis f, which is fixed
into the plate near the foot of the wire N. This axis
inclines 2 34-degr<1e from a right line, fuppofed to be
perpendicular to the furface of the plate I, and alfo to
ftill keep parallel to thofe on the immoveable plate.
At the fame time, the nodes of the moon’s orbit ST
(or points where it interfedls the ecliptic OP) are
moved backward, or contrary to the order of figns, at
the rate of 19-5- degrees every Julian year; and the
moon’s apogeal wire UU is moved forward, or accord¬
ing to the order of the figns of the ecliptic, nearly at
the rate of 41 degrees every Julian year ; the year be¬
ing denoted by a revolution of the earth e round the
fun Z ; in which time the annual-index h goes round
the circles ofmnonths and figns on the immoveable
plate A.
“ Take hold of the knob n, and turn the frame round
thereby; and in doing this, you will perceive that the
the plane of the fmall ecliptic OP, which is parallel to north pole of the earth e is conftantly before the cref-
that plate.
cent g, in the enlightened part of the earth toward
On the earth e is the crefcent^, which goes more the fun, from the 20th of March to the 23d of Sep-
than half way round the earth, and Hands perpendi¬
cular to the plane of the fmall ecliptic OP, direftly
facing the fun Z : Its ufe is to divide the enlightened
tember; and the fouth pole all that time behind the
crefcent in the dark ; and from the 23d of September
to the 20th of March,-the north pole as conftantly in
half of the earth next the fun from the other half the dark behind the crefcent, and the fouth pole in the
which is then in the dark ; fo that it reprefents the
boundary of light and darknefs, and therefore ought
to go quite round the earth ; but cannot in a machine,
becaufe in fome pofitions the earth’s axis would fall
upon it. The earth may be freely turned round on its
axis by hand, within the crefcent, which is fupported
by the crooked wire w, fixt to it, and into the upper
plate of the moveable frame BC.
light before it; which (hows, that there is but one day
and one night.at each pole, in the whole year; and
that when it is day at either pole, it is night at the
other.
“ From the 20th of March to the 23d of September,
the days are longer than the nights jn all thofe places
of the northern hemifphere of the earth which revolve
through the light and dark, and ftiorter in thofe of the
‘ In the plate K are fixed the two upright wires Q_ fouthern hemifphere. From the 23d of September to
and R : they fupport the moon’s inclined orbits ST in
its nodes, which are the two oppofite points of the
moon’s orbit where it interfedts the ecliptic OP. The
afeending node is marked to which the defeending
node is oppofite below e, but hid from view by. the
globe <?. The half ,Q, Te'of this orbit is on the north-
the 20th of March the reverfe.
“ There are 24 meridian femicircles drawn on the
globe,.all meeting in its poles ; and as one rotation or
turn of the earth on its axis is performed in 24 hours,.
each of thefe meridians is an hour diftant from the
other, in every parallel of latitude. Therefore, if you
fide of the ecliptic OP, and the other half e S £^is on bring the annual-index h to any given day of the year,
the fouth fide of the ecliptic. The moo
this machine ; but when fhe is in either of the nodes
of her orbit in the heavens, ihe'is then in the plane of
the ecliptic : when lire is at T in her orbit, ihe is in
her greateft north latitude ; and when Ihe is at S, fire
is in her great fouth latitude.
“ In the plate L is fixed the crooeked wire UU,
which points dowmward to the fmall ecliptic OP, and
flrows the motion of the moon’s apogee therein, and
its place at any given time.
oh the immoveable plate, you. may fee how long the
day then is at any place of the earth, by counting how
many of thefe meridians are in the light, or before the
crefcent, in the parallel of latitude of that place ; and
this number being fubtra&fcd from 24:hours, will leave
remaining the length of the night. And if you turn;
the earth round its axis, all thofe places will pafs di-
reftly under the point of the folar ray, which the fun
pafies vertically over on that day, becaufe they are juft'
as many degrees north or fouth of the equator as the
‘ The ball Z reprefents the fun, which is fupported fun’s-declination is then from the equirio&ial.
by the crooked wire XY, fixt into the upper plate of “ At the two equinoxes, viz. on the 20th of March-
the frame at X. A ftraight wire W proceeds from and 23d of September, the fun is in the equinoftial,
6 and"
584 ASTRO
Aftrono- an(J conrequently lias no declination. On thefe days,
.chiner^3" t^e ^ar r2i^ P°^nts diredlly toward the equator, the
earth’s poles lie under the inner edge of the crefcent,
or boundary of light and darknefs ; and in every pa¬
rallel of latitude there are 12 of the meridians or hour-
circles before the crefcent, and 12 behind it; which
(hows that the days and nights then are each 12 hours
long at all places of the earth. And if the earth be
turned round its axis, you will fee that all places on it
go equally through the light and the dark hemif-
pheres.
“On the 21 ft of June, the whole fpace within
the north polar circle is enlightened, which is 234 de¬
grees from the pole, all around; becaufe the earth’s
axis then inclines 234-degrees toward the fun: but the
whole fpace within the fouth polar circle is in the dark;
and the folar ray points toward the tropic of Cancer
on the earth, which is 234- degrees north from the
equator. On the 20th of December the reverfe hap¬
pens, and the folar ray points toward the tropic of
Capricorn, which is 234 degrees fouth from the equa-
tor.
“ If you bring the annual-index b to the beginning of
January, and turn the moon’s orbit ST by its fupport-
ing wires Qjind R till the afcending node (marked ,0,)
comes to its place in the ecliptic OP, as found by an
ephemeris, or by aftronomical tables, for the beginning
of any.given year; and then move the annual-index by
means of the knob n, till the index comes to any given
day of the year afterward, the nodes will ftand againft
their places in the ecliptic on that day; and if you
move on -the index till either of -the nodes comes di-
re£lly againft the point of the folar ray, the index will
then be at the day of the year on which the fun is in
conjunftion with that node. At the times of thofe
new moons, which happen within feventeen days of the
conjun&ion of the fun with either of the nodes, the
fun will be eclipfed : and at the times of thofe full
moons, which happen within twelve days of either of
thefe conjunftions, the moon will be eclipfed. Without
thefe limits there can be no eclipfes either of the fun
or moon; becaufe, in nature, the moon’s latitude or de¬
clination from the ecliptic is too great for the moon’s
ftradowr to fall on any part of the earth, or for the earth’s
fhadow to touch the moon.
“ Bring the annual-index to the beginning of Janu¬
ary, and fet the moon’s apogeal wire UU to its place
in the ecliptic for that time, as found by aftronomical
tables; then move the index forward to any given
day of the year, and the wore will point on the fmall
ecliptic to the place of the moon’s apogee for that
time.
“ The earth’s axis f inclines always toward the be¬
ginning of the fign Cancer on the finall ecliptic OP.
And if you fet either of the moon’s nodes, and her
apogeal wire to the beginning of that fign, and turn
the plate A about, until the earth’s axis inclines to¬
ward any fide of the room (fuppofe the north fide),
and then move the annual index round and round the
immoveable plate A, according to the order of the
months and figns upon it, you will fee that the earth’s
axis and beginning of Cancer will ftill keep toward the
■fame fide of the room, without the leaft deviation from
sit; but the qodes of the moon’s orbit ST will turn
.progrtffively towards all the fides of the room, con-
N O M Y. Se£t. XII.
trary to the order of figns in the fmall ecliptic OP, Artronn-
or from eaft, by fouth, to weft, and fo on ; and the rr".ca' Ma*
apogeal wire UU will turn the contrary way to thecllir‘e''y‘ .
motion of the nodes, or according to the order of the
figns in the fmall ecliptic, from weft, by fouth, to eaft,
and fo on quite round. A clear proof that the wheel
F, which governs the earth’s axis and the fmall eclip¬
tic, does not turn any way round its own centre; that
the wheel G, which governs the moons orbit OP,
turns round its own centre backward, or contrary both
to the motion of the frame BC and thick wheel E ;
and that the wheel FI, which governs the moon’s apo¬
geal wire UU, turns round its own centre forward, or
in direftion both of the motion of the frame and of
the thick wheel E, by which the three wheels F, G,
and H, are affefted.
“ The wheels D, E, and F, have each 39 teeth in the
machine; the wheel G has 37, and H 44.
“ The parallelifm of the earth’s axis is perfeft in this
machine; the motion of the apogee very nearly fo ;
the motion of the nodes not quite fo near the truth,
though they will not vary fenfibly therefrom in one
year. But they cannot be brought nearer, unlefs lar¬
ger wheels, with higher numbers of teeth, are ufed.
“ In n .ture, the moon’s apogee goes quite round the
ecliptic in 8 years and 312 days, in direction of the
earth’s annual motion; and the nodes go round the
ecliptic, in a contrary dire&ion, in 18 years and 225
days. In the machine, the apogee goes round the
ecliptic OP in eight years and four-fifths of a year,
and the nodes in eighteen years and a half.”
The Cometarium, (fig. 217.) This curious ma- 49s
chine fliows the motion of a comet or eccentric body
moving round the fun'i defcribing equal areas in equal
times, and may be fo contrived as to ftrow fuch a mo¬
tion for any degree of eccentricity. It was invented
by the late Dr Defaguliers.
The dark elliptical groove round the letters abed
efg b i k Im is the orbit of the comet Y; this comet
is carried round in the groove according to the order
of letters, by the wire W fixed in the fun S, and Hides
on the wire as it approaches nearer to or recedes far¬
ther from the fun, being neareft of all in the perihe¬
lion a, and fartheft in the aphelion g. The areas,
# S £, £ S c, c S 4 &c. or contents of thefe feveral
triangles, are all equal; and in every turn of the winch
N, the comet Y is carried over one of thefe areas;
confequently, in as much time as it moves from f to
g, or li om g to h, it moves from m to a, or from a to
b ; and fo of the reft, being quickeft of all at a, and
flowed: at g. Thus the comet’s velocity in its orbit
continually decreafes from the perihelion a to the aphe¬
lion^,* and increafes in the fame proportion from g
to a.
The elliptic orbit is divided into 12 equal parts or
figns, with their refpedive degrees, and fo is the
circle n 0p q r s t u, which reprefents a great circle in
the heavens, and to which the comet’s motion is re¬
ferred by a fmall knob on the point of the wire W".
Whilft the comet moves from f to g in its orbit, it
appears to move only about five degrees in this circle,
as is ftiown by the fmall knob on the end of the wire W;
but in as fliort time as the comet moves from m to a,
or from a to b, it appears to deferibe the large .(pace
tn or no m the heavens, either of which fpaces con-
5 tains
Plate XXXXVUL.
-
Sea. XII. ASTRONOMY.
Aftronomi-tains 120 degrees, or four figns. Were the eccentricity
c&i Machi- 0f Its orbit greater, the greater ftill would be the diffe-
riery. ^ rence of its motion, and vice verfa.
ABCDEFGHIKLM is a circular orbit for fliow-
ing the equable motion of a body round the fun S,
defcribing equal areas A S B, BSC, &c. in equal
times with thofe of the body Y in its elliptical orbit
above mentioned ; but with this difference, that the
circular motion defcribes the equal arcs AB, BC, &c.
in the fame equal times that the elliptical motion de¬
fcribes the unequal arcs, a b, b c, &c.
Now fuppofe the two bodies Y and 1 to Hart from
the points a and A at the fame moment of time, and,
each having gone round its refpe&ive orbit, to arrive
at thefe points again at the fame inftant, the body Y
will be forwarder in its orbit than the body 1 all the
way from a to g, and from A to G: but 1 will be
forwarder than Y through all the other half of the or¬
bit ; and the difference is equal to the equation of the
body Y in its orbit. At the points a A, and g G,
that is, that in the perihelion and aphelion they will
be equal; and then the equation vanishes. This {hows
why the equation of a body moving in an elliptic or¬
bit, is added to the mean or fuppofed circular mo¬
tion from the perihelion to the aphelion, and fubtrac-
ted from the aphelion to the perihelion, in bodies mo¬
ving round the fun, or from the perigee to the apogee,
and from the apogee to the perigee in the moon’s mo¬
tion round the earth.
This motion is performed in the following manner
by the machine, fig. 218. A B C is a wooden bar
(in the box containing the wheel-work), above which
are the wheels D and E, and below it the elliptic
plates FF and GG; each plate being fixed on an
axis in one of its focufes, at E and K ; and the
wheel E is fixed on the fame axis with the plate F F.
Thefe plates have grooves round their edges precife-
ly of equal diameters to one another, and in thefe
grooves is the. cat-gut firing gg, gg croffing between
the plates at b. On H, the axis of the handle or winch
N in fig. 217. is an endlefs fcrew in fig.'218. working
in the wheels D and E, whofe numbers of teeth being
equal, and fhould be equal to the number of lines a S,
£ S, c S, &c. in fig. 217. they turn round their axis
in equal times to one another, and to the motion of
the elliptic plates. For, the wheels D and E having
equal numbers of teeth, the plate FF being fixed on
the fame axis with the wheel E, and turning the
equally big plate GG by a cat-gut firing round them
both, they muft all go round their axis in as many
turns of the handle N as either of the wheels has
teeth.
It Is eafy to fee, that the end of h of the elliptical
plate FF being farther from its axis E than the oppo-
fite end I is, muft defcribe a circle fo much the larger
in proportion, and therefore move through fo much
more fpace in the fame time; and for that reafon the
end b moves fo much fafter than the end I, although
it goes no fooner round the centre E. But then the
quick-moving end h of the plate FF leads about the
Ihort end A K of the plate GG with the fame velocity^
and the flow-moving end I of the plate FF coming
half round as to B, muft then lead the long end k of
the plate GG as flowly about: fo that the elliptical
plate FF and its axis E move uniformly and equally
quick in ever} part of its revolution ; but the elliptical
Vol.II. Part II.
plate GG, together with its axis Iv, muft move very
unequally in different parts of its revolution ; the diffe¬
rence being always inverfely as the diftance of any
point of the circumference of GG from its axis at K :
or in other words, to inftance in two points, if the di¬
ftance K k be four, five, or fix times as great as the
diftance K the point ^ will move in that pofition,
four, five, or fix times as faft as the point k does,
when the Plate GG has gone half round; and fo on for
any other eccentricity or difference of the diftances
K k and K h. The tooth I on the plate FF falls in be¬
tween the two teeth at k on the plate GG; by which
means the revolution of the latter is fo adjulled to that
of the former, that they can never vary from one an -
other.
On the top of the axis of the equally moving wheel
D in fig. 218. is the fun S in fig. 217. : which fun,
by the wire fixed to it, carries the ball 1 round the
circle ABCD, &c. with an equable motion, accord¬
ing to the order of the letters ; and on the top of the
axis K of the unequally-moving ellipfes GG, in fig. 218.
is the fun S in fig. 217. carrying the ball Y unequally
round in the elliptical groove abed, &c. N. B. This
elliptical groove muft be precifely equal and fimilar to
the verge of the plate GG, which is alfo equal to that
of FF.
In this manner machines may be made to Ihow the
true motion of the moon about the earth, or of any
planet about the fun, by making the elliptical plates of
the fame eccentricities, in proportion to the radius, as
the orbits of the planets are, whofe motions they re-
prefent ; and fo their different equations in different
parts of their orbits may be made plain to fight, and
clearer ideas of thefe motions and equations acquired in
half an hour, than could be gained from reading half a
day about fuch motions and equations.
The Improved Celestial Globe, fig. 187. On
the north pole of the axis, above the hour-circle, is
fixed an arch MKH of 23+- degrees; and at the end
H is fixed an upright pin HG, which Hands dire&ly
over the north pole of the ecliptic, and perpendicular
to that part of the furface of the globe. On this
pin are two moveable collets at D and H, to which
are fixed the quadrantile wires N and O, having two
little balls on their ends for the fun and moon, as in
the figure. The collet D is fixed to the circular plate
F, whereon the 294- days of the moon’s age are engra¬
ven, beginning juft under the fun’s wire N; and as
this wire is moved round the globe, the plate F turns
round with it. 1'hefe wires are eafily turned, if the
fcrew G be flackened : and when they are fet to
their proper places, the fcrew ferves to fix them
there, fo as in turning the ball of the globe, the wires
with the fun and moon go round with it; and thefe
two little balls rife and fet at the fame times, and on
the fame points of the horizon, for the day to which
they are re&ified, as the fun and moon do in the hea-
Aftro
cal
nery.
493
Becaufe the moon keeps not her courfe in the eclip¬
tic (as the fun appears to do), but has a declination
of 5-4 degrees on each fide from it in every lunation,
her ball may be fcrew'ed as many degrees to either fide
of the ecliptic as her latitude or declination from the
ecliptic amounts to at any given time.
The horizon is fupported by two femicircular
arches, becaufe pillars would flop the progrefs of the
4 E balls
j86 A S T R O N
Aftronomi- hails wlien they go below the horizon in an oblique
cal M,.chH fphere.
nciy' To redify.this globe. Elevate the pole to the lati-
tttde of the place ; then bring the fun’s place in the
ecliptic for the given day to the brazen meridian, and
fet the hour index at 12 at noon, that is, to the upper
12 on the hour circle; keeping the globe in that fitua-
tion, flacken the fcrew G, and fet the fun dire&ly over
his place on the meridian ; which done fet the moon’s
wire under the number that exprefles her age for that
day on the Plate F, and (he will then (land over her
place in the ecliptic, and (how what conllellation ihe
is in. . Laltly, fallen the fcrew G, and adjuft the moon
to her latitude, and the globe will be redlified.
Having thus rectified the globe, turn it round, and
obferve on what points of the horizon the fun and
moon balls rife and fet, for thefe agree with the
points of the compafs on which the iun and moon
rife and fet in the heavens on the given day : and the
hour index (hows the times of their riling and.fetting ;
and likewife the time of the moon’s palling over the
meridian.
This fimple apparatus (hows all the varieties that can
happen in the riling and fetting of the fun and moon :
and makes the forementioned phenomena of the hal¬
ved moon plain to the eye. It is alfo very ufeful in
reading lectures on the globes, becaufe a large com¬
pany can fee this fun and moon go round, riling above
and fetting below the horizon at different times, ac¬
cording to the feafons of the year ; and making their
appulfes to different fixed liars. But in the ufual way,
where there is only the places of the fun and moon in
the ecliptic to keep the eye upon, they are ealily lod
fight of, unlefs they be covered with patches.
The Trajectorium Lunare, fig. 208. Thisma-
chine is for delineating the paths of the earth and
moon, (howing what fort of curves they make in the
ethereal regions. S is the fun, and E the earth, whofe
centres are 95 inches didant from each other; every
inch anfwering to 1,000,coo of miles. M is the moon,
wdrofe centre is ,*^5- parts of an inch from the earth’s
in this machine, this being in jud proportion to the
moon’s didance from the earth. A A is a bar of wood,
to be moved by hand round the axis g which is fixed
in the wheel Y. The circumference of this wheel is to
the circumference of the fmall wheel L (below the
other end of the bar) as 365^ days is to 29^, or as a
year is to a lunation. The wheels are grooved round
their edges, and in the grooves is the cat-gut dring
GG croffing between the wheels at X. On the axis of
the wheel L is the index F, in which is fixed the
moon’s axis M for carrying her round the earth E
(fixed on the axis of the w-heel L in the time that the
index goes round a circle of 294- equal parts, which are
the days of the moon’s age. The wheel Y has the
months and days of the year all round its limb ; ‘and
in the bar AA is fixed the index /, which points out
the days of the months anfwering to the days of the
moon’s age, (hown by the index F, in the circle of
29-^ equal parts at the other end of the bar. On
the axis of the wheel L is put the piece D, below
the cock C, in which this axis turns round ; and in
D are put the pencils e and m diredlly under the earth
E and moon M; fo that m is carried round e as M is
round E.
o M Y. Se<5lXlT.
Lay the machine on an even floor, preffing gently Mlronomi-
on the wheel Y, to caufe its fpiked feet (of which twocal Mzchi-
appear at P and P, the third being fuppofed to be hid nery'
from fight by the wheel) enter a little into the floor to r
fecure the wheel from turning. Then lay a paper about
four feet long under the pencils e and m, crofswife to
the bar; which done, move the bar (lowly round the
axis g of the wdieel Y ; and as the earth E goes round
the fun S, the moon M will go round the earth with,
a duly proportioned velocity ; and the fri&ion wheel
W running on the floor, will keep the bar from bear¬
ing too heavily on the pencils e and vi, which'will de¬
lineate the paths of the earth and moon. As the index
I points out the days of the months, the index F (hows
the moon’s age on thefe days, in the circle of 29^
equal parts. And as this la(l index points to the dif¬
ferent days in its circle, the like numeral figures may
be fet to thofe parts of the curves of the earth’s path
and moon’s, where the pencils e and rn are at thofe
times refpe&ively, to (how the places of the earth and
moon. If the pencil e be puflred a very little off, as^
if from the pencil w, to about ^ part of their di-
(lance, and the pencil m pulhed as much towards to
bring them to the fame dillances again, though not
to the fame points of fpace; then, as m goes round
e, e will go as it were round the centre of gravity be¬
tween the earth e and moon m\ but this motion will
not fenfibly alter the figure of the earth’s path or the
moon’s.
if a pin, as p, be put through the pencil m, with its
head towards that of the pin q in the pencil e, its
head will always keep thereto as m goes round e,
or as the fame fide of the moon is Hill obverted to
the earth. But the pin />, which may be confidered.
as an equatorial diameter of the moon, will turn quite
round the point making all poflible angles with
the line of its progrefs, or line of the moon’s path.
This is an ocular proof of the moon’s turning round
her axis.
Sect. XIII. /4 JDefcription of the principal Afro-.
nomical Injlruments by vihich Aflronomers make
the moft accurate Obfervations.
By Practical aftronomy is implied the knowledge WS
of obferving the celeftial bodies with refpedt to their
pofition and time of the year, and of deducing from
thofe obfervations certain conclufions ufeful in calcula-?
ting the time when any propofed pofition of thefe bo¬
dies (hall happen.
For this purpofe, it is neceffary to have a room or
place conveniently fituated, fuitably contrived, and fur-
nilhed with proper atlronomical inftruments. It (hould.
have an uninterrupted view from the zenith down to
(or even below) the horizon, at lead towards its cardi¬
nal points: and for this purpofe, that part of the
roof which lies in the direction of the meridian in
particular, (hould have moveable covers, which may
eafily be moved and put on again ; by which means-,
an inllrument may be direfted to any point of the hea¬
vens between the horizon and the zenith, as well to the
northward as fouthward.
This place, called an Obfervat.ory, (hould contain
fome, if not all, of the following inftruments.
I. A Pendulum Clock, for fhowing equal time. 496
This
V
Sea. XIII. ASTRO
Afb onomi- This fliouU (howtlme in hours, minutes, and feconds;
cal Inftru- anj wjth which the obferver, by hearing the beats of
r>cnts' the pendulum, may count them by his ear, while his
eye is employed on the motion t>f the celeftial objeft
he is obferving. Juft before the objeft arrives at the
pofition defcribed, the obferver ftiould look on the
clock and remark the time, fuppofe it 9 hours 15
minutes 25 feconds; then faying, 25, 26, 27, 28,
&c. refponfive to the beat of the pendulum, till he
fees through the inftrument the objetk arrived at the
pofition expedled ; which fuppofe to happen when he
fays 38, he then writes down 9 h. 15 min. 38 fee. for
the time of obfervation, annexing the year and the day
of the month. If two perfons are concerned in ma¬
king the obfervation, one may read the time audibly
while the other obferves through the inftrument, the
obferver repeating the laft fecond read when the defired
pofition happens.
II. An Achromatic Refracting Telescope,
or a reflecting one, of two feet at leaft in length,
for obferving particular phenomena. Thefe inftruments
are particularly defcribed under Optics.
III. A Micrometer, for meafuring fmall angular
diftances. See Micrometer.
IV. Astronomical Quadrants, both mural and
portable, for obferving meridian and other altitudes of
the celeftial bodies.
497 1. The Mural Quadrant is in the form of a quar¬
ter of a circle, contained under two radii at right
angles to one another, and an arch equal to one fourth
part of the circumference of the circle. It is the moft
ufeful and valuable of all the aftronomical inftruments ;
and as it is fometimes fixed to the fide of a ftone or
brick wall, and the plape of it erefted exadlly in the
plane of the meridian, it in this cafe receives the
name of mural quadrant or arch.
Tycho Brache was the firft perfon who contrived this
mural arch, viz. who firft applied it to a wall; and
Mr Flamftead, the firft in England who with indefati¬
gable pains fixed one up in the royal obfervatory at
Greenwich.
Thefe inilnlments have ufually been made from five
to eight feet radius, and executed by thofe late cele¬
brated artifts ' iffbn, Graham, Bird, and other eminent
mathematical inftrument makers now in London. The
conftruftion of them being generally the fame in all
the fizes, we fhall here deferibe one made by the
late Jon. Siffon, under the direftion of the late M.
Graham. Fig. 214. reprefents the inftrument as al
ready fixed to the wall. It is of copper, and of about
5 feet radius. The frame is formed of flat bars, and
nrengthened by edge bars affixed underneath perpen¬
dicularly to them. The radii HB, HA, being divi¬
ded each into four equal parts, ferves to find out the
points D and E, by which the quadrant is freely fu-
fpended on its props or iron fupports that are faftened
fecurely in the wall.
One of the fupports E is reprefented feparately in e
on one fide of the quadrant. It is moveable by means
of a long flender rod EF or e f, which goes into a hol¬
low ferew in order to reftore the inftrument to its fitu-
ation when it is difeovered to be a little deranged.
This may be known by the very fine perpendicular
thread HA, which ought always to coincide with
the fame point A of the limb, and carefully examined
N ' O M Y. 587
to be fo by a fmall magnifying telefcope at every Aftronomi-
obfervation. In order to prevent the unfteadinefs ofcal
fo great a machine, there ftiould be placed behind the , .
limb four copper ears with double cocks I, K, I, K.
There are others along the radii H A and II B.
Each of thefe cocks contains two ferews, into which
is faftened the ears that are fixed behind the qua¬
drant.
Over the wall or ftone which fupports the inftru¬
ment, and at the fame height as the centre, is placed
horizontally the axis PO, which is perpendicular to
the plane of the inftrument, and which would pafs
through the centre if it was continued. This axis
turns on two pivots P. On this axis is fixed at right
angles another branch ON, loaded at its extremity
with a weight N capable of equipoifing with its weight
that of the telefcope EM ; whilft the axis, by its ex¬
tremity neareft the quadrant, carries the wooden frame
PRM, which is failened to the telefcope in M. The
counterpoife takes off from the obferver the weight of
the telefcope when he raifes it, and hinders him from
either forcing or {training the initrument.
The lower extremity (V) of the telefcope is fur-
niftied with two fmall wheels, which take the limb of
the quadrant on it&two fides. 1 he telefcope hardly
bears any more upon the limb than tire final! fridtion of
thefe two wheels; which renders its motion fo ex¬
tremely eafy and pleafant, that by giving it with the
hand only a fmall motion, the telefcope will run of it-
felf over a great part of the limb, balanced by the
counterpoife N.
When the telefcope is to be flopped at a certain po¬
fition, the copper hand T is to be made ufe of, which
embraces the limb and fprings at the bottom. It is
fixed by fetting a ferew,.which faftens it to the limb.
Then, in turning the regulating ferew, the telefcope
will be advanced ; which is continued until the ftar or
other objedt whofe altitude is obferving be on the ho¬
rizontal fine thread in the telefcope. Then on the
plate X fupporting the telefcope, and carrying a ver¬
nier or nonius, will be feen the number of degrees and
minutes, and even quarter of minutes, that the angu¬
lar height of the objedt obferved is equal to. The re¬
mainder is eafily eftimated within two or three fe¬
conds nearly.
There are feveral methods of fubdividing the divi-
fions of a mural quadrant, which are ufually from five
to ten minutes each ; but that which is moft common¬
ly adopted is by the vernier or nonius, the contrivance
of Peter Vernier a Frenchman. This vernier confifts
of a piece of copper or brafs, CDAB (fig. 215.),
which is a fmall portion of X (fig 214.), reprefented fe¬
parately. The length CD is divided into 2oequdl parts,
and placed contiguoufly on a portion of the divifion of
the limb of the quadrant containing 2 1 divifions, and
thereby dividing this length into 20 equal parts. Thus
the firtt divifion of the vernier piece marked 15, be¬
ginning at the point D, is a little matter backward, or
to the left of the firft divifion of the limb, equal to 157.
The fecond divifion of the vernier is to the left of the
fecond divifion of the limb double of the firft differ¬
ence, or 30" ; and fo on unto the twentieth and laft di¬
vifion on the left of the vernier piece; w here the 20
differences being accumulated each of the twentieth
part of the divifion of the limb, this laft divifion will
4 E 2 be
588 A S T R
Aftrnnomi-be found to agree exadlly with the 21 ft divifion on the
limb of the quadrant.
, s‘ The index rauft be puftied the 20th part of a divi-
' ^ """' fion, or 15", to the right ; for to make the fecond di¬
vifion on the vernier coincide with one of the divifions
©f the limb, in like manner is moving two zoths, or
$9", we mult look at the Cecond divifion of the index,
and there will be a coincidence with a divifiqn of the
limb. Thus may be conceived that the beginning D
of the vernier, which is always the line of reckoning,
has advanced two divifions, or 30", to the right, when
the fecond divifion, marked 30 on the vernier, is feen
to correfpond exactly with one of the lines of the qua¬
drant.
15y means of this -vernier may be readily diftin-
guilhed the exactitude of 15'' of the limb of a qua¬
drant five feet radius, and fimply divided into 5'. By
498
O N O M Y, Sea. XII!.
tion, it is neceflary that two adjuftments be very accu-Altjon01111*
rately made : One, that the plane or furface of the ,n-”en^g rU*
ftrument be truly perpendicular to the horizon; the , •
other, that the line, fuppofed to be drawn from the
centre to the firft line of the limb, be truly on a level
or parallel with the horizon. The firft of thefe par¬
ticulars is done by means of the thread and plum¬
met fr; the thread of which is ufually of very fine filver
wire, and it is placed oppolite to a mark made upon
the end of the limb of the inftrument. The four
fcrews at the foot, a, b, c, d, are to be turned until a
perfedt coincidence is obferved of the thread upon the
mark, which is accurately obferved by means of a fmall
telefcope T, that fits- ter the limb. The other adjuit-
ment is effeefed by means of the fpirit-level L, which
applies on the frame GH, and the fmall ferews turned
as before until the bubble of air in the level fettles in
an eftimation by the eye, afterwards the accuracy of the middle of the tube. The dotted tube EB
two or three feconds may be eafily judged. On the fide
of the quadrant is placed the plate of copper which car¬
ries the telefcope. This plate carries two verniers. The
outer line CD divides five minutes into 20 parts, or 15"
each. The interior line A B anfwers to the parts of ano¬
ther divifion not having (jo°, but 9 6 parts of the quadrant.
It is ufually adopted by Englilh aftronomers on ac¬
count of the facility of its fubdivifions. Each of the
96 portions of the quadrant is equivalent to 56' 15" of
the ufual divifions. • It is divided on the limb into 16
parts, and the arch of the vernier AB contains 25 of thefe
divifions ; and being divided itfelf into 24, immediate¬
ly gives parts, the value of each of which is 8" 47-f"'.
From this mode a table of reduftion may eafily be
conftrufted, which will ferve to find the value of this
fecohd mode of dividing in degrees, minutes, and fe¬
conds, reckoning in the ufual manner* and to have
even the advantage of two different modes; which
makes an excellent verification of the divifions on the
limb of the quadrant and obferved. heights by the ver-
2. The Portable/IJlronomicalQuadrant, is that inftru¬
ment of all others which aftronomers make the greateft
ufe of, and have the moft efteem for. They are gene¬
rally made from 12 to 23 inches. Fig. 219. is a re-
prefentation of the improved modern one as made by
the late Mr Siffon and by the prefent mathematical
inftrument makers. This is capable of being carried
to any part of the world, and put up for obfervation
in an eafy and accurate manner. It is made of brafs,
and ftronjily framed together by crofted perpendicular
bars. The arch AC, and telefcope EF, are divided
apd conftrufted in a fimilar manner to the mural qua¬
drant, but generally without the divifion of 96 parts.
The counterpoife to the telefcope T is reprefented at
P, and alfo another counterpoife to the quadrant itfelf
at P. The quadrant is fixed to a long axis, which
goes into the pillar KR. Upon this axis is fixed an
index, which points to and fubdivides by a vernier the
divifions of the azimuth circle K. This azimuth
circle is extremely ufeful for taking the azimuth of a
eeleftial body at the fame time its altitude is obferved.
The upper end of the axis is firmly connefted with the
adjufting frame GH ; and the pillar is fupported on the
crofted feet at the bottom of the pillar KR with the
adjufting fcrews a, by c, d.
When tigs inftrument is fet up for. ufe or obferva-
kind of prover to the inftrument: for by obferving at
what mark the centre of it appears againft, or by put¬
ting up a mark againft it, it will at any time difeover
if the inftrument has been difplaced. The ferew S at
the index, is the regulating or adjufting ferew, to
move the telefcope and index, during the obfervation,
with the utmoft nicety.
V. Astronomical or Equatorial Sector.
This is an inftrument for finding the difference in right
afeenfion and declination between twoobje£is,the diftan-
ce of which is too great to be obferved by the micrometer.
It was the invention of the late ingenious Mr George
Graham, F. R. S. and is conftru&ed from the following
particulars. Let AB (fig. 32.) reprefent an arch of a
circle containing 10 or 12 degrees well divided, having
a ftrong plate CD for its radius, fixed to the middle of
the arch at D : let this radius be applied to the fide of
an axis HFI, and be moveable about a joint fixed to
it at F, fo that the plane of the feftor may be always
parallel to the axis HI ; which being parallel to the
axis of the earth, the plane of the fedlor will always
be parallel to the plane of fome hour-circle. Let a
telefcope CE be moveable about the centre C of the
arch AB, from one end of it to the other, by turning
a feew at G ; and let the line of fight be parallel to
the plane of the feftor. Now, by turning the whole
inftrument about the axis HI, till the plane of it be
fucceflively diredfed, firft to one of the ftars and then
to another, it is eafy to move the fedfor about the joint
F, into fuch a pofition, that the arch AB, when fix¬
ed, ftiall take in both the ftars in their paffage, by the
plane of it, provided the difference of their declina--
tions does not exceed the arch A B. Then, having
fixed the plane of the fed!or a little to the w.eftward
of both the ftars, move the telefcope CE by the ferew
G; and obferve by a clock the time of each tranfit
over the crofs hairs, and alfo the degrees and minutes
upon the arch AB, cut by the index at each tranfit t
then in the difference of the arches, the difference of
the declinations, and by the difference of the times,
we have the difference of the right afeenfions of the
ftars.
The dimenfions of this inftrument are thefe : The
length of the telefcope, or the radius of the fedfor, is
24- feet; the breadth of the radius, near the end C,
is 14- inch ; and at the end D two inches. The
breadth- of the limb AB is if inch; and its length-
2 fix
As TR O ^STOMX.
' ^ . 2 /3.
Plate LXXX1X .
' 3./3e// //‘mt. /'■<•/
Sea. XIII. A S T R
Aftr<*: t fix inches, containing ten degrees divided into quarters
cal Inttru- ancj numbered from either end to the other. The tele-
^nent*‘ fcope carries a nonius or fubdividing plate, whofe length,
being equal to fixteen quarters of a degree, is divided
into fifteen equal parts ; which, in effedl, divides the
limb into minutes, and, by eftimation, into ■ fmaller
parts. The length of the fquare axis HIF is eighteen
inches, and of the part HI twelve inches; and its
thicknefs is about a quarter of an inch: the diameters
of the circles are each five inches : the thicknefs of
the plates, and the other meafures, may' be taken at
the diredlion of a workman.
This inllrument may be redfified, for making obfer-
vations, in this manner : By placing the interfedfion
of the crofs hairs at the fame di fiance from the plane
* of the fedtor, as the centre of the objedf-glafs, the plane
defcribed by the line of fight, during the circular mo¬
tion of the telefcope upon the limb, will be fufficiently
true, or free from conical curvity ; which may be exa¬
mined by fufpending a long plumb-line at a convenient
diftance from the inftrument ; and by fixing the plane
of the fedlor in a vertical pofition, and then by obfer-
ving, while the telefcope is moved by the fcrew along
the limb, whether the crofs hairs appear to move along
the plumb-line.
The axis h f o may be elevated nearly parallel to the
axis of the earth, by means of a fmall common qua¬
drant ; and its error may be corredfed, by making the
line of fight follow the circular motion of any of the
circumpolar ftars, while the whole inftrument is moved
about its a\\shfo, the telefcope being fixed to the
limb : for this purpofe, let the telefcope k Ihe diredl-
ed to the ftar a, when it palfes over the higheft point
of its diurnal circle, and let the divifion cut by the
nonius be then noted : then, after twelve hours, when
the ftar comes to the loweft point of its circle, having
turned the inftrument half round its axis, to bring the
telefcope into the pofition m n; if the crofs hairs cover
the fame ftar fuppofed at the elevation of the axis
h f o is exadtly right; but if it be neceffary to move
the telefcope into the pofition uv, in order to point to
this ftar at c, the arch rn u, which meafures the angle
mfuoxbf c, will be known ; and then the axis h f o
muft be deprefled half the quantity of this given angle
if the ftar palled below b, or muft be railed fo much
higher if above it; and then the trial muft be repeat¬
ed till the true elevation of the axis be obtained. By
making the like obfervations upon the fame ftar on
each fide the pole, in the fix-o’clock-hour-circle, the
error of the axis, toward the eaft or weft, may alfo be
found and corredted, till the crofs-hairs follow the ftar
quite round the pole : for fuppofing a o p b c to be an
arch of the meridian, (or in the fecond pradtice of the
fix-o’clock hour-circle), make the angle a fp equal to
half the angle a f c, and the line f p will point to the
pole; and the. angle ofp, which is the error of the
axis, will be equal to half the angle, b f c or vif«,
found by the obfervation ; becaufe the difference of the
two angles a fb, a f c, is double the difference of their
halves a f o and a J p. Unlefs the ftar be very near the
pole, allowance muft be made for refradtions.
VI. Transit and Equal Altitude Inftruments.
£00 i. The tranfit Infrumcnt is ufed for obferving ob-
jcdls as they pafs over the meridian. It confifts
of a telefcope fixed at right angles to an horizon-
O N O M Y. 589
tal axis ; which axis muft be fo fupported that what is Aftronomi-
called the line of collimation, or line of fight of the te-ca'Inftru*
lefcope, may move in the plane of the meridian. This c
inftrument was firft made by the celebrated Mr Romer
in the year 1689, and has fince received great improve¬
ments. It is made of various fizes, and of large dimen-
fions in our great obfervatories; but the following is
one of a fize fufficiently large and accurate for all the
ufeful purpofes.
The axis AB (fig. 220.), to which the middle of
the telefcope is fixed, is about 2^ feet long, tapering
gradually toward its ends, which terminate in cylin-
ders w’ell turned and fmoothed. The telefcope CD
which is about four feet long and jA inch diameter, is
connedfed with the axis by means of a ftrong cube or
die G, and in which the two cones MQ^ forming the
axis, are fixed. This cube or ftock G ferves as the
principal part of the whole machine. It not only
keeps together the two cones, but holds the two
fockets IvH, of 15 inches length, for the two tele-
fcopic tubes. Each of thefe fockets has a fquare bafe,
and is fixed to the cube by four fcrews. Thefe fockets
are cut down in the fides about eight inches, to admit
more eafily the tube of the telefcope; but when the
tube is inferted, it is kept in firm by fcrewing up the
tightening fcrews at the end of the fockets at K and
H. Thefe two fockets are very ufeful in keeping the
telefcope in its greateft poffible degree of fteadinefs.
They alfo afford a better opportunity of balancing the
telefcope and redfifying its vertical thread, than by any
other means.
In order to diredt the telefcope to the given height
that a ftar would be obferved at, there is fixed a femi-
circle AN on one of the fupporters, of about 84- inches
diameter, and divided into degrees. The index is
fixed on the axis, at the end of which is a vernier,
which fubdivides the degrees into 1 2 parts or five mi¬
nutes. This index is moveable on the axis, and may
be clofely applied to the divifions by means of a tight¬
ening fcrew.
Two upright polls of wood' or Hone YY, firmly
fixed at a proper diftance, are to fuftain the fupport¬
ers of this, inftrument. Thefe fupporters are two
thick brafs plates RR, having well fmoothed angular
notches in their upper ends, to receive the cylindrical
arms of.the axis. Each of thefe notched plates is
contrived to be moveable by a fcrew, which Hides them
upon the furfaces of two other plates immoveably fix¬
ed upon the two upright pillars ; one plate moving in,
an horizonal, and the other in a vertical, dire&ion;.
or, which is more fimple, thefe two modes are fome-
times applied only on one fide, as at. V and P, the ho¬
rizontal motion by the fcrew P, and the vertical by
the fcrew V. Thefe two motions ferve to adjuft the
telefcope to the planes of the horizon <qid meridian :
to the plane of the horizon by the fpirit-level £F,.
hung by DC on the axis MQ^ in a parallel direftion ;
and to the plane, of the meridian in the following man¬
ner :
Obferve by the clock when .a circumpolar ftar fees
through this inftrument tranfits both above and below
the pole ; and if the times of defcribing thej^aftern and
weftern parts of its circuit are equal, the telefcope is
then in the plane of the meridian : otherwife the fcrew
P muft be gently turned that it may move the tele-
5 go ASTRO
Aftr< nomi- fcope fo much that the time of the ftar’s revolution be
cal Inftru- ]3ife(^e(j by both the upper and lower tranfits, taking
. care at the fame time that the axis remains perfedtly
horizontal. When the telefcope is thus adjufted, a
mark mull be fet at a confiderable diftance (the great¬
er the better) in the horizontal direction of the inter-
fedlion of the crofs wires, and in a place where it can
be illuminated in the night-time by a lauthorn hanging
near it; which mark being on a fixed objeft, will
ferve at all times afterwards to examine the polition of
the telefcope by, the axis of the inllrument being firfl.
adjufted by means of the level.
j0| To adjujl the Clock by'the Sun's Trunfit over the Me¬
ridian. Note the times by the clock when the prece¬
ding and following edges of the fun’s limb touch the
crol's wires. The difference between the middle time
and 12 hours, ftiows how much the mean, or time by
the clock, is fafter or flower than the apparent, or fo-
lar time, for that day ; to which the equation of time
being applied, will {how the time of mean noon for
that day, by which the clock may be adjufted.
•joa 2. The Equal Altitude Injlrament is an inftrument
that is ufed to obferve a celeftial objeft when it has
the fame altitude on both the eaft and weft Tides of
the meridian, or in the morning and afternoon. It
principally confifts of a telefcope about 30 inches long
fixed to a fextantal or femicircular divided arch ; the
centre of which is fixed to a long vertical axis: but the
partfculars of this inftrument the reader will fee explain¬
ed in Optics, Part 111.
503 3. Compound Tranftt- Inf rurnent. Some inftryments
have been contrived to anfwer both kinds of obferva-
tions, viz. either a tranfit or equal altitudes. Fig. 222
reprefents fuch an inftrument, made firft of all for Mr
Le Monnier the French aftronomer, by the late Mr
Siffon, under the direftion of Mr Opaham, mounted
and fixed up ready for obfervation.
A B is a telefcope, which may be 3, 4, 5, or 6 feet
long, whofe cylindrical tube fits exactly into another
hollow cylinder a b, perpendicular to the axis : thefe
•feveral pieces are of the beft hammered plate brafs.
The cylindrical extremity of this axis MN are of fo-
lid bell-metal, and wrought exquifitely true, and ex-
a&ly the fame fize in a lathe ; and it is on the per-
feftion to which the cylinders or trunnions are turned
that the juftnefs of the inftrument depends, in the
common focus of the objetft-glafs and eye-glafs is pla¬
ced a reticle (fig. 223), confiding of three horizontal
-and parallel fine-ftretched filver wares, fixed by pins or
fcrews to a brafs circle, the middle one palling through
its centre, with a fourth vertical wire likewife pafiing
through the centre, exaclly perpendicular to the for¬
mer three.
The horizontal axis MN (fig. 222.) is placed on a
■ flrong brafs frame, into the middle of which a fteel cy¬
linder GH is fixed perpendicularly, being turned truly
round, and terminating in a conical point at its lower
extremity; where it is let into a fmall hole drilled
in the middle of the dove tail Aider; w hich Aider is
fupported by a hollow tube fixed to the fupporting
piece IK, confiding of two ftrong plates of brafs,
joined together at right angles, to which are fixed tw'o
iron cramps L, L, by which it is fallened to the ftone-
wall of a fouth window.
The upper part G of the fteel fpindle is embraced by
6
n o M Y. Se<a. xm.
a collar d ef, being in contact with the blunt extre- Aftronomi-
mity of three fcrews, whofe particular ufe will be ex-tiU Infi;ru-
plained by and by. O is another cylindrical collarnients' .
clofely embracing the fteel fpindle at about a third part ^
of its length from the top; by the means of a fmall
fcrew it may be loofened or pinched clofe as occaiion
requires. From the bottom of this collar proceeds an
arm or lever a&ed upon by the two fcrews g h, where¬
by the whole imtrument, excepting the fupporting
piece, may be moved laterally, fo that the telefcope
may be made to point at a diftant mark fixed in the
vertical of the meridian. / ^ is a graduated femicircle
of thin brals fcrewed to the telefcope, whereby it may
be elevated fo as to point to a known celeftial objedt
in the day-time. Im is a fpirit-level parallel to the
axis of rotation on the telefcope, on which two trun¬
nions hang by two hooks at M and N. Along the
upper fide of the glafs tube of the level Hides a pointer
to be fet to the end of the sir bubble; and when the
pofition of the axis of rotation is fo adjufteu by the
fcrews that the air-bubble keeps to the pointer for a
whole revolution of the inftrument, the fpindle GH is
certainly perpendicular to the horizon, and then the
line of coilimation of the telefcope deicribes a circle
of equal altitude in the heavens. When the level is
fufpended on the axis, raife or deprefs the tube of the
level by twilling the neb of the fcrew n till you bring
either end of the air-bubble to reft at any point to¬
wards the middle of the tube, to which Aide the in¬
dex ; then lift off the level, and, turning the ends of
it contrary w’ays, hang it again on the trunnions; and
if the air-bubble refts exadly again, the index as be¬
fore, the axis of rotation is truly horizontal: If not,
deprefs that end of the axis which lies on the fame fide
of the pointer as the bui ble does, by turning the neb
of the fcrew at N, till the bubble returns about half¬
way towards the pointer; then having moved the
pointer to the place where it now refts, invert the ends
of the level again, and repeat the fame pra&ice till
the bubble refts exadly at the pointer in both pofitions
of the level, if, after the telefcope is turned upfide
down, that is, after the trunnions are inverted end for
end, you perceive that the fame points of a remote
fixed objed is covered by the vertical wire in the focus
of the telefcope, that was covered by it before the in-
verfion, it is certain that the line of fight or coilima¬
tion is perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis; hut if the
faid verticle wure covers any other point, the brafs
circle that carries the hairs mult be moved by a ferew-
key introduced through the perforation in the fide of
the tube at X, till it appears to bifed the line joining
thefe tw’O points, as near as you can judge ; then, by
reverting the axis to its former pofitiora, you will find
whether the wires be exadly adjufted. N. B. The ball
0 is a counterpoife to the centre of gravity of the femi¬
circle i without which the telefcope would not reft
in an oblique elevation without being fixed by a fcrew
or fome other contrivance.
The feveral beforementioned verifications being ac-
eompliftied, if the telefcope be elevated to any angle
with the horizon and there flopped, all fixed ftars
which pais over the three horizontal wires of the
reticle on the eaftern fide of the meridian in afeending,
will have precifeiy the fame altitudes when in defeend-
ing they again crofs the fame refpedive wires on the
weft
Sea XIII. ASTRO
Aftrenomi weft fide, and the middle between the times of each
cal Inftru. refpe&;ve equal altitude will be the exadb moment of
. * the ftar’s culminating or palling the meridian. By
the help of a good pendulum-clock, the hour of their
true meridional tranfits will be known, and confequently
the difference of right afcenfion of different liars. Now,
frnce it will be fufficient to obferve a liar which has
north declination two or three hours before and after its
palling the meridian, in order to deduce the time of its
arrival at that circle ; it follows, that having once found
the difference of right afcenfron of two liars about 60
degrees afunder, and you again obferve the iirft of thefe
Hand at the fame altitude both in the eaft and weft fide,
you infer with certainty the moment by the clock at
which the fecond liar will be on the meridian that fame
pight, and by this means the tranfit-inllrument may be
fixed in the true plane of the meridian till the next
day ; when, by deprelfing it to fome diftant land ob¬
jects, a mark may be difcovered whereby it may ever
after be reftified very readily, fo as to take the tranfits
of any of the heavenly bodies to great cxadtnefs, whe¬
ther by night or day.
When fuch a mark is thus found, the telefcope be¬
ing direfted carefully to it, mull be fixed in that po-
fition by pinching fall the end of the arm or lever be¬
tween the two oppofite fcrews gb ; and if at any fu¬
ture time, whether from the effedl of heat or cold on
the wall to which the inftrument is fixed, or by any
N O M Y. 591
fettling of the wall itfelf, the mark appears no longer Aftrono-nh*
well bifedled by the vertical wire, the telefcope may c:ii
eafily be made to bifedl it again, by giving a fmalluient~~
motion to the pinching fcrews.
The tranfit-inllrument is now confidered as one of
the moll effential particulars of the apparatus of an
aftronomical obfervatory.
Befides the above may be mentioned.
The Equatorial or Portable Observatory ; JC4
an inftrument defigned to anfwer a number of ufeful
purpofes in pradtical aflronomy, independent of any
particular obfervatory. It may be made ufe of in any
lleady room or place, and performs moll of the ufeful
problems in the fcience. The following is a defcription
of one lately invented by Mr Ramfden, from whom it
has received the name of the Univerfal Equatorial.
The principal parts of this inftrument (fig. 221.)
are, 1. The azimuth or horizontal circle A, which
reprefents the horizon of the place, and moves on a
long axis B, called the vertical axis. 2. The equato¬
rial or hour-circle C, reprefenting the equator, placed
at right angles to the polar axis D, or the axis of the
earth, upon which it moves. 3. The femicircle of de¬
clination E, on which the telefcope is placed, and mo¬
ving on the axis of declination, or the axis of motion.
of the line of collimation F. Thefe circles are mea*-
fured and divided as in the following table
Meafures of the feveral
circles and divifions Radius,
on them.
Azimuth or hori- \
■zontal circle <
Equatoreal or i
hour circle y
Verticle femicircle
for declination S
or latitude '
Nonius of Divided on
Limb divided 30 gives limb into
feconds. partsofinc.
*5'
jx5' .
£ I'mttme
1 s'
45th
45th
42ft
ivided by
irtsof inch.
x350th
1350th
i2.6©th‘
4. The telefcope, which is an achromatic refra&or
with a triple objeft-glafs, whofe focal diftance is 17
inches, and aperture 2.45 inches, and furnifhed with
fix different eye-tubes; fo that its magnifying powers
extend from 44 to 168. The telefcope in this equa¬
torial may be brought parallel to the polar axis, as in
the figure, fo as to point to the pole-ftar in any part
of its diurnal revolution ; and thus it has been obfer-
ved near noon, v/hen the fun has fhone very bright.
5. The apparatus for corredling the error in altitude
occafioned by refraftion, which is applied to the eye-
end of the telefcope, and confifts of a Aide G moving
in a groove or dove-tail, and carrying the feveral eye-
tubes of the telefcope, on which Aide there is an in¬
dex correfponding to five fmall divifions engraved on
the dove-tail; a very fmall circle, called the refradlion
circle H, moveable by a finger-ferew at the extremity
of the. eye-end of the telefcope ; which circle is di¬
vided into half minutes, one entire revolution of it be-
ing equal to 3' 18-", and by its motion raifes the centre
of the crofs hairs on a circle of altitude ; and likewife
a quadrant I of i-^- inch radius, with divifions on each
fide, one exprefiing the degree of altitude of the objedl
viewed, and the other expreffing the minutes and fe¬
conds of error occafioned by refraftion, correfponding
to that degree of altitude : to this quadrant is joined :
a fmall round level K, which is adjufted partly by the
pinion that turns the whole of this apparatus, and
partly by the index of the quadrant;, for which pur-
pofe the refraction circle is fet to the fame m nute, &c..
which the index points to on the limb of the quadrant;
and if the minute, &c. given by the quadrant exceed
the 3' 18" contained in one entire revolution of the re¬
fraction circle, this mull be fet to the excefs above
one or more of its entire revolutions ; then the centre
of the crofs hairs will appear to be raifed on a circle of
altitude to the additional height which the error of re-
fradlion will occafion at that altitude.
This inftrument (lands on three feet E diftant from
each other 14,4 inches;.and when all the parts are
horizontal is.about 29 inches high : the weight of the
equatorial and apparatus is only 59 lb. avoirdupoife,.
which are contained in a mahogany cafe weighing
581b.
The principal adjuftment in this inftrument is that
of making the line of collimation to deferibe a portion >
of an hour-circle in the heavens; in order to whichr
the azimuth circle mull be truly level, the line of col--
Ihnation..
592 ASTRO
Aftronomi-Kmation or Tome correfponding line reprefented by the
cal Inftru- fmall brafs rod M parallel to it, mull be perpendicular
PKnt;- to the axis of its own proper motion ; and this laft
axis mult be perpendicular to the polar axis: on the
‘brafs rod M there is occafionally placed a hanging level
N, the ufe of which will appear in the following ad-
juftments:
The azimuth-circle may be made level by turning
the inflrument till one of the levels is parallel to an
imaginary line joining two of the feet fcrews; then ad-
juft that level with thefe two feet fcrews; turn the circle
half round, /. e. i8o° ; and if the bubble be not then
right, correct half the error by the fcrew belonging to
the level, and the other half error by the two foot
fcrews; repeat this till the bubble comes right; then
turn the circle 90° from the two former pofitions, and
fet the bubble right, if it be wrong, by the foot fcrew
at the end of the level; when this is done, adjuft the
other level by its own fcrew, and the azimuth-circle
will be truly level. The hanging level mull then be
fixed to the brafs rod by two hooks of equal length,
and made truly parallel to it: for this purpofe make
the polar axis perpendicular or nearly perpendicular
to the horizon ; then adjuft the level by the pinion of
the declination-femicircle; reverfe the level, and if it
be wrong, correct half the error by a fmall fteel fcrew
that lies under one end of the level, and the other
half error by the pinion of the declination-femicircle;
repeat this till the bubble be right in both pofitions.
In order to make the brafs rod on which the level is
fufpended at right angles to the axis of motion of the
telefcope or line of collimation, make the polar axis
horizontal, or nearly fo : fet the declination-femicircle
to o°, turn the hour circle till the bubble comes right;
then turn the declination-circle to 90°; adjuft the
bubble by railing or deprefiing the polar axis (firft by
hand till it be nearly right, afterwards tighten with an
ivory key. the focket which runs on the arch with the
polar axis, and then apply the fame ivory key to the
adjufting fcrew at -the end of the faid arch till the
bubble comes quite right); then turn the declination-
circle to the oppofite 90°; if the level be not then
fight, correct half the error by the aforefaid adjuftin’g
fcrew at the end of the arch, and the other half error
by the two fcrews which raife or deprefs the end of
the brafs rod. The polar axis remaining nearly hori¬
zontal as before, and the declination-femicircle at o°,
adjuft the bubble by the hour-circle ; then turn the
declination-femicircle to 90°, and adjuft the bubble by
raifing or deprelfing the polar axis ; then turn the
hour-circle 12 hours; and if the bubble be wrong,
correct half the error by the polar axis, and the other
half error by the two pair of capflan fcrews at the
feet of the two fupports' on one fide of the axis of mo¬
tion of the telefcope; and thus this axis will be at
right angles to the polar axis. The next adjuftment is
to make the centre of crofs hairs remain on the fame
objedf, while you turn the eye-tube quite round by
the pinion of the refraftion apparatus: for this adjuft¬
ment, fet the index on the Hide to the firft divifion on
the dove-tail; and fet the divifion marked 18" on the
refradrion-circle to its index ; then look through the
telefcope, and with the pinion turn the eye-tube quite
round ; and if the centre of the hairs does not remain
on the fame fpot during that revolution, it mull be
re 3;.
N O M T. Sea. XIII.
corrected by the four fmall fcrews, two and two at a Aftronomi-
time (which you will find upon unfcrewing the neareftcal Inftru*
end of the eye-tube that contains the firft eye-glafs)
repeat this corredtion till the centre of the hairs re- v
mains on the fpot you are looking at during an entire
revolution. In order to make the line of collimation
parallel to the brafs rod on which the level hangs, fet
the polar axis horizontal, and the declination-circle to
90°, adjuft the level by the polar axis; look through
the telefcope on fome diftant horizontal objeifd, covered
by the centre of the crofs hairs.; then invert the tele¬
fcope, which is done by turning the hour-circle half
round ; and if the centre of the crofs hairs does not
cover the fame objedt as before, correft half the error
by the uppermoft and lowermoft of the four fmall
fcrews at the eye-end of the large tube of the tele-
icope ; this correction will give a fecond objedt now co¬
vered by the centre of the hairs, which muft be adopted
inftead of the firft objedt : then invert the telefcope as
before; and if the lecond objedt be not covered by
the centre of the hairs, corredt half the error by the
fame two fcrews which were ufed before : this correc¬
tion will give a third objedt, now covered by the centre
of the hairs, which muft be adopted inftead of the fe¬
cond objedt; repeat this operation till no error remains;
then fet the hour-circle exadtly to 12 hours (the decli¬
nation circle remaining at 90° as before); and if the
centre of the crofs hairs does not cover the laft objedt
fixed on, fet it to that objedt by the two remaining
fmall fcrewrs at the eye-end of the large tube, and then
the line of collimation will be parallel to the brafs rod.
For redtifying the nonius of the declination and equa¬
torial circles, lower the telefcope as many degrees,
minutes, and feconds, below o° or iE on the decli¬
nation-femicircle as are equal to the complement of
the latitude; then elevate the polar axis till the bubble
be horizontal, and thus the equatorial circle will be
elevated to the collatitude of the place ; fet this circle
to 6 hours ; adjuft the level by the pinion of the decli¬
nation-circle ; then turn the equatorial circle exadtly
12 hours from the laft pofition; and if the level be not
right, corredt one half of the error by the equatorial
circle, and the other half by the declination-circle;
then turn the equatorial circle back again exadtly 12
hours from the laft pofition; and if the level be ftill
wrong, repeat the corredtion as before till it be right,
when turned to either pofition ; that being done, fet
the nonius of the equatorial circle exadtly to 6 hours,,
and the nonius of fhe decjination-circle exadtly to o°.
The principal ufes of this equatorial are,
1. To find your meridian by one obfervation only :
for this purpofe, elevate the equatorial circle to the
co-latitude of the place, and fet the declination-fe¬
micircle to the fun’s declination for the day and
hour of the day required ; then move the azimuth
and hour circles both at the fame time, either in the
fame or contrary diredtion, till you bring the centre
of the crofs hairs in the telefcope exadtly to cover
the centre of the fun; when that is done, the index
of the hour-circle will give the apparent or folar
time at the inftant of obfervation ; and thus the time
is gained, though the fun be at a diftance from the
meridian; then turn the hour-circle till the index
points precifely at 12 o’clock, and lower the telefcope
to the horizon, in order to obferve fome point there
Plate X(
AS TR O Is" O M V.
Portable AS TKOISTO MICAL Quadrant.
Tranfit Initrument.
' ^■"/'fvnZ/fr/S fctt^/er frr//
Puiverlal Equa torial
J93
Sea. XIII. ASTRO
in the centre of your glafs, and that point is your me¬
ridian mark found by one obfervation only; the belt
time for this operation is three hours before or three
hours after 12 at noon.
2. To point the telefcope on a ftar, though not on
the meridian, in full day-light. Having elevated the
equatorial circle to the co-latitude of the place, and
fet the declination-femicircle to the liar’s declination,
N O M Y.
move the index of the hour-circle till it lhall point to
the precife time at which the ftar is then diftant from
the meridian, found in tables of the right afcenfion of
the liars, and the ftar will then appear in the glafs.
Befides thefe ufes peculiar to this inftrument, it is alfo
applicable to all the purpofes to which the principal
aftronomical inftruments, viz. a tranlit, a quadrant,
and an equal altitude inftrument, are applied.
INDEX.
A
Aberration of light, difcovered
by Dr Bradley, n° 32. Fur-
nilhes an argument for the
earth’s motion, 337. Reafon
of the light’s aberration par¬
ticularly explained, ib.
Academy Royal at Paris found¬
ed by Merfennus, 30.
Albategnius, a celebtated Ara¬
bian aftronomer reforms the
fcience, 17.
Alexander the Great obtains the
aftronomical obfervations of
the Chaldeans, 6.
Alexandria: a famous aftrono¬
mical fchool fet up there by
Ptolemy Philadelphus, 12.
Algol, or Medufa’s head, a va¬
riable ftar, changes its luftre
in four hours, 49.
Al Hazen an Arabian, Ihows
the nature of refraction, &c.
I7*
Almagejl of Ptolemy, an aftro¬
nomical treatife on the means
of reviving the fcience in Eu¬
rope, 18.
Alphonfo king of Caftile caufes
aftronomical tables to becon-
ftrufted, 18.
Altitudes of the celeftial bodies,
how taken, 379.
Anaxagoras foretels an eclipfe,
10. His opinion concerning
the fun, 121.
Anaximander introduces the
gnomon into Greece, &c. 1 o.
Anaximenes improves the aftro-
nomy of the Greeks, 10. A b-
furd opinions of him and A-
naximander concerning the
fun, 121.
Angles : errors unavoidable in
themenfuration offmallones,
339-
Antecedence, motion in explain¬
ed, 292.
Antediluvians fuppofed to have
made confiderable progrefs
in aftronomy, 1.
Vol. II. Part II.
Anticipation of the equinoxes
explained, 349.
Aphelion of the planets defined,
254. Place of the aphelia of
the different planets, 255.
Motion of the aphelion ac¬
counted for, 268.
Apogeon of the moon defined,
29 r. Its motion determined,
294. Inequalities in its mo¬
tion, 295. Occafion an in¬
equality in the moon’s mo¬
tion, 296. Apogeon of the
planets explained, 325.
Appian, one of the fucceffors of
Copernicus, his improve¬
ments in aftronomy, 22.
Arabians cultivate the fcience
of aftronomy when it was
neglefted in the weft, 17.
Archimedes makes great difeo-
veries in aftrondmy, 13.
Arijlarchus determines the di-
ftance of the fun by the
moon’s dichotomy, 12. This
method particularly explain¬
ed, 389. Its infufficiency
(hown, 390.
Arijlotle embraces the fyftem of
aftronomy afterwards called
the Ptolemaic, 11. His opinion
concerning comets, 164.
Aryjlillus and Timocharis firft
cultivate the aftronomical
fcience in the fchool of A-
lexandria, 12.
Afcenfion, right, of the fun and
liars, ho w to find it, 4 r 1,412.
Afpeils of the planets explain¬
ed, 321.
Afiralzodazc explained, 381.
Agronomical knowledge of the
Antediluvians,!. OftheChi-
nefe, 2. Of the Indians, 4.
Of the Mexicans, 5. Of the
Chaldeans and Egyptians, 6.
Of the Phoenicians, 7. Of
the Greeks, 8. Of the A-
rabians, 17. Revival of it
in Europe, 18.
AJlronomical injlruments, de-
feription of thofe now in ufe,
495-
AJlronomical fed}or delineated,
499.
AJlronomical problems, a me¬
thod invented by Appian of
refolving them by inftru¬
ments without tables or cal¬
culations, 22.
Aflronomical quadrant invented
by Nonius, 22. Divided by
concentric circles and dia¬
gonals, ib. Method of di¬
viding it Ihown by Appian,
ib.
Atlas, a celeftial one compofed
by Bayer, 26.
Atmofphere : Whether the pla¬
net Venus has one furround¬
ing her, 78. Mr Herfchel’s
account of the atmofphere of
Mars, 90. Atmofpheres of
comets very large, 111. Whe¬
ther the fun has an atmo¬
fphere, 123. Whether the
moon has any, 147.
Attrattion: Confequences of its
aftion among the moft di¬
ftant liars, 215. Prevents
them from remaining abfo-
lutely at reft, 234. Is diffu-
fed throughout the fubftance
of all matter, 202. Aftse-
qually through the whole u-
niverfe, 305. Is an univerfal
property of matter, 308. So¬
lution of a difficulty concern¬
ing it derived from the moon’s
motion, 361.
Auzout applies a micrometer to
telefcopes, 3T.
B
Babylon: Aftronomical obfer¬
vations made there for 1903
years, 6.
Barometer : Why it is not af¬
fected by the moon, 369.
Bayer, John, his celeftial atlas
and nomenclature of the liars,
26.
Bear, Greater, Chinefe delinea¬
tion of that conftellation, 3.
Unfit for making obferva¬
tions at fea, on account of Its
diftance from the pole, 7.
Beam : The tail of a comet fo
called when it appears with¬
out the head being vifible,
112.
Bear, Lejfer : A proper guide
for navigators,7. Knowledge
of this conftellation introdu¬
ced into Greece by Thales,
9-
Belts : One obferved by Ma-
raldi on the body of Mars,
80. Two others obferved by
him afterwards, ib. Belts of
Jupiter difcovered by Fonta-
na,89. Cannot be feen butby
an excellent telefcope, ib.
Vary in their number from
one to eight, ib. Sometimes
feem to flow into one ano¬
ther, ib. Are extremely va¬
riable in the time of their
continuance, ib. Black fpots
fometimes viiible in them, ib.
Two permanent belts difeo-
verable on Saturn parallel to
the edge of his ring, 106.
Some bright belts difcovered
on this planet by Caffini and
Fatio, 106.
Belas, temple of at Babylon,
fuppofed to have been an a-
ftronomical obfervatory, 6.
Bergman’s account of the tran-
fit of Venus over the fun, 78.
2?er«0zri///’sconjeCturesconcern-
ing comets, 167.
Bianchini’s obfervations on the
planet Venus, 71. His dif-
fpute with Caffini concerning
the time of her revolution oa
her axis, 73.
Bodin : His ridiculous opinion
concerning comets, 166.
Bradley, Dr. fucceeds Dr Hal¬
ley as aftronomer-royal, 33.
Difcovers the leffer planetary
inequalities, the aberration of
4 F light
594
light, and nutation of the
earth’s axis, &c. 33. Corre&s
the lunar and other tables,
and makes a vaft number of
celeftial obfervations, ib.
Briggs, Henry, improves the
logarithmic tables of Napier,
and conftrusfts much larger
ones, 28.
Brigbtnefs of the fun and fixed
{tars compared, 199.
Brydone, Mr Patrick, his obfer-
vation of the velocity of a
comet, 184. His conjectures
concerning comets without
tails, 187.
C
Calippus invents a period of 76
years, 11.
Qajfmi diftinguifhes himfelf as
aftronomer-royal at Paris, 33.
Difcovers the fatellites, belts,
&c. of Saturn, 31. His ob¬
fervations on the fpots of Ve¬
nus, 66. His conclufions
concerning the revolution of
that planet on her axis, 69.
Difpute betwixt his fon and
Bianchini on thisfubjett, 73.
Has a view of the fatellite
of Venus, 74. Obferves the
fpots on Mars, 80. An ob-
fervation of his concerning
the atmofphere of Marsdoubt-
ed by Mr Plerfchel, 90. His
obfervation on the tail of the
comet of 1680, 1 15. His
explanation of the zodiacal
light, 124.
Caffiopeia : A new ftar appears
in that conltellation in 1572,
45. Conjeftures concerning
it by Mr Pigot, 47.
Celejiial/paces void of all fen-
fible matter, 261.
Centre of gravity: Sun and pla¬
nets revolve about a common
one, and why, 297. Place of
the common centre of gra¬
vity betwixt the earth and
moon, 306.
Centripetalfirces explained, 257.
How they may occafion the
revolution of a body round a
centre, 258. And caufe it
defcribe a curve of any kind,
259. Proved to extend
throughout the folar fyftem,
265. Differently denomi¬
nated according to the bo¬
dies in which they aft, 266.
Chaldee a, a proper country for
aftronomical obfervations, 6.
Chdldaans difpute with the E-
gyptians the honour of being
ASTRO
the firft cultivators of aftro-
nomy, 6. Extreme antiqui¬
ty of their obfervations, ib.
Account of their aftronomi¬
cal knowledge from Petavi-
us, ib.
Chancsler, an Englifhman, dif¬
covers the diagonal method
of dividing quadrants, 25.
Chappe's obfervations on the
tranfit of Venus, 79.
China fuppofed to have been
peopled by Noah, 2.
Chinefe •' Wiry fo early inftruft-
ed in the knowledge of aftro-
nomy, 2. Said to derive it
from their firft emperorFohi,
fuppofed to be Noah, ib.
Their names for the figns of
the zodiac, 3. Divide the
heavens into 2 8 conftellations,
ib. Method of delineating
thefe conftellations, ib. Were
early acquainted with the
pole ftar, mariner’s com-
pafs, &c. ib. Said to have
calculated a great number
of eclipfes, ib. Enormous
errors in fome of their cal¬
culations, ib. P. Gaubil’s ac¬
count of their aftronomical
knowledge, ib. Du Halde’s
account ot Tcheu-cong’s ob-
fervatory, ib. Have an a-
ftronomical tribunal, ib. A-
ftronomy now in a very low
ftate among them, and why,
ib.
Chiron the Centaur makes a ce¬
leftial fphere, 11.
Clairault, Mr, his accuracy in
calculating the return of the
comet in 1759, 192-
Clark, Dr: A ftar obferved by
his father through the fpace
betwixt the ring and body of
Saturn, 104.
Climates fettled by Pytheas of
Marfeilles, 11.
Clock, aftronomical, how ufed,
496. How adjufted by the
fun’s tranfit over the meri¬
dian, 501.
Clujler of filars : Mr Herfchel’s
diftinftion betwixt this and a
place of the heavens crowded
with them, 223.
Co/e’shypothefis concerning co¬
mets, 188.
Comets fuppofed by fome of the
Chaldaeans to be permanent
bodies revolving like the pla¬
nets, 6. Suppofed by others
to be only meteors, ib. Call¬
ed wandering ftarsby Pytha-
N O M Y.
goras, 11. Comet of 1500
obferved by Warner, 21. The
return of one predifted by
Dr Halley, 33. General ac¬
count of their appearance to
the naked eye, 43. Four
hundred and fifty fuppofed to
belong to our folar fyftem,
ib. Have a fplendor inferior
to the other heavenly bodies,
and are apt to lofe great part
of it fuddenly, ib. Their
appearance through tele-
fcopes, 11 o. Are furround-
ed with atmofpheres of a
prodigious fize, MI. Have
fometimes different phafes
like the moon,ib. Dr Long’s
account of them, 112. Their
heads feem to be compofed
of a folid nucleus and fur¬
rounding atmofphere, 11 o,
112. Nucleus fometimes
breaks in pieces, mo, 112.
Are generally furniftied with
luminous tails which diftin-
guifh them from other ttars,
43, 112. Different ap¬
pearances of their tails ex¬
plained and accounted for,
113. Called bearded comets
when the tail hangs down¬
wards, 114. Extreme length
of the tails of fome comets,
114,179. fievelius obferves
the comet of 1665 t0 call a
(hadowonitstaihuy. This
obfervation difputed by Mr
Hooke, ib. Comet of 1680
approaches within a fixth
part of the fun’s diameter to
his furface, 116. Account
of the comet of 1744,0° 117.
Was thought capable of di-
fturbing the motion of Mer¬
cury, but did not, ib.
Shown to be incapable of do¬
ing fo by Dr Betts of Ox¬
ford, ib. Account of the
different changes it under¬
went, ib. Undulation ofour
atmofphere caufes the tails
of comets feem to fparkle,
andlengthen, andfhorten, ib.
Why the comet of 1759
made fuch an inconfiderable
appearance, 118. Hevelius’s
account of the appearances
ofdifferent comets, 110,115,
117, 118. Suppofed to be
the forerunners of various
calamities, 162. Held by
fome of the ancient Greeks
to be planets, 163. Suppo¬
fed by Ariftotle to be me-
s
Index.
tcors, 164. This opinion
contradifted by Seneca, who
foretold that their true na¬
ture and motions would be
difcovered, ib. Only one
fpecles of them exifts, 165.
Their appearances vary by
reafon of their fituation, &c.
ib. Suppofed by Kepler and
Bodin to be animals or fpi-
rits, 166. By Bernouilli to
be the fatellites of a diftant
planet, 167. Tycho-Brahe
revives the true doftrine con¬
cerning them, 168. Few
comets have a diurnal, but
ail an annual parallax, ib.
Suppofed by fome to move in
flraight lines, ib. By Kep¬
ler, in parabolic trajeftories,
ib. Demonftrated by New¬
ton to move in very eccentric
eclipfes, 169. Foundation of
Dr Halley’s prediction of
the return of comet’s, 170,
190. Periodical times of dif¬
ferent comets ^determined,
1 71. May fometimes be in-
vifible during their periheli¬
on, by reafon of their being
above our horizon in the
day-time, 172. Ancient ob-
iervation of a comet in this
fituation during an eclipfe of
the fun, ib. Why more co¬
mets are feen in the hemif-
phere turned towards the fun
than in that removed from
him, 173. Great differen¬
ces in the eccentricities of
the orbits ofdifferent comets,
as well as of their velocities
in them, 174. Planes of
fome of their orbits almofl
perpendicular to others, ib.
Suppofed by Hevelius to be
tranfparent, 175. Demon¬
ftrated by Newton to be o-
paque bodies reflefting the
fun’s light, ib. Are of dif¬
ferent magnitudes and at dif¬
ferent diftances, but moft fre¬
quently fmaller than the earth,
176. Computations of the
diftances and diameters of
fome of them, ib. Eclipfes
fuppofed to be occafioned by
them, 1 77. Their tails fup¬
pofed by Tycho-Brahe, Des
Cartes, and others, to be oc¬
cafioned by refraftion, i 78,
j 79. By Newton to be a
vapour raifed by the heat
of the fun, ib. By Mai-
ran, to be formed of the fun’s
at-
Index.
atmofphere, 179. By de la
JLande, to be occafioned by
the rarefa&ion of their own
atmofpheres, ib. ObjedHons
to Newton’s opinion by Mr
Rouning, ib. By Dr Ha¬
milton of Dublin, who fup-
pofes their tails to be itreams
of ele&ric matter, 180. Sir
Ifaac’saccountdefended, 181.
Objections to Dr Hamilton’s
hypothefis, 182. Prodigious
velocity of a comet obferved
by Mr Brydone, 184. Of
that of 1680, according to
Sir Ifaac Newton, 179. Ex-
ceffive heat of that comet,
according to the fame author,
185,186. Doubted by Dr
Dong, 185. The deluge fup-
pofed by Whifton to be oc¬
cafioned by a comet, ib. Ap¬
parent changes in the comets
attributedby Newton to their
atmofpheres, 186. He fup-
pofes that the comet of 1680
muft. at laft fall into the fun,
ib. That water and a kind
of vital fpirit are derived from
the tails of comets, ib. Co¬
mets without tails fuppofed
by Mr Brydone always to fall
into the fun, 187. Comets
fuppofed by Mr Cole to be
fubjett to the attra&ion of
different centres, 188. How
to calculate their periodical
times, 189. Difference be¬
tween the calculations of Mr
Euler and thofe of Newton
and Halley, ib. Comet of
1744 feemed to move in a
parabola,ib. Periodical times
of comets may be changed
by the attraclion of the pla¬
nets or other comets, 191.
Comets fuppofed by Des
Cartes to be without the fo-
lar fyllem, 298. Demon-
ftrated by Newton to pafs
thro’ the planetary regions,
and to begenerallyinvilibleat
a fmaller diftance than Jupi¬
ter, 299. His explanation
oftheirmotionsand directions
how to calculate them, 300,
301. Why they move in
places fo different from thofe
of the planets, ib.
Cometarium, 492.
Conflagration, general, fuppofed
by Whiiton to be occafioned
by a comet, 185.
Conjunttion of Saturn and Ju¬
piter, obferved by Tycho in
ASTRO
1563, 24. Explanation of
the conjunctions and oppo-
fitions of the planets, 320.
Confequ.ence,vn.Q'C\o\\ '\n, explain¬
ed, 292.
Conjiellations of the Chinefe,
how marked, 3. A number
of ftars arranged in them by
the Chaldeans, 6. Molt of
them fuppofed by Sir Ifaac
Newton to be invented about
the time of the Argonautic
expedition, 8. Ufes of this
divifion of the heavens, 403.
Catalogue of them, 406.
Copernicus revives the Pytha¬
gorean fyltem of aftronomy,
22. Determines the perio¬
dical time of the moon, 422.
Curve of any kind may be
defcribed by a body a61ed
upon by projeftile and cen¬
tripetal forces, 259.
D.
Darknefs at our Saviour’s cru¬
cifixion fuppofed to be owing
to an eclipfe bya comet, 177.
Could not be owing to a fo-
lareclipfe by the moon, 450.
Declination of the fun: Impro¬
ved tables of it conftrubted
by Mr Wright, 26. Decli¬
nation of the celeftial bodies
explained, 315. How to
compute the declination of
the fun, 411.
De la l.ande objefts to Dr Wil-
fon’s theory of the folar fpots,
136. The Do&or’s reply
to his objedions, 137. Re¬
marks on La Lande’s theo¬
ry, 197. His.opinion con¬
cerning the tails of comets,
.85.
Deluge fuppofed by Whifton to
be occafioned by a comet,
.85.
Denjities of the heavenly bo¬
dies how determined, 310.
Des Cartes objedts to the pro-
jed of a refleding telefcope,
31. His opinion concerning
the tails of comets, 179.
His fyltem overthrown by
Newton, 261.
Diagonals, method of dividing
quadrants, &c. by them in¬
vented by Chanceler an Eng-
lilhman, 25. Is not exad
unlefs curved diagonals be
made ufe of, ib.
Dialling in ufe among the Chal¬
deans long before the Greeks
had any knowledge of it, 6.
Diameters, apparent, of the
N O M Y.
planets differ at different
times, 326. Computation
of their different diameters,
ib.
Dilatation of. the moon’s orbit
how caufed, 285.
Direft motions of the planets
explained, 323.
Dotland’s achromatic telefcopes:
Caution to be obferved in
ufmg them, 144.
Druids fuppofed to have been
well Ikilled in aftronomy,! 1.
Dunn's account of the folar
fpots, 62. His obfervations
on the tranfit of Veni.s, 78.
His hypothefis concerning
variable ftars, 196. His ex¬
planation of the horizontal
moon, 375.
E.
Earth fuppofed to be fpherical
by the Egyptians, 6. Its
rotation on its axis taught
byHicetastheSyracufian,i 1.
A great circle of it meafured
by Eratollhenes by means of
a gnomon, 12. A degree of
it meafured again by order
of the caliph A1 Mamun, 1 7.
True figure of the earth dif-
covered by Newton, 34. A
degree meafured under the
equator and near the poles
by order of the king of
France, ib. Revolves with
the moon about a common
centre of gravity, 278. Ef-
fe&s of its motion on the
apparent motions of the pla¬
nets, 324. Its diftance from
the fun, velocity in its orbit,
&c. 333. Proofs of its mo¬
tion, 354. From the propor¬
tional decreafe of gravity,
335. Objections from the
parallelifm of its axis anfwer-
ed} 336. Proof of its motion
from the aberration of light,
337.. Objeftion from the
apparent motion of the fun
anfwered, 340. Proof from
the fpheroidal figure of the
earth, 341. From the cele¬
ftial appearances as viewed
from different planets, 343.
Objection from the perpen¬
dicular defeent of bodies an¬
fwered, 344. Its diurnal
motion illullrated by experi¬
ment, 345. Appears a moon
to the inhabitants of our
moon, 352. Has a fpherical
figure, and calls a conical
lhadow, 427, 429.
595
Ehn Tounes obferves three lunar
eclipfeswith the utmoft accu¬
racy,by which the quanti ty of
the moon’s acceleration has
fince been determined, 17.
Eclipfes obferved by the Chi¬
nefe, and made ufe of by them
to fettle their chronology, 3.
Of Jupiter’s fatellites, 97.
At what time thefe eclipfes
are vifible, 102. Moon fome-
times difappears when eclip-
fed, 146. A luminous ring
feen round the moon in the
time of total eclipfes of the
fun, 149. A comet feen
during the time of a folar
eclipfe, 172. Sometimes oc¬
cafioned by comets, 177.
Eclipfes particularly defined,
426. Why there are fo few
eclipfes, 430. Their appear¬
ances determined from the
motion of the moon’s nodes,
431. A complete revolu¬
tion of eclipfes in 223 luna¬
tions after the fun, moon,
and nodes, have once been in
a line ofconjundtion, ib. To
know when the fame eclipfe
returns again, 432. Eclip¬
fes of the fun which happen
when the moon is in the af-
cending node come in at the
north pole, and in the de-
feending node at the fouth,
ib. Exemplified from the
folar eclipfe in 1764, ^433.
And from that of 1748, n3
434. All the phenomena of
a fingle eclipfe completed in
about 1000 years, 435. Sel¬
dom more than two remark¬
able appearances of the fame
eclipfe during this period,
436. Very ancient eclipfes
coming in by the north pole,
436. Example of eclipfes
cannot be calculated by our
tables,438. Eclipfesinayear
cannot be fewer than two, or
more than feven, 439. E«-
lipfes of the fun more fre¬
quent than thofe of the moon,
ib. Why more lunar ec¬
lipfes are obferved than folar,
440. Total and annulareclip-
fes explained, 441. Uluftra-
tion of the beginning and
ending of a folar eclipfe, 443.
How the appearance of ec¬
lipfes is affe&ed by the pofi-
tion of the earth’s axis, 444.
Of the duration of eclipfes in
different parts of the earth,
4 F a 445.
59^
445* Lunar eclipfes ex¬
plained, 446. Whythe moon
is generally vifible when? ec-
lipfed,447. Difficulty in ob-
ferving lunar eclipfes, 448.
Ufe of eclipfes in determin¬
ing the longitude of places,
449. Method of conftrudf-
ing tables for the calculation
of eclipfes, 451. Diredtions
for their ufe, 452. Requi-
fites for proje&ing an eclipfe
of the fun, 461. Geometri¬
cal projeftion of an eclipfe
of the fun, 470. Projedlion
of lunar eclipfes, 471. Fre¬
quency of the eclipfes of Ju¬
piter’s fatellites, 482. Ac¬
celeration of thefe eclipfes
not owing to the motions of
the fatellites themfelves^Sy.
Ecliptic, its obliquity deter¬
mined by Albategnius to be
23° 35 > n° I7* Settled by
Purbach at 23° 33^', n J 19.
The fame with the heliocen¬
tric circle of the earth, or
that in which it revolves
round the fun, 312. Called
the ecliptic becaufe the fun
and moon are near it when
eclipfed, ib. Its obliquity
found todecreafe, 407. How¬
to find the obliquity of it,
409. To find the fun’s place
in it, 411.
Egypt, a proper country for a-
ftronomical obfervations on
account of the purity of the
air, 6.
Egyptians, their knowledge in
aftronomy, 6. Suppofed by
Herodotus to have been in-
ftru&ed in the fcience by Se-
foftris, ib. Knew the true
figure of the earth, the caufe
of eclipfes, &c. ib. At¬
tempted to meafure the mag¬
nitudes of the earth and fun,
but by very erroneous me¬
thods, ib. Their knowledge
of aftronomy entirely loft in
the time of the emperor
Auguftus, ib.
Elettric matter cannot be ma¬
naged but by allowing it to
diredt its owu motions, 182.
Is capable of making a vio¬
lent refiftance in certaincafes,
ib.
Equal altitude inftrument deferi-
bed, 502,
Equation of time explained,
383-
Equatoriald.efcribed, 499.
ASTRO
Equatorial or portable obferva-
tory deferibed, 504.
Equinoxes, preceffion of them
explained, 348. Caufe of
their anticipation, 349.
Eratofhenes attempts to mea¬
fure a degree of the earth’s
circumference, 12.
Eternity of the world difproved
from the fyftem being evi¬
dently periffiable, 272.
Eudoxus firft introduces geome¬
try into aftronomy, 11.
Euler, difference between his
calculations and thofe of
Newton and Halley concern¬
ing the periodical return of
the comet of i68o, n° 189.
Europe, aftronomy revived in it,
18.
Eccentricity of the moon's orbit
found out by Hipparchus,
14. Of the orbits of the
different planets, 255. In¬
equality in the eccentricity
of the moon’s orbit occafion-
ed by the motion of her apo-
geon, 296. How to deter¬
mine the eccentricity of the
earth’s orbit, 415.
F.
Falling bodies, calculation of
their velocity, 277.
Patio's obfervations on the fo-
lar eclipfe in 1706,0° 149.
Fergufon's explanation of the
horizontal moon, 374. His
method of drawing a meri¬
dian line, 376.
Ferner's obfervations on the
tranfit of Venus, 78.
Final caufes, Nicholfon’s opi¬
nion on them, 160.
Fixed Stars. See Stars.
Flaniflead appointed aftrono-
mer-royal at Greenwich, 33.
Makes a catalogue of the
ftars, ib. His computation
of the height of the moon’s
atmofphere, 149.
Pouchy's obfervations on the
tranfit of Venus, 78.
French afronomers, their im¬
provements, 35.
Full moon, how to calculate the
time of it by the tables, 454,
455> 45 6> 457-
G.
Gaber, the Arabian, founds the
prefent method of trigono¬
metry, 1 7.
Galileo firft brings telefcopes to
any perfedlion^ 27. Difco-
vers the uncommon fliape of
Saturn, 103. Difcovers the
N O M Y.
fpots on the fun, 58. His
method of meafuring the
height of the lunar moun¬
tains, 141.
Gauging the heavens, Mr Her-
fchel’s method of doing fo,
210, 220.
Geocentric latitude of a fuperior
planet, how found, 316.
Geometry firft introduced into
aftronomy by Eudoxus, 11.
Georgium Sidus, a new planet,
40. Hiftory of its difeove-
ry, 328, Iff feq. Computa¬
tions of its diftance, 330.
Globe: the firft made by A-
naximander, 10. The courfe
of the fun, &c. exhibited in
a globe by Pythagoras, 11.
Globe, improved celeftial one,
493-
Graham makes great improve¬
ments in mathematical in-
ftruments, 32.
Gravity firft affumed as a mo¬
ving principle by Kepler, 26.
Moon retained in her orbit
By it, 275. Its properties
demonftrated by pendulums,
303. To determine its power
on any planet, 509.
Greeks : their knowledge in
aftronbmy, 8. Improved by
Thales, 9. By Anaximan¬
der, &c. 10.
Gregory, James, of Aberdeen,
firft ihows how a refie&ing
telefcope might be conftrudl-
ed, 31.
H.
Hadley improves the refle&ing
telefcope, and invents the
- reflefting quadrant, 32.
Halley, Dr. fucceeds Mr Flam-
ftead as aftronomer-royal, 33.
Difcovers the acceleration of
the moon, ib. His hiftory
of new ftars, 45. His ac¬
count of a folar eclipfe in
1715, 150. Predicts the
return of comets, 170, 190.
Hamilton, Dr. of Dublin, his
hypothefis concerning the
tails of comets, 18®.
Harvejl-moon accounted for,
370. Why the fame phe¬
nomenon is not obferved at
other times, 371.
Heavens, Mr W ollafton’s me¬
thod of making a map of
them, 55. Mr Herfchel’s
opinion concerning theircon-
ftru&ion, 202, 214. They
cannot be properly repre-
fented by a fphere, ib. His
Index.
method of meafuring their :
dimenfions, 220.
Heliocentric circles of the pla¬
nets, the fame with their or- |
bits round the fun, 311. He- I
liocentric latitude of any bo- |;
dy defined, 315.
Herfchel'% account of the fpots \
on the planet Mars, 82. 3
Makes great difeoveries in 1
the ftarry regions, x 19. And |
a vaft number of nebulae, j
xi 7. His obfervations on |
the height of the lunar 1
mountains, 143. Difcovers 1
volcanoes in the moon, 145. |
Solution of the celeftial phe- I
nomena on his hypothefis of |
the conftru&ion of the hea¬
vens, 208. His method of
gauging the heavens, 210. 1
His account of the interior
conftru&ion of the heavens
214. Length of the line by j
which he meafures the di- I
menfions of the heavens, 222. j
Arguments in favour of his ]
hypothefis from the obferva- '
tions of Mr Mayer, 241.
Hcvelius, a celebrated aftrono- |
mer of Dantzic, 30. Ac- j
count of his obfervations, ib. jj
His difpute with Dr Hooke
about telefcopic fights, ib. |
Dr Halley pays him a vifit in ^
order to decide it, ib. Ex¬
treme accuracy of the in- I
ftruments of Hevelius, ib. 1
His account of the folar 1
fpots,59,6x. His method of j
meafuring the height of the |
lunar mountains, 141. His I
opinions concerning comets, j
175, 186.
Hipparchus difcovers the mo- j
tions of the ftars from the J
obfervations of Timocharis J
and Aryftillus, 12. Firft ap- ^
plies himfelf to the ftudy of. j
all the parts of aftrono- J
my, 14. Difcovers the orbits |
of the planets to be eccen- ]
trie, ib. Colledls accounts
of eclipfes, forms theories of j
the celeftial motions, and at- ]
tempts to calculate the fun’s
dillance, ib. This method
particularly explained, 387.
Its infufficiency Ihown, 388.
Hirjl’s obfervations on the at¬
mofphere of Venus, 78.
Hooke’s difpute with Hevelius
about the fuperiority of te¬
lefcopic fights, 30. Obferves
the motion of a fpot on the
diik
t Index.
| diflc of Jupiter, 9?.
MHorizontal moon explained by
1 AI Hazen, 17. ByMrFer-
n gufon, 374. By Mr Dunn,
I 375-
ib' Horizontal parallax of the
I moon, how to find it, 375.
%Horrox firllobferves the tranfit
B of Venus over the fun’s diflt
1 in 1639, n° 29.
b Hug gens makes great improve-
B ments in the conftruftion of
R telefcopes, 31. Difcovers
■ the ring of Saturn, 104. His
I fuppofition concerning the
R planetary inhabitants critici-
H fed by Dr Long, 157.
m Hydra, account of a variable
R liar in that conllellation, 50.
I.
I Indentation, how a fpot may ap-
I pear to make one in the fun’s
1 limb, i 38.
I Indians, their great progrefs in
I aftronomy according to Mr
I Bailly, 4. Extreme anti¬
quity of their obfervations,
ib. Inferior planets, how
to find their geocentric pla¬
ces, 322.
P Injlruments : great inaccuracy
of thofe formerly ufed by a-
ftronomers,20. Appianfolves
aftronomical problems by
means of them alone, 22.
Great accuracy of thofe of
| Hevelius, 30. Firll impro-
H ved in England, 32.
I jfofephus, his fentiments con¬
i’ cefning the aftronomy of the
I antediluvians, 1.
S Irregularities arifing from the
I motion of the moon in an
I ellipfis, 290. SirlfaacNew-
| ton’s computation of them,
297.
Jupiter'% fatellites difeovered by
Galileo, 27. His apparent
diameter meafured by Heve¬
lius and Halley, 31. Accu¬
rate tables of the motions of
his fatellites compofed by
Wargentin, 35. His belts
firlt difeovered by Fontana,
91. Sometimes parallel to
one another, and at other
times not, ib. The motion
of the planet on his axis de¬
termined by the motion of
fpots appearing in the belts,
92. Has no difference of
feafons, 94. Is attended by
four moons or fatellites, 95.
Thefe in their revolutions
make a fmall angle with the
A S T 11
orbit of their primary, ib.
Their greatefl latitude only
2° 5 5', ib. Their diftances
and periodical times, 96. At
what times they appear di-
re£t, retrograde, &c. ib. Of
their occultations and eclip-
fes, 97. Appear like lucid
fpots on the body of their
primary when paflingbetwixt
us and it, ib. Sometimes
appear as dark fpots in that
cafe, 98. This fuppofed to
be owing to fpots on their
bodies, ib. Vary alfo in
their light and apparent mag¬
nitude from the fame caufe,
99. Sometimes feem lefs
than their fhadows, ib. Ap¬
pear always round, without
putting on any of the phafes
ofourmoon,ib. Inwhatcafes
their fhadows may be feen on
the difkof Jupiter, 100. Three
of themeclipfed in every revo¬
lution, 101. At what times
the eclipfes and occultations
of thefe moons became vi-
fible to us, 102. Of the light
enjoyed by Jupiter and the
other fuperior planets, 162.
His day equivalent to 3330
times our moon-light, 162.
Comets retarded in their
courfe by the attra&ion of
this planet, 191. Effedt of
this attradlion on the comet
of 1681, ib. The motion
of Saturn likewife influenced
by it, 269. The power of
his attraction difeovered by
the revolutions of his fatel¬
lites, 274. This planet con¬
tains 158J- times as much
matter as the earth, 309.
but is 44- times lefs denfe,
3x0. How to find the lon¬
gitude of places on earth by
the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fa¬
tellites, 482, et feq. Fre¬
quency of thefe eclipfes, ib*
The fatellites never eclipfe
one another, ib. At what
times the immerfions or e-
meffions are to be obferved,
483. See Belts and Eclipfesi
K.
Keill's method of finding the
diftance of the fun by ob-
ferving exactly the phafis of
tfie moon, 392.. Infufficiency
of it (howed, 393.
Kepler, his difeoveries concern¬
ing the planetary motions,
26. Imagines the planets
} N O M ^
and comets to be animated
beings, 166. Shows that
the comets do not move in
ftraight lines, 168.
L.
La Caille conftrudts excellent
folar tables, allowing for the
attra&ions of the planets, 36.
Determines the parallax of
the fun not to be above ten
feconds, ib.
Latitude of any phenomenon,
its diilance from the ecliptic,
315. How to find the lati¬
tude of any place on earth,
408. To find the latitudes
of the flars, 413.
Lexel, profeflbr at Peterlhurg,
his obfervations on the Geor-
gium Sidus, 330.
Libration of the moon, an ap¬
parent inequality in her mo¬
tion, owing to her equable
revolution on her axis, 420.
Lightning, fuppofed to be fre¬
quent in the moon, 153.
Light, its progreffive motion
difeovered by the eclipfes of
Jupiter’s fatellites, 33. Why
it is not refradted by the
moon’s atmofphere, 148.
That enjoyed by the fuperior
planets compared with our
day, 162. In what cafes it
may be fuppofed to return
to the body that emits it,
198. Its aberration, 337.
Its velocity, 338, 484.
Local zodiac explained, 318.
Logarithmic tables, by whom
compofed, 28.
Logarithms, faid to be known
by the Prince of Hefle be¬
fore they were difeovered by
Napier, 23. Of their difeo-
very by the latter, 26.
Long, Dr. his opinion of the
obfervations concerning the
atmofphere of Venus, 79,
His explanation of the dilap-
pearance of the fifth fatel-
lite of Saturn, ro8. His ac-
count of comets, 112. Of
the fpots of the fun,'59. His
conjedtures concerning them,
j 27. Suppofes that fome
of the dark fpots of the
moon may be feas, 146. His
anfwer to the arguments a-
gainft a lunar atmofphere,
147. His opinion on the
plurality of worlds, 157. His
conjedlures why comets may
fometimes be invifible in
their perihelion, 172.
J97
Longitude, the method of dif-
covering it at fea by the ap-
pulfes of the moon to fixed
flars, propofed by Warner,
21. Of difeovering the lon¬
gitudes of places on earth by
the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatel¬
lites, 27, 482. What fatel¬
lites are moft proper for this
purpofe, ib. Warner’s me¬
thod brought to perfedtion
by Nevil Maikelyne, 36.
Longitudes of the celeftial
bodies defined, 3 19. Longi¬
tude eaiily found by the lu¬
nar inhabitants, 354. How
to find the longitudes of the
ftarsr4i3.
Louvilk's obfervations on a lu¬
minous ring round the moon
in a folar eclipfe, 152.
Lunar inhabitants, how they
can meafure the year, 353.
M.
Mairan'% opinion concerning.
the tails of comets, 1.79.
Map of the heavensj Mr Wol-
lafton’s method of, conftruc-
ting one, 55.
Maraldi's obfervations on the
fpots of Mars, 80. Obferves
belts on his diflc, ib.
Mariners compafs early known
to the Chinefe, 3.
Mars firfi: obferved on his diflc
by Caffini, who determines
his revolution in 24 hours
40', np 80. Erroneoufly fup¬
pofed by others to revolve
only in 13 hours, ib. Ma-
raldi’s obfervations on them,
ib. His belts fometimes pa¬
rallel to his equator, and
fometimes not, ib. Bright
fpots about his poles, 8jl.
Mr Herfchel’s account of
thefe fpots, 82. The circle
ot motion of the north polar
fpot at fome diftance from
the pole itfelf, 83. Not fo
with the fouth polar fpot, ib.
Exadl pofition of the poles
of this planet, 84. Of the
feafons .in Mars* 85. How
to compute the declination of
the fun on this planet, ib.
A confiderable refemblance
betwixt the earth and Mars,
86. The white fpots about
the poles fuppofed to be oc-
cafioned by fnow, 87. Has
a fphemidal form, 88. Dif¬
ference betwixt his equatorial
and polar diameters, 89. Of
his atmofphere, 90. Dcnfity
598.
of it probably over-rated, ib.
His parallax, 394.
Majkelyne, Mr Nevil, fucceeds
Mr Blifs in the office of a-
ftronomer-royal, 36. His
account of the proper mo¬
tions of feveral liars, 237.
His detection of errors in the
observation of very fmall
angles, 339. _
Maupertins 1 his conjeftures
concerning the appearance
and difappearance of liars,
*95-
Mayer, extraordinary exactnefs
of his tables, 3 5. Account
of fume of his obfervations
on moving liars, 241.
Mechanical parallax defcribed
by Mr Fergufon, 491.
Mercury, appearance of that
planet to the naked eye, 40.
Sometimes appears as a dark
fpot on the face of the fun,
63. Has the phafis of the
moon, 64. Thought to be
in danger from the comet
of 1744, n° 117. The heat
about the polar regions ^f
this planet poffibly may not
be greater than that of the
warmer regions of the earth,
161.
Meridian line: Fergufon’s me¬
thod of drawing one, 376.
Another more exadt, 377.
Merfennus founds the Royal A-
cademy of Sciences at Paris,
30. Propofes a reflecting te-
lefcope, 3t.
Melon invents a cycle of 19
years, 11.
Mexicans: their method of di¬
viding the year, &c. 5.
Michels conjectures concern¬
ing the nature of the fixed
Itars, 197.
Micrometer firft applied to te-
lefcopes by Mr Auzout, 31.
The fame invented before by
Mr Gafcoigne, ib. Ojedt-
glafs micrometer invented by
Mr Short, 32.
Milky ivay : its white colour
afcribed by Pythagoras to a
number of fmall liars, 11.
Refolved entirely into fmall
liars by Mr Herfchel’s tele-
fcope, 203. Incredible num¬
ber of liars obferved in it, ib.
Why it feems to furround
the heavens, 207. Of the
fun’s place in it, 209. Why
every liar in this llratum will
have its own milky way, ib.
ASTRO
Montaigne obferves the fatellite
of Venus at the tranlit in
rydi, n° 76.
Montanere'snccount of changes
among the fixed liars, 46.
Moon comes into the fame fi-
t nation with regard to the
nodes, apogee, &c. once in
,600 years, 1. Her motion
difcovered by the Chaldeans
not to be uniform, 6. Caufe
of her eclipfes known to the
Egyptians, ib. Held to be
an opaque body refledting
the rays of the fun by Tha¬
les, 9. And by Pythagoras,
11. Said to be habitable
by him and Anaxagoras, 10,
1 r. The fpots and phafes
of the moon obferved by He-
velius, 30. Occultation of
Jupiter obferved by him and
Dr Halley, ib. Her appa¬
rent motion, 38. Appear¬
ance through a telefcope, 63.
Great inequalities on her
furface, 140. Method of
meafuring the height of her
mountains, 141. 1 heirheight
greatly over-rated, 142. Mr
Herfchel’s obfervations on
them, 143. His method of
meafuring their height, ib.
Volcanoes difcovered in the
moon, 145. Conjedlures con¬
cerning her fubftance, 146.
Suppofed by fome to have
an obfcure light of her own,
ib. Sometimes difappears en¬
tirely in the time of a lunar
eclipfe, ib. Remarkable ap¬
pearances in 1703, ib. Spots
on her dilk generally fuppo-
fed to be hollow, ib. Some
of them thought by Dr Long
and others to be water, ib.
Whether the moon has any
atmofphere, 147. The light
cannot be refracted by this
atmofphere on account of its
rarity, 148. Exiftence of an
atmofphere argued from the
appearance of aluminous ring
about the moon in a total e-
clipfe of the fun, 149. Ob¬
fervations on an eclipfe of
this kind in 1706, ib. Cap.
Stanyan’sobfervationsatBern
in Switzerland, ib. Fatio’s
obfervations at Geneva, ib.
Flamftead from thefe obfer¬
vations concludes the lunar
atmofphere to be 180 geo¬
graphical miles high, ib. Caf-
fini’s general account of this
N O M Y.
eclipfe from a number of re¬
lations, ib. Dr Halley's ac¬
count of a folar eclipfe in
1715, n° 150. Obferves
flaffies like lightning to pro¬
ceed from the dark edge of
the moon, 151. Louville’s
obfervations on this eclipfe,
ib. Suppofes the flaffies to
be real lightning, 153. Great
height of the moon’s atmo¬
fphere accounted for, 154.
All the phenomena other-
wife folved by the French
academicians, 155. Whe¬
ther, the light of the fixed
flars is refradled in palling
by the moon, 156. Maral-
di’s conclufion againll a lu¬
nar atmofphere, ib. Moon
moves round the earth in an
ellipiis, 373. Retained in
her orbit by the power of
gravity, 275. Tier motion
particularly explained, 276.
Moves with the earth about
a common centre of gravity,
278. Inequalities in her mo¬
tion explained, 282. Comes
neareft the earth when leal!
attradled by it, 284. Caufe
of the dilatation of her orbit,
285. Plane of her orbit
changed by the aftion of the
fun, z 8 6. Nodes of her or¬
bit explained, 287. Incli¬
nation of her orbit, 288. Ir¬
regularities arifing from her
motion in an elliplis, 290.
Her apogeon and perigeon
explained, 29 r. Motion of
herapogeon determined, 2 y4-
Inequality of it occafions an
inequality of the eccentricity
of her orbit, 296. Newton’s
computation of the lunar ir¬
regularities, 297. General
account of her motions, &c.
3 9c, etfeq. tier phafes ex¬
plained, 35 r, 355. Deline¬
ated, 424. Never appears
perfectly round, 356. Agree¬
able reprefentation of her
phafes, 357. Delineation of
her path round the fun, 359.
Her path always concave to¬
wards the fun, 360. Why
her edge always appears even,
362. Revolution other nodes,
372. To find her horizon¬
tal parallax, 384. The beft
method as recommended by
Mr Fergufon, 385. Diffi¬
culties in the calculation of
her place in her orbit, 419.
Index.
Moves equably on her axis, ]
which occafions an apparent j
inequality called her hhra-
tion, 420. Irregularities of |
her motion explained by Sir
Ifaac Newton, 421. Her
periodical time difcovered by
Copernicus, 422. Herdiur-i
nal and horary motion, how >
found, 423. Place of her ]
nodes how found, 42y. Her
figure fpherical, 428. Figure ]
of her fhadow conical, 429. I
Why more eclipfes of the I
'moon than of the fun are ob-
ferved, 440. Excefs of the ]
lunar above the folar diame- ]
ter, 441. Extent of her 1
(hadow and penumbra. 442. |
Why ffie is viiible when e- |
clipfed, 447. Projeftion of ’
eclipfes of the moon, 471.
Moon light long in winter at the I
poles, 373.
Motions, apparent, of the pla¬
nets explained, 323.
Mountains of the moon. See
Moon. Attraction of ter- |
reitrial mountains difcovered
by the mathematicians fent
to meafure a degree of the
earth, 34.
Mural arch defcribed, 497.
N.
Napier, bartm of Merchifton,
invents logarithms, 26.
Navigation: Aftronomy firft *
applied to its purpofes by the 1
Phoenicians, 7.
Nebula, vvhitiffi fpecks in the s
heavensfocalled, 120. Great i
numbers of them difcovered i
by Mr Herfchel, ib. Plane- |
tary nebulae, why fo called, f
ib. Refolved into a multi- 1
tude of fmall ftars by Mr •
Herfchel’s telefcope, 212.
Are arranged into ftrata, 213.
Variety of lhapes aflumed by J
them, 214. Obfervations on j
them by Mr Herfchel, 215.
Conjeclures concerning their '1
formation, 216. Arguments
from obfervations on them,
that the univerfe is compo-
fed of nebulae, 218. Extent |
of the nebulce in which wc
live, 224.
New moon, howto calculate the?
time of it, 452, 453.
Newton, Sir Ifaac, makes the
firft refledting telefcope, 31.
Reforms the theoretical part
of aftronomy, ib. His opi- |
nion concerning the fun and j
fixed !
IIn’deXj ASTRO
|J fixed ftars, t 22. Determines
I the true paths of the comets,
j \6g. His opinion concern-
! ing their bodies, 175. Of
I their tails, 179. Of the
changes which apparently
take place in them, [86. Of
the appearance of new ftars,
194. Explanation of the fo-
lar fyftem on his principles,
1 253, etfeq.
W Nicholfon on final caufes, 160.
Nodes of the planets explained,
254, 317. Of the moon’s
orbit, 287. Motion of them
explained, 289. Revolution
of thofe of the moon, 372.
How to find the place of the
moon’s nodes, 425.
INonagefimal degree explained,
358-
Nonius, his method of dividing
quadrants by means of con-
m centric circles, 22.
H Noon : How to find the exact
I time of it, 378.
O.
IOccultations of Jupiter’s fatel-
lites, when they happen, 97,
102. Of the ftars by the
moon, 156.
Oldenburg founds the Royal So¬
ciety at London, 30.
| Orbits of the planets defcribed,
I 254*
Orrery, a kind of one invented
by Archimedes, 13. Row¬
ley’s defcribed, 487. Fergu-
fon’s, 488. How to reftify
the orrery, and place the
planets in their proper fitua-
tions, 490.
Ojymandyes, a celebrated Egyp¬
tian monarch, his tomb de-
Ifcribed, 6.
Parallax of the fixed ftars belt
found by means of double
ftars, 399. To find the ho¬
rizontal parallax of the moon,
384, 385. Various methods
of finding the parallax of the
fun, 386—392. All of them
infufficient, 393. By the
parallax of Mars or Venus,
394> 395* How to com¬
pute his diftance from his
parallax, 396.
Particles of matter attract each
other according to the fame
law obferved in other bodies,
3°7-
1 Pendulums: The laws of. gra¬
vity explained by them, 303.
Perigeon of the moon explain¬
ed, 291. Of the planets,
32S-
Perihelion of the planets ex¬
plained, 254.
Periodical times of the planets,
how found, 414.
Phafes. See Moon.
Phoenicians firft apply aftrono-
my to navigation, 57.
Pigot, Mr Edward, his account
of variable ftars, 47.
P/awetar/awz, Jones’s,defcribed,
489.
Planetary nebulae. See Nebu-
U.
Planets, law of their motion
difcovered by Kepler, 26.
Why fo called, 40. Appa¬
rent magnitudes, &c. 40,
41,42. See Mercury, Ve¬
nus, &c.
Plato embraces the Ptolemaic
fyftem of aftronomy, 11.
Plurality of worlds, arguments
for and againft it, 157.
Pole-Jlar known to the Chi-
nefe, 3. Height of it at
Samaicand39°37' 23'', n° 17.
Seems immoveable in the
heavens, 39.
Poles, long moonlight in win¬
ter at them, 373.
Precejjion of the equinoxes
pointed out by Warner, 21.
explained, 348.
Ptolemy, his fyftem of aftrono¬
my, 16.
Purbach’s difcoveries, 18.
Pytheas, an ancient aftronomer
of Marfeilles, travels to
Thule to fettle the climates.
Quadrant of an enormous fize
belonging to Ulug Beg, 17.
Tycho Brahe makes one ca¬
pable of obferving tingle mi¬
nutes, 2 1. Refledting qua¬
drant invented by Hodley,
32. An inftrument of the
fame kind formerly propofed
by Sir Ifaac Newton, 32.
Aftronomical quadrant de¬
fcribed, 497* Portable one
defcribed, 498.
R.
Reciprocal duplicate proportion
explained, 264.
Refleding telefcope propofed by
Marfennus, 31. Carried in¬
to execution by Sir Ifaac
Newton, 32.
Refraftion firft treated of by
A1 Hazen, 17.
Refrangibilily, different, of the
N O M Y.
rays of light, an obftacle to
the improvement of tele-
fcopes, 31.
Revolution of a body round a
centre explained, 258.
Regiomontanus, an excellent a-
ftronomer, 20.
Ricciolus\ method of finding
the fun’s parallax, 391. In¬
fufficient, 393.
Robifon, Profeffor, his account
of the Georgium Sidus, 328,
etfeq.
Roiuning’s objection to Sir Ifaac
Newton’shypothefis concern¬
ing the tails of comets, 179.
Royal Society founded by Ol¬
denburg, 30.
S.
Saros a Chaldean period of 223
lunations, 6.
Satellites. See Venus, Jupiter,
Saturn, and Georgium Sidus.
Saturn difcovered by Huggens
to be encompaffed by a ring,
31, 104. Account of its
appearances, ib. The ring
probably revolves on its axis,
J05. Belts difcovered on
him, 106. Is attended ,by
five fatellites, 107. Account
of their diftances and perio¬
dical times, ib. Are very
feldom eclipfed, fo. Fifth
fatellite fometimesdifappears,
108. Affedts the periodical
times of comets by its at¬
traction, 191. Has irregu¬
larities in its motion unac¬
countable on the principles
of gravitation, 269.
Scheiner’s account of the fo-
lar fpots, 61.
Scheucbzer’s account of a folar
eclipfe, 149.
Seafons of the year particularly
explained, 345, 346.
Secondary planets, theirmotions
explained, 273, et feq.
Semita luminofa. See Zodia¬
cal light.
Serpentarius, a new ftar ap¬
pears in that confteitation,
45-
Short obferves the fatellite of
Venus, 75.
Siderialfyjlem, proofs of ours
being a nebula, 221. Side¬
real year has 366 days, 181.
Solar fyjlem, velocity of its fup-
pofed motion, 233.
SolJHces, fummer and winter,
explained, 345.
Spherical conchoid, a new curve
defcribed by Mr Herfchel,
599
2 44 •
Spots. See Sun, Jupiter, See.
Stanyan, Captain, his obferva-
tions on a folar eclipfe, 149.
Stars, fixed, their motion in
longitude difcovered by Hip¬
parchus, 12. Catalogue of
fixed ftars made by him, 15.
Another by Ulug Beg, 17.
Places of 400 of them fettled
by the Landgrave of Hefle,
23. Another catalogue made
by Tycho Brahe, 24. Thefe
ftars feemingly deftruftible
and generable, 44. Dr Hal¬
ley’s hiftory of new ones,
45. Montanare’s account
of changes among them, 46.
Mr Pigot’s remarks on thofe
which change their luftre,
47, etfeq. Number of fixed
ftars greatly increafed by te-
lefcopes, 119. Of their oc-
cultations by the moon, 156.
Suppofed to be funs, 192.
Conje&ures concerning the
variable ftars, 194, 195,196,
201, 235. Mr Michell’s
conjeftures concerning their
nature, 197. Comparifon
of their brightnefs with that
of the fun, 199. Some ftars
fuppofed to be fatellites of
others, 197. Their fuppo¬
fed motion, and that of the
folar fyftem, 237, et feq.
Their diftance immeafurable,
398. Why they feem fo
big to the naked eye, 399.
Their different magnitudes,
400. Telefcopic ftars, 401,
Unformed ftars, 402.
Star-gauge. See Gauging.
Strata. See Nebuie.
Sun, his diftanee determined
by Ariftarchus, 12. By E-
ratofthenes, ib. His appa¬
rent motion, 37. Account
of his appearance through
telefcopes, his fpots, and con-
jedures Concerning them, 58
etfeq. 121 etfeq. See alfo
Moon, Ecliptic, Declinationt
8cc.
Superior planets. See Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, and Geor¬
gium Sidus.
Swan, variable ftar in that con-
flellation, 51, 52, 53.
T.
Telefcopss introduced into aftro¬
nomy by Galileo, 27. Their
improvement, 31.
Telefcopic fights invented by
Hooke, 30.
Thales
6oo
Thales improves the aftrbnomy
of the Greeks, 9.
Thunder and lightning frequent
in the moon, 153.
Tides : their caufe difcovered
by Kepler, 26, 363. Parti¬
cularly explained by Sir I-
faac Newton, 363, et feq.
Time-keeper firft propofed by
Gemma Frifius for finding
the longitude at fea, 22.
Thnocharis. See Aryfiilhis.
Tranfit - infirument defcribed,
500.
Trigonometry improved by the
Arabians, 17.
Triplicate proportion explain¬
ed, 293.
Tycho Brahe, a celebrated Da-
nifli aftronomer, account of
his difcoveries, 25.
V. U .
Venus known by Pythagoras to
ASTRO
be the morning and evening
ftar, t t. Pier tranfit over
the fun firft obferved by Mr
Plorrox, 29. Spots difco¬
vered on her dilk by Burra-
tini, 65. Obfervations of
Caffini and others on them,
66, et feq. Difpute concern¬
ing the revolution on her
axis, 73. Of her fatellite,
7 4— 77. Of her atmofphere,
78, 79. Of the quantity of
heat this planet enjoy s, 161.
Of her parallax, 395.
Ulug Beg, his obfervatory and
magnificent apparatus, 17.
Makes a catalogue of the
ftars, ib.
Univerfe, Mr HerfchePs opi¬
nion of its conftrudtion, 202.
Univerfal equatorial defcribed,
504.
AST
Aftroye- ASTROPE-wells, near Banbury in Oxfordlhire,
W®lis are recommended as excellent in female obftrudtions,
Aft me. the gravel, hypochondriac, and fimilar diforders. The
v—-J water is a brifk, fpirituous, pleafant-tailed chalybeate,
and is alfo gently purgative. It Ihould be drank from
three to five quarts in the forenoon.
ASTROSCOPE, a kind of allronomical inftru-
ment, compofed of two cones, on whofe furface the
conftellations, with their ftars, are delineated, by means
whereof the ftars may eafily be known. |The altrofcope
is the invention of William Shuckhard, formerly pro-
feflbr of mathematics at Tubingen, who publilhed a
treatife exprefsly on it in 1698.
ASTRUC (John), a celebrated phyfician, was
born in the year 1684, at the little town of Savoy, in
the province of Languedoc. His father, who was a
Proteftant clergyman, bellowed particular pains upon
the earlieft part of his education. After which, he
went to the univerfity of Montpelier, where he was
created mailer of arts in the year 1700. He then be¬
gan the ftudy of medicine ; and, in two years, ob¬
tained the degree of bachelor, having upon that 00
caiion written a dilfertation on the caufe of fermenta¬
tion, which he defended in a very fpirited manner. On
the 25th of January 1703 he was created doctor of
phyfic; after which, before arriving at extenlive prac¬
tice, he applied to the Iludy of medical authors, both
ancient and modern, with uncommon affiduity. The
good effects of this Iludy foon appeared; for, in the
year 1710, he publilhed a treatife concerning mufcular
motion, from which he acquired very high reputation.
In the year 1717, he was appointed to teach medicine
at Montpelier; which he did with fuch perfpicuity and
eloquence, that it was univerfally faid he had been
born to be a profeflor. His fame foon rofe to fuch a
height, that the king affigned him an annual falary ;
and he was, at the fame time, appointed to fuperintend
the mineral waters in the province of Languedoc. But
as Montpelier did uot afford fulficient fcope for his
N035.
N O M Y.
Volcanoes. See Moon.
Uraniburg, Tycho Brahe’s ob¬
fervatory defcribed, 25.
W.
War gent in compofes exaft ta¬
bles of the motions of Jupi¬
ter’s fatellites, 35.
Warner’s, difeoveries and im¬
provements, 21.
Wax-candle, its flame 8000
times lefs bright than the
fun, 199.
Weight of bodies increafes to¬
wards the poles, 342.
Whale, variable ftar in that con-
Ilellation, 48.
WhiJlon,\s\s> hypothefisconcern¬
ing the general deluge and
conflagration* 185.
Wilfon, Dr. his account of the
folar fpots, 61. His invefti-
gation of their nature, 133,
AST
afpiring genius, he went to Paris with a great Hock of Afturia. ’
manuferipts, which he intended to publifh, after fub- w—y-—j
jetting them to the examination of the learned. Soon
after, however, he left it, having in the year 1729
accepted the office of firft. phyfician to the king of Po¬
land, which was then offered to him. His ftay in Po¬
land, however, was but of Ihort.duration, and he a-
gain returned to Paris. Upon the death of the cele¬
brated Geoffroy, in the year 1731, he was appointed
Regius Profeffor of medicine at Paris. The duties of
this office he difeharged in fuch a manner as to anfwer
even the moll fanguine expectations. He taught the
praftice of phyfic with fo great applaufe, as to draw
from other univerfities to that of Paris a great con-
courfe of medical ftudents, foreigners as well as na¬
tives of France. At the fame time he was not more
celebrated as a profeffor than a praftitioner. And,
even at an advanced age, he perfifted with unwearied
affiduity in that intenfe ftudy which firlt raifed his re¬
putation. Hence it is that he has been enabled to
tranfmit to pofterity fo many valuable monuments of
his medical erudition. He died, univerfally regretted,
on the 15th of May 1766, in the 82d year of his
age-
ASTURIA, an ancient kingdom of Spain, fub-
dued by Auguftus emperor of Rome.—The inhabi¬
tants of this country, along with thofe of Cantabria,
afferted their liberty long after the reft of Spain had
received the Roman yoke. So great was their defire
of liberty, that, after being clofely Ihut up by the Ro¬
man army, they endured the moll terrible calamities of
famine, even to the devouring of one another, rather
than fubmit to the enemy. At length, however, the
Afturians were for furrendering: but the Cantabrians
oppofed this meafure, maintaining that they ought all
to die fword in hand like brave men. Upon this the
two nations quarrelled, notwithftanding their defperate
fituation ; and a battle enfuing, x 0,000 of the Aftu¬
rians were driven to the intrenchments of the Romans,
i whom
Index,
et feq. Reply to De la
Lande’s'objeCtions, 137. Re¬
marks on De la Lande’s *i
theory of thefe fpots, 139. |
Wollajlon’s method of making a
map of the heavens, 55. His
account of the folar fpots, ;
61. Obje&ions to Dr Wil- |
fon’s theory, with his reply, |
137-
Y.
Tear: how the lunar inhabi- :
tants can meafure theirs, 344. !
Z.
Zodiac, how divided by the '■
Chinefe, 3. Comets are not j
confined within its limits, j
170. Definition of it, 312. ,
How divided, 318.
Zodiacal light, conjectures con- ]
cerning it, 124.
A S Y [ 601 1 • A S Y
Aftuf’aa whom they begged in the moft moving manner to re-
II ceive them on any terms they pleafed. But Tiberius
Afylum‘, the emperor’s fon-in-law refufing to admit them into
, the camp, fome of thefe unhappy people put an end to
their lives by falling upon their own fwords; others
lighting great fires threw themfelves into them, while
fome poifoned themfelves by drinking the juice of a
venomous herb.
The campaign being put an end to by winter, the
next year the Afturians fummoned all their ftrength
and refolution againft the Romans; but notwithftand-
ing their utmoft efforts of valour and defpair, they were
entirely defeated in a moft bloody battle w hich lafted
two days, and for that time entirely fubdued. A few
years afterwards they rebelled, in conjunction with the
Cantabrians; but were foon reduced by the Romans,
who maffacred moft of the young men that were capable
of bearing arms. This did not prevent them from re¬
volting anew in a fhort time afterwards; but without
fuccefs, being obliged to.fubmit to the Roman power,
till the fubverfion of that empire by the Goths.
Asturias, anciently the kingdom of Afturia, is now
a principality of modern Spain, bounded by Bifcay on
the eaft, Galicia on the weft, Caftile and Old Leon
on the fouth, and the fea on the north. Its greateft
length is about no miles, and its breadth 54. On
the fouth it is feparated from Catlile and Old Leon by
high mountains covered with-woods. The province is
tolerably fertile, but thinly inhabited. The inhabi¬
tants value themfelves much on being defcended from
the ancient Goths. Even the poor peafants, who are
fain to go to feek work in other provinces, call them¬
felves illujirious Goths and Mountaineers, thinking it
ignominious to marry even with great and rich families
of another race. This pride is flattered by the refpeft
paid them by the reft of the nation, and the privileges
bellowed upon them by the government. The here¬
ditary prince of Spain is flyled prince of the Jhjiurias.
The moft remarkable places in this principality are
Oviedo, Gyon, Santillana, and St Andero.
ASl'YAGES, fon of Cyaxares, the laft king of
the Medes. He dreamed that from the womb of his
daughter Mandane, married to Cambyfes king of Perlia,
there fprung a vine that fpread itfelf over all Alia. She
being with child, he refolved to kill the infant as foon
as born.. Its name was Cyrus; and Harpagus, being
fent to deftroy it, preferved it: which Aftyages after
a long time hearing of, he caufed Harpagus to eat his
own fon. Harpagus called in Cyrus, who dethroned his
grandfather, and thereby ended the monarchy of the
Medes. See Media and Persia.
ASTYANAX, the only fon of Hedlor and Andro¬
mache. After the taking of Troy, he was thrown
from the top of a tower by Ulyffes’s orders.
ASTYNOMI, in Grecian antiquity, magiftrates in
Athens, correfponding to the sediles of the Romans;
they were ten in number, hee ^Edile.
ASYLUM, a fan&uary, or place of refuge, where
criminals Ihelter themfelves from the hands of juft ice-
rIhe word is compounded of the privative particle
and / hurt; becaufe no perfon could be taken
out of an afylum without facrilege.
The afyla of altars and temples were very ancient; and
likewife thofe of tombs, ftacues, and other monuments
of conliderable perfonages. Thus, the temple of Diana
Vol. II. Part II.
at Ephefus was a refuge for debtors, the tomb of The*
feus for Haves. Among the Romans, a celebrated afy-Af |)
lum was opened by Romulus between the mounts Pa- et<
latine and Capitoline, in order to people Rome, for all
forts of perfons indiferiminately, fugitive Haves, debt-
ors, and criminals of every kind. The Jews had their
afyla; the moft remarkable of which were, the fix
citks of refuge, the temple, and the altar of burnt--
oft'erings.
It was cuftomary among the Heathens to allow re¬
fuge and impunity even to the vileft and moft flagrant
offenders ; fome out of fuperftition, and others for the
fake of peopling their cities: and it was by this means,
and with fuch inhabitants, that Phebes, Athens, and
Rome, were firft (locked. • We even read of afylums
at Lyons and Vienne among the ancient Gauls; and
there are fome cities in Germany which ftill preferve
the ancient right of afy lum. Hence on the medals of
feveral ancient cities, particularly in Syria, we meet
with the infeription axtAoi, to which is added iepai.
This quality of afylum was given them, according to
M. Spanheim, in regard to their temples, and to the
gods revered by them.
The emperors Honorius and Theodofius granting
the like immunities to churches, the bilhops and monks
laid hold of a certain tradl or territory, without which
they fixed the bounds of the fecular jurifdidtion : and
fo well did they manage their privileges, that convents
in a little time became next akin to fortreffes ; where
the moft notorious villains were in fafety, and braved
the power of the magiftrate.
Thefe privileges at length were extended not only to
the churches and church-yards, but alfo to the bilhops
houfes; whence the criminal could not be removed
without a legal affurance of life, and an entire remiffion
of the crime. The reafon of the extenfion was, that
they might not be obliged .to live altogether in the
churches, &c. where feveral of the occafions of life
could not be decently performed.
But at ..length thefe afyla or fan&uaries were alfo
ftripped of moft of their immunities, becaufe they ferved
to make guilt and libertinage more bold and daring. In
England, particularly, they were entirely abolifhed.
See Sanctuary.
ASYMMETRY, the want of proportion between
the parts of any thing; being the contrary offymme-
try.
ASYMPTOTE, in geometry, a line which conti¬
nually approaches nearer to another; but, though con¬
tinued infinitely, will never meet with it: Of thefe are
many kinds. In ftridlnefs, however, the term afymptotes
is appropriated to right lines, which approach nearer
and nearer to fome curves of which they are faid to
be afymptotes; but if they and their curves are inde¬
finitely continued, they will never meet. See Come
Sections.
ASYNDETON, in grammar, a- figure which omits
the conjundlions in a fentence. As in vent, vidi, vici,
where et is left out: or in that of Cicero concerning
Catiline, abiit, excej/it, evajit, ef upit: or in that verfe
of Virgil,
Ferte citi flammas, date vela, impellile remos.
Afyndeton Hands oppofed to polyfyndeton, where the
copulatives are multiplied.
4 G ATA.BULUS,
Atabulus
ATE [ 602 ] A T H
ATABULUS, in phyfiology, a provincial wind in
Apulia, of a dry pinefling quality, and very noxious in
its elfe&s. The ancient naturalills fpeak of the Ata¬
bulus in terms of horror, on account of the ravage it
majde among the fruits of the earth, which it fcorched
or withered up.
ATABYRIS, a very high mountain in the ifland
of Rhodes, on which, according to Strabo and Dio¬
dorus Siculus, there ftood a temple of Jupiter Ata-
byrius, whofe worihip a colony of Rhodians carried
into Sicily, where a temple was built to the fame deity
at Agrigentum.
ATALANTA, an ifland in the Euripus of Euboea,
near the Locri Opuntii, faid to have been originally a
city of the Locri, but torn from the continent in the
time of an earthquake, and during an eruption of
mount iEtna. This happened in the fourth year of
the 93d Olympiad, in the reign of Artaxerxes Mne-
mon (Pliny, Orofius.)
ATALANTIS, Atlantica, or Atlantis. See
Atlantis.
ATARAXY, a term ufed by the ftoiesand fceptics,
to denote that calmnefs of mind which fecures us-from
all emotions arifing from vanity and felf-conceit.
ATARGATIS fanum, the temple of a goddefs
-worftiipped by the Syrians and Parthians, having the
face of a woman and tail of a fifli, and called Derceto
by the Greeks. Her temple ftood in the city Bambyce,
called afterwards Hierapolis. It was extremely rich,
infomuch that Craflus, in his march againft the Par¬
thians, fpent feveral days in weighing the treafure.
Voflius makes the name of this goddefs Phoenician, from
Addir- dag, “ the great fifli.”
AT ARNE A, an ancient town of Myfia, fituated
between Adrymittium and Pitane, remarkable for the
marriage of Ariftotle with the filler or concubine 6f
the tyrant Hermias; alfo for the dotage of that philo-
fopher.
ATAXY, in a general fenfe, the want of order:
With phyficians, it fignifies irregularity of crifes and
paroxyfms of fevers.
ATCHE, in commerce, a fmall filver coin ufed
in Turky, and worth only one-third of the Englifll
penny.
ATCHIEVEMENT, in heraldry, denotes the arms
of a perfon or family, together with all the exterior
ornaments of the ftiield ; as helmet, mantle, creft,
fcrolls, and motto, together with fuch quarterings as
may have been acquired by alliances, all marftialled in
order.
ATCHIEVE. This term is derived from the
Trench achever, i. e. to finifti or make an end of; but
ifgnifies, in its ordinary acceptation, to perform great
actions or exploits.
ATE, the goddefs of mifehief, in the Pagan theo¬
logy. She was daughter of Jupiter, and caft down
from heaven at the birth of Hercules. For Juno ha¬
ving deceived Jupiter, in caufing Euriftheus to be born
before Hercules, Jupiter exprefled his refentment on
Ate, as the author of that mifehief: and threw her
headlong "from heaven to earth, fwearing ftie ftiould
never return thither again {Homeri 11. xix. 125.) , The
name of this goddefs comes from noceo, “ to hurt.”
Her being the daughter of Jupiter, means, according
to mythologifts, that no evil happens to us but.by the
permiflion of Providence ; and her baniftiment to earth Ategua
denotes the terrible effedls of divine juftice among . , II
men. J S Athaman-
ATEGUA, or Attegua, an ancient town of u
Spain, placed by feme in the road from Antiquara,
now Antequera, to Hifpalis, or Seville; by others near
Alcala Real; which laft is the more probable fituation,
becaufe the Flumen Salfum, now the Salado, was in its
neighbourhood. Now Tebala Vieja, or Teivela.
ATTELLA, an ancient town of Campania in Italy
between Capua and Neapolis. From this town the A*
tellancc fabulce, or Atellani ludi, took their name. Thefe
were alfo called Ofci, from their inventor, in whofe ter¬
ritory Atella lay. They were generally a fpecies of
farce, interlarded with much ribaldry and buffoonery ;
and fometimes were exordia or interludes prefented
between the afts of other plays. The aftors in thefe
farces were not reckoned among the common players,
nor deemed infamous; but retained the rights of their
tribe, and might be lifted for foldiers, the privilege
only of free men. The ruins of this town are ftiU
to be feen about 11 miles from the modern Averfa,
which was built out of its materials.
ATEMPO giusto, in mufic, fignifies to fing or
play in an equal, true, and juft time.
ATERGATIS, in mythology, a goddefs of the Sy¬
rians, fuppofed to be the mother of Semiramis. She
was reprefented with the face and breafts of a wo¬
man, but the reft of her body refembled a fiih. Vof-
fius fays the term fignifies 'without fijh, and con*
jedlures that the votaries of this deity abftained from
fifli.
ATERNUM, a town of Lucania in Italy, now
Aterni (Cluverus) : Alfo a town in the territory of
the Piceni, now Pefcara, a port-town of Naples, fi¬
tuated on the Adriatic. E. Long. 15. 25. N. Lat.
42. 30.
ATE.STE, a town in the territory of Venice in
Italy, now called Efte. E. Long. 12. 6. N. Lat.
45- 25-
ATHAMADULET, the prime minifter of the
Perfian empire, as the grand vizier is of the Turkifli
empire. He is great chancellor of the kingdom, prefi-
dent of the council, fuperintendant of the finances, and
is charged with all foreign affairs.
ATHAMANTA, spignel: A genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
45th order, Umbellate, The fruit is oblong and
ftriated ; and the petals are infiefted and emarginated.
Of this genus Linnseus enumerates nine fpecies; but
none of them merit particular notice, except the cre-
tenfis, otherwife called daucas creticus, which.grows
wild in the Levant and the warmer parts of Europe, The
leaves are irregularly difppfed, and formed like thofe.
of fennelt The flower-ftalk rifes about two feet high,
fending out many branches, terminated at the top by
compound umbels, compofed of near 20 fmall ones.
Thefe have white flowers with five petals, which are
fuepeeded by oblong, hairy, channelled fruit, divided
into two parts,, containing one oblong hairy feed.
The feeds have a warm biting tafte, with an agreeable
aromatic fmell. They are kept in the Ihops as a me¬
dicine, as carminative, and faid to be diuretic ; but
are little ufed in practice. The plant may be propaga-
A T H [ 603 ] A T H
AtVianafia, gated from feeds, which fliould be fown on an open
Afian'ia* dry ground; the following autumn the
. plants Ihould be taken up, and planted at about a foot
diftance in a bed of light fandy earth, where the roots
will continue feveral years.
ATHANASIA, goldilocks: A genus of the
polygamia asqualis order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method raking un¬
der the 49th order, Compofita difcoides. The recep¬
tacle is chaffy; the pappus is chaffy, and very fhort;
and the calyx is imbricated. There are 20 fpecies, all
tender plants.except one ; and none of them poffeffed
of beauty, or any remarkable property.
ATHANASIAN creed ; a formulary, or con-
feffion of faith, long fuppofed to have been drawn up
by Athanafius bifhop of Alexandria, in the fourth
century, to juflify himfelf againft the calumnies of
his Arian enemies. But it is now generally allow¬
ed among the learned not to have been his. Dr
Waterland afcribes it 'to Hilary bifhop of Arles, for
the following among other reafons: 1. Becaufe Ho-
noratus of Marfeilles, the writer of his life, tells us,
that he compofed an Expojition of the Creed; a pro-
perer title for the Athanajian, than that of Creed Am¬
ply which it now bears. 2. Hilary was a great ad¬
mirer and follower of St Auflin; and the whole com-
pofition of this creed is in a manner upon St Auftin’s
plan, both with refpeft to the Trinity and incarnation.
3. It is agreeable to the ftyle of Hilary, as far as we
can judge from the little that is left of his works. Up¬
on the whole, he concludes, that Hilary bifhop of
Arles, about the year 430, compofed The expojition
of Faith, which now bears the name of the Atkana-
fian Creed, for the ufe of the Gallican clergy, and par¬
ticularly thofe of the diocefe of Arles: That, about
the year 570, it became famous enough to be com¬
mented upon; but that all this while, and for feveral
years lower, it had not yet acquired the name of Atha-
naftan, but was Amply ftyled The Catholic Faith : That,
before 670, AthanaAus’s admired name came in to re¬
commend and adorn it, being in itfelf an excellent fy-
llem of the Athanafian principles of the Trinity and in¬
carnation, in oppoAtion chiefly to the Arians, Macedo¬
nians, and Apollinarians. This is the hypothefls of the
learned author of the Critical Hif cry of the Athanafian
Creed.
As to the reception of this creed in the Chriftian
churches, we And, that it obtained in France in the
time of Hincmar, or about 850 ; that it was received
in Spain about roo years later than in France, and in
Germany much about the fame time. As to our own
country, we have clear and poAtiVe proofs of this
creed being fung alternately in pur churches in the
tenth century. It was in common ufe in fome parts of
Italy, particularly in the diocefe of Verona, about the
year 960, and was received at Rome about the year
1014. As to the Greek and oriental-churches, it has
been queftioned whether any of them ever received
this creed at all; though fome very conAderable wri¬
ters are of a contrary perfuafion. It appears then, that
the reception of this creed has been both general and
ancient; and may vie with any, in that refpeft, ex¬
cept the Nicene, or Conftantinopolitan, the only gene¬
ral creed common to all the churches.
As to the matter of this creed, it is given as a fum-
mary of the true orthodox faith, and a condemnation Athanafms.
of all hereAes ancient and modern. Unhappily, however, A hanor. ^
it has proved a fruitful fource of unproA table contro-
verfy and unchriftian animoAty even down to the pre-
fent time.
ATHANASIUS (St), bifnop of Alexandria, and
one of the greateit defenders of the faith a.^ainff the
Arians, was born in Fgypt. He followed St Alex¬
ander to the council of Nice, in 325, where he dilputed
againft Arius, and the following year was a ade bi-
Ihop of Alexandria ; but, in 333', was depofed by the
council of Tyre : when, having recourfe to the empe¬
ror Conftantine, the Arian deputies accufed him of
having hindered the exportation of corn from Alexan¬
dria to Conftantinople; on which the emperor, with-
our fuffering him to make his defence, banifhed him to
Treves. The emperor, two years after, gave orders
that he (hould be reftored to his biflropric: but, on his
return to Alexandria, his enemies brought freftr accu-
fations againft him, and chofe Gregory of Cappadocia
to his fee ; which obliged Athanaftus to go to Rome
to reclaim it of Pope Julias. He was there declared
innocent, in a council held in 342, and in that of
Sardica in 347, and two years after was reftored to his
fee by order of the emperor Conftans; but after the
death of that prince, he was again baniflred by the
emperor Conftantius, which obliged him to retire into
the deferts. The Arians then defied one George in
his room; who being killed in a popular fedition un¬
der Julian in 360, St Athanaftus returned to Alexan¬
dria, but was again banilhed under Julian, and reftored
to his fee under Jovian. He addreffed to that emperor
a letter, in which he propofed that the Nicene creed
Ihould be the ftandard of the orthodox faith, and con¬
demned thofe who denied the divinity of the Holy
Ghoft. He was alfo baniflied by Valens in 367, and
afterwards recalled. St Athanaftus died on the 2d of
May 373.
His works principally contain a defence of the my-
ftery of the Trinity, and of the incarnation and divi¬
nity of the Word and Holy Spirit. There are three
editions of his works which areefteemed; that of Com-
melin, printed in 1600; that of Peter Nannius, in
1627; and that of father Montfoucon. As to the creed
which bears his name, fee the preceding article.
ATHANATI, in PerAan antiquity, a body of ca¬
valry, conAfting of 10,000 men, always complete.
They were called athanati (a word originally Greek,
and Agnifying immortal'), becaufe, when one of them
happened to die, another was immediately appointed to
fucceed him.
ATHANOR. Chemifts have diftinguilhed by this
name a furnace fo conftrufled that it can always main¬
tain an equal heat, and which flrall laft a long time
without addition of frefh fuel.
The body of the athanor has nothing in it parti¬
cular, and is conftrufled like ordinary furnaces. But
at one of its Ades, or its middle, there is an up¬
right hollow toWer, rvhich communicates with the ftr^-
place by one or more Hoping openings. This tower
ought to have a lid which exaflly clofes its upper
opening.
When the athanor is to be ufed, as much lighted coal
is put in the Are-place as is judged neceffary, and-the
tower is filled to the top with .unlighted fuel. The
4 G 2 tower
A T H [ 604 ] A T H
Athanor tower is then to be exactly clofed with its lid. As fail
Atheift 38 t^ie Coa^ *n t^e ^re"P^ac^ *s confumed, that in the
 e‘ tower falls down and fupplies its place. As the coal
contained in the tower has no free communication with
the external air, it cannot burn till it falls into the
fire-place.
The athanor being much celebrated and ufed by an¬
cient chemifts, it has been particularly defcribed by
many authors, and was formerly found in all laborato¬
ries. At pVefent this furnace is much lefs employed,
and is even negle&ed. The reafon of this is, that all
the ancient chemifts were in fearch of the art of ma-
king gold; and being excited by this powerful defire,
and confidence of fuccefs, they fpared no trouble nor
expence to accomplifh this defign. They undertook,
without hefitation, operations which required great
length of time and unremitted heat. Whereas now,
thefe alluring hopes having vanifhed, the cultivators of
chemiftry have no other view than to extend and per-
fedl the theory of this effential part of natural philofo-
phy. This motive, although undoubtedly much nobler
than the former, feems, however, to be lefs powerful
over molt men. For now, all long and laborious ope¬
rations whence chemiftry might receive great advanta¬
ges, are neglefted, as being tireiome and difguftful.
There is, in fa&, a confiderable difference betwixt the
hope of explaining a philofophical phenomenon, and
that of obtaining an ingot of gold capable of produ¬
cing many others. Hence the inftruments employed
in long operations, and particularly the athanor, are
now much negledled ; and alfo becaufe the fuel in the
tower is apt to flick there or fall down at once in too
great quantity. The lamp-furnace, which is a true
athanor, may be fuccefsfully employed in operations
which do not require much heat.
ATHAROTH, or Atroth, (anc. geog.) the
name of feveral towns. Two appear to have been in
Samaria, in the tribe of Ephraim; the one four miles
to the north of Sebafte, or the city of Samaria; the
other in the confines of Benjamin and Ephraim, yet fo
as to be of the refort of Ephraim rather than of Benja¬
min (Jofhua). This is the Atroth-Addar mentioned
Jofhua xvi. 5. from which to Upper Bethoron ex¬
tends the greateft breadth of the tribe of Ephraim.
A T H EIS M, the difbelief of a deity. See A-
THEIST.
ATHEIST, a perfon who does not believe the ex-
iflence of a Deity. Many people, both ancient and
modern, have pretended to atheif'm, or have been rec¬
koned atheifts by the world; but it is juftly queflioned
whether any man ferioufly adopted fuch a principle.
Thefe pretenfions, therefore, muft be founded on pride
®r affeTation.
Atheifm, as abfurd and unreafonable as it is, has
had its martyrs. Lucilio Vanini, an Italian, native of
Naples, publicly taught atheifm in France, about the
beginning of the 17th century; and, being convi&ed
of it at Touloufc, was condemned to death. Being
prefied to make public acknowledgment of his crime,
-iind to afk pardon of God, the king, andjuftice, he
anfwvred, he did not believe there was a God; that
he never offended the king ; and, as for jultice, he
wifhed it to the devil. He confeffed that he was
one of twelve, who parted in company from Naples
to fpread their doiftrinc in all parts of Europe. His
tongue was firft cut out, and then his body burnt, A- Atheling
pril 9. 1619. 11
Cicero reprefents it as a probable opinion, that they Athe^us‘
who apply themfelves to the ftudy of philofophy be- v
lieve there are no gods. This muft, doubtlefs, be
meant of the academic philofophy, to which Cicero
himfelf was attached, and which doubted of every
thing. On the contrary, the Newtonian philofophers
are continually recurring to a Deity, whom they al¬
ways find at the end of their chain of natural caufes.
Some foreigners have even charged them with making
too much ufe of the notion of a God in philofophy,
contrary to the rule of Horace.
Nec Deus interjlt, niji dignus vindici nodus.
Among us, the philolbphers have been the principal
advocates for the exiftence of a Deity. Witnefs the
writings of Sir Ifaac Newton, Boyle, Ray, Cheyne,
Nieuwentyt, &c. To which may be added many
others, who, though of the clergy (as was alfo Ray),
yet have diftinguilhed themfelves by their philofophi¬
cal pieces in behalf of the exiftence of a God;
e. gr. Derham, Bently, Whiflon, Samuel and John
Clarke, Fenelon, &c. So true is that faying of Lori
Bacon, that though a fmattering of philofophy may
lead a man into' atheifm, a deep draught will certainly
bring him back again to the belief of a God and Pro¬
vidence.
ATHEL1NG, Adeling, Edling, Ethung, or
Etheuing, among the Anglo-Saxons, was a title of
honour properly belonging to the heir-apparent, of
prefumptive, to the crown. This honourable appella*
tion was firlt conferred by king Edward the Gonfeffor
on Edgar, to whom he was great uncle, when, being
without any iffue of his own, he intended to make him
his heir.
ATHELSTAN, a Saxon king of England, natu¬
ral Ion of Edward the elder, and grandfon of the great
Alfred. He fucceeded to the crown in 925, and
reigned 16 years. There was a remarkable law paffed
by this prince, which ftiows his juft fentiments of the
advantages of commerce, as w'dl as the early attention
to it in this Courttry: it declared, that any merchant
who made three voyages oh his own account beyond
the Britifh channel or narrow feas, ihould be intitled
to the privilege of a thane, or gentleman.
ATHENiEA, in antiquity, a feaft celebrated by
the ancient Greeks in honour of Minerva, who was
called Athene.
ATHENAEUM, in antiquity, a public place
Wherein the profeffors of the liberal arts held their af-
femblies, the rhetoricians declaimed, and the poets re-
hearfed their performances. Thefe places, of which
there were a great number at Athens, were built in
the manner of amphitheatres, encompaffed with feats,
called cutiei. The three moft celebrated Athenaea were
thofe at Athens, at Rome, and at Lyons, the fecond
of which was built by the emperor Adrian.
ATHENiEUS, a phyfician, born in Cilicia, co-
temporary with Pliny, and founder of the pneumatic
fedt. He taught that the fire, air, water, and earth,
are not the true elements, but that their qualities are,
viz. heat, cold, moifture, and drynefs; and to thefe
he added a fifth element, which he called fpivit, whence
his fed had its name.
AxHi.tt2EUs,. a Greek grammarian, born at Nau-
cratis
A T H L 605 ] A T H
Atlwnago- cratis in Egypt in the 3d century, one of the moil
r** learned men of his time. Of all his works we have
Athens hone extant but his Deipnofophis, e. the fophifts at
1 - ^ table. There is an infinity of fadls and quotations in
this work which render it very agreeable to admirers of
antiquity.
There is alfo a mathematician of this name, who
wrote a treatife on mechanics, which is inferted in the
works of the ancient mathematicians, printed at Paris
in 1693, in folio-, in Greek and Latin.
AT HE N AGO R AS, an Athenian philofopher,
flouriihed about the middle of the 2d century; and was
remarkable for his zeal for Chriilianity, and his great
learning, as appears from the apology which he ad-
dreffed to the emperors Marcus Aurelius Antoninus
and Lucius Commodus.
ATH r.NODORUS; a famous lloic philofopher,
born at Tarfus, went to the court of Auguftus, and
was made by him tutor to Tiberius. Auguftus had a
great efteem for him, and found him’by experience a
man of virtue and probity. He nfed to fpeak very
freely to the emperor. He, before he left the court
to return hotae, warned the emperor not to give himi
felf up to anger, but, whenever he fhould be in a
paffion, to rehearfe the 24 letters of the alphabet
before he refolved to fay or do any thing. He did
not live to fee his bad fuccefs in the education of Ti¬
berius.
ATHENOPOLIS, a toWn of the Maffilienfes, an
ancient nation of Gaul. It is conje&ured by Harduin
to be the fame with Telo Marltus, now Toulon; by o-
thers to be the fame with /intipolls or /Intibes.
ATHENREE, a town of Ireland in the county of
Galway, and province of Connaught. W. Long. 8. y.
N. Lat. 5^. 14. It is governed by a portrieve, and
hath a barrack for three companies of foot. It hath
been a place of confiderable ftrength ; but, like the
numerous churches and caftles which furround it, has
felt the refiftlefs force of time. Some of the walls and
towers, however, are ftill remaining, as monuments of
its former grandeur.
ATHENS, a celebrated city of Greece, and capital
of the ancient kingdom of Attica, fituated in E. Long.
53. N. Lat. 38. 5. See Attica.
B whom ln early tinfies> that which was afterwards called the
founded. citadel was the whole city ; and went under the name
of Cecropia, from its founder Cecrops, whom the A-
thenians in after times aifinned to have been the firift
builder of cities, and called this therefore by way of
eminence Palis, i. e. the city. In the reign of E-
richthonius it loft the name of Cecropia, and acquired
that of Athens, on what account is not certain ; the
moft probable is, that it was fo named in refpeCl to
the goddefs Minerva, whom the Greeks call Athene,
who was alfo efteemed its protecirefs. This old city
was feated on the top of a rock in the midft of a large
and pleafant plain, which, as the number of inhabi¬
tants increafed, became full of buildings, which indu¬
ced the diftinclion of Aero and Catapolisj i. e. of the
upper and lower city. The extent of the citadel was
60 ftadia ; it was furrounded by olive trees, and forti¬
fied, as fome fay, with a ftrong palifade; in fucceeding
times it was encompaffed with a ftfong wall, in which
there were nine gates, one very large one, and the reft
fmall. The in fide of the citadel was adorned with in-
6
numerable edifices. The moft remarkable of which Athens.
were, 1. The magnificent temple of Minerva, ftyled *
Parthenion, becaufe that goddefs was a virgin. The
Perfians deftroyed it; but it was rebuilt with ftill able build-
greater fplendor by the famous Pericles, all of the ings.
fineil marble, with fuch Ikill and ftrength, that, in fpite
of the rage of time and barbarous nations, it remains
perhaps the firft antiquity in the world, and Hands
a witnefs to the truth of what ancient writers have
recorded of the prodigious magnificence of Athens in
her flouriihing date. 2. The temple of Neptune and of
Minerva: for it was divided into two parts; one facred
to the god, in which was the fait fountain faid to have
fprnng up on the Itroke of his trident; the other to the
goddefs proteftrefs of Athens, wherein was the facred
olive which fire produced, and her image which fell
down from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius. At
the back of Minerva’s temple was the public treafury,
which was burnt to the ground through the knavery
of the treafurers, who, having mifapplied the revenues
of the ftate, took this fhort method of making up ac¬
counts.
The lower city comprehended all the buildings fur-
rounding the citadel, the fort Munychia, and the ha¬
vens Phalerum and Piraeus, the latter of which was
joined to the city by walls five miles in length ; that
on the north was built by Pericl&s, but that on the
fouth by Thetniftocles; but by degrees the turrets
which were at firft eredted on thofe walls were turned
into dwelling-houfes for the accommodation of the
Athenians, whofe large city was now become too fmall
for them. The city, or rather the lower city, had 1 3
great gates, with the names of which it is not necef-
fary to trouble the reader. Among the principal edifices
which adorned it, we may reckon, 1. The temple of
Thefeus, -erefted by Conon, near its centre. Adjacent
thereto, the young people performed their exercife's.
It was alfo a fan&uary for diftreffed perfons, Haves or
free. 2. The Olympian temple eredted in honour of Ju¬
piter, the honour of Athens, and of all Greece. The
loundation of it was laid by Pififtratus; it was carried:
on but flowly in fucceeding times, yro years elapfing
before it was finiihed, which happened under the reign,
of Adrian, who was particularly kind to Athens: this
was the firft building in which the Athenians beheld
pillars. . 3, The pantheon, dedicated to all the gods; a
rtioft noble ftrudture,. lupported by 1 20 marble pillars,
and having over its great gate two horfes carved by
Praxiteles; it is yet remaining, as we ihall have oc-
cafion to Ihow hereafter when we come to fpeak of the
prefent ftate of this famous city. In feveral parts of
it were Jlaoi or porticos, wherein people Walked in
rainy weather, and from whence a fedt of philofophers
were denominated fioscs, becaufe their matter Zeno
taught in thofe pbrticos.
There Were at Athens two places called Cefamicus, Ceramku,
from Cefamus the fon of Bacchus and Ariadne; one
within the city, containing a multitude of buildihgs of
ail forts; the other in the fuburbs, in which was the
academy and other edifices. The Gymnafia of Athens
were many ; but the moft remarkable Were the Lyceum,
Academia, and Cynofarges. The Lyceum flood on
the banks of Iliffus; fome fay it was built by Pififtra-
tus, others by Pericles, others by Lycurgus. Here
Ariftotle taught philofophy, inftrudting fiich as came
to
A T H r 606 1 A T H
Athens, to hear him as they walked, whence his difciples are
generally thought to derive the name of peripatetics.
The ceramicus without the city was the dillance of fix
ftadia from its walls. The academy made part thereof;
as to the name of which there is fome difpute. Some
affirm that it was fo called from Academus, an ancient
hero, who, when Helen was ftolen by Thefeus, difco-
vered the place where (he lay hid to Caftor and Pol¬
lux : for which reafon the Lacedemonians, when they
invaded Attica, always fp.ared this place. Dicaearchus
writes, that Caftor and Pollux had two Arcadians in
their army, the one named Ec^edemus, the other Ma-
rothus; from the former of thefe he fays this place took
its name, and that the borough of Marathon was fo
called from the other. , It was a marfhy umvholefome
place, till Cymon was at great pains to have it drained;
and then it became extremely pleafant and delightful,
being adorned with fhady walks, where Plato read his
4 le&ures, and from thence his fcholars were ftyled aca-
Cynofarges, demies. The Cynofarges was a place in the fuburbs
not far from the Lyceum : it was famous on many ac¬
counts; but particularly for a noble gymnafium erefted
there, appointed for the fpecial ufe of fuch as were
Athenians only by one fide. In after times, Themi-
ftocles derived to himfelf ill-will, by carrying many of
the nobility to exercife vvith him here, becaufe, being
but of the half blood, he could exercife no where elfe
but in this gymnafium. Antifthenes inftituted a fe&
of philofophers who from the name of this diftridf, as
5 many think, were ftyled Cynics.
Havens. The havens of Athens were three. Firft the Pyrseus,
which was diftant about 35 or 40 ftadia from the city,
till joined thereto by the long walls beforementioned,
after which it became the principal harbour of the city.
It had three docks; Cantharos, Aphrodifium, and Zea:
the firft was fo called from an ancient hero, the fecond
from the goddefs Venus who had there two temples,
. and the third from bread-corn. There were in this
port five porticos, which joined together formed one
great one called from thence Macra Stoa, or the grand
portico. There were likewife two great markets or
fora; one near the long portico, the other near the
city. The fecond port was Munichia, a promontory
not far diftant from Pyneus ; a place very ftrong by
nature, and afterwards rendered far ftronger by art.
It was of this that Lpimenides faid, if the Athenians
forefaw what mifehief it would one day produce to
them, they would eat it away with their teeth. The
third was Phalerum, diftant from the city, according
to Thucydides 35 ftadia, but according to Paufanias
only 20. This was the moll ancient harbour of A-
6 thens, as Pirceus was the moft capacious.
Prefent Of this city, as it Hands at prefent, we have the fol-
ftate. lowing account by Dr Chandler. “ It is now called
Athini; and is not inconfiderable, either in extent or
the number of inhabitants. It enjoys a fine tempera¬
ture, and a ferene Iky. The air is clear and whole-
fome, though not fo delicately foft as in Ionia. The
town Hands beneath the Acropolis or citadel; not en-
compafling the rock as formerly, but fpreading into
the plain, chiefly on the weft and north-weft. Cor-
fairs infefting it, the avenues werefecured, and in 1676
the gates were regularly Ihut after funfet. It is now
open again ; but feveral of the gateways remain, and a
guard of Turks patrols at midnight. Some maffes of
brick work, Handing feparate, without the town, be- Athens,
longed perhaps to the ancient wall, of which otherv*—
traces alfo appear. The houfes are moftly mean and
ftraggling ; many with large areas or courts before
them. In the lanes, the high walls on each fide, which
are commonly white-walhed, refleft ftrongly the heat
of the fun. The ftreets are very irregular; and an¬
ciently were neither uniform nor handfome. They
have water conveyed in channels from mount Hymet-
tus; and in the bazar or market-place is a large foun¬
tain. The Turks have feveral mofques and public baths.
The Greeks have convents for men and women : with
many churches, in which fervice is regularly perform¬
ed ; and befides thefe, they have numerous oratories or
chapels, fome in ruins or confifting of bare walls, fre¬
quented only on the anniverfaries of the faints to whom
they are dedicated, A portrait of the owner on a
board is placed in them on that occafion, and removed
when the folemnity of the day is over.
“ The city of Cecrops is now a fortrefs with a thick cjtad^] of
irregular wall, Handing on the brink of precipices, andc;ty 0f ce.
inclofing a large area about twice as long as broad, crops.
Some portions of the ancient wall may be difeovered
on the outfide, particularly at the two extreme angles;
and in many places it is patched with pieces of co¬
lumns, and with marbles taken from the ruins. A
confiderable fum had been recently expended on the
fide next Hymettus, which was finilhed before we ar¬
rived. The fcaffolding had been removed to the end
toward Pentele; but money was wanting, and the
workmen were withdrawn. The garrifon confifts of
a few Turks, who refide there with their families, and
are called by the Greeks Cajlriani, or the foldiersof the
caftle. The rock is lofty, abrupt, and inaccelfible, ex¬
cept the front, which is toward the Pira-us ; and on
that quarter is a mountainous ridge, within cannon-
Ihot. It is deftitute of water fit for drinking ; and
fupplies are daily carried up in earthen jars, on horfes
and afles, from one of the conduits of the town.
“ The acropolis furnilhed a very ample field to the
ancient virtuofi. It was filled with monuments of Athe¬
nian glory, and exhibited an amazing difplay of beau¬
ty, of opulence, and of art; each contending as it
were for the fuperiority. Jt appeared as one entire
offering to the Deity, furpalfing in excellence and
aftonithing in richnefs. Heliodorus, named Periegetes
the guide, had employed on it 15 books. The curio-
fities of various kinds, with the piftures, ftatues, and
pieces of fculpture, were fo many and fo remarkable,
as to fiipply Polemo Periegetes with matter for four
volumes; and Strabo affirms, that as many would be
required in treating of other portions of Athens and
of Attica. In particular, the number of ftatues was
prodigious. Tiberius Nero, who was fond of images,
plundered the acropolis as well as Delphi and Olym¬
pia ; yet Athens, and each of thefe places, had not
fewer than 3000 remaining in the time of Pliny. E-
ven Paufanias feems here to be diftreffed by the multi¬
plicity of his fubjeft. But this banquet, as it were, of
the fenfes has long been withdrawn ;. and is now be¬
come like the tale of a vifion. The fpe&ator views
with concern the marble ruins intermixed with mean
flat-roofed cottages, and extant amid rubbiffi : the fad
memorials of a nobler people ; which, however, as vi-
fible from the fea, Ihould have introduced modern A-
3 thens
A T H [ 607 ] A T H
Athens, thens to more early notice. They who reported it
y  v 1' was only a fmall village, muft, it has been furmifed,
have beheld the acropolis through the wrong end of
their telefcopes.
“ The acropolis has now, as formerly, only one
entrance, which fronts the Pirseus. The afcent is by
traverfes and rude fortifications furniihed with cannon,
but without carriages, and negledtcd. By the fecond
gate is the ftation of the guard, who fits crofs-legged
under cover, much at his eafe, fmqking his pipe, or
drinking coffee, with his companions about him in
like attitudes. Over this gateway is an infcription in
large characters on a ft one turned upfide down, and.
black from the fires made below. It records a prefent
g of a pair of gates.
fPropylea. “ Going farther up, you come to the ruins of the
propylea, an edifice which graced the entrance into the
citadel. This was one of the ftruttures of Pericles,
who began it when Euthymenes was archon, 435 years
before Chrift. It was completed in five years, at the
expence of 2012 talents. It was of marble, of the
Doric order, and had five doors to afford an eafy paffage
to the multitudes which reforted on bufinefs or devo¬
tion to the acropolis.
“ While this fabric was building, the architedf Mne-
ficles, whole activity equalled his /kill, was hurt by a
fall, and the phyficians defj&ired of his life ; but Mi¬
nerva, who was propitious to the undertaking, appear¬
ed, it was faidr to Pericles, and prefcribed a remedy,
by which he w'as fpeedily and eafily cured. It was a
plant or herb growing round about the acropolis, and
^ called afterwards parthenium.
Temple of “ The right wing of the propylea was a temple of
Vidory. Victory. They related that iEgeus had flood there,
viewing the fea, and anxious for the return of his fon.
Thefeus, who was gone to Crete with the tributary
children to be delivered to the Minotaur. The veffel
which carried them had black fails fuiting the occalion
of its voyage ; and it was agreed, that, if Thefeus o-
vercame the enemy, their colour fliould be changed to
white. The negleft of this fignal w^as fatal to iEgeus,
who, on feeing the fails unaltered, threw himfelf down
headlong from the rock, and perifhed. The idol was
named Victory ’without wings; it was faid, becaufe the
news of the fuccefs of Thefeus did not arrive but with
the conqueror. It had a pomegranate in the right
hand, and an helmet in the left. As the flatue was
without pinions, it was hoped the goddefs would re¬
main for ever on the fpot,
“ On the left wing of the propylea, and fronting the
temple of Vidtory, was a building decorated with paint¬
ings by Polygnotus, of which an account is given by
Paufanias. This edifice, as well as the temple, was
of the Doric order, the columns fluted, and without
bafes. Both contributed alike to the uniformity and
grandeur of the defign ; and the whole fabric, when
finiflied, was deemed equally magnificent and orna¬
mental. The interval between Pericles and Paufanias
confitts of feveral centuries. The propylea remained
entire in the time of this.topographer ; and, as will be
fliown, continued nearly fo to a much later period.
It had then a roof of white marble, which was unfur-
pafled either in the fize of the Hones or in the beauty
of their arrangement; and before each wing was an
equeftrian ftatue..
“ The propylea have ceafed to be the entrance of Athen*.
the acropolis. The pafiage, which was between the
columns in the centre, is walled up almoft to their
capitals, and above is a batte'ry of cannon. ‘ The way
now winds before the front of the ancient ftrudture;
and turning to the left hand among rubbifli and mean-
walls, you come to the back part, and to the five
door'ways. The foil without is rifen higher than the
top of the two fmaller. There, under the vault and
cannon, lies an heap of large Hones, the ruin of the
roof.
“ The temple of Vi&ory, Handing on an abrupt
rock, has its back and one fide encumbered with the
modern ramparts. The columns in the front being
walled up, you enter it by a breach in the fide, within ro
the propylea. It was ufed by the Turks as a maga-^oof CJlr'
zine for powder, until about the year 1656, when a^^°^y
fudden explofion, occafioned by lightning, carried away floa> ‘
the roof, with a houfe ere&ed oa it, belonging to the
officer who commanded in the acropolis, whole family,
except a girl, periftied. The women of the- Aga con¬
tinued to inhabit in this quarter, but it is now aban¬
doned and in ruins.
“ The cell of the temple of Vi&ory, which is of
white marble, very thick, and Hrongly cemented, fuf-
ftciently witnefles the great violence it has undergone ;
the Hones in many places being disjointed, as it were,
and forced from their original pofition. Two of thefe
making an acute angle, the exterior edges touching,
without a crevice; and the light abroad being much
Hronger than in the room, which has a modern roof
and is dark ; the portion in contadt becoming pellucid,
had illumined the vacant fpace with a dim colour re-
fembling that of amber. We were defired to examine
this extraordinary appearance, which the Greeks re¬
garded as a Handing miracle, and which the Turks,
who could not confute them, beheld with equal aflo-
nifhment. We found in the gape fome coals, which
had been brought on a bit of earthen ware for the-
purpofe of burning incenfe, as we fuppofed, and alio
a piece of wax-taper, which probably had been light¬
ed in honour of the faint and author of the wonder;
but our Swifs unfortunately carrying his own candle
too far in, the fmoke blackened the marble, and de-
flroy'ed the phenomenon.
“ The building oppofite to the temple has ferved as
a foundation for a fquare lofty tower of ordinary ma-
fonry. The columns of the front are walled up, and
the entrance is by a low iron gate in the fide. It is now
ufed as a place of confinement for delinquents; but in
1676 was a powder magazine. In the wall of a ram¬
part near it are fome fragments of exquifite fculpture,.
reprefenting the Athenians fighting with the Amazons.
Thefe belong to the freeze, which was then Handing.
In the fecond century, when Paufanias lived, much of
the painting was impaired by age, but fome remained,
and the fubje&s were chiefly taken from the Trojan
flory. The traces are fince vaniihed.
“ The pediment of the temple of Vi&ory, with
that of the oppofite wing, is deferibed as remaining in
1676 ; but on each building a fquare tower had been,
erefted. One of the Heps in the front of the propylea
was entire, with the four columns, their entablature and
the pediment. The portico, to which the five door¬
ways belonged, confifled of a large fquare room, roof¬
ed
A T H r 608 1 A T H
f Athens, ed with dabs of marble, which wore laid on two great
v marble beams, and fuftained by four beautiful columns.
Thefe were Ionic, the proportions of this order bell
fuiiing tHat purpofe, as taller than the Doric ; the
reafon it was likewife preferred in the pronaos of the
temple of Victory. The roof of the propylea, after
Handing above 2000 years, was probably deftroyed,
with all the pediments, by the Venetians in 1687,
when they battered the caftle in front, firing red-hot
bullets, and took it, but were compelled to refign it
again to the Turks in the following year. The exte¬
rior walls, and, in particular, a fide of the temple of
Vidtory, retain many marks of their hoftilities.
Minerva°^ “ ^ ^le ot'narnent; °f the acropolis was the par-
thenon or great temple of Minerva, a moft fuperb and
magnificent fabric. The Perfians had burned the edi¬
fice, which before occupied the file, and was called
hecatotnpedon, from its being 100 feet fquare. The
zeal of Pericles and of all the Athenians was exerted
in providing a far more ample and glorious refidence
for their favourite goddefs. The architedts were Cal¬
licrates and Idlinus; and a treatife on the building
was written by the latter and Carpion. It was of
white marble, of the Doric order, the columns fluted
and without bafes ; the number in front eight; and
adorned with admirable fculpture. The ftory of the
birth of Minerva was carved in the front pediment;
and in the back, her contefl: with Neptune for the
country. The beafts of burden, which had conveyed
up the materials, were regarded as facred, and recom-
penfed with paftures; and one, which had voluntarily
headed the train, was maintained during life, without
11 labour, at the public expence.
Her ftatue. t< rp]ie ftatue of Minerva, made for this temple by
Phidias, was of ivory, 26 cubits or 39 feet high. It
was decked with pure gold to the amount of 44 ta¬
lents, fo difpofed by the advice of Pericles as to be
taken off and weighed, if required. The goddefs was
reprefented Handing, with her veftment reaching to
her feet. Her helmet had a fphinx for the creft, and
on the Tides were griffins. The head of Medufa was
on her breaft-plate. In one hand fire held her fpear,
and in the other fupported an image of Vi&ory about
four cubits high The battle of the centaurs and
Lapithae was carved on her fandals; and on her fhield,
which lay at her feet, the war of the gods and giants,
and the battle of the Athenians and Amazons. Ey
her fpear was a ferpent, in allufion to the ftory of L-
richthonius ; and on the pedeftal, the birth of Pando¬
ra. '1 he Sphinx, the Victory, and Serpent, were ac-'
counted eminently wonderful. This image was placed
in the temple in the firft year of the 87th Olympiad, in
which the Peloponnefian war began. The gold was
ftripped off by the tyrant Lychares, when Demetrius
Poliorcetes compelled him to fly. The fame plunderer
plucked down the golden fhields in the acropolis, and
carried away the golden Victories, with the precious
veffels and ornaments provided for the Panathenaean
feftival.
“ The parthenon remained entire for many ages af¬
ter it was deprived of the goddefs. The Chriftians
converted it into a church, and the Mahometans into
a mofque. It is mentioned in the letters of Crufius,
and mifcalled the pantheon, and the temple of the un¬
known God. The Venetians under Koaingfmark,
- N° 36.
when they befieged the acropolis in 168'’, threw a Athens,
bomb, which demolifhed the roof, and, fetting fire to v"’""v
fome powder, did much damage to the'fabric. The
floor, which is indented, ftill witneffes the place of its
fall. This was the fad forerunner of farther deftruc-
tion 5 the Turks breaking the- ftones, and applying
them to the building of a new mofque, which Hands
within the ruin, or to the.repairing of their houfes and
the walls of the fortre£s. The vaft pile of ponderous
materials, which lay ready, is greatly diminifhed ; and
the whole ftnufture will gradually be confumed and
disappear. _
“ The temple of Minerva in 1676 was, as Wheeler Temple
and Spon affert, the fineft mofque in the world, with- converted
out comparifon. The Greeks had adapted the fabric inr^a *
to their ceremonial by conftrudling at one end a femi-mo t^ue•
circular recefs for the holy tables, with a window : for
before it was enlightened only by the door, obfcurity
being preferred under the heathen ritual, except on
feftivals, when it ycilded to fplendid illuminations;
the reafon, it has been furmifed, why temples are com¬
monly found Ample and unadorned on the infides. In
the wall beneath the window were inlerted two pieces
of the ftone called phcngites, a fpecies of marble dif-
covered in Cappadocia in the time of Nero; and fo
tranfparent that he erected with it a temple to For¬
tune, which was luminous within, when the door was
ftiut. Thefe pieces were perforated, and the light
which entered was tinged with a reddiih or yellowilh
hue. The pi&ure of the Panagia or Virgin Mary, in
Mofaic, on the ceiling of the reeds, remained; with
two jafpar columns belonging to the fereen, which had
feparated that part from the nave ; and within, a ca¬
nopy fupported by four pillars of porphyry, with Co¬
rinthian capitals of white marble, under which the
table had been placed; and behind it, beneath the
window, a marble chair for the archbifhop; and alfo
a pulpit, Handing on four fmall pillars in the middle
aile. The Turks had white-waffied the walls, to obli¬
terate the portraits of faints, and the other paintings,
with which the Greeks decorate their places of wor-
ftiip; and had eredted a pulpit on the right hand for
their iman or reader. The roof was difpofed in fquare
compartments; the flones mafiive; and fome had fal¬
len in. It had been fuftained in the pronaos by fix co¬
lumns ; but the place of one was then fupplied by a
large pile of rude mafonry, the Turks not having been
able to fill up the gap more worthily. The roof of
the naos was fupported by colonnades ranging with
the door, and on each fide; confining of 22 pillars be¬
low, and of 23 above. The odd one was over the en¬
trance, which by that difpofition was left wide and un-
tmbarraffed. in the portico were fufpended a few
lamps, to be ufed in the mofque at the feafons when
the mufi’elmans affemble before day-break, or to be
lighted up round the minaret, as is the cultom during
their Ramazan or Lent.
“ It is not eafy to conceive a more ftriking objedt Magmfi-
than the parthenon, though now a mere ruin, i'he co-cent ruin,
lumns within the naos have all been removed : but on
the floor may be feen the circles which diredted the
workmen in placing them; and at the farther end is
a groove acrof's it, as for one of the partitions of the
cell. The recels eredted by the Chriftians is demolifh¬
ed ; and from the rubbiffi of the ceiling the Turkifh
boys
A T H C 609 ] A T H
Athens.] boys colleft bits of the Mofaic, of different colours,
' ‘ which compofed the picture. We are told at Smyr¬
na, that this fubftance had taken a polifh, and been
fet in buckles. This cell is about half demolifhed ;
and in the columns which furrounded it, is a large
gap near the middle. On the walls are fome traces of
the paintings. Before the portico is a refervoir funk
in the rock, to fupply the Turks with water for the
purifications cuftomary on entering their mofques. In
it, on the left-hand, is the rubbifh of the pile erefted
to fupply the place of a column ; and on the right, a
flaircafe, which leads out on the architrave, and has a
marble or two with infcriptions, but worn fo as not to
be legible. It belonged to the minaret, which has
been deftroyed.
Sculptures. “ The travellers, to whom we are indebted for an
account of the mofque, have likewife given a defcrip-
tion of the fculpture then remaining in the front, in
the middle of the pediment was feen a bearded Jupiter,
with a majeftic countenance, Handing, and naked; the
right arm broken. The thunderbolt, it has been fup-
pofed, was placed in that hand, and the eagle between
his feet. On his right was a figure, it is conjectured,
of Vidtory, clothed to the mid-leg; the head and arms
gone. This was leading on the horfes of a car, in
which Minerva fat, young and unarmed; her head-
drefs, inftead of a helmet, refembling that of a Ve¬
nus. The generous ardour and lively fpirit vifible in
this pair of celeftial Heeds, was fuch as befpoke the
hand of a maHer, bold and delicate, of a Phidias or
Praxiteles. Behind Minerva was a female figure, with¬
out a head, fitting, with an infant in her lap ; and in
this angle of the pediment was the emperor Hadrian
with his arm round Sabina, both reclining, and feem-
ing to regard Minerva with pleafure. On the left fide
of Jupiter were five or fix other trunks to complete the
affembiy of deities, into which he received her. Thefe
figures were all wonderfully carved, and appeared as
big as life. Hadrian and his confort, it is likely, were
complimented by the Athenians with places among
the marble gods in the, pediment, as benefa&ors.
Both of them may be confidered as intruders on the
original company; and poffibly their heads were pla¬
ced on trunks, which before had other owners. They
Hill poffefs their corner, and are eafy to be recognifed,
though not unimpaired. The refi of the flatues are
defaced, removed, or fallen. Morofini was ambitious
to enrich Venice with the fpoils of Athens ; and by an
attempt to take down the principal group, hafiened
their ruin. In the other pediment is a head or two of
fea-horfes finely executed, with fome mutilated figures;
and on the architrave beneath them are marks of the
fixtures of votive offerings, perhaps of the golden
ffiields, or of feffoons fufpended on folemn occafions,
when the temple was drefl'ed out to, receive the votaries
t6 of the goddefs.
iredheum. “ Neptune and Minerva, once rival deities, were
joint and amicable tenants of the Eredtheum, in which
was an altar of Oblivion. The building was double,
a partition-wall dividing it into two temples, which
fronted different ways. One was the temple of Nep¬
tune Eredtheus, the other of Minerva Polias. The
latter was entered by a fquare portico conne&ed with
a marble ikreen, which fronts towards the propylea.
The door of the cell was on the left hand : and at the
Vol. II. Part II.
farther end of the pafiage was a door leading down Athens,
into the Pandrofeum, which was contiguous. ^ y
“ Before the temple of Neptune Eredtheus was an 17
altar of Jupiter the Jupreme, on which no living thing
was facrificed, but they offered cakes without wine. re(^iieus.
Within it was the altar of Neptune and Eredfheus;
and two, belonging to jVulcan and a hero named Eli¬
tes, who had tranfmitted the prieffhood to his poffe-
rity, which were called Butadee. On the walls were
paintings of this illuffrious family, from which the
prieflefs of Minerva Polias was alfo taken. It was af-
ferted that Neptune had ordained the well of fait wa¬
ter, and the figure of a trident in the rock, to be me¬
morials of his contending for the country. The for¬
mer, Paufanias remarks, was no great wonder, for
other wells of a fimilar nature were found inland; but
this, when the fouth wind blew, afforded the found of
waves. ,8
“ The temple of Minerva Polias was dedicated byOfMinerv*
all Attica, and poflefled the moH ancient Hatue 0fPoiias‘
the goddefs. The demi or towns had other deities,
but their zeal for her fuffered no diminution. The
image, which they placed in the acropolis, then the
city, was in after ages not only reputed confummately
holy, but believed to have fallen down from heaven in
the reign of Erichthonius. It was guarded by a large
ferpent, which was regularly ferved with offerings, of
honied cakes for his food. This divine reptile was of
great fagacity, and attained to an extraordinary age.
He wifely withdrew from the temple, when in danger
from the Medes; and, it is faid, was living in the fe-
corid century. Before this flatue was an owl; and a
golden lamp. This continued burning day and night.
It was contrived by a curious artiff, named Callimachus,
and did not require to be replenifhed with oil oftener
than once a-year. A brazen palm-tree, reaching to
the roof, received its fmoke. Ariflion had let the
holy flame expire while Sylla befieged him, and was
abhorred for his impiety. The original olive-tree,
faid to have been produced by Minerva, was kept in
this temple. When the Medes fet fire to the acropo¬
lis, it was confumed; but, they afferted, on the follow¬
ing day, was found to have (hot up again as much as
a cubit. It.grew low and crooked, imt was efleemed
very holy. The prieHefs of Minerva was not allowed
to eat of the new cheefe of Attica; and, among her
perquifites, was a meafure of wheat, and one of barley,
for every birth and burial. This temple was again
burned when Callias was archon, 24 years after the
death of Pericles. Near it was the tomb of Cecrops,
and within it Eredlheus was buried.
“ The ruin of the Ereftheum is of white marble;
the archite&ural ornaments of very exquifite workman-
flrip, and uncommonly curious. The columns of the
front of the temple of Neptune are Handing with the
architrave; and alfo the Ikreen and portico of Minerva
Polias, and with a portion of the cell retaining traces of
the partition-wall. The order is Ionic. An edifice
revered by ancient Attica, as holy in the higheff de¬
gree, was in 1676 the dwelling of a Turkifh family,
and is now deferted and negledled ; but many ponde¬
rous Hones and much rubbilh muff be removed before
the well and trident would appear. The former, at
leaff, might probably be difcovered. The portico is
ufed as a powder-magazine ; but we obtained permif-
4 H fion
A T H
Athens. fion to dig and to examine the outfide. The door-way
' q£ tjie ve{|ibule is walled up, and the foil rifen nearly
to the top of the door-way of the prandofeum. By
the portico is a battery commanding the town, from
which afcends an amufing hum. The Turks fire from
it, to give notice of the commencement of Ramazan
or of their Lent, and of bairam or the holy-days, and
on other public occafions.
“ The prandofeum is a fmall, but very particular
building, of which no fatisfaftory idea can be commu-
sicated by defcription. The entablature is fupported
by women called Caryatides. Their ftory is thus re¬
lated. The Greeks, viftorious in the Perfian war,
jointly deftroyed Carya, a city of the Peloponnefus,
which had favoured the common enemy. They cut
qff the males, and carried into captivity the women,
whom they compelled to retain their former drefs and
ornaments, though in a date of fervitude. The ar-
chite&s of thofe times, to perpetuate the memory of
their punifhment, reprefented them, as in this inftance,
each with a burden on her head, one hand uplifted to
it, and the other hanging down by her fide. The
images were in number fix, all looking toward the par-
thenon. The four in front, with that next to the
propylea, remain, but mutilated, and their faces be-
fmeared with paint The foil is rifen almoft to the
top of the bafement on which they are placed. This
temple was open or latticed between the ftatues; and
in it alfo was a Hunted olive-tree, with an altar of Ju¬
piter Herceus Handing under it. The propylea are
nearly in a line with the fpace dividing it from the par-
thenonv which difpofition, befides its other efl'edis, oc-
cafioned the front and flank of the latter edifice to be
feen at once by thofe who approached it from the en¬
trance of the acropolis.
Of Jupiter “ r^'^e ru*n t^ie temP‘e Jupiter Olympius con-
©lympius. fifts of prodigious columns, tall and beautiful, of the
Corinthian order, fluted; fome Angle, fome fupporting
their architraves; with a few maflive marbles beneath ;
the remnant of a vaH heap, which only many ages could
have confumed and reduced into fo fcanty a compafs.
The columns are of very extraordinary dimenfions, be¬
ing about fix feet in diameter, and near 60 in height.
The number without the cell was 116 or 120. Seven¬
teen were Handing in 1676 : but a few years before
we arrived, one was overturned with much difficulty,
and applied to the building a new mofque in the bazar
or market-place. This violence was avenged by the
baihaw of Negropont, who made it a pretext for ex¬
torting from the vaiwode or governor 15 purfes; the
pillar being, he alleged, the property of their maHer
the Grand Signior. It was an angular column, and
of confequence in determining the dimenfions of the
fabric. We regretted that the fall of this mighty
mafs had not been poflponed until w-e came, as it would
Rave afforded an opportunity of, infpe&ing and mea-
furing fome members which we found far too lofty to
be attempted. On a piece of the architrave, fupport¬
ed by a couple of columns, are two parallel walls, of
modern mafonry, arched about the middle, and again
near the top. You are told it has been the habitation
of a hermit, doubtlefs of a Stylites ;. but of whatever
building it has been part, and for whatever purpofe
defigned, it muff have been eredfed thus high in air,
while the immenfe ruin of this huge ftrufture was yet
A T H
fcarcely diminiflied, and the heap inclined fo as to ren- Athens,
der it acceffible. It was remarked that two Hones of At^erina'
a Hep in the front had coalefced at the extremity, fcr " * 1 7 |
that no jun&ure could be perceived y and the like was
difcovered alfo in a Hep of the parthenon. In both
inffafices it may be attributed to a concretory fluid,
which pervades the marble in the quarry. Some por¬
tion remaining in the pieces, when taken green as it
were, and placed in mutual contadl, it exfuded and
united them by a procefs fimilar to that in a bone of
an animal when broken and properly fet.
“ Befides the more liable antiquities, many detach-Detacilecj I
ed pieces are found in the town, by the fountains, in pieces of an- f
the Hreets, the walls, the houfes, and churches. A- tique fcuip- |
mong thefe are fragments .of fculpture ; a marble chair ture3> |
or two, which probably belonged to the Gymnafia or
theatres : a fun dial at the catholicon Or cathedral, in-
fcribed with the name of the maker ; and, at the ar-
chiepifcopal houfe clofe by,_ a very curious veffel of
marble, ufed as a ciffern to receive water, but once
ferving, it is likely, as a public Handard or meafure.
Manyr columns occur; with fome maimed ffatues; and
pedellals, feveral with infcriptior^, and almoff buried
in earth. A cuffom has prevailed, as at Chios, o£
fixing in the wall, over the gateways and doors of the
houfes, carved Hones, moff of which exhibit the fune¬
ral fupper. In the courts of the houfes lie many
round ileke, or pillars, once placed on the graves of
the Athenians ; and a great number are Hill to be feen
applied to the feme ufe in the Turkiffi burying grounds
before the acropolis. Thefe generally have concife
infcriptions containing the name of the perfon, and of
the town and tribe to which the deceafed belonged.
Demetrius the Phalerian, who endeavoured to reffrain
fepulchral luxury, enafted, that no perfon ffiould have
more than one, and that the height fliould not exceed
three cubits. Another fpecies, which refembles our
modern head-Hones, is fometimes adorned with fculp¬
ture, and has an epitaph in verfe. We few a few mu¬
tilated Hermae. Thefe were buffs on long quadran¬
gular bafes, the heads frequently of. brafs, invented by
the Athenians. At firff they were made to reprefent.
only Hermes or Mercury, and defigned as guardians
of the fupulchres in which they were lodged ; but af¬
terwards the houfes, Hreets, and portico’s of Athens,
were adorned with them, and rendered venerable by
a multitude of portraits of illuffrious men and women,
of heroes, and of gods: and, it is related, Hippar¬
chus, fon of Pififfratus, erecled them in the demi or
borough-towns, and by the road-fide, infcribed with
moral apophthegms in elegiac, verfe; thus making
them vehicles of inffru&ion.”
ATP1ERINA, in ichthyology, a genus of fiflies
of the order of abdominales. The charadlers of this
genus are thefe: The upper jaw is plain : the rays of
the branchioffege membrane are fix ; and’the fi.de-belt
or line ffiines like filver. The fpecies are two, viz.
1. The hepfetus, with about 12 rays in the fin next
the anus. It.is found in the Mediterrahean. It is alfo
very common in the fea near Southampton, where it
is called a fmelt. The higheff feafon is from March
to the latter end of May, cr beginning of June; in
which month it fpawns. It never deferts the place;
and is conffantly taken except in hard froff. It is alfo
found on other ccaffs of our ifland. The length is a
bove
[ 6.0 ]
A T H [ 6u ] A T H
Aihcroma bove 4|- inches, and the tail is much forked. The The fecond is faid to have carried a bull on his back
il fifh is femipellucid, covered with fcales; the colour a confiderable way, then to have knocked him down
, Athletic. gjvery.) tinged with yellow : beneath the fide-line is a with a blow of his fill, and laltly, as fome add, devour-
* row of fmall black fpots. 2. The menidea, with 24. ed him at a meal.
rays in the fin next the anus. This is a very fmall pel- ATHLONE, a town of Weftmeath in Ireland,
lucid fifh, with many black points interfperfed ; it has lying in W. Long. 8. o. N. Lat. 53. 20. It is fitua-
many teeth in the lips, but none in the tongue or jaws, ted on both fides of the Shannon, and both parts are
It is found in the frefh waters of Carolina, and fpawns • united by a ftrong, high-raifed, and well-built bridge,
in April. in the middle of which ftands a monument, with fome
ATHEROMA, in furgery, a tumor without pain figures cut in marble, together with Queen Elizabeth’s
or difcolouration of the flcin, containing, in a membra- arms, and fome infcriptions declaring the time and the
nous bjig, matter refembling pap, intermixed with hard founders of the building. The caftle was founded by
and flony particles. Thefe tumors are ufually cured by Ring John on fome land belonging to St Peter’s abbey,
incifion. for which he granted a compenfation. It is built on
ATHERTON, or Atherston, a town of War- a high-raifed round hill, refembling one of the Danifh
wickfhire in England, fituated on the river Stour, in raths or forts. Here were formerly two convents, or
W. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 52. 40. It is a confiderable monaiteries. Athlone was formerly ftrongly fortified,
town, and had formerly a monaftery; but now is beft and confidered as of very great importance. In the
knowm by its fair, which is the greateft in England year 1691, a part of the Englifh army under General
for cheefe. Ginckle, in the very face of the Irifh, who were
ATHESIS (anc. geog.), a river of the Cifalpine ftrongly entrenched on the oppofite fliore, fording the
Gaul, which, rifing in the Rhetian Alps, in Mount river, formed, and took poffeffion of the town, not
Brenna, in the county of Tirol, runs fouthwards and lofing more than 50 men in the-attack; which i^ efteem-
waflies Tridentum and Verona, which laft it divides; ed as bold and fuccefsful an enterprife as any recorded
and after palling this, bends its courfe eaftwards, in a in hiftory. There are generally two troops of horfe
parallel direction with the Po,1 and falls into the Adri- and four companies of foot quartered at Athlone. This
atic between Folia Claudia and Philiftina : it feparated town gives the title of earl to the family of Ginckle, as
the Euganei, an ancient people, from the Veneti. The a reward for the noble fervices performed by the Ge-
people dwelling on it are called Atheftni (Pliny). Its neral.
modern name is Adige. ATHOcL, the moft northern diftridt of Perthlhire
ATHLET/E, in antiquity, perfons of ftrength and in Scotland, extending in length 43 miles, and in
agility, difciplined to perform in the public games, breadth 30. It is bordered on the north by Badenoch,
The word is originally Greek, formed from on the weft by Lochaber, on the eaft and fouth-eaft
certamen, “ combat;” whence alfo aS-^ov, tbe by Mar and Gowrie, on the fouth by Stratherne and
prize or reward adjudged the viftor.—Under Athlete Perth Proper, and on the fouth-weft by Braidalbane.
were comprehended wreftlers, boxers, runners, leapers, The country is very rough and mountainous, and con-
throwers of the dilk, and thofe praftifed in other ex- tains part of the ancient Caledonian foreft; but thefe
ercifes exhibited in the Olympic, Pythian, and other mountains are interfperfed with fruitful valiies. Here
folemn fports ; for the conquerors wherein there were are feveral villages, but no towns of any confideration.
eftablilhed prizes. The moft noted place is Blair-Caftle, feated on the ri-
ATHLETIC habit, denotes a ftrong hale con- ver Tilt, near its influx into the Gurry, a pleafant
ftitution of body. Anciently it fignified a full flefhy limpid ftream that falls into the Tay. This caftle be-
corpulent flate, fuch as the athletse endeavoured to longs to the Duke of Athol, who derives his title from
arrive at. The athletic habit is efteemed the higheft this diftrift, and lives here with great magnificence,
pitch of health: yet is it dangerous, and the next door In the fame neighbourhood we fee the pafs of Gilii-
to difeafe ; fince, when the body is no longer capable cranky, rendered memorable by the battle fought here
of being improved, the next alteration muft be for the in the beginning of King William’s reign, between
worfe. The chief objeft of the athletic diet, was to that monarch’s general M‘Kay, and the Highlanders
obtain a firm, bulky, weighty body; by force of which, adhering to King James. See Gillicran ky.
more than art and agility, they frequently overpower- ATHOS, a celebrated mountain of Chalcidia in
ed their antagonift : hence they fed altogether on dry, Macedonia, fituated E. Long. 26. 20. N. Lat. 40. 10.
folid, and vifcuous meats. In the earlier days, their The ancients entertained extravagant notions concern-
chief food was dry figs and cheefe, which was called ing its height. Mela affirmed it to be fo high as to
arida faginatio, and Atx»<ri( Siec^puv reach above the clouds; and Martianus Capellinus,
Oribafius, or, as others fay, Pythagoras, firft brought that it wras fix miles high. It was a received opinion,
this in difufe, and fubftituted flelh in lieu thereof. They that the fummit of mount Athos was above the middle
had a peculiar bread called wKnna.; They exercifed, region of the air, and that it never rained there ; be-
eat, and drank, without ceafing: they were not allowed caufe the allies left on the altars ere&ed near its fummit
to leave off eating when fatiated ; but were obliged to were always found as they were left, dry and unfcatter-
cram on till they could hold no more; by which means ed. But if on many accounts it was famous among
they at length acquired a degree of voracity which the ancients, it is no lefs fo among the moderns. The
to us feems incredible, and a ftrength proportional. Greeks, ftruck with its Angular lituation and the vene-
Witnefs what Paufanias relates of the four celebrated rable appearance of its towering afcent, eredled fo many
athletas, Polydamus the Theffalian, Milo the Crotonian, churches, monafteries, hermitages, &c. upon it, that
Theagenes the Thafian, and Euthymus the Locrian : it became in a manner inhabited by devotees, and from
4 H 2 thence
Athlonc
A T H [ 612 1 A T L
Athos thence received the name of the Holy Mountain; which
(I name it ftill retains, though many of thofe confecrated
1 y~ . works are now decayed. According to the accounts
of modern travellers, this mountain advances into the
Archipelago, being joined to the continent by an ifth-
mus about half a league in breadth. It is about 30
miles in circumference, and two in perpendicular height.
It may be travelled over in about three days, and may
be feen 90 miles off. There is a fine profpeft from the
top ; but, like all other high mountains, the cold on
its fummit is exceffive. It abounds with many differ¬
ent kinds of plants and trees, particularly the pine and
fir. In the valleys grows a plant called elegia, whofe
branches ferve to make pens for writing. In fhort,
this mountain is faid to be adorned with variety of
herbage and evergreens, a multitude of fprings and
ftreams, and woods growing near the fhore, fo as to
be one of the moft agreeable places in the world.
It is now inhabited by Caloyers, a fort of Greek
monks, of the order of St Bafil, who never marry,
though others of that church do. They abftain from
flefh, and fare very hardly, their ordinary meal being
olives pickled when they are ripe. They are about
6000 in all, and inhabit feveral parts of the mountain,
on which are 24 large old monalteries, furrounded with
high walls for a defence againfl banditti. They are
fo refpefted, that the Turks themfelves will often fend
them alms. Thefe monks are not idle like others; but
labour with the ax, fpade, and fickle, dreiling them¬
felves like hermits. Formerly they had fine Greek
manufcripts ; but are now become fo illiterate, that they
can fcarce read or write.
Through this mountain, or rather through the ifth-
mus behind it, Xerxes king of Perfia is faid to have
cut a paffage for his fleet when about to invade Greece.
In this work he fpent three whole years, and employ¬
ed in it all the forces on board the fleet. He is aHb
faid, before the work was begun, to have written the
following infolent and riduculous letter to the moun¬
tain : “ Athos, thou proud and afpiring mountain, that
lifteft up thy head to the very Ikies, I advife thee not
to be fo audacious as to put rocks and ftones that can¬
not be cut in the way of my workmen. If thou
makeft that oppofition, I will cut thee entirely down,
and throw thee headlong into the fea.” The direftors
of this enterprife are faid to have been Bubaris the fon
of Megabyzus, and Artacheus the fon of Arbeus, both
Perfians; but as no traces of fuch a great work remain,
the truth of the whole relation has juftly been called
in queftion.
ATHWART, in navigation, is fynonimous with
acrofs the line of the courfe.
Atrwakt the Fore-foot, is a phrafe that denotes the
flight of a cannon-ball from one Ihip acrofs the courfe
of another, to intercept the latter, and oblige her to
Ihorten fail, that the former may come near enough to
examine her.
ArmrART-Haufe, exprefles the fituation of a Ihip,
when Ihe is driven by wind or tide, or any other acci¬
dent, acrofs the fore-part of another.
AthirjRT-Skips, reaching acrofs Ihips from one fide
to the other.
ATHY, a town of Ireland in the county of Kil¬
dare, not far from the borders of Queen’s county.
W. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 53. o. It is fituated on the Atlbarf
river Barrow ; is governed by a fovereign, two bailiffs, Atjarj|;deS3
and a recorder ; and is, alternately with Naas, the af- ,
fizes town.
ATIBAR, the name by which the inhabitants, of
the kingdom of Gago in Africa call gold-dull; from
which word Europeans,- and efpecially the French,
have compofed the word tihir, which alfo fignifies gold-
duff among thofe who trade in that commodity.
AT1GNY, an ancient town of Champagne in
France, where' feveral of the kings of France had their-
refidence. It is feated on the river Arfne, in E. Long.
4. 4'7. N. Lat. 49. 30.
ATKINS (Sir Robert), lord chief baron of the
exchequer, was born in 1621, and educated at the uni-
verfity of Oxford, from whence he removed to the inns
of court, and became eminent in the law. He was
made knight of the Bath, with many other perfons of
the firft diftindlion, at the coronation of King Charles 11.
In 1672, he was appointed one of the judges of
Common Pleas; in which honourable flation he con¬
tinued till 1679, when, forefeeing the troubles that
foon after enfued, he thought fit to refign, and retire
into the country. In 1689, he was made by King;
William lord chief baron of the exchequer; and a-
bout the fame time executed the office of fpeaker to.
the houfe of lords, which had been previoufly refufed
by the Marquis of Halifax. He diftinguilhed himfelf
by an unlhaken zeal for the laws and liberties of his
country. He wrote feveral pieces, which have been
colledled into one volume 8vo, under the title of Par¬
liamentary and Political Trafts. The authors of the
Biographia Britannica remark, that whoever inclines
to be thoroughly informed of the true conftitution of
his country, of the grounds and reafons of the revo¬
lution, and of the danger of fuffering prerogative to
joftle law, cannot read a better or plainer book than
thofe trads of Sir Robert Atkins. He died in 1709,
aged 88.
Atkins (Sir Robert), fon of the preceding, was-
born in 1646, and was eminent for all the virtues that
could adorn an Englilh gentleman. He wrote The
Ancient and Prefent State of Gloucefterffiire, in one
large volume in folio ; and died O&ober 29, 1711.
ATKYNS (Richard), was defcended from a good
family, and was born at Tuffleigh in Gloucefterffure
in the year 161,5. ^e was educated at Oxford, from
whence he removed to Lincoln’s Inn, and afterwards
diffinguilhed himfelf by his loyalty to King Charles I.
for whom he railed a troop of horfe at his own ex¬
pence. At the Reftoration he was made one of the
deputy lieutenants of Gloucefterlhire, and diftinguilhed
himfelf by his attachment to the government. But
at length being committed prifoner to the Marfhalfea
in Southwark for debt, he died there on the j 4th of
September 1677. He wrote feveral pieces, particu¬
larly A Treatife on the Original and Growth of Print¬
ing.
ATLANTIC ocean, that bounded by Europe and
Africa on the eaft, and by America on the weft;
ATLANTiCA. See Atlantis.
ATLAN TIDES, in aftronomy, a denomination
given to the Pleiades, or feven ftars, fometimes alfo
called Vergillix, I hey are thus called, as being fuppc-
A T L
fed by the poets to have been the daughters either of
Atlas or his brother Hefperus, who were tranflated in¬
to heaven.
ATLANTIS, Atalantis, or Atlantica, an-
ifland mentioned by Plato and fome others of the an¬
cients, concerning the real exiftence of which many
difputes have been raifed. Homer, Horace, and the
other poets, make two Atlanticas, calling them He-
fperidss and Elyftan Fields, making them the habita¬
tions of the blelfed. The mod diftinct account of this
ifland we have in Plato’s Timreus, of which Mr Cham¬
bers gives the following abridgement. “ The Atlantis
was a large ifland in the weftern ocean, fituated before
or oppofite to the ftraits of Gades. Out of this ifland
there was an eafy paflage into fome others, which lay
near a large continent exceeding in bignefs all Europe
and Afia. Neptune fettled in this ifland (from whofe
fon Atlas its name was derived), and divided it among
his ten fons. To the youngeft fell the extremity of
the ifland, called Gadtr, which in the language of the
country fignifies fertile, or abundant in Jkeep. The
defcehdants of Neptune reigned here from father to
Ton for a great number of generations in the order of
primogeniture, during the fpace of 9000 years. They
alfo poffefled feveral other iflands; and, palling into
Europe and Africa, fubdued all Libya as far as Egypt,
and all Europe to Afia Minor. At length the ifland
funk under water ; and for a long time afterwards the
fea thereabouts was full of rocks and /helves. ”
Many of the moderns alfo are of opinion, that the
exiilehce of the Atlantis is not to be looked upon as
entirely fabulous. Some take it to have been Ameri¬
ca ; and from thence, as well as from a paflage in Se¬
neca’s Medea, and fome other obfcure hints, they
imagine that the new world was not unknown to the
ancients. But allowing this to be the cafe, the above-
mentioned continent which wras faid to lie beyond At¬
lantis would feem rather to have been the continent of
America than Atlantis itfelf. The learned Rudbeck,
profeflbr in the univerlity of Upfal, in a work intitled
Atlantica five Manbeim, endeavours to prove that Swe¬
den and Norway are the Atlantis of the ancients; but
this its fituation will by no means allow us to believe.
By Kircher it is fuppofed to have been an ifland extend¬
ing from the Canaries quite to the Azores; that it was
really fwallowed up by the ocean as Plato aflerts ; and
that thefe fmall iflands are the /battered remains of it
which were left /landing. .
Atlantis (New), is the name of a fiAitious phi-
lofophical commonwealth, of which a defcription has
been given by Lord Bacon.—The New Atlantis is
fuppofed to be an ifland in the South Sea, to which,
the author was driven in a voyage from Peru to Japan.
The compo/ition is an ingenious fable, formed after
the mamrer of the Utopia of Sir Thomas More, or
Campanella’s City of the Sun. Its chief defign is to
exhibit a model or defcription of a college, inilituted
[ 6-3 1
A T L
ATLAS, king of Mauritania, a great a/Vronomer, Atlait
contemporary with Mofes. From his taking obferva- —1
tions of the liars from a mountain, the-poets feigned
him to have been turned into a mountain, and to fu-
llain the heavens on his /boulders. Being an excellent
aftronomer, and the fir/l who taught the do&rine of
the fphere, they tell us that his daughters were turned
into liars; feven of them forming the Pleiades, and
other feven the Hyades.
Atlas, a chain "of mountains in Africa, lying be¬
tween the 20th and 25th degree of north latitude,
and fuppofed almoft to divide the continent from ea/l
to we/l. They are faid to have derived their name
from Atlas king of Mauritania, who was a great a-
llronomer. They are greatly celebrated by the an¬
cients on account of their height, infomuch that the
abovementioned king, who is faid to have been tranf-
formed into a mountain, was feigned to bear up the
heavens on his ftioulders. We are aflured, however, by
Dr Shaw, that the part of this chain of mountains
which fell under his obfervation could not Hand in
competition either with the Alps or Apennines. He
tells us, that if we conceive a number of hills, ufually
of the perpendicular height of 400, 500, or 600 yards,
with an eafy afcent, and feveral groves-of fruit or fo-
re/l trees, riling up in a fucceflion of ranges above one
another; and that if to this profpeA we add now and
then a rocky precipice, and on the fummit of each ima¬
gine a miferable mud-walled village; we /hall then have
a juft idea of the mountains of Atlas.!
According to M. Chenier*, this mountain is form- * IJjfl. of
ed by an endlefs chain of lofty eminences, divided into Morocco,
differeSt countries, inhabited by a multitude of tribes, I3*
whofe ferocity permits no ftranger to approach. “ I
have not been able (continues he) to obtain a fu/Scient
knowledge of thefe mountains to defcribe them accu¬
rately : What Leo Africanus has faid of them is very
vague; and his account is the lefs to be regarded at
prefent, as it is now about three centuries fince he
wrote, and the face of the country has been in that
time totally changed. Nothing perhaps would be more
interefting.to the curio/ity of the philofopher, or con¬
duce more to the improvement of our knowledge in na¬
tural hiftory, than a journey over mount Atlas. The
climate, though extremely cold in winter, is very heal¬
thy and pleafant; the valleys are well cultivated, abound
in fruits, and are diverfified by forefts and plentiful
fprings, the llreams of which uniting at a little diftance,
from great rivers, and lofe themfelves in the ocean.
According to the reports of the Moors, there are
many quarries of marble, granite, and other valuable
/tone, in thefe mountains 1 It is probable there are
alfo mines, but the inhabitants have no idea of thefe
riches; they confider their liberty, which their fituation.
enables them to defend, as the moil inellimable of all
treafures.”
Atlas, in matters of literature, denotes a book of
for the interpretation of nature and the production of univerfal geography, containing maps of all the known
great and marvellous works, for the benefit of men, parts of the world.
under the name of Solomon's Houfe, or ‘‘ the college of
the fix days work.” Thus much, at leaft, is fini/hed ;
and with great beauty and magnificence. The author
propofed alfo a frame of laws, or of the beft /late or
mould of a commonwealth. But this part is not exe¬
cuted.
las, in commerce, a filk-fatin, manufaAured in
the Eaft Indies. There are fome plain, fome llriped,
and fome flowered, the flowers of which are either
gold or only filk. There are atla/Tes of all colours ;
but moft of them falfe, efpecially the red and the crim-
fon. The manufacture of them is admirable; the gold .
2- and-
ATM
Atmo-
fphere.
[ 61+ ]
ATM
and filk being worked together after fuch a manner as that by its various operations, the phenomena of hail, A'ma-
no workmen in Europe can imitate ; yet they are" very „
far from having that fine glofs and luftre which the meteors, are occafioned.
French know how to give to their filk (tuffs. In the &c.
Chinese manufactures of this fort, they gild paper
rain, fnow, lightning, and various other kinds of fPht
See Rain, Hail, Snow,
Various attempts have been made to afcertain theCalcuJa-
one fide with leaf-gold; then cut it in long flips, and height to which the atmofphere is extended all round fions of tflc !
... , . ... • • - > ■ - - - - - height of 5
weave it into their filks; which makes them, with very the earth. Thefe commenced foon after it was difco-
little coft, look very rich and fine. The fame long vered, by means of die Torricellian tube, that air is afphereT^
flips are twifted or turned about filk threads, fo artifi- gravitating fubftance. Thus it alfo became known,
t0 i00k piner thjjj g0y thread, though it be of that a column of air, whole bafe is a fquare inch, and
the height that of the whole atmofphere, weighs 15
pounds; and that the weight of air is to that of mer¬
cury as 1 to 10,800: whence it follows, that if the
weight of the atmofphere be fufficient to raife a co¬
lumn of mercury to the height of 30 inches, the height
cially,
no great value.
ATMOSPHERE, a word generally ufed to fignify
the whole mafs of fluid confiding of air, aqueous and
other vapours,"eleftric fluid, &c. furrounding the earth
to a confiderable height.
The compofition of that part of our atmofphere of the aerial column mud be io,8@o times as much.
Atmo¬
fphere com-
pofed of
two diffe- _ . _ _ . . .
irent fluids, geneous, and elementary fluid. The experiments of calculation could be jud; for as the
1" pfoperly called air, was till lately very much unknown.
In former times it was fuppofed to be a Ample, homo-
and confequently a little more than five miles high.
It was not, however, at any time fuppofed, that this
Dr Priedley difcovered, that the pured kind of air
which he called dephlogi/Hcated, was in reality a com¬
pound, and might be artificially produced in various
ways. His firfl conje&ures concerning its component
i an elaliic
fluid, the upper parts mud expand to an immenfe bulk,
and thus render the calculation above related exceed¬
ingly erroneous. By experiments made in different
countries, it has been found, that the fpaces which any
parts were, that it confided of earth, nitrous acid, and portion of air takes up, are reciprocally proportional to
phlogidon. Subfequent experiments rendered thefe the weights with which it is comprefl'ed. Allowances'
conjedtures dubious; and at lad it was fuppofed that were therefore to be made in calculating the height of
dephlogidicated air is a pure elementary fubflance, the the atmofphere. If we fuppofe the height of the
ivifying principle to animals, and the acidifying prin¬
ciple throughout all nature. This dephlogidicated
whole divided into innumerable equal parts, the denfity
of each of which is as its quantity ; and the weight of
ir, however, is but a fmall part of the compofition of the whole incumbent atmofphere being alfo as its quan-
* atmofphere. According to the mod accurate
computations, the air we ufually breathe is compofed
of only one-fourth of this dephlogidicated air, or per¬
haps lefs; the other three or four parts confiding of
what Dr Prieflley calls phlogijiicated, and M. Lavoi-
fier mephitic air. This by itfelf is abfolutely noxious,
and exceedingly poifonous to animals: though it feems
only to be negatively fo ; for when mixed in a certain
^.proportion with dephlogidicated air, it may be breath-
-Ph’ogifti-
cated air
poifonous
to animals, ^
gifticated ed with fafety, which could not be if it contained any parts into which it is divided, do continually increafe in
tity; it is evident, that the weight of the incumbent air
is every where as the quantity contained in the fub-
jacent part; which makes a difference between the
weights of each two contiguous parts of air. By a
theorem in geometry, where the differences of magni¬
tudes are geometrically proportional to the magnitudes
themfelves, thefe magnitudes are in continual .arithme¬
tical proportion; therefore, if, according to the fuppo-
fition, the altitude of the air, by the addition of new
o vege¬
tables.
ingredient abfolutely unfriendly to the human condi-
tution. The other part, viz. the pure dephlogidicated
arithmetical proportion, its denfity will be diminifhed,
(which is the fame thing, its gravity decreafed) i
air, feems to fland much in the fame relation to plants continual geometrical proportion.
that phlogidicated air does to animals; that is, it It is now eafy, from fuch a feries, by making two
would prove poifonous and deftroy them if they were or three barometrical obfervations, and determining
3
A great
quantity of
electric flu¬
id contain¬
ed in the
atmo¬
fphere.
to depend upon it entirely for their fubfidence ; but as
they derive their nouriftiment partly from the air and
partly from the foil, it thence happens, that the plants
which are fet to grow in dephlogiflicated air do not die
indantly, as animals do in the phlogidicated kind, but
remain for fome time weak and fickly.
The other component parts of our atmofphere are fo
various, and of fuch heterogeneous natures, that they
do not admit of any kind of definition or analyfis, one
only excepted, namely, the elettric fluid. This
the denfity of the atmofphere at two or three different
dations, to determine its abfolute height, or its rarity
at any afiignable height. Calculations accordingly
were made upon this plan; but it having been found
that the barometrical obfervations by no means corre-
fponded with the denfity which, by other experiments,
the air ought to have had, it was fufpedted that the
upper parts of the atmofpherical regions were not fub-
jeft to the fame laws with the lower ones. Philofo- 0F
phers therefore had recourfe to another method for de- it determi-
know pervades the whole, but appears to be much more termining the altitude of the atmofphere, viz. by a ned from
copious in the upper than in the lower atmofpherical calculation of the height from which the light of the t*?e
regions. See Electricity. To meafure the ab- fun is refrafted, fo as to become vifible to us before he”'I’1gnafn.w
folute quantity of this fluid, either in the atmofphere himfelf is feen in the heavens. By this method it wasjjght.
or any other fubdance, is impofiible. All that we can
know on this fubjeft is, that the eleftric fluid pervades
determined, that at the height of 45 miles the atmo¬
fphere had no power of refra&ion; and confequently
the atmofphere ; that it appears to be more abundant beyond that didance was either a mere vacuum, or the
in the fuperior than the inferior regions; that it feems
to be the immediate bond of conneftion between the
xt thing to it, and not to be regarded.
This theory foon became very generally received,
atmofphere and the water which is fufpended in it; and and the height of the atmofphere was fpoken of as fa¬
miliarly
ATM [6
i Atmo- mlllarly as the height of a mountain, and reckoned to
J fphere. {je as weu afCertained, if not more fo, than the heights
v of moft mountains are. Very great objections, how-
... 1-0H5 ever, which have never yet been removed, arife from
rom the the appearances of fome meteors^ like large globes of
ppearance fire, not unfrequently to be feen at vaft heights above
f meteors, the earth (See Meteor). A very remarkable one of
this kind was obferved by Dr Halley in the month of
March 1719, whofe altitude he computed to have
' been between 69 and 734- Englifh miles ; its diameter
2800 yards, or upwards of a mile and an half; and its
velocity about 350 miles in a minute. Others, appa¬
rently of the fame kind, but whofe altitude and veloci¬
ty were ft ill greater, have been obferved-; particularly
that very remarkable one, Auguft 18th 1783, whofe
diftance from the earth could not be lefs than 90 miles,
and its diameter not lefs than the former; at the fame
time that its velocity was certainly adt lefs than 1000
miles in a minute. Fire-balls, in appearance fimilar to
thefe, though vaftly inferior in fize, have been fome-
times obferved at the furface of the earth. Of this
kind Dr Frieftley mentions one feen on board the
Montague, 4th November 1749, which appeared as
big as a large millftone, and broke with a violent ex-
plofion.
From analogical reafoning, it feems very probable,
that the meteors which appear at fuch great heights
in the air are not eftentially different from thofe which,
like the fire-ball juft mentioned, are met with on the
furface of the earth. The perplexing circumftances
with regard to the former are, that at the great
heights above mentioned, the atmofphere ought not to
have any denfity fufficient to fupport flame, or to pro¬
pagate found; yet thefe meteors are commonly fuc-
ceeded by one or more explofions, nay are fometimes
faid to be accompanied with a hilling noife as they
pafs over our heads. The meteor of 1719 was not
only very bright, infomuch that for a Ihort fpace it
turned night into day, but was attended with aff ex-
plofion heard over all the ifland of Britain, occafioning
a violent concufiion in the atmofphere, and feeming to
fhake the earth itfelf. That of 1783 alfo, though
much higher than the former, was fucceeded by ex¬
plofions ; and, according to the teftimony of feveral
people, a hilling noife was heard as it pafled. Dr
Halley acknowledged that he was unable t© reconcile
thefe circumftances with the received theory of the
height of the atmofphere ; as, in the regions in which
this meteor moved, the air ought to have been 300,000
times more rare than what we breathe, and the next
thing to a perfett vacuum.
In the meteor of 1783, the difficulty is ftill greater,
as it appears to have been 20 miles farther up in the
air. Dr Halley offers a conje&ure, indeed, that the
vaft magnitude of fuch bodies might compenfate for
the thinnefs of the medium in which they moved.
Whether or not this was the cafe, cannot indeed be
afcertained, as we have fo few data to go upon ; but
the greateft difficulty is to account for the brightnefs of
the light. Appearances of this kind are indeed with
great probability attributed to ele&ricity, but the dif¬
ficulty is not thus removed. Though the electrical
fire pervades with great eafe4 the vacuum of a common
air-pump, yet it does not in that cafe appear in bright
well-defined fparks, as in the open air, but rather in
3
[5 1 ATM
long ftreams refembling the aurora' borealis. From Atmo-
fome late experiments, indeed, Mr Morgan concludes, iPhere-
that the electrical fluid cannot penetrate a perfeCt va-) v . , ’
cuum *. If this is the cafe, it (hows that the regions^in- '
we fpeak of are not fuch a perfeft vacuum as can be dex/
artificially made; but whether it is or not, the-ex¬
treme brightnefs of the light (hows that a fluid was
prefent in thofe regions, capable of confining and con-
denfing the electric matter as much as the air does at
the furface of the ground ; for the brightnefs of thefe
meteors, confidering their diftance, cannot be fuppo-
fed inferior to that of the brighteft flafties of light-
n‘ng-... r
This being the cafe, it appears reafonable to conclude, Denfity of
that what is called the denjity of the air does not alto-the air <loe»
gether keep pace with its gravity. The latter indeed aI^g*
muft in a great meafure be a(FeCted by the vapours, with Us'*
but above all by the quantity of the bafis of fixed or gravity,
dephlogifticated air contained in it: for Mr Kirwan
has difcovered that the bafis of fixed air, when depri¬
ved of its elaftic principle, is not greatly inferior to
gold in fpecific gravity ; and we cannot fuppofe that
of dephlogifticated air to be much lefs. It is poffible,
therefore, that pure air, could it be deprived of ail
the water it contains, might have very little gravity;
and as there' is great reafon to believe that the bafis of
dephlogifticated air is only one of the Conftituent parts
of water f, we fee an evident reafon why. the air f See De-
ought to become lighter, and likewife lefs fit for refpi- ‘
ration, the higher up we go, though there is a poffibili- ^^,ld
ty that its denfity, or power of fupporting flame, may
continue unaltered.
There are not yet, however, a fufficient number of
fa&s to enable us to determine this queftion; though
fuch as have been difcovered feem rather to favour the
above conjedlure. Dr Boerhaave was of opinion that
the gravity of the air depended entirely on the Vvater it
contained ; and, by means of alkaline falls, he was
enabled to extradt as much water from a quantity of
air as was very nearly equivalent to its weight. By* the
calcination of metals we may extract as much of the
bafis of dephlogifticated air from a quantity of atmo-
fperical air as is equivalent to the weight of air loft.
Were it poffible, therefore, to extradl the whole of
this, as well as all other vapours, and to preferve only
the elaftic principle, it is highly probable that its gra¬
vity would entirely ceafe. it has been found by thofe
who have afcended with aeroftatic machines, or to the
tops of high mountains, that the dephlogifticated air
is found to be contained in fmaller quantities.in the at¬
mofphere of thofe elevated regions than on the lower
grounds. It is alfo found, that in fuch fituations the
air is much drier, and parts with water with much
more difficulty, than on the ordinary furface. Salt of
tartar, for inftance, which at the foot of a mountain
will very foon run into a liquid, remains for a long
time expofed to the air on the top of it, without (bow¬
ing the lead tendency to deliquefce. Neverthelefs, if
hath never been obferved that fires did not burn as in-
tenfely on the tops of the jiigheft mountains as on the
plains. The matter indeed was put to the trial in the
great eruption of Vefuvius in 1779, where, though the
lava fpouted up to the height of three miles above the
level of the fea, the uppermoft parts all the while were
to appearance as much inflamed as the loweft.
The.
ATM [ 61
Atmo- The high degree of eleftricity, always exitting in
, (Phere- the upper regions of the atmofphere, muft of neceflity
" ^ have a very confiderable influence on the gravity of any
Gravity of heterogeneous particles floating in it. When we con-
the upfcr fider the effedts of the eleftric fluid upon light bodies
regions of at the furface of the earth, it will readily be admitted,
the atmo- j-jjat in thofe regions where this fluid is very abundant,
h'lpTduni- ^le gravity °f the atmofphere maybe much diminifhed
riihed by without affe&ing its denfity. We know that it is the
e lectricity, .nature of any ele&rified fubftance to attraft light bodies^
and that, by proper management, they may even be
fufpended in the air, without either moving up or
down for a confiderable time. If this is the cafe with
light terreflxial bodies, it cannot be thought very im¬
probable that the aerial particles themfelves, i. e. thofe
which we call the bafis of dephlogifticated air, and of
aqueous or other vapour diffufed among them, fhould
be thus affefted in the regions where ele&ricity is fo
abundant. From this caufe, therefore, alio the gra¬
vity of the atmofphere may be affe&ed without any al¬
teration at all being made in its denfity; and hence
may arife anomalies in the barometer hitherto not taken
2 notice of.
Abfolute It appears, therefore, that the abfolute height of the
height of atmofphere is not yet determined. The beginning
the atmo- an{j eng;ng 0f twiHght indeed fliow, that the height
determined at which the atmofphere begins to refraft the fun’s
light is about .44 or 45 Englilh miles. But this may
not improbably be only the height to which the aque¬
ous vapours are carried; for it cannot be thought any
unreafonable fuppofition, that light is refrafted only
by means of the aqueous vapour contained in the at¬
mofphere ; and that where this ceafes, it is Hill capable
of fupporting the eledric fire at leaft, as bright and
ftrong as at the furface. That it does extend much
higher, is evident from the meteors already mentioned;
• for all - thefe are undoubtedly carried along with the
atmofphere; otherwife that of 1783, which was feen
for about a minute, muft have been left 1000 miles to
the weftward, by the earth flying out below it in its
10 annual courfe round the fun.
Ofthepref- It has already been mentioned, that the preflure of
f|irc the atmofphere, when in its mean ftate, is equivalent
atmofphere to ^ we;ght 0f j j pounds on every fquare inch. Hence
Dr Cotes computed, that the preffure of the whole am¬
bient fluid upon the earth’s furface is equivalent to that
of a globe of lead 60 miles in diameter. Hence alfo
it appears, that the preffure upon a human body muft
•be very confiderable ; for as every fquare inch of fur¬
face fuftains a preflure of 15 pounds, every fquare foot,
ns containing 144 inches, muft fuftain, a preffure of
2160; and if we fuppofe a man’s body tq contain 15
fquare feet of Curface, which is pretty near the truth,
he muft fuftain a weight of 32,400 pounds, or. 16 tun,
for his ordinary load. By this enormous preffure we
ihould undoubtedly be cruftied in a moment, were not
all parts of our bodies filled either with air or fome o-
ther elaftic fluid, the fpring of which is juft fufficient
to counterbalance the weight of the atmolphere. But
whatever this fluid may be, we are fure that it is juft
able to counteract the atmofpherical gravity and no
more; for if any confiderable preffure be fuperadded
to that of the air, as by going into deep water, or the
like, it is always feverely felt, let it be ever fo -equa¬
ble. If the preffure of the atmofphere is taken off
N° 36,
6 ] ATM
from any part of the human body, the hand, for in- Atmo- .
ttance, when put in an open receiver from Whence the fphere.
air is afterwards extracted, the weight of -the atmo- "_v ' -j
fphere then difcovers itfelf, and we imagine the hand
ftrongly fucked down into the glafs. See Pneuma¬
tics. tt |
In countries at fome diftance frqm the equator, the Variation
preffure of the atmofphere varies confiderably, and thus
produces confiderable changes on many terreftrial bo- ics J
dies. On the human body the quantity of preffure
fometimes varies near a whole tun; and when it is thus
fo much diminiftied, moft people find fomething of a
liftleflhefs and inactivity about them. It is furprifing,
however, that the fpring of the internal fluid, already
mentioned, which aCts as a counterpoife to the atmo¬
fpherical gravity, ftiould in all cafes feem to keep pace
with it when the preffure is naturally diminiihed, and
even when it is artificially augmented, though not
when the preffure is artificially diminiflied. Thus
in that kind of weather when the preffure of the air is
leaft, wre never perceive our veins to fwell, or are fen-
fible of any inward expanfion in our bodies. On the
contrary, the circulation is languid, and we feem ra- I4 j
ther to be oppreffed by a weight. Even in going up of difficul-j
to the tops of mountains, where the preffure of the at- ty of refpi-
mofphere is diminiftied more than three times what it ration on
ufually is on the plain, no fuch appearances are ob- *
ierved. Some travellers indeed have arhrmed, that, on
the tops of very high mountains, the air is fo light as
to occafion a great difficulty of refpiration, and even
violent retching and vomiting of blood. It does not
appear, however, that thefe affertions are well found¬
ed. Mr Brydone found no inconvenience of this kind
on the top of mount iEtna; nor is any fuch thing men¬
tioned by Mr Houel, who alfo afcended this moun¬
tain. Sir William Hamilton indeed fays, that he did
feel a difficulty of refpiration, independent of any ful-
phureous fleam. But, on the top of a volcano, the
refpiration may be affeCled by fo many different caufes,
that it is perhaps impoffible to aflign the true one. The
French mathematicians, when on the top of a very
high peak of the Andes, did not make any complaint
of this kind, though they lived there for fome time.
On the contrary, they found the wind fo extremely
violent, that they were fcarce able to withftand its
force; which feems an argument for at leaft equal den¬
fity of the atmofphere in the fuperior as in the inferior
regions. Dr Heberden, who afcended to the top of
Teneriffe, a higher mountain than ./Etna, makes no j
mention of any difficulty of refpiration. M. Sauffure, Mi- Sauf- j
however, in his journey to the top of mount Blanc, the fare’sfympi
higheft of the Alps, felt very great uneafiuefs in this tomson the
way. His refpiration was not only extremely diffi-^£u°t |
cult, but his pulfe became quick, and he was feized hjanc ac. ]
with all the fymptoms of a fever. His ftrength was countedforJ
alfo exhaufted to fuch a degree, that he feemed to re¬
quire four times as long a fpace to perform fome ex¬
periments on the top of the mountain as he would
have done at the foot of it. It muft be obferved, how¬
ever, that thefe fymptoms did not begin to appear till
he had afcended two miles and a half perpendicular a-
bove the level of the fea. The mountain is only about
a quarter of a mile higher; and in this fhort fpace he
was reduced to the fituation juft mentioned. But it
is improbable that fo fmall a difference, even at the end |
ATM [ 6i7 ] ATM
14
Variation
of the at-
mofpheri-
cal prelTure
accounted
of his journey, fhould have produced fuch violent ef¬
fects, had not fome other caufe concurred. A caufe
of this kind he himfelf mentions, viz that the atmo-
fphere at the top of the mountain was fo much im¬
pregnated with fixed air, that lime-water, expofed
to it, quickly became covered with a pellicle occafion-
ed by the abforption of that fluid. Now it is known,
that fixed air is extremely pernicious to animals, and
would bring on fymptoms fimilar to thofe abovemen-
tioned. There is no reafon, therefore, to have re-
courfe to the rarity of the atmofphere for folving a
phenomenon which may more naturally be accounted
for otherwife.
When the preffure of the atmofphere is augmented,
by defcending, in the diving-bell, to confiderable depths
in the fea, it does not appear that any inconvenience
follows from its increafe. Thofe who fit in the diving-
bell are not fenfible of any preflure as long as they re¬
main in the air, though they feel it very fenfibly in go¬
ing into the water : yet it is certain, that the preffure
in both cafes is the fame ; for the whole preflure of the
atmofphere, as well as of the water, is fuftained by the
air in the diving-bell, and confequently communicated
to thofe who fit in it.
But though artificial compreffion of the air, as well
as natural rarefaction, can thus be borne, it is otherwife
with artificial rarefaftion. Animals in an air-pump
fhow uneafinefs from the very firft, and cannot live for
any time in an atmofphere rarefied artificially even as
much as it appeared to be from the barometer on the
top of Mount Blanc.
It is not eafy to afiign the true reafon of the varia¬
tions of gravity in the atmofphere'. Certain it is, how¬
ever, that they take place only in a very fmall degree
within the tropics ; and feem there to depend on the
heat of the fun, as the barometer conftantly finks near
half an inch everyday, and rifes again to its'former
ftation in the night-time. In the temperate zones the
barometer ranges from 28 to near 31 inches, by its va¬
rious altitudes, fhowing the changes that are about to
take place in the weather. If we could know, there¬
fore, the latent caufes by which the weather is influen¬
ced, we fhould likewifc certainly know thofe by which
the gravity of the atmofphere is affedted. Thefe are
particularly explained under the articles Rain, Hail,
Snow, Winds, &c.; but in general they may be re¬
duced to two, viz. an emiffion of latent heat from the
vapour contained in the atmofphere, or of elediric fluid
from the fame, or from the earth. To one or both of
the fe caufes, therefore, may we afcribe the variations
of the gravity of the atmofphere ; and we fee that they
both tend to produce the fame effedt with the folar
heat in the tropical climates, viz to rarefy the air, by
mixing with it or felting loofe a non-gravitating fluid,
which did not adt in fuch large proportion in any par¬
ticular place before. No doubt, the adlion of the la¬
tent heat and eledlric fluid is the fame in the torrid as
in the temperate zones : but in the torrid zone the
folar heat and exceflive evaporation counteract them ;
fo that whatever quantities may be difcharged by the
exceflive deluges of rain, &c. which fall in thofe coun¬
tries, they are inllantly abforbed by the abundant fluid,
and are quickly ready to be difcharged again; while, in
the temperate zones, the air becomes fenfibly lighter,
Vol. II. Part II.
as well as warmer, by them for fome time before they Atmo-
can be abforbed again. fphsre.
The variations of heat and cold to which the atmo-
fphere is fubjedt, have been the fubjedt of much fpecu- Variation
lation. In general they feem to depend entirely upon of the heat
the light of the fun refledfed into the atmofphere from and cold of
the earth ; and where this refledrion is deficient, even atmo-
though the light fhould be prefent ever fo much, the *
mofl violent degrees of cold are found to take place.
Hence, on the tops of mountains, the cold is generally
exceflive, though by reafon of the clearnefs of the at¬
mofphere the light of the fun falls upon them in greater
quantity than it can do on an equal fpacc on the plain.
In long winding paffages alfo, fuch as the caverns of
-dltna and Vefuvius, where the air has room to circu¬
late freely, without any accefs of the fun, the cold is
fcarce tolerable ; whence the ufe of thefe for cooling li¬
quors, preferving meat. See.
The coldnefs of the atmofphere on the tops of moun- Lambert
tains has been aferibed by M. Lambert and De Luc, and De
to the igneous fluid, or elementary fire, being more rare ^uc j rear
iri 1 r , 1 , ■ ° nr t f°ns for the
in thole elevated iituations than on the plains. M. Lam- ^ on tiie
bert is of opinion that it is rarefied above by the adlion tops of
of the air, and that below it is condenfed by its own mountains,
proper weight. He confiders fire as a fluid in motion,
the parts of which are feparable, and which is rarefied
when its velocity is accelerated. He does not decide
with regard to the identity of fire and light, though
he feems inclined to believe it. M. de Luc compares
elementary fire to a continuous fluid, whofe parts are
concjenfed by being mutually comprefled. He denies
that fire and light are the fame ; and maintains that
the latter is incapable, by itfelf, of fetting fire to bo¬
dies, though it does fo by putting in motion the igne¬
ous fluid they contain ; and that it afts with more force
near the earth than at a diftance from its furface, by
reafon of this fluid, which he calls an heavy and elajlic
one, being more condenfed there than at a greater
height.
M. Sauffure, in treating of this fubjeA in his ac- Mr g^u(_
count of the Alps, does not confider fire as a fluid fofure’s a(>
free and detached as to be able either to afeend with ra- count,
pidity by its fpecific levity, or to condenfe itfelf fenfi¬
bly by its proper weight. He fuppofes it to be united
to bodies by fo ftrift an affinity, that all its motions
are determined, or at leall powerfully modified, by that
affinity. As foon therefore as fire, difengaged by com-
bultion or by any other caufe, endeavours to diffufe
itfelf, all the bodies that come within the fphere of its
a&ivity endeavour to attraft it; and they abforb fuch
quantities of it as are in the direft raiio of their affi¬
nities with it, or in the inverfe ratio of what is necef-
fary for their equilibrium with the furrounding bodies.
Now it does not appear that in this diftribution the fi-
tuation of places, with regard to the horizon, has any
other influence than what they receive from the diffe¬
rent currents produced by the dilatation of the air, and
by the levity which that dilatation produces. The
afeent of flame, fmoke, &c. or of air heated in any
way, perfuaded the ancients that fire is poffeffed of ab-
folute levity, by which it had a tendency to mount up¬
wards. “ But thefe effects (fayshe) are owing either
to the levity of the fluid which conftitutes flame, or to
that of air dilated by heat; and not to the levity of the
4 1 igne-
ATM [ 61
Afnio- igneous fluid. I am, however, fufficiently convinced,
fl>here. this fluid is incomparably lighter than air, though
v I do not believe that it poffefles the power of al'cending
in our atmofphere by virtue of its levity alone.
Mr Bou- “ The celebrated Bouguer has demonftrated, by
guer’s rea-principles the moft Ample, and moft univerfally adOpt-
c^ld ^ thee^’ t^at ^ *S not nece^ai7» *n order to account for the
t()p ofthe diminution of heat on mountains, to have recourfe to
Andes. hypothefes that are at beft doubtful. The following
is his explanation of what was felt on the mountains of
Peru.
“ It was proper, in order to explain this fubjeft, to
infill on the Ihort duration of the fun’s rays, which
cannot ftrike the different fides of mountains but for a
few hours, and even this not always. A horizontal
plain, when the fun is clear, is expofed at mid-day to
the perpendicular and undiminilhed adlion of thefe
rays, while they fall but obliquely on a plain not much
inclined, or on the fides of a high pile of fteep rocks.
But let us conceive for a moment an infulated point,
half the height of the atmofphere, at a diftance from
all mountains, as well as from the clouds which float
in the air. The more a medium is tranfparent, the
lefs heat it ought to receive by the immediate adtion
of the fun. The free paffage which a very tranfparent
body allows to the rays of light, Ihows that its fmall
particles are hardly touched by them. Indeed what
impreffion could they make on it when they pafs thro*
almoft without obftrudtion ? Light, when it confifts of
parallel rays, does not by palling through a foot of
free atmofpheric air, near the earth, lofe an hundred
thoufandth part of its force. From this we may judge
how few rays are weakened, or can adl on this fluid, in
their paflage through a ftratum of the diameter not of
an inch or a line, but of a particle. Yet the fubtilty
and tranfparency are ftill greater at great heights, as
was obvious on the Cordilleras, when we looked at di-
ftant objedls. Laftly, the groffer air is heated below
by the contadl or neighbourhood of bodies of greater
denfity than itfelf, which it furrounds, and on which
it refts ; and the heat may be communicated by little
and little to a certain diftance. The inferior parts of
the atmofpheie by this means contraft daily a very con-
fiderable degree of heat, and may receive it in propor¬
tion to its denfity or bulk. But it is evident that the
fame thing cannot happen at the diftance of a league
and an half or two leagues above the furface of the
earth, although the light there may be fomething more
aftive. The air and the wind therefore muft at this
height be extremely cold, and colder in proportion to
the elevation.
“ Befides, the heat neceflary to life is not merely
that which we receive every inftant from the fun. The
momentary degree of this heat correfponds to a very
fmall part of that which all the bodies around us have
imbibed, and by which ours is chiefly regulated. The
aftion of the fun only ferves to maintain nearly in the
fame ftate the fum of the total heat, by repairing thro’
the day the lofs it fuftains through the night, and at
all times. If the addition be greater than the lofs, the
total heat will increafe, as it happens in fummer, and
it will continue to accumulate in a certain degree; but
for the reafons already given, this accumulation can¬
not be very great on the top of a mountain, where the
fummit, which rifes high, is never of great, bulk. The
S ] ATM
loweft ftate of the thermometer in every place Is always
in proportion to the heat acquired by the foil; and fyhere, ^ j
that heat being very fmall on the top of a mountain, v"""l*/|
the quantity added to it by the fun during the day
muft be comparatively greater ; and the accumulated
heat will be more in a condition to receive increafe in
proportion to its diftance from the degree which it can¬
not pafs.
“ Another particular obfervable on all the high
places of the Cordilleras, and which depends on the
fame eaufe, is, that when we leave the flrade, and ex-
pofe ourfelves to the funlhine, we feel a much greater
difference than we do here in our fine days when the
weather is temperate. Every thing contributes at
Quito to make the fun exceedingly powerful: a Angle
ftep from an expofed place to the fhade gives the fen-
fation of cold: this would not be the cafe if the quan¬
tity of heat acquired by the foil were more confider-
able. We now alfo fee why the fame thermometer,
put’firft into the lhade and then in the fun, does not
undergo the fame changes at all times and in all pla¬
ces. In the morning, upon Pichincha, this inftrument
is generally a few degrees below the freezing point*
which may be reckoned the natural temperature of the
place; but when during the day we expofe it to the
fun, it is eafy to imagine that the effeft muft be great*
and much more than double in whatever way it is mea-
fured.”
This theory is adopted by Mr Sauffure, who adds
the following faft to prove that the aftion of the fun’s
rays, cpnfidered abftraftedly and independent of any_ l9 ]
extrinfic fource of cold, is as great on mountains as on £iafl-es g. ]
plains; viz. that the power of burning lenfes and mir- qually
rors is the fame at all heights. To afeertain this faft, powerful
our author procured a burning-glafs fo weak that at “j?
Geneva it would juft fet fire to tinder. This he car- ta;ns as oa ,
ried, with feme of the fame tinder, to the top of the plains,
mountain Saleve (a height of 3000 feet) ; where it not
only produced the fame effeft, but apparently with
greater facility than on the plain. Being perfuaded
then, that the principal fource of cold on the tops of
high mountains is their being perpetually furrounded
with an atmofphere which cannot be much heated ei¬
ther by the rays of the fun on account of its tranfpa¬
rency, or by the refleftion of them from the earth by
reafon of its diftance, he wilhed to know, whether the
direft folar rays on the top of a high mountain had the
fame power as on the plain, while the body on which
they afted was placed in fuch a manner as to be unaf-
fefted by the furrounding air. For this purpofe he
inflituted a fet of experiments, from which he drew the
following conclufions, viz. that a difference of 777 toifes
in height, diminilhes the heat which the rays of the fun
are able to communicate to a body expofed to the ex¬
ternal air, 140 of the thermometer; that it diminiihes
the heat of a body partially expofed, only 6°; and that
it augments by 10 the heat of a third body completely
defended from the air. 2e
Hence it appears that the atmofphere, though fo Atmo-
effentially neceffary to the fuppoi t of fire, is fome how ft-here eve-
or other the greateft antagonift of heat, and moft ef-
feftually counterafts the operation of. the folar rays in^e heat of
producing it. This power it feems to exert at all di* the lun.
fiances, at the furface as well as in the higher regions.
From fome experiments made by M. Piftet, it appears,
that
ATM [ 619 ] ATM
Mr Sex's
exrcri-
ments on
this fub-
that even in places expofed to the rays of the fun, the
heat, at five feet diftance from the ground, is greater only
by one or two degrees than at 50 feet above the furface,
though the ground was at that time 15 or 20° warmer
than the air immediately in cpntaft with it. Inconfide-
; rable as this difference is, however, it does not hold as
. we go ' r up ; for if it did, the cold on the top of
the mo . 11 of Saleve, which is 3000 feet above the
level of the lake of Geneva, would be 6p° greater than
at the foot of it; whereas in reality it is only io°. In
the night-time the cafe is re.verfed ; for the ftratum of
air, at five feet from the ground, was found by Mr Pic¬
tet to be colder than that at 50. Befides this, diffe¬
rent ftrata of the atmofphere are found to poffefs very
different and variable degrees of cold, without any re¬
gard to their fituation high up or low down. In the
year 1780, Dr Wilfon of Glafgow found a very re¬
markable cold exifting clofe to the furface of the ground;
fo that the thermometer, when laid on the furface of
the fnow, funk many degrees lower than one fufpend-
ed 24 feet above it. It has been likewife obferved,
that in clear weather, though the furface of the earth
be then mofl liable to be heated by the fun, yet after
that is fet, and during the night, the air is coldefl. near
the ground, and particularly in the valleys. Experi¬
ments on this fubjeft were made for a whole year by
Mr James Sex, who has given an account of them in
the 78th volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions. He
fufpended thermometers (conltrufted in fuch a manner
as to {how the true maximum and minimum of heat
that might take place in the obferver’s abfence) in a
fhady northerly afpeft, and at different heights in the
open air. One of thefe was- placed of the height of
9 feet, and the other at that of 220 from the ground ;
and the obfervations were continued, with only a
few days omifiion, from July 178^. to July 1785.
The greateft variations of heat were in the months of
Oftober and June ; in the former the thermometers
generally differed moft in the night, and in the latter
moftly in the day. From the 25th to the 28th of Oc¬
tober, the heat below, in the night-time, exceeded in
a • fmall degree the heat above; at which time there
was frequent rain mingled with hail. From the nth
to the 14th, and alfo on the 31 ft, there was no varia¬
tion at all; during which time likewife the weather
was rainy : all the reft of the month proving clear, the
air below was found colder than that above, fometimes
by nine or ten degrees. In the month of June, the
greateft variations took place from the nth to the
15th, and from the 25th to the 30th ; and at both
thefe times there appeared to be two currents of wind,
the upper from the fouth-weft and the lower from the
north-eaft. Sometimes thefe were rendered vifible by
clouds, in different ftrata, moving in different direc¬
tions ; and fometimes by clouds moving in a contrary
direftion to a very fenfible current of air below. On
cloudy nights the loweft thermometer fometimes fiiow-
ed the heat to be a degree or two greater than the up¬
per one; but in the day-time the heat below conftant-
ly exceeded that above more than in the month of Oc¬
tober.
To determine whether the nofturnal refrigeration
was augmented by a nearer approach to the earth, two
thermometers were placed in the midft of an open
meadow, on the bank of the river near Canterbury.
One was placed on the ground, and the other only fix Atmo-
feet above it. The thermometer, at fix feet diftance , Sphere- ^
from the ground, agreed nearly with the former at nine
feet; but the no&urnal variations were found to cor-
refpond entirely with the clearnefs or the cloudinefs of
the Iky : and though they did not always happen in
proportion to their refpediive altitudes, yet when the
thermometers differed in any refped, that on the ground
always indicated the greateft degree of cold.
The difference betwixt thefe two thermometers, at
the fmall diftance of fix feet from each other, being
found no lefs than three degrees and an half, the num¬
ber of thermometers in the meadow was augmented to
four. One was funk in the ground, another placed
juft upon it, and the third fufpended at three feet a-
bove it. Three others were placed on a rifing ground
where the land was level with the cathedral tower, and
about a mile diftant from it. One of thefe was like¬
wife funk in the ground, another placed juft upon it,
and a third fufpended fix feet above it. With thefe •>
feven thermometers, and the two firft mentioned,
which were placed in the city, he continued his obfer¬
vations for 20 days; but as the weather happened to
be cloudy during the whole of that fpace, excepting
for feven or eight days, no confiderable variation hap¬
pened excepting on thefe days. The refult of the ex¬
periments was, that the cold was generally greater in
the valley than on the hill; but the variations between
the thermometers on the ground and thofe fix feet
above them, were often as great on the hill as in the
valley.
Thus it was perceived that a difference of tempera¬
ture took place at the diftance of only three feet from
the ground ; but the length of the thermometers hi¬
therto made ufe of rendered it impoffible to make any
experiment at a fmaller diftance. Two new ones,
therefore, were formed by bending down the large
tube, the body or bulb of the thermometer, to an ho¬
rizontal pofition, while the ftem remained in a vertical
one ; by which method the temperature might be ob¬
ferved to the diftance of a Angle inch. Sometimes, in
clear weather, thefe two horizontal thermometers were
placed in the open air, one within an inch of the
ground, and the other nine inches above it. When the
variation among the other thermometers was confider¬
able, a difference was likewife perceived between thefe ;
the lower one fometimes indicating more than two de¬
grees lefs heat than the upper one, though placed fo
- near each other. 23
From thefe experiments Mr Sex concludes, that a His conclu-
greater diminution of heat frequently takes place near f‘ons froin
the earth in the night-time than at any altitude in the
atmofphere within the limits of his inquiry, that is,
220 feet from the ground; and at fuch times the
greateft degrees of cold are always met with neareftthe
furface of the earth.
This is a conftant and regular operation of nature,
under certain circumftances and difpofitions of the at¬
mofphere, and takes place at all feafons of the year;
and this difference never happens in any confiderable
degree but when the air is ftill, and the Iky perfectly
unclouded. The moifteft vapour, as dews and fogs,
did not at all int^ede, but rather promote, the refrige¬
ration. In very fevere frofts, when the air frequently
depofites a quantity of frozen vapour, it is commonly
4 I 2 found
ATM
found greateft ; but the excefs of heat which in the
day-time was found at the lower ftation in fummer; di-
miniihed in winter almoft to nothing.
It has been obferved, that a thermometer, included
a receiver, always finks when the air begins to be
riments on rarefied. This has been thought to arife, not from
cedb^the* any ^egrce c°h] thus produced, but from the fudden
rarefadtion fxpanfion of the bulb of the thermometer in confe-
of air. quence of the removal of the atmofpherical preffure :
But from fome late experiments related, Phil. Tranf.
vol. 78. by Mr Darwin, it appears that the atmofphere
[ 620 ]
ATM
vefTel-is conflantly in a flate of compreffion. Two Atir.o-
thermometers were previoufly fufpended on the leaden , fehere-
air-veffel, that they might affume the temperature of v
it, and as foon as the hole above-mentioned was. opened,
had their bulbs applied to the ftream of air which iffued
out ; the confequence of which was, that the mercury
funk fome degrees in each. This finking of the mer¬
cury could not be afcribed to any evaporation of moi
fture from their furfaces, as it was feen both in ex
haufling and admitting the air into the exhaufled re
ceiver mentioned in the laft experiment, that the va
always becomes warm by compreffion, and cold by di- pour which it previoully contained was depofited du
latation from a compreffed ftate. Thefe experiments ring its expan fion.
1. The blaft from an air-gun was repeatedly thrown
upon the bulb of a thermometer, and it uniformly
funk it about two degrees. In making this experi¬
ment, the thermometer was firmly fixed againll a w'all,
and the air-gun, after being charged, was left for an
hour in its vicinity, that it might previoufly lofe the
heat it had acquired in the aft of charging : the air
was then difcharged in a continued ftream on the bulb
of the thermometer, with the effeft already mention¬
ed.
2. A thermometer was fixed in a wooden tube, and
fo applied to the receiver of an air-gun, that, on dif-
charging the air by means of a fcrew preffing on the
valve of the receiver, a continued ftream of air, at the
very time of its expanfion, paffed over the bulb of the
thermometer. This experiment was four times repeat¬
ed, and the thermometer uniformly funk from five to
feven degrees. During the time of condenfation there
was a great difference in the heat, as perceived by the
hand, at the two ends of the condenfing fyringe : that
next the air-globe was almoft painful to the touch; and
the globe itfelf became hotter than could have been
expefted from its contaft with the fyringe. “ Add
to this (fays Mr Darwin), that in exploding an air-
jgun the ftream of air always becomes vifible, which is
owing to the cold then produced precipitating the va¬
pour it contained ; and if this ftream of air had been
previoufly more condenfed, or in greater quantity, fo
as not inftantly to acquire heat from the common at¬
mofphere in its vicinity, it would probably have fallen
in fnow.
3. A thermometer was placed in the receiver of an
5. There is a curious phenomenon obferved in the
fountain of Hiero, comtrufted on a very large fcale, in
the Chemnicenfian mines in Hungary. In this ma¬
chine the air, in a large veffel, is compreffed by a co¬
lumn of water 260 feet high ; a ftop-cock is then o-
pened 5 and as the air iffues with great vehemence, and
in confequence of its previous condenfation becomes
immediately much expanded, the moifture it contains
is not only precipitated, as in the exhaufted receiver
above-mentioned, but falls down in a fhower of fnow,
with ificles adhering to the nofe of the cock. See
Phil. Tranf. vol. 52.
From this phenomenon, as well as the four experi- His condui
ments above, related, Mr Darwin thinks “ there is Sons with
good reafon to conclude, that in all circumftances re^r(11
where air is mechanically expanded, it becomes capable
of attrafting the fluid matter of heat from other bodies mountaiti8.i
in contaft with it.
the'
Now, (continues he) as the vaft region of air
which furrounds our globe is perpetually moving along
its furface, climbing up the fides of mountains, and de-
feending into the valleys ; as it paffes along, it muft be
perpetually varying the degree of heat according to
the elevation of the country it traverfes : for, in rifing
to the fummits of mountains, it becomes expanded,
having fo much of the preffure of the fuperincumbent
atmofphere taken away ; and when thus expanded, it
attrafts or abforbs heat from the mountains in conti¬
guity with it ; and, when it defeends into the valleys,
and is comprefled into lefs compafs, it again gives out
the heat it has acquired to the bodies it comes in con¬
taft with. The fame thing muft happen to the higher
regions of the atmofphere, which are regions of per-
air-pump, and the air being haftily exhauiled, it funk petual froft, as has lately been difeovered by the aerial
two or three degrees ; but after fome minutes regain¬
ed its former ftation. The experiment was repeated
navigators. When large diftrifts of air, from the lower
parts of the atmofphere, are raifed two or three miles
with a thermometer open at the top, fo that the bulb high, they become fo much expanded by the great di-
could not be affefted by any diminution of the exter¬
nal preffure ; but the refult was the fame. Both du¬
ring exhauftion and re-admiflion of the air into the re¬
ceiver, a fteam was regularly obferved to be condenfed
on the fides of the glafs ; which, in both cafes, was in
minution of the preffure over them, and thence become
fo cold, that hail or fnow is produced by the precipita¬
tion of the vapour : and as there is, in thefe high re¬
gions of the atmofphere, nothing elfe for the expanded
air to acquire heat from after it has parted with its va-
a few minutes reabforbed, and which appeared to be. pour, the fame degree of cold continues, till the air,
precipitated by being deprived of its heat by the ex¬
panded air.
4. A hole, about the fize of a crow-quill, was bo¬
red into a large air-veffel placed at the commencement
of the principal pipe of the water-works of Derby.
There are four pumps worked by a water-wftieel, the
defeending to the earth, acquires its former ftate of
condenfation and of warmth.
“ The Andes, almoft under the line, refts its bafe
on burning fands; about its middle height is a moft
pleafant and temperate climate covering an extenfive
plain, on which is built the city of Quito ; while ft*
water of which is firft thrown into the lower part of forehead is encircled with eternal fnow, perhap.® coeval
this air-veffel, and rifes from thence to a refervoir about
35 or 40 feet above the level; fo that the water in this
with the mountain. Yet, according to the accounts of
Don Alloa, thefe three difeordant climates feldom en¬
croach.
ATM [6
Atmo- croach much on each other’s territories. The hot
fphere. winds below, if they afcend, become cooled, by their
expanfion ; and hence they cannot affeft the fnow up¬
on the fummit ; and the cold winds that fvveep the
fummit, become condenfed as they defcend, and of
temperate warmth before they reach the fertile plains of
*6 Quito.” _
Difficulties Notwithftanding all thefe explanations, however, fe-
ftill remain verai very confiderable difficulties remain with regard
?;V e u°*to the heat and cold of the atmofphere. That warm
air ffiould always afcend ; and thus, when the fource of
heat is taken away by the abfence of the fun, that the
ftratum of atmofphere lying immediately next to the
earth (hould be fomewhat colder than that which lies a
little farther up; is not at all to be wondered at. We
have an example fomewhat fimilar to this in the pot¬
ter’s kiln ; where, after the veffels have been intenfely
heated for feme time, and the fire is then withdrawn,
the cooling always begins at bottom, and thofe which
Hand lowermoft will often be quite black, while all the
upper part of the furnace and the veffels next to it are
of a bright red. It doth not, however, appear why
fuch degrees of cold ffiould take place at the furface of
the earth as we fometimes meet with. It is, befides,
no uncommon thing to meet with large ftrata in the
upper regions of the atmofphere, remarkable for their
- cold, while others are warmer than thofe at the fur-
face ; as we have been affured of by the teftimony of
feveral aerial navigators. It is alfo difficult to fee why
the air which has once afeended, and become rarefied
to an extreme degree, ffiould afterwards defcend among
a denfer fluid of fuperior gravity, though indeed the
atmofpherical currents by which this fluid is continual¬
ly agitated may have confiderable effeft in this way.
See the article Winds. See alfo Heat, Cold, Con-
geiation, Condensation, &c.
For the quantity of water contained in the atmo-
fpherc, fee the articles Hygrometer, Clouds, Va¬
pour, &c. For the caufe of the elafticity of the at¬
mofphere, fee Elasticity; and for an explanation of
its various operations, fee Meteorology. See alfo
Hail, Rain, Snow, &c.
The ufes of the atmofphere are fo many and fo va-
yious that it is impoffible to enumerate them. One of
the moil effential is its power of giving life to vege¬
tables, and fupporting that of all animated beings. For
the latter qmrpofe, however, it is not in all places e-
qually proper : we ftiall therefore conclude this article
with fome remarks on
The Salubrity of the Atmosphere.—. The air on
litbrity of the tops of mountains is generally more falubrious
the atmo- than that in pits. Denfe air indeed is always more
fphere
proper for refpiration than fuch as is more rare ; yet
the air on mountains, though much more rare, is more
free from phlogiftic vapours than that of pits. Hence
it has been found, that people can live very well on the
tops of mountains, where the barometer finks to 15 or
16 inches. M. de Sauffure, in his journey upon the
Alps, having obferved the air at the foot, on the
middle, and on the fummits of various mountains,
obferves, that the air of the very low plains feems
to be the lefs falubrious; that the air of very high
mountains is neither very pure, nor, upon the whole,
feems fo fit for the lives of men, as that of a certain
height above the level of the fea, which he eftimates to
si 1 ATM
be about 200 or 300 toifes, that is, about 430 or 650 Atmo-
yards. fPher«-
Dr White, in the Ixviiith vol. of the Phil. Tranf.
giving an account of his experiments on air made at
York, fays, that the atmofpherical air was in a very
bad ffate, and indeed in the worft he had ever ob¬
ferved it, the .3th of September 1777; when the
barometer flood at 30.30, the thermometer at 69°;
the weather being calm, clear, and the air dry and
fultry, no rain having fallen for above a fortnight.
A flight ffiock of an earthquake was perceived that
day.
The air of a bed-room at various times, viz. at night,
and in the morning after fleeping in it, has been exa¬
mined by various perfons; and it has been generally
found, that after fleeping in it the air is lefs pure than
at any other time. The air of privies, even in calm
weather, has not been found to be fo much phlogifti-
cated as might have been expected, notwithftanding its
difagreeable fmell.
From this and other obfervations, it is thought that
the exhalations of human excrements are very little if
at all injurious, except when they become putrid^ or
proceed from a difeafed body; in which cafe they in-
feft the air very quickly.
Dr Ingenhoufz, foon after he left London, fent anDr j^enta
account of his experiments made in the year 1779 up-h0Ufz’5 es,
on the purity of the air at fea and other parts; whichperiments.
account was read at the Royal Society the 24th of A-
pril 1780, and is inferted in the Ixxth vol. of the Phil.
Tranf. His firft obfervations were made on board a
veffel in the mouth of the 1 hames, between Sheernefs
and Margate, where he found that the air was purer
than any other fort of common air he had met with be¬
fore. He found that the fea-air taken farther from
the land, viz. between the Engliffi coaft and Oftend,
was not fo pure as that tried before ; yet this inferior
purity feems not to take place always. The Dodtor’s
general obfervations, deduced from his numerous expe¬
riments, are, “ That the air at fea, and clofe to it, is
in general purer, and fitter for animal life, than the
air on the land, though it feems to be fubjedt to fome
inconfiftency in its degree of purity with that of the .
land: That probably the air will be found in gene¬
ral much purer far from the land than near the ffiore,.
the former being never fubjedt to be mixed with land
air.”
The Dodtor in the fame paper tranferibes a journal
of experiments, ffiowing the degree of purity of the
atmofphere in various places, and under different cir-
cumftances ; which we ffiall infert here in an abridged
manner.
The method ufed in thofe experiments, was to in- ^ ?^irnap
troduce one meafure of common air into the eudiome- 0f the puri-
ter-tube, and then one meafure of nitrous air. The mo- ty of the air
ment that tbefe two forts of elaftic fluids came into con- in different:
tadt, he agitated the tube in the water-trough, andPaces*
then meafured the diminution, expreffing it by hun¬
dredth parts of a meafure; thus, when he fays that
fuch air was found to be 130, it fignifies, that after
mixing one meafure of it with one of nitrous air, the
whole mixed and diminiffied quantity was 130 hun-
dredthsof a meafure, viz. one meafure and 30 hundredths,
of a meafure more.
“ The different degrees of falubrity of the atmo-
fghere*
ATM [ 622 ] ATM
fphere, aa I found it is general in my eountry-houfe at
Southal-Green, ten miles from London, from June to
September, lay between 103 and (09. I was fur-
prifed when, upon my return to town to my former
lodgings in Pall-Mall Court, I found the common air
purer in general in October than I ufed to find it in
the middle of fummer in the country ; for on the 2 2d
of Odlober, af nine o’clock in the morning, the wea¬
ther being fair and frofty, -I found that one meafure of
common air, and one of nitrous air, occupied 100 fub-
divifions in the glafs-tube, or exactly one meafure.
That very day, at two o’clock in the afternoon (it be¬
ing then rainy weather), the air was fomewhat altered
for the worfe. It gave 102. Oftober the 23d, it
being rainy weather, the air gave 102. October the
24th, the weather being ferene, the air at nine o’clock,
in the morning'gave .100. October the 25th, the iky
being cloudy at 1 1 o’clock in the morning, the air gave
■102. At 11 o’clock at night, from five different trials,
it gave 105. Odtober the 26th, the weather being very
dark and rainy, the air gave 105, as-before.”
The air at Oftend was found by the Dodtor to be
generally very good, giving between 94 and 98. At
Bruges, the air taken at feven o’clock at night gave
103. November the 8th, the air‘at Ghent at three in
the afternoon gave 103.
November the 12th, the air of Bruffels at feven
o’clock P. M. gave iosJ-. The next day the air of
the lower part of the fame city gave 106 ; that of the
higheft appeared to be purer, as it gave 104 ; which
agrees with the common popular obfervation. Novem¬
ber the 14th, both the air of the higheft and that of
the loweft part of the city appeared to be of the fame
goodnefs, giving 103. The weather was frofty.
November the 2 2d, the air of Antwerp in the even¬
ing gave 109-j-; the weather being rainy, damp, and
cold. November the 23d, the air of Breda gave 106.
The next day about 11 o’clock the air gave i©2 ; the
weather being fair, cold, and inclining to froft. At
feven o’clock it gave 103. Next day, being the 25th,
the air gave 104 ; the weather being cold and rainy.
The 26th it gave 103 ; the weather being very rainy,
cold, and ftormy. November the 27th, the air at the
Moordyke clofe to the water gave JOirt the weather
being fair and cold, but not frofty. This fpot is rec¬
koned very healthy. November the 28th, the air of
Rotterdam gave 103 ; the weather being rainy and
cold. November the 29th, the air of Delft gave 103 ;
the weather being ftormy and rainy.
November the 30th, the air of the Hague gave 104;
the weather being cold, and the wind northerly. The
firft of December the weather underwent a fudden
change ; the wind becoming foutherly and ftormy, and
the atmofphere becoming very hot. The day after,
Fahrenheit’s thermometer ftood at 54® 5 and the com¬
mon air being repeatedly and accurately tried gave
116; and that preferred in a glafs phial from the pre¬
ceding day gave 117; and that gathered clofe to the
iea gave 115.
December the 4th, the air of Amfterdam gave 103 ;
the weather being rainy, windy, and cold. The day
after, the weather continuing nearly the fame, the air Atraa*
gave 102. December the 10th, the air of Rotterdam fyhtre, !
gave 101 ; the weather being rainy. December the '1' ■
12th,being in the middle of the water betweenDort and'
the Moordyke, the air gave 109 ; the weather being re¬
markably dark, rainy, and windy. December the 13th,
the air of Breda in the morning gave 109; the weather
continuing as the day before. And in the afternoon,
the air gave 1064-; the weather having cleared up.
December the 16th, the air of the lower part of the
city of Antwerp gave 105, that of the higher part
104; the weather being rainy and temperate. Decem¬
ber the 17th, the air of Antwerp gave to? ; the wea¬
ther continuing nearly as in the preceding day. De¬
cember the i 9th, the air of Bruflels gave 109; the
weather being rainy, windy, and rather warm. De¬
cember the 21 ft, the air of Brufi’els gave 106; the
weather being dry and cold. The next day the air
and weather continued the fame. December the 23d,
the air of Mons gave 104; the weather being rainy
and cold. December the 24th, the air near Bouchain
gave I04x 5 the weather being cloudy and cold. De¬
cember the 25th, the air of Peronne gave 102-^5 the
weather being frofty. December the 26th, the air of
Cuvilli gave 103; the weather frofty. December the
27th, the air of Senlis gave 1024 ; the weather frofty.
December the 29th, the air of Paris gave 103 ; the
weather frofty. 1780, January the 8th, the air of
Paris gave 100; the weather frofty. January the 13th,
the air of Paris gave 98 ; hard frpft.
T hus far with Dr Ingenhoufz s obfervations. His Apparatus )
' apparatus was a very portable one, made by Mr Mar- with which
tin, which in reality is the eudiometer-tube and mea-fl:s cxPeri*
fure as ufed by Mr Fontana before he made his laft im-were ;
provement. “ The whole of this apparatus (fays Dr
Ingenhoufz) was packed up in a box about ten inches
long, five broad, and three and a half high. T he glafs-
tube or great meafure, which was 16 inches long, and
divided into two feparate pieces, lay in a fmall compafs,
and could be put together by brafs ferews adapted to
the divided extremities. Inftead of a water-trough,
fuch as is ufed commonly, I made ufe of a fmall round
wooden tub, &c. 3»
The Abbe Fontana, who has made a great number of Fontana’s |
very accurate experiments upon this fubjed, gives his opinions ^
opinion in the following words: “ I have not theTeaft "n£,the ^ ,
hefitation in aflerting, that the experiments made toJ ’ ;
afeertain the falubrity of the atmofpherical air in va¬
rious places in different countries and fituations, men¬
tioned by feveral authors, are not to be depended up¬
on ; becaufe the method they ufed was far from being
exa& (a), the elements or ingredients for the experi¬
ment were unknown and uncertain, and the refults very
different from one another.
“ When all the errors afe correfted, it will be found
that the difference between the air of one country and
that of another, at different times, is much lefs than
what is commonly believed ; and that the great diffe¬
rences found by various obfervers are owing to the fal¬
lacious effedls of uncertain methods. This I advance
from experiepce 5 for I was in the fame error. I found
very
(a) It is plain that Dr Ingeuhoufz’s method Is not implied in this remark ; fince the Doftoris experiments
were made long after, and the method ufed by him was properly that of Mr Fontana.
ATM [6
Jgmei- very great differences between the refults of the expe-
fj here, riments of this nature which ought to have been fimi-
"—v— Jar; which diveriities L attributed to myfelf, gather
than to the method I then ufed. At Paris I examined
the air of different places at the fame time, and efpe-
- dally of thofe fituations where it was mofl probable to
meet with infe&ed air, becaufe thofe places abounded
with putrid fubitances and impure exhalations ; but the
differences I obferved were very fmall, and much lefs
than what could have been fufpedted, for they hardly
arrived to one-fiftieth of the air in the tube. Having
taken the air of the hill called Mount Valerian, at the
height of about 50b feet above the level of Paris, and
compared it with the air of Paris taken at the fame
time, and treated alike, I found the former to be hard¬
ly one-thirtieth better than the latter.
“ In London I have obferved almoft the fame. The
air of Iflington and that of London fuffered an equal
diminution by the mixture of nitrous air ; yet the air
of Iflington is efleemed to be much better. I have ex-
amined the air of London taken at different heights
(for inftance, in the ftreet, at the fecond floor, and at
the top of the adjoining houfes), and have found it to
be of the fame quality. Having taken the air at the
iron gallery of bt Paul’s cupola, at the height of 3 1 3
feet above the ground, and likewife the air of the ftone
gallery, which is 202 feet below the other; and ha¬
ving compared thefe two quantities of air with that of
the ftreet adjoining, I found that there was fcarce any
fenfible difference between them, although taken at
fuch different heights.
“ In this experiment a circumftance is to be confi-
dered, which muft have contributed to render the a-
bovementioned differences more fenfible: this is, the
agitation of the air of the cupola ; for there was felt a
< pretty brifk wind upon it, which I obferved to be
ftronger and ftronger the higher I afcended ; whereas
in the ftreet, and indeed in all the ftreets I paffed thro’,
there was no fenfible wind to be felt. This experiment
was made at four in the afternoon, the weather being
clear. The quickfilver in the barometer at that time
was 28,6 inches high, and Fahrenheit’s thermometer
flood at 540.”
A few lines after, Mr Fontana proceeds thus: 
“ From this we clearly fee, how Jittle the experiments
hitherto publifhed about the differences of common air
are to be depended upon. In general, I find that the
air changes from one time to another ; fo that the dif¬
ferences between them are far greater than thofe of the
airs of different countries or different heights. For
inftance, I have found that the air of London in the
months of September, Oftober, and November, 1778,
when treated with the nitrous air, gave 11,1, 1,90, and
11,11, 2,25, which i^ a mean refult of many experi¬
ments which differed very little from each other. The
26th day of .November laft, I found the air for the firft
time much better, for it gave 11,1, i,8ffl, and 11,11,
2,20; but the 14th of February 1779, the air gave
II,I, 1,69, and II,II, 2,21 ; from whence it appears^
that the air of this 14th of February was better than
it had been fix months before. There can be no
doubt of the accuracy of the experiments, becaufe I
compared the air taken at different times with that
which I had firft ufed in the month of September, and
1
23 ] A T 0
which I had preferved in dry glafs-bottles accurately Atmo*
ftopped.” fPht;re
This difference in the purity of the air at different Atooi.
times, Mr Fontana farther remarks, is much greater —y—.
than the difference between the air of the different
places obferved by him: notwithftanding this great
change, as he obferved, and as he was informed by va--
rious perfons, no particular change of health in the
generality of people, or facility of breathing, was per¬
ceived
Mr Fontana laftly concludes with obferving, that
“ Nature is not fo partial as we commonly believe.
She has not only given us an air almoft equally good
every where at every time, but has allowed us a cer¬
tain latitude, or a power of living and being in health
in qualities of air which difler to a certain degree. By
this I do not mean to deny the exiftence of certain
kinds of noxious air in fome particular places ; but on¬
ly fay, that in general the air is good every where, and
that the fmall differences are not to be feared fo much
as fome people would make us believe/ Nor do I mean
to fpeak here of thofe vapours and other bodies which
are accidentally joined to the common air in particular
places, but do not change its nature and intriiflical
property. This ftate of the air cannot be known by
the teft of nitrous air; and thofe vapours are to be
confidered in the fame manner as we fhould confiderfo
many particles of arfenic fwimming in the atmofphere'j
In this cafe it is the arfenic, and not the degenerated
air, that would kill the animals who ventured to breathe-
it.”
ATOCK, the capital of a province of the fame
name in the dominions of the Great Mogul. It is feat-
ed on a point of land where two large rivers meet, and
is one of the beft fortreffes the Mogul has ; but for¬
merly nobody was permitted to enter it without a paff-
port from the Mogul himfelf. E. Long. 72. 18. N.
Lat. 32. 20.
ATOM, in philofophy, a particle of matter, fo mi¬
nute, as to admit of no divifion. Atoms are the mi¬
nima nature, and are conceived as the firft principles*
or component parts of all phyfical magnitude.
ATOMICAL philosophy, or the doftrine of a-
toms, a fyftem which, from the hypothefis that atoms
are endued with gravity and motion, accounted for the.
origin and formation of things. This philofophy was
firft broached by Mofchus, fome time before the Tro¬
jan war ; but was much cultivated and improved by
Epicurus ; whence it is denominated the Epicurean
philofophy. See Epicurean-.
ATONEMENT. See Expiation.
ATONY, in medicine, a defedl; of tone of tenfion,
or a laxity or debility of the folids of the body.
ATOOI, one of the Sandwich iflands, fituated in
E. Long. 200. 20. N. Lat. 21. 57. Towards the"
north-eaft and north-weft, the face of the country is-
ragged and broken ; but to the fouthward it is more-
even. The hills rife from the fea-fide with a gentle
acclivity, and at a little diftance back are covered with
wood. Its produce is the fame with that of. the other
iflands of this duller ; but its inhabitants greatly ex¬
cel the people of all the neighbouring iflands in the ma¬
nagement of their plantations. In the low grounds,,
contiguous to the bay wherein our navigators anchor¬
ed^
A T O [ 624 J A T O
ed, thefe plantations were regularly divided by deep
ditches ; the fences were formed with a neatnefs ap¬
proaching to elegance, and the roads through them
were finithed in fuch a manner as would have refledted
credit even on an European engineer.
The ifland is about 3C0 miles in circumference. The
road, or anchoring-place, which our veffels occupied,
is on the fonth-weft fide of the ifland, about two leagues
from tin; weft end, before a village named Wymoa.
As far as was founded, the bank was free from rocks ;
except to the eaftward of the village, where there pro¬
jects a fhoal on which are feme rocks and breakers.
This road is fomewhat expofed to the trade-wind ; not-
withllanding which defedt, it is far from being a bad
ftation, and greatly fuperior to thofe which neceflity
continually obliges (hips to ufe, in countries where the
winds are not only more variable but more boilterous ;
as at Madeira, Teneriffe, the Azores, &c. The land¬
ing too is not fo difficult as at moft of thofe places ;
and, unlefs in very bad weather, is always practi¬
cable. The water in the neighbourhood is excellent,
and may be conveyed with eaie to the boats. But no
wood can be cut at any convenient diftance, unlefs the
iflanders could be prevailed upon to part with the few
ctooa trees {cordia febejiina) that grow about their vil¬
lages, or a ipecies called dooe dooe, which grows farther
up the country. The ground, from the wooded part
to the fea, is covered with an excellent kind of grafs,
about two feet in height, which fometimes grows in
tufts, and appeared capable of being converted into a-
bundant crops of fine hay. But on this extenfive fpace
not even a (hrub grows naturally.
Befides taro, the fweet potato, and other fimilar ve¬
getables ufed by our crews as refrelhments, among
which were at leaft five or fix varieties of plantains,
the ifland produces bread fruit; which, however, feems
to be fcarce. There are alfo a few cocoa palms; fome
yams; the kappe of the Friendly iflands, or Virginian
arum ; the etooa tree, and odoriferous gardenia or
cape jafmine. Our people alfo met with feveral trees
of the dooe dboe, that bear the oily nuts, which are
ftuck upon a kind of fleewer and made ufe of as candles.
There is a fpecies of fida, or Indian mallow; alfo the
morinda citrifolia, which is here called none; a fpecies
Of convolvulus^ the ava or intoxicating pepper, befides
great quantities of gourds. Thefe laft grow to a very
large fize, and are of a remarkable variety of ftiapes,
which are perhaps the effeft of art.
The fcarlet birds, which were brought for fale, were
never met with alive; but one fmall one was feen,
about the fize of a canary bird, of a deep crimfon co¬
lour ; alfo a large owl, two brown hawks or kites, and
a wild duck. Other birds were mentioned by the na¬
tives; among which were the otoo, or bluifti heron,
and the torata, a fort of whimbfel. It is probable that
the fpecies of birds are numerous, if we may judge by
the quantity of fine yellow, green, and fmall, velvet¬
like, blackiffi feathers ufed upon the cloaks and other
ornaments worn by thefe people. Fifti, and other pro¬
ductions of the fea, were to appearance not various.
The only tame or domeftic animals found here .were
hogs, dogs, and fowls, which were all of the fame kind
that had been met with at the iflands of the South
Pacific. There were alfo fmall lizards, and fome
rats.
N° 36.
The inhabitants of Atooi are of the middle fize, and
in general ftoutly made. They are neither remarkable
tor a beautiful ihape nor for ftriking features. Their
vifage, particulary that of the women, is fometimes
round, but others have it long ; nor can it juftly be
faid, that they are diftinguiflied as a nation by any ge¬
neral call of countenance. Their complexion is near¬
ly of a nut brown ; but fome individuals are of a dark¬
er hue. They are far from being ugly, and have, to
all appearance, few natural deformities of any kind.
Their Ikin is not very foft nor fliining; but their eyes
and teeth are, for the moft part, pretty good. Their
hair in general is ftraight; and though its natural co¬
lour is ufually black, they ftain it, as at the Friendly
and other iflands. They are aftive, vigorous, and moft
expert fwimmers; leaving their canoes upon the moft
frivolous occafion, diving under them, and fwimming
to others, though at a confiderable diftance. Women
with infants at the breaft, when the furf was fo high
as to prevent their landing in the canoes, frequently
leapt overboard, and fwam to the Ihore, without en¬
dangering their little ones. They appeared to be of a
frank, cheerful difpofition ; and are equally free from
the fickle levity which characterizes the inhabitants of
Otaheite, and the fedate call which is obfervable among
many of thofe of Tongataboo. They feem to culti¬
vate a fociable intercourfe with each other; and, ex¬
cept the propenfity to thieving, which is as it were in¬
nate in moft of the people in thofe feas, they appeared
extremely friendly. It was pleafing to obferve with
what affeCtion the women managed their infants, and
with .what alacrity the men contributed their affiltance
in fuch a tender office ; thus diftinguifhing themfelves
from thofe favages who confider a wife and child as
things rather neceffary than defirable or worthy of
their regard and efteem. From the numbers that were
feen affembled at every village in coafting along, it was
conjeCtured that the inhabitants of this ifland are pretty
numerous. Including the ftraggling houfes, it was
computed there might perhaps be, in the whole ifland,
fixty fuch villages as that near which our fhips anchor¬
ed ; and allowing five perfons to each’ houfe, there
would be in every village five hundred, or thirty thou-
fand upon the ifland. This number is by no means
exaggerated ; for th<ye were fometimes three thoufand
people at leaft collected upon the beach, when it could
not be fuppofed that above a tenth part of the natives
were prefent.
A'i'RA bilis, black bile, or melancholy. Ac¬
cording to the ancients it hath a twofold origin;
ift, From the groffer parts of the blood, and this they
called the melancholy humour. 2d, From yellow bile
being highly concoCted. Dr Percival, in his Effays
Med. and Exp. fuggefts, that it is the gall rendered
acrid by a ftagnation in the gall-bladder, and rendered
vifeid by the abforption of its fluid parts. Bile in this
ftate difeharged into the duodenum, occafions univerfal
difturbance and diforder until it is evacuated; it oc¬
cafions violent vomiting, or purging, or both ; and pre¬
vious to this the pulfe is quick, the head aches, a deli¬
rium comes on, a hiccough, intenfe thirft, inward heat,
and a fetid breath. Some deferibe this kind of bile as
being acid, harlh, corroding, and, when poured on
the ground, bubbling up and raifing the earth after
the manner of a ferment. Dr Percival fays, that by
5
A T R t 625 ] A T R
I Atra dies, the ufe of the infuf. fenx limonUt. warmer with th$
| Atradtylis. colUmb. he had checked the vomitings occafioned
jjy matter.
Atra dies, in antiquity, denotes4^21/ day where¬
on the Romans received fome memorable defeat. The
word literally imports a black day; a denomination
taken from the colour; which is the emblem of death
and mourning. Whence the Thracians had a cuftom
of marking all their happy days with white ftones or
calculi, and their unhappy days with black ones;
which they call, at the clofe of each day, into an urn.
At the perron’s death the ftones were taken out; and
from a comparifon of the numbers of each complexion,
a judgment was made of the felicity or infelicity of
his courfe of life. The dies atrx, or atri, were after¬
wards denominated r.efajli> and pcjleri. Such in par¬
ticular was the day when the tribunes Were defeated
by the Gauls, at the river Allia, and loft the city ; al-
fo that whereon the battle of Cannce was fought; and
feveral others marked in the Roman calendar, as atrec
or unfortunate.
ATRACTYLIS, distaff thistle : A genus of
the polygamia asqualis order, belonging to the fynge-
nefia clafs of plants; and in the nataral order rank¬
ing under the 49th order, Covipofitx-t pit at a. The
corolla is radiated ; and each of the tie corolla of
the radius has five teeth.
Species. 1. The cancellata, or fmall cnicus, is an
annual plant rifing. about eight or nine inches high,
with a flender ftem, garnilhed with hoary leaves, having
fpines on their edges. At the top of thefe branches
are fent out two or three flender ftalks, each termina¬
ted by a head of flowers like thofe of the thiftle. The
cmpalement is curioufly netted over, and is narrow at
the top, but fwelling below; and contains many flo¬
rets of a purplifh colour. Thefe are each fucceeded by
a Jingle downy feed, which in cold years do not ripen
in this country. 2. The humilis, or purple prickly
cnicus, rifes about a foot high, with indented leaves,
having fmall fpines on their edges. The upper part of
the ftalk is divided into two or three flender branches,
each fupporting a head of purple flowers, having rays
inclofed in a fcaly empalement. The flowers appear in
June; but unlefs the feafon is warm, the feeds will
not ripen in this country, 3. The gummifera, or
prickly gum-bearing cnicus, known among phyficians
j by the name of carlins thiftle. This fends out many
narrow leaves, which are deeply ferrated, and armed
with fpines on their edges. Thefe lie clofe on the
ground; and between them the flower is fituated,
without a ftalk, and having many florets inclofed in a
! prickly empalement. Thofe on the border are white ;
but fuch as compofe the diflc are of a yellowifli co¬
lour. It flowers in July, but never perfe&s feeds in
Britain.
Culture. All thefe plants are natives of the warm
parts of Europe, as Spain, Sicily, and the Archipelago
I i iHands, from whence their feeds muft be procured.
They muft be fown upon an open bed of light earth,
where the plants are to remain ; and when the plants
come up, they Ihould be thinned, fo as to leave them
three or four inches afunder. The roots of the fecond
will laft two or three years, and the third is a peren¬
nial plant.
Medicinal Ufes. The root of the third fort was for-
Vol. II. Part II.
merly ufed as a warm diaphoretic and alexipharmic; Atrasti
but it never came much into ufe in Britain, and the H
prefent pra&ice has entirely rejefted it. The root is Atreus‘
about an inch thick, externally of a pale rufty brown v
colour, corroded as it were in the furface 5 and perfo¬
rated with numerous fmall holes, fo as to appear worm-
eaten when cut. It has a ftrong fmell; and a fubacid,
bitterifli, and weakly aromatic tafte. Frederic Hoff¬
man the Elder relates, that he has obferved a decoc¬
tion of it in broth to occafion vomiting.
ATR^ETI, in medicine, infants having no perfora¬
tion in the anus, or perfons imperforated in the vagina
or urethra.
ATRAGENE, in botany: A genus of the polyan-
dria order belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants.
The calyx has four leaves; the petals are 12 ; and the
feeds are candated. There are three fpecies, all na¬
tives of the eaft.
ATRAPHAXIS : A genus of the digynia order,
belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants; and in the
natural method ranking under the 12th order, Holora*
cex. The calyx has two leaves; the petals are two,
and finuated ; and there is but one feed. There are
two fpecies, both natives of warm countries, but me¬
riting no particular defcription.
ATREBATII, a people of Britain, feated next
to the Bibroci, in part of Berkfhire and part of Ox-
fordfliire. This was one of thofe Belgic colonies which
had come out of Gaul into Britain, and there retained
their ancient name. For the Atrebatii were a tribe
of the Belgae, who inhabited the country which is
now called Artois. They are mentioned by Cafar
among the nations which compofed the Belgic confe¬
deracy again ft him ; and the quota of troops which
they engaged to furnifli on that occafion was 15,000.
Comius of Arras was a king or chieftain among the
Atrebatii in Gaul in Csefar’s time: and he feems to
have poffeffed fome authority, or at leaft fome influence,
over our Atrebatii in Britain ; for he was fent by
Caefar to perfuade them to fubmilfion. This circum-
ftance makes it probable that this colony of the Atre¬
batii had not been fettled in Britain very long before
that time. The Atrebatii were among thofe BritiJh
tribes which fubmitted to Caefar ; nor do we hear of
any remarkable refiftance they made againft the Ro¬
mans at their next invaiion under Claudius. It is in¬
deed probable, that before the time of this fecond in-
vafion they had been fubdued by fome of their neigh¬
bouring ftates, perhaps by the powerful nation of the
Cattivellauni, which may be the reafon they are fo little
mentioned in hiftory. Calliva Atrebatum, mention¬
ed in the feventh, twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth
itinera of Antoninus, and called by Ptolemy Calcua,
feems to have been the capital of the Atrebatii;
though our antiquaries differ in their fentiments about
the fituation of this ancient city, fome of them placing
it at Wallingford, and others at Ilchefter.
ATREUS, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of Pelops
and Hippodamia, and the father of Agamemnon and
Menelaus, is fuppofed to have been king of Mycenae
and Argos about 1228 years before the Chriftian asra.
Fie drove his brother Thyeftes from court, for having
a criminal commerce with iErope his wife : but un-
derftanding that he had had two children by her,
he fent for him again, and made him eat them ; at
4 K which
A T R [62
winch horrid a£lion< the fun, it is faid, withdrew his
light.
ATRI, a town- of Italy, in the farther Abruzzo in
the kingdom of Naples, with the title of a duchy ; it
is the fee of a biihop, and is feated on a craggy moun¬
tain, four miles from the Adriatic Sea. E. Long. 13. 8.
N. Lat. 42. 4$.
ATRIENSES, in antiquity, a kind of fervants or
officers in the great families at Rome, who had the
care and infpeftion of the atria and the things lodged
therein.
Theft are otherwife called atriarii, though fome
make a dtflin&ion between atrienfes and atriarii;
fuggefting that the latter were an inferior order of fer¬
vants, perhaps affiftants of the atrienfts, and employed
in the more fervile offices of the atrium, as to attend
at the door, fweep the area, &c.
The atrienfes are repreftnted as fervants of authori¬
ty and command over the reft : they a&ed as procura¬
tors, or agents, of their matter, in felling his goods,
&c. To their care were committed the ftatues and
images of the matter’s anceftors, &c. which were pla¬
ced round the atrium ; and which they carried in pro-
ceffion at funerals, &c.
In the villas, or country-houfes, the. atrienfes had
the care of the other furniture and utenfils, particular¬
ly thofe of metal, which they were to keep bright from
rutt. Other things they were to hang from time to
time in the fun, to keep them dry, &c. They were
clothed in a ffiort white linen habit, to diftinguifh
them, and prevent their loitering from home.
ATRIP, in nautical language, is applied either to
the anchor or fails. _ The anchor is atrip, when it is
drawn out of the ground in a perpendicular direftion,
either by the cable or buoy-rope. The top-fails are
atrip, when they are hoifted up to the matt-head, or
to their utmoft extent.
ATRIPLEX, orach, or arach : A genus of the
moncecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of
plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under the
12th order, Holoracea. The calyx of the hermaphro¬
dite flower has five leaves ; there is no corolla ; the
ftamina are five, and the ftylus is bifid; the feed is
one, and depreffed.
Species. 1. The hortenfis, or garden orach, was
formerly cultivated in gardens, and ufed as a fubftitute
for fpinage, to which It is ftill preferred by fome, tho’
in general it is difliked by the Englifh ; however, it
ftill maintains its credit in France, as alfo in the nor¬
thern parts of England. There are three or four varie¬
ties of this plant, whofe only difference is their colour ;
one is a deep green, another a dark purple, and a third
with green leaves and purple borders. 2. The halimus,
or broad-leaved orach, was formerly cultivated in gar¬
dens as a ftirub, by fome formed into hedges, andcon-
ftantly fheared to keep them thick: but this is a pur-
pofe to which it is by no means adapted, as the fhoots
grow fo vigorous, that it is impoffible to keep the
hedge in any tolerable order; and, what is worfe, in fe-
vere winters the plants are often deftroyed. 3. The
petulacoides, or fhrrubby fea-orach, grows wild by the
fea-fide in many places of Britain. It is a low under-
fhrub, ftldom rifing above two feet and an half, or at
moll three feet high ; but becomes very bufhy. This
may have a place in gardens among other low fhrubs,
6 ] a T it
where it will make a pretty diverfity. Befides thefe,
nine other fpecies are enumerated by botanical writers,
but the abovementioned are the moft remarkable.
Culture, 8cc. The firft fort is annual, fo mutt be
propagated by feeds. Theft are to be fown at Mi¬
chaelmas, foon after the feeds are ripe. The plants
require no other culture than to be kept free from
weeds, to hoe them when they are about an inch high,
and to cut them down when they are too thick, fo as
to leave them about four inches afunder. When theft
plants are fown in a rich foil, and allowed a good di-
ftance from each other, the leaves will grow very large,
and in this their goodnefs confifts. This mutt be eaten
whilft it is young; for when old, the leaves become-
tough, and are good for nothing. This fpecies is an
article of the materia medica; a deco&ion of the leaves-
is recommended in coftivenefs, where the patient is oF
a hot bilious difpofition.—The ftcond fort may be
propagated by cuttings. Theft are to be planted in
any of the fummer-months, in a fhady border ; where
they will foon take root, and be fit againft the follow¬
ing Michaelmas to tranfplant into thoie places where
they are to remain.—The third fort requires very little-
culture. It may be alfo propagated from cuttings, and
is to be planted in a poor gravelly foil.
ATRIUM.inecclefiaftical antiquity,denotes an open-
place or court before a church, making part of what-
was called the narthex or antetemple.
The atrium in the ancient churches was a large area
or fquare plat of ground, furrounded with a portico or
cloyfter, fituate between the porch or veftible of the-
church, and the body of the church.
Some have miftakenly confounded the atrium with->
the porch or veftible, from which it wasdiftinft; others*
with the narthex, of which it was only a part.
The atrium was the manfion pf thofe who were not^
fuffered to enter farther into the church. More parti¬
cularly, it was the place where the firft clafs of penitents-
ttood to beg the prayers of the faithful as they went
into the church.
Atrium is alfo ufed, in the canon law, for the ce-
metry or church-yard. In this ftnft we find a law
prohibiting buildings to be railed in airio ecclefus, ex¬
cept for the clergy ; which the gloffary explains thus,.
id ejl in ceemeterio, which includes the fpace of forty-
paces around a large church, or thirty rounds little
church or chapel.
ATROPA, DEADLY NIGHT-SHADE : A gCUUS of
the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 25th order, Luridee. The corolla is campanu-
lated ; the ftamina are diftant ; the berry is globular,
and confifts of two cells. The fpecies are five; of
which the three following are the moft remarkable.
1. The belladonna grows wild in many parts of Britain.
It hath a perennial root, which fends out ftrong herba¬
ceous ftalks of a purplifti colour, which rife to the
height of four or five feet, garnifhed with entire ob¬
long leaves, which towards autumn change to a pur-
pliih colour. The flowers are large, and come out-
fmgly between the leaves, upon long-foot ftalks; bell-
Ihaped, and of a dufky colour on the outfide, but pur-
plifh within. After the flower is paft, the germen
turns.to a large round berry a little flatted at the top..
It is firft green; but when ripe, turns to a ffiining,
black.
A T R [ 627 ] A T R
>tropa. black, fits clofe upon the empalement, and contains a
 urple juice of a naufeous fweet tafte, and full of fmall
idncy-lhaped feeds. 2. The frutefcens -is a native of
Spain, and rifes with a fnrubby ftem to the height of
fix or eight feet, dividing into many branches garni/h-
ed with round leaves, in ihape like thofe of the ftorax
tree : thefe are placed alternately on the branches.
The flowers come out between the leaves on fliortfoot'
flalks, fhaped like thofe of the former, but much lefs:
of a dirty yellowifli colour, with a few brown ftripes :
but thefe are never fucceeded by berries in Britain.
3. The herbacea, with an herbaceous ftalk, is a native
of Campeachy. This hath a perennial root, which
puts forth feveral ■channelled herbaceous flalks rifing
about two feet; and towards the top they divide into
two or three fmall branches garnifhed with oval leaves
four inches long and three broad, having feveral pro¬
minent tranfverfe ribs on their under fide. The flowers
come out from between the leaves on fhort foot-ftalks;
they are white, and fhaped like thofe of the common
fort, but fmaller. It flowers in July and Auguft, but
feldom ripens its fruit in Britain. 3. The mandrago-
ra, or mandrake, which has been diftinguifhed into the
male and female. The male mandrake has a very large,
long, and thick root; it is largeft. at the top or head,
and from thence gradually grows fmaller. Sometimes
it is Angle and undivided to the bottom ; but more fre¬
quently it is divided into two or more parts. When
only parted into two, it is pretended that it refembles
the body and thighs of a man. From this root there
arife a number of very long leaves, broadeft in the
middle, narrow towards the bafe, and obtufely pointed
at the end ; they are of a foot or more in length, and
five inches or thereabouts in breadth ; they are of a
dufky and difagreeable green colour, and of a very foe¬
tid fmell. The female mandrake perfectly refembles
the other in its manner of growth ; but the leaves
are longer and narrower, and of a darker colour, as are
alfo the feeds and roots. It grows naturally in Spain,
Portugal, Italy, and the Levant.
Culture. The firft fpecies, which is remarkable for
its poifonous qualities, is very feldom admitted in gar¬
dens, nor fhould it ever be cultivated or allowed to grow
in thofe places to which children have accefs. The
other kinds are propagated by feeds, and placed in a
Hove, as is requifite for the more tender plants.
Qualities, &c. The firft fpecies, as we have already
xibferved, is a ftrong poifon. Mr Ray gives a good ac¬
count of the fymptoms that follow the taking of it in¬
wardly, by what happened to a mendicant friar upon
his drinking a glafs of mellow wine in which the herb
was infufed. In a flrort time he became delirious, and
loon after was feized with a grinning laughter; then
with feveral irregular motions, and at laft with a real
madnefs, and fuch a ftupidity as thofe have who are
fottiftily drunk : but after all, he was cured by a draught
-of vinegar. Buchannan alfo gives an account of the
deftru&ion of the army of Sweno the Dane, when he
Jnvaded Scotland, by mixing a quantity of the bella¬
donna berries with the drink which the Scots were,
according to a treaty of truce, to fupply them with.
This fo intoxicated the Danes, thatthe Scots fell upon
them in their fleep, and killed the greateft part of
them., fo that there were fcarcely men enough left to
carry off their king. There have alfo been many in- Atropa
ftances in Britain of children being killed by eating Art'Jch,
berries of a fine black colour, and about the fize of a ment.
fmall cherry, which are no other than thofe of bella- w—y—«
donna. When an accident of this kind is difcovered
in time, a glafs of warm vinegar will prevent the bad
effefts.
The third fpecies has been recommended in cafes of
barrennefs, but without foundation. Its frefti root is a
violent purge, the dofe being from ten grains to twenty
in fubftance, and from half a dram to a dram in infu-
fion. It has been found to do fervice in hyfteric com¬
plaints ; but muft be ufed with great caution, otherwife
it will bring on convulfions, and many other mifchievous
fymptoms. It has alfo a narcotic quality. At pre-
fent only the frefli leaves are fometimes ufed in ano¬
dyne and emollient cataplafms and fomentations. It
ufed to be an ingredient in one of the old officinal un¬
guents ; but both that and the plant itfelf are now re-
jefted from our pharmacopoeias. It ftill however re¬
tains a place in the foreign ones, and may perhaps be
confidered as deferving farther attention.
Naturalifts tell ftrange ftories of this plant: but
fetting alide its foporiferous virtue, the modem botan-
ifts will fcarce warrant any of them, nor even that hu¬
man figure ordinarily afcribed to its roots, efpecially
fince the difcovery of the artifice of charletans in fa-
ffiioning it, to furprife the credulity of the people. The
figure given in Plate XCI. however, was taken from
a genuine root.
Mofes informs us (Gen. xxx. 14.) that Reuben,
the fon of Leah, being in the field, happened to find
mandrakes, which he brought home to his mother.
Rachel had a mind to them, and obtained them from
Leah, upon condition that ffie ffiould confent that Ja¬
cob ftiould be Leah’s bedfellow the night following.
The term own dud aim, here made ufe of by Mo¬
fes, is one of thofe words of which the Jews at this
day do not underftand the true fignification. Some
tranflate it violets, others lilies, or jejfamine. Junius
calls it agreeable flowers j Codurquus makes it truffle,
or mujhroom; and Calmet will have it to be the citron-.
Thofe that would fupport the tranflation of mandrakes
plead, that Rachel being barren, and having a great
defire to cenceive, coveted Leah’s mandrakes, it may
be prefumed, with a view to its prolific virtues. The
ancients have given to mandrakes the name of the
apples of love, and to Venus the name of Mandrago-
ritis} and the emperor Julian, in his epiftle to Ca-
lixenes, fays, that he drinks the juice of mandrakes to
excite amorous inclinations.
ATROPHY, in medicine, a difeafe, wherein the
body, or fome of its parts, does not receive the necef-
fary nutriment, but wafte and decay inceffantly. See
Medicine TWex.
ATROPOS, in fabulous hrftory, the name of the
third of the Parcae, or Fates, whole bufinefs it was to
cut the thread of life.
ATTACHMENT, in the law of England, im¬
plies the taking or apprehending a perfon by virtue
of a writ or precept. It is diftinguiffied from an ar-
refl, by proceeding out of a higher court by precept
or writ; whereas the latter proceeds out of an inferior
court by precept only. An arreft lies only on the body
4 K 2 of
ATT
[ 628
Attach- of a man ; whereas an attachment lies often on the
ment gOCKJs only, and fometimes on the body and goods.
Attainder attachment hy writ differs from dijirefsy in not ex-
] ATT
other man : for, by an anticipation of his punifhment, Attainders:
he is already dead in law. This is after judgment: for Attaint. '
there is great difference between a man convitted and ^
tending to lands, as the latter does ; nordoes a diftrefs attainted; though they are frequently through inac-
touch the body, as an attachment does.
Attachment out of the Chancery, is obtained upon
an affidavit made, that the defendant was ferved with a
curacy confounded together. After conviction only,
- is liable to none of thefe difabilities : for there
is ftill in contemplation of law a poffibility of his inno-
fubpcena, and made no appearance; or it iffues upon cence. Something may be offered in arreft of judg-
not performing fome order or decree. Upon the re¬
turn of this attachment by the (heriff, quod non eji in¬
ventus in balliva fua, another attachment, with a pro¬
clamation, iffues; and if he ftill refufes to appear, a
commiffion of rebellion.
Attachment of the Forejl, is one of the three courts
ment: the indiftment may be erroneous, which will
render his guilt uncertain, and thereupon the prefent
convidlion may be quafhed : he may obtain a pardon.,
or be allowed the benefit of clergy* both which fuppofe
fome latent fparks of merit, which plead in extenuation
of his fault. But when judgment is once pronounced,
held in the foreft. The loweft court is called the court both law and faft confpire to prove him completely
of attachment, or wood-mote court; the mean, fi
mote ; and the higheft, the jujiice in eyre's feat. The
guilty ; and there is not the remoteft poffibility left of
any thing to be faid in his favour. Upon judgment,,
court of attachments has its name from the verdurers therefore, of death, and not before, the attainder of a
of the foreft having no other authority in it, but to re- criminal commences : or upon fuch circumftances
ceive the attachments of offenders againft vert and ve-
nifon taken by the forefters, and to enroll them, that
they may be prefented or punifhed at the next juftice
in eyre’s feat. This attachment is by three means :
by goods and chattels; by body, pledges, or main-
pi ize ; or by the body only. This court is held every
40 days throughout the year; and is thence called
forty-days court.
are equivalent to judgment of death ; as judgment of
outlawry on a capital crime, pronounced for abfeond-
ing or fleeing from juftice, which tacitly confeffes the
guilt: and therefore, upon judgment either of out¬
lawry, or of death, for treafon or felony, a man firall
be faid to be attainted.
A perfon attainted of high treafon forfeits all his
lands, tenements, and hereditaments ; his Wood is cor-
Foreign Attachment is an attachment of money rupted, and he and his pofterity rendered bafe ; and
«r goods found within a liberty or city, to fatisfy fome this corruption of blood cannot be taken off but by
creditor within fuch liberty or city. By the cuftom of aft of parliament*.
London, and feveral other places, a man can attach
money or goods in the hands of a ftranger, to fatisfy
himfelf.
ATTACK, a violent attempt upon any perfon or
thing, an affanlt, or the aft of beginning a combat
or difpute.
Attack, in the military art, is an effort made to
force a poft, break a body of troops, &c.
Attack of a Siege, is a furious affault made by the
Attainders may be reverfed or falfified, (i. e. proved articles
to be falfe) by writ of error, or by plea. If by writ Forfeiture:
of error, it muft be by the king’s leave, &c. ; and
when by plea, it may be by denying the treafon,
pleading a pardon by aft of parliament, &c.
Perfons may be attainted by aft of parliament.-—
Afts of attainder of criminals have been paffed in fe¬
veral reigns, on the difeovery of plots and rebellions,
from the reign of king Charles II. when an aft was
befiegers with trenches, covers, mines, &c. in order made for the attainder of feveral perfons guilty of the
to make themfelves mafteis of a fortrefs, by ftorming
one of its fides. If there are two or three attacks
made at the fame time, there ftiould be a communica¬
tion betwixt them. See War.
ATTACOTTI, an ancient people of Britain, men¬
tioned by Ammianus, Marcellinus and St Jerome, as
well as in the Notitia Imperii. They are reprefented
as allies and confederates of the Scots and Pifts, and
murder of king Charles I. Among afts of this na¬
ture, that for attainting Sir John Fenwick, for con-
fpiring againft king William, is the moft remarkable *
it being made to attaint and convift him of high trea¬
fon on the oath of one witnefs, juft after a law had
been enafted, “ That no perfon fliould be tried or at¬
tainted of high treafon where corruption of blood is
incurred, but by the oath of two lawful witneffes, un-
therefore probably their neighbours : though their lefs the party confefs, ftand mute, &c.” Scat, 7 and 8
precife fituation has not been deteimined by antiqua-
ATTAINDER, in law. When fentence of death,
W. Ill cap. 3. But in the cafe of Sir John Fen¬
wick there was fomething extraordinary ; for he was
indifted of treafon on the oaths of two witneffes.
the moft terrible and higheft judgment in our laws, is though but only one could be produced againft him on
pronounced, the immediate infeparable confequence by his trial.
the common law is attainder. For when it is now clear
beyond all difpute, that the criminal is no longer fit
to live upon the earth, but is to be exterminated as a
monfter and a bane to human fociety, the law fets a
note of infamy upon him, puts him out of its protec-
ATTAINT, is a writ that lies after judgment a-
gainft a jury of twelve men that have given falfe ver-
dift in any court of record, in an aftion real or per-
fonal, where the debt or damages amount to above 40s.
Stat. 5 and 34 Ed. III. c. 7. It is called attaint,he-
tion, and takes no farther care of him than barely to caufe the party that obtains it endeavours thereby to
fee him executed. He is then called attaint, attinftus,
Jiaincd, or blackened. He is no longer of any credit or
reputation ; he cannot be a witnefs in any court; nei-
ftairt or taint the credit of the jury with perjury, by
whole verdift he is grieved.
The jury who are to try this falfe verdift muft be
ther is he capable of performing the funftions of an- twenty-four, and are called the grand-jury ; for the law
wills
ATT [ d
. Attaint wills not that the oath of one jury of twelve men fhould
1,1. be attainted or fet afide by an equal number, nor by
Attagras. ^ jncjee(j than double the former. And he that brings
the attaint can give no other evidence to the grand
jury, than what was originally given to the petit. For
as their verdidt is now trying, and the queftion is whe¬
ther or no they did right upon the evidence that ap¬
peared to them, the law adjudged it the higheft abfur-
dity to produce any fubfequent proof upon fuch trial,
and to condemn the prior jurifdiftion for not believing
evidence which they never knew. But thofe againtt
whom it is brought are allowed, in the affirmance of
the fjrft verdift, to produce new matter: becaufe the
petit jury may have formed their verdift upon evidence
of their own knowledge, which never appeared in court;
and becaufe very terrible was the judgment which the
common law infli&ed upon them, if the grand jury
found their verdiA a falfe one. The judgment was,
r. That they Ihould lofe their liber am legem, and be¬
come for ever infamous. 2. That they ffiould forfeit
all their goods and chattels. 3. That their lands and
tenements fhould be feized into the king’s hands.
4. That their wives and children fhould be thrown out
of doors. 5. That their houfes fhould be rafed and
thrown down. 6. That their trees fhould be rooted up.
7. That their meadows fhould be ploughed. 8. That
their bodies fhould be caft into jail. 9. That the party
fhould be reflored to all that he loft by reafou of the
unjuft verdiff. But as the feverity of this punifhment
had its ufual effeift, in preventing the law from being
executed, therefore by the flatute 11 Hen. VII. c. 24*
revived by 23 Hen. VIII. c. 3. and made perpetual by
13 Eliz. c. 25. it is allowed to be brought after the
death of the party, and a more moderate punifhment
was inflided i)pon attainted jurors ; viz. perpetual in¬
famy, and if thecaufeof a&ion were above L.40 value,
a forfeiture of L- 20 a-piece by the jirrors; or, if under
L.40, then L.5 a-piece; to be divided between the king
and the party injured. So that a man may now bring
an attaint either upon the ftatute or at common law,
at his ele&ion ; and in both of them may reverfe the
former judgment. But the pra&ice of fetting afide
verdifts upon motion, and granting new trials, has fo
fuperfeded the ufe of both forts of attaints, that there
is hardly any inftance of an attaint later than the 16th
century. .
Attaint, among farriers, a knock or hurt in a
horfe’s leg, proceeding either from a blow with ano¬
ther horfe’s foot, or from an over-reach in frofty wea¬
ther, when a horfe, being rough-fhod, or having fhoes
with long caulkers, ftrikes his hinder feet againft his
fore-leg.
ATTAINTED, in law, is applied to a perfon’s
being under attainder. See Attainder.
ATTALICiE vestEs, in antiquity,garments made
ef a kind of cloth of gold. They took the denomh
nation from Attains, furnamed Philometer, a wealthy
29 1 ATT
king of Pergamus, who was the firft, according to Attalus
Pliny, who procured gold to be woven into cloth. H .
ATTALUS, the name of feveral kings of Perga- e°tl0n‘
mus. See Pergamus.
ATTELABUS, in zoology, a genus of infecls-
belonging to the order of coieoptera or beetle-kind.
It has four wings, of which the fuperior are cruftaceous,
and ferve as a fheath or cover to the inferior, which
are membranous. The head tapers behind,, and is in¬
clined ; the feelers turn thicker towards the apex. The
fpecies are 13; viz. i.The coryli is black, with red-
elytra or cruftaceous wings. 2. The avellana is black,
with the breaft, feet, and elytra red. 3. The curcu-
lionoides is black, with red elytra and breaft. The a-
bove three fpecies frequent the leaves of the hazel and
filbert nut-trees. 4. The furinamenfis has a double
indentation (or two teeth) in the top of the elytra.
It is a native of Surinam. 5. The penfilvanicus is
black, with red elytra, a black belt round the middle,
and another towards the apex of the elytra. It is a
native of Philadelphia. 6. The melanurus is black,
with teftaceous elytra, black at the apex. It is a na¬
tive of Sweden. 7. The betula has faltatory or fpringy
legs, and the whole body is of a dark red colour. It
frequents the leaves of the birch-tree. 8. The formi-
carious is black, with red elytra, and a double white
belt towards the bafe. It is a native of Europe.
9. The fipylus is green, with a hairy breaft, and a
double yellow belt upon the elytra. 10. The apiarius
is bluilh, with red elytra, and three black belts. It is
a native of Germany. 11. The mollis is yellowiffi and
hairy, with pale elytra, and three belts It is a native
of Europe. 12. The ceramboides is of a blackilh red
colour, and the elytra is furrowed. It frequents the
fpongy boletus, a fpecies of mulhroom. 13. The bu*
preftoides is of a dark-red colour, with a globular breaft,,
and nervous elytra. It is a native of Europe.
ATTENTION, a due application of the ear, or
the mind, to any thing faid or done, in order to ac¬
quire a knowledge thereof. The word is compound¬
ed of ad, “ to,” and tendo, “ I ftretch.”
Attention of mind is not properly an a& of the un-
derftanding ; but rather of the will, by which it calls
the underftanding from the confideration of other ob-
jefts, and diredts it to the thing in hand. Neverthe-
lefs, our attention is not always voluntary : an intereft-
ing objeft feizes and fixes it beyond the power of con-
tronl.
Attention, in refpedf of hearing, is the ftretchmg or
ftraining of the membrana tympani, fo as to make it
more fufceptible of founds, and better prepared to
catch even a feeble agitation of the air. Or it is the
adjufting the tenfion of that membrane to the degree
of loudnefs or lownefs of the found to which we are
attentive.
According to the degree of attention, otgedb make
a ftronger or weaker impreffion (a). Attention is re-
qulfite
(a) Bacon* in his natural hiftory, makes the following obfervations. “ Sounds are meliorated by the in-
M tenfion of the fenfe, where the common fenfe is colledted moft to the particular fenfe of hearing, and the
4< fight fufpended. Therefore founds are fweeter, as well as greater, in the night than in the day ; and I fup-
“ pofe they are fweeter to blind men than to others; and it is manifeft, that between fleeping and waking, when.
“ all the fenfes are bound and fufpendtd, mufic is far fvveeter than when one is fully waking.”
ATT [ 630 ] ATT
Attention, quifite even to the Ample aft of feeing : the eye can orders, and know which will prove moft ferviceable in Attenuant?
Attenuants take jn a conf1(jerable field at one look ; but no objeft each. According to Hoffman, the difiblving and at- li
;n the field js feen diftinftly but that fingly which fixes tenuating of vifcid crudities in the flomach and pritxa Atterbu'ry’.
the attention : in a profound reverie that totally occu- vise, is well anfwered by the roots of arum, acorus,
.pies the attention, we fcarce fee what is dire&ly before pepper, ginger, and the like ; as alfo by fal ammoniac,
us. In a train of perceptions, no particular obje& vitriolated tartar, the fixed alkaline falts, and the fim-
makes fuch a figure as it would do fingly and apart; pie or dulcified fpirit of fait. ^When crude and uncon-
for when the attention is divided among many obje&s, codled humours are to be evacuated by ilool, this in-
no particular objedf is intitled to a large fhare- Hence, tention is very well anfwered by the neutral falts, as
the ftillnefs of night contvibutes to terror, there being the falts of the purging waters, and the fal polycrejhim,
nothing to divert the attention : with a fufficient quantity of a watery vehicle.
37- •• When vifcid humours, occafioning diforders of the
Horror ubique ammos, fimul ipfa filentia terrent. Jhn. n - - - - . ~
Zara. Silence and folitude are ev’ry where !
Through all the gloomy ways and iron doors
That hither lead, nor human face nor voice
Is feen or heard- A dreadful din was wont
To grate the fenfe, when enter’d here, from groans
And howls of Haves condemn’d, from clink of chains,
And crafli of rufty bars and craking hinges ;
And every and anon the fight was dalh’d
With frightful faces, and the meagre looks
'Of grim and ghaftly executioners.
Yet more this ftillnefs terrifies my foul
Than did that fcene of complicated horrors.
Mourning Bride, aft 5- fc. 3.
breaft, are to be attenuated and expeftorated, the in¬
tention is moft effeftnally anfwered by elecampane and
orice roots; and by gum ammoniacum, myrrh, or
benjamin, and balfam of Peru; or by regenerated
tartar, oxymel of fquills, a folution of crabs eyes in
diftilled vinegar, and the fyrups of tobacco, and the
like.
When the mafs of blood is tainted by thick and te¬
nacious fordes, and the emunftories are by that means
obftrufted, and the humours contaminated by a faline
fulpbureous and fcorbutic dyfcracy, the moft efficacious
of the attenuants are the horfe-radifh, fcurvy-grafs,
water and garden creffes, muftard, gum ammoniacum,
benjamin, myrrh, the oil of fixed nitre, oil of tartar
^ min, : _
. . . . per deliquium, folutions of nitre, fpirit of fal ammoniac.
In matters of flight importance, attention is moitly £jt Gf wormwood with lemon juice, and the falts of the
flirefted by will; and for that reafon, it is our own medic;nai waters.
fault if trifling objefts make any deep impreffion. Had When grumous or coagulated blood, occafioned by
we power equally to with-hold our attention from mat- contuflons or blows, Js t0 be attenuated, and again
ters of importance, we might be proof againlt any deep difl-0|ved> tbe intention is fure to be anfwered by the
impreffion. But our power fails us here : an intei efting roots Df Solomon’s feal, vinegar, and crabs eyes, the
objeft feizes and fixes the attention beyond the pofli- regenerate<| tartar, and nitre prepared with anti-
bility of controul; and while our attention is thus for¬
cibly attached to one objeft, others may folicit for ad¬
mittance ; but in vain, for they will not be regarded.
Thus a fmall misfortune is fcarce felt in prefence of a
greater:
Lear. Thou think’ft ’tis much, that this contentious ftorm
Invades us to the ikin : fo ’tis to thee :
But where the greater malady is fix’d,
'The lelTer is fcarce felt. Thou’dft fhun a bear ;
But if thy flight lay tow’rd the roaring fea,
Thou’dft meet the bear i’ th* mouth. When the mind’s free,
The body’s delicate : the tempeft in my mind
Doth from my fenfes take all feeling elfe.
Save what beats there. King Lear. all. 3. fc. 5.
ATTENUANTS, or Attenuating Medicines,
mony.
And in cafe's where the lymph has acquired a pre¬
ternatural thicknefs and vifeidity, efpecially if from a
venereal taint, the curative intention is moft effeftually
anfwered by guaiacum, the acrid tinfture of antimomy,
calomel sethiops mineral, and the like; which, when
fldlfully ufed, are of Angular efficacy in difiblving and
attenuating the vifcid juices impafted in the glands of
the liver.
ATTENUATION, the aft of attenuating ; that
is, of making any fluid thinner, and lefs confiftent,
than it was before. The word is compound of ad ‘ to,*
and tenuis ‘ thin.’ Attenuation is defined more ge¬
nerally by Chauvin, the dividing or feparating of the
are fuch as fubtilize and break the humour into finer minute parts of any body, which before, by their mu-
parts ; and thus difpofe them for motion, circulation, tual nexus or implication, formed a more continuous
execretion, &c. mafs. Accordingly, among alchemifts, we fometimes
Attenuating and inciding medicines are of very ex- find the word ufed for pulverization, or the aft ofredu-
tenfive ufe in phyiic, and come under different deno- cing a body into an impalpable powder, by grinding,
minations, according to the different effefts they pro- pounding, or the like.
duce. Thus, when tenacious and vifcid juices not on- ATTERBURY (Dr Francis), fon of Dr Lewis
ly ftagnate in the cavities of the veffels, but obftruft
the minute dufts of the vifeera and emunftories, thefe
medicines, by the inciding and attenuating quality,
difeharge the humours, and remove the obftruftions
Atterbury, was born at Milton in Buckinghamfhire,
1662; educated at Weftminfter; and from thence elec¬
ted to Chrift-Church in Oxford, where he foon diftin-
guifhed himfelf by his fine genius and turn for polite
for which reafon they are not improperly called ape- literature. The year he was made M. A. 1687, he ex-
rients.
Attenuants produce fo great a variety of effefts,
erted himfelf in the controverfy with the Papifts, vin¬
dicated Luther in the ftrongeft manner, and (bowed
that it is proper we (hould be well acquainted with an uncommon fund of learning, enlivened with great
their feveral kinds, as appropriated to the Xeveial dif- vivacity. In 1690 he married Mifs Ofborn, a diftant
i rela-
ATT [ 631 ] ATT
Attcib ry. relation of the Duke of Leeds ; a lady of great beau-
  ty, but with little or no fortune, who lived at or in the
neighbourhood of Oxford.
In Feb. 1690-1, we find him refolved “ to beftir
himfelf in his office in the houfe that of cenfor pro¬
bably, an officer (peculiar to Chrift-Church) who
prefides over the elaffical exercifes ; he then alfo held
the catechetical le&ure founded by Dr Bufby.
About this period it muft have been that he took or¬
ders, and entered into another fcene, and another
fort of converfation ; for in 1691 he was eledfed lec¬
turer of St Bride’s church-in London, and preacher at
Bridewell chapel. An academic life, indeed, muft have
been irkfome and infipid to a perfon of his aftive and
afpiring temper. It was hardly poffible that a clergy¬
man of his fine genius, improved by ftudy, with a
fpirit to exert his talents, fhould remain long unno-
rtced ; and we find that he was foon appointed chap¬
lain to King William and Queen Mary.
The ffiare he took in the controverfy again ft Bent¬
ley (about the genuinenefs of Phalaris’s Epiftles) is
now very clearly afcertained. In one of the letters to
his noble pupil, dated “ Cbelfea 1698 (he fays), the
matter had coft him fome time and trouble. In laying
the defigm of the book, in writing above half of it, in
reviewing a- good part of the reft, in tranfcribing the
whole, and attending the prefs (he adds), half a year
of my life went away.”
In i 700, a ftill larger field of a&ivity opened, in
which Atterbury was engaged four years with Dr
Wake (afterwards Archbifhop of Canterbury) and o-
thers, concerning “ the Rights, Powers, and Privi¬
leges of Convocationsin which, however the truth
»f the queftion may be fuppofed to lie, he difplayed
, fo much learning and ingenuity, as well as zeal for
the interefts of his order, that the Lower Hbufe of
Convocation returned him their thanks, and the uni-
verfity of Oxford complimented him with the degree
of D. D. January 29, 1700, he was inftalled arch¬
deacon of Totnefs, being promoted to that dignity by
Sir Jonathan Trelawny, then bifhop of Exeter. The
fame year he was engaged, with fome other learned di¬
vines, in revifing an intended edition of the “ Greek
Teftament,” with Greek “ Scholia,” colle&ed chiefly
from the fathers, by Mr Archdeacon Gregory. At
this period he was popular as preacher at the Rolls
Chapel; an office which had been.conferred on him by
Sir John Trevor, a great, difcerner of abilities, in 1698,
when he refigned Bridewell, which he had obtained in
1693. Upon the acceffion of Queen Anne in 1702,
Dr Atterbury was appointed one of her Majefty’s
chaplains in ordinary ; and, in Oftober 1704, was ad¬
vanced to the deanery of Carlifle. About two years
after this, he was-engaged in a difpute with MrHoad-
ly, concerning the advantages^ of virtue with regard to
the prefent life ; occafioned by his lermon, preached
Auguft 30, 1706, at the funeral of Mr Thomas Ben-
net, a bookieller. In 1707, Sir Jonathan Trelawny,
then bifhop of Exeter, appointed him one of the ca¬
nons refidentiaries of that church. In 1709, he was
engaged in a frefh difpute with Mr Hoadly, concern¬
ing “ Paffive Obedience occafioned by his Latin
Sermon, intitled “ Concio ad Clerum Londinenfem,
habita in Ecclefia S. Elphegi.” In 1710, came on
the famous trial of Dr Sacheverell, .whofe remarkable
fpeech on that occafion was generally fuppofed to have Atterburyv
been drawn up by our author, in conjunction with Dr —v—
Smalridge and Dr Freind. The fame year Dr Atter-
bury was unanimoufly chofen prolocutor of the Lower
Houfe of Convocation, and had the chief management
of affairs in that houfe. May 11, 17x1, he was ap¬
pointed by the convocation one of the committee for f
comparing Mr Whifton’s doCtrines with thofe of the
church of England; and in June following, he had the
chief hand in drawing up “ A Reprefentation of the
Prefent State of Religion.” In 1712, Dr Atterbury
was made dean of Chrift-Church, notwithftanding the
ftrong intereft and warm applications of feveral great-
men in behalf of his competitor Dr Smalridge. The
next year faw him at the top of his preferment, as
well as of his reputation : for, in the beginning of June
1713, the Queen, at the recommendation of Lord
Chancellor Harcouit, advanced him to the biihopric
of Rochefter, with the deanery of Weftminfter in com-
mendam ; he was confirmed July 4, and confecrated at
Lambeth next day.
At the beginning of the fucceeding reign, his tide-
of profperity began to turn ; and he received a fen-
fible mortification prefently after the coronation .of
King George I. when, upon his offering to prefent
his Majefty (with a view, no doubt, of (landing better
in his favour) with the chair of ftate and royal canopy,
his own perquifites as dean of Weftminfter, the offer
was rejefted, not without fome evident marks of dif-
like to his perfon.
During the rebellion in Scotland, when the Pre¬
tender’s declaration was difperfed, the archbifhop of-
Canterbury, and the bifhops in and near London, had
publiflied a Declaration of their Abhorrence of the pre¬
fent Rebellion, and an Exhortation to-the Clergy and'
People to be zealmis in the difcharge of their duties to hit
Majejiy King George : but the bifhop of Rochefter re-
fufed to fign it; and engaged bifhop Smalridge in the
fame refufal, on account of fome reflexions it contain¬
ed againft the high-church party. He appeared gene¬
rally among the proteftors againft the meafures of the
miniftry under the king, and drew up the reafons of
the protefts with his own hand.
In 1716, we find him advifing Dean Swift in the
management of a refractory chapter. April 26, 1722,
he fuflained a fevere trial in the lofs of his lady ; by
whom he had four children ; Francis, who died an in¬
fant ; Ofborn,. fludent of Chrift Church ; Elizabeth,
who died September 29- 1716, aged 17 ; and Mary,
who had been then feven years married to Mr Mo-
rice.
In this memorable-year, on a fufpicion of his being
concerned in a plot in favour of the Pretender, he
was apprehended Auguft 24, and committed prifoner
to the tower.
Two officers, the under-fecretary, and a meffenger,
went about two o’clock in the afternoon to the Bi-
fhop’s houfe at Weftminfter, where he then was, with-
orders to bring him and his papers before the council.
He happened to be in his night-gown when they
came in ; and being made acquainted with their bufi-
nefs, he defired time to drefs himfelf. In the mean
time his fecretary came in ; and the officers went to
fearch for his papers; in the fealing of which the mef¬
fenger brought a paper, which he pretended to have
found*
ATT I 6}t
Attcrbury. found in !uu clofe-ftoot, and defued It might be fealed
u—y—w Up t}ie refy, His Lordfhip obferving It, and be¬
lieving it to be a forged one of his own, deflred the
officers not to do it, and to bear witnefs that the pa¬
per was not found with him. Neverthelefs they did
it; and though they behaved themfelves with fome
]
ATT
tion and revenge, might prompt him to many things Atterbury,
contrary to his declared fentiments, and inconfiftent
with that cunning and caution which in other cafes
he was mafter of. And to obviate the difficulty, ari-
fiag frtftn the Biffiop’s averfion to Popery, and the
Pretender’s bigotry to that religion, they talked of a
refpedt to him, they fuffered the meffengers to treat new-invented fcheme of his, not to receive the Pre-
him in a very rough manner, threatening him, if he
did not make hafte to drefs himfelf, they would carry
him away undreft as he was. Upon which he order¬
ed his fecretary to fee his papers all fealed up, and
went himfelf dire&ly to the Cock-pit, where the coun¬
cil waited for him. The behaviour of the mefiengers,
upon this occafion, feems to have been very unwar¬
rantable, if what the author of “ A Letter to the
Clergy of the Church of England,” &c. tells us be
tine, that the perfons, dire died by order of the King
and council, to feize his Lordfhip and his papers, re¬
ceived a drift command to treat him with great re-
fpeft and reverence. However this was, when he
came before the council, be Behaved with a great deal
of calmnefs, and they with much civility towards him.
He had liberty to fpeak for himfelf as much as he
tender, w'hofe principles were not to be changed, but
his fon only, who was to be educated a Proteftant in
the church of England, and the biffiop to be his guar¬
dian, and Lord Proteftor of the kingdom, during hia
minority. Thefe, and many more fpeculations, amu-
fed the nation at that time ; and men, as ufual, judged
of things by the meafure of their own affeftions and
prejudices.
March 23. 1722-3, a bill was brought into the
Houfe of Commons, for “ infiifting certain pains and
penalties on Francis Lord Biffiop of Rochefter a
copy of which was fent to him, with notice that he
had liberty of counfel and folicitors for makirtg his de¬
fence. Under thefe circumftances, the Biffiop ap¬
plied, by petition, to the Houfe of Lords, for their
direftion and advice, as to his conduft in this con-
pleafed, and they liftened to his defence with a great junfture; and April 4, he acquainted the fpeaker of
•deal of attention ; and, what is more unufual, after he
was withdrawn, he had twice liberty to re-enter the
council-chamber, to make for himfelf fuch reprefenta-
tions and requefts as he thought proper. It is faid,
that, while he was under examination, he made ufe of
our Saviour’s anfwer to the Jewiffi council, while he
flood before them; “ If I tell you, ye will not be¬
lieve me; and if I alfo afk you, ye will not anfwer me,
nor let me go.” After three quarters of an hour’s
flay at the Cock-pit, he was fent to the Tower, pri¬
vately, in his own coach, without any manner of noife
r obfervation.
the Houfe of Commons, by a letter, that he was de¬
termined to give that houfe no trouble, in relation to
the bill depending therein ; but ffiould be ready to
make his defence againft it when it ffiould be argued
in another Houfe, of which he had the honour to be
a member. On the 9th the bill paffed the Houfe of
Commons, and was the fame day fent up to the Houfe
of Lords for their concurrence.
May 6th, being the day appointed by the lords for
the firft reading of the bill, Biffiop Atterbury was
brought to Weftminfter to make his defence. The
counfel for the Biffiop were, Sir Conftantine Phipps,
This commitment of a biffiop upon a fufpicion of and William Wynne, Efq; for the King, Mr Reeve
high treafon, as it was a thing rarely praftifed fince
the Reformation, fo it oceafioned various fpeculations
among the people. Thofe who were the Biffiop’s
friends, and pretended to the greateft intimacy with
him, laid the whole odium of the matter upon the mi-
niftry. They knew the Biffiop fo well, they faid, his
love to our conftitution, and attachment to the Prote¬
ftant fucceffion, his profeffed abhorrence of Popery
and fettled contempt of the Pretender, and his caution,
prudence, and circumfpeftion, to be fuch, as would
never allow him to engage in an attempt of fubverting
the government, fo hazardous in itfelf, and fo repug¬
nant to his principles; and therefore they imputed
and Mr Wearg. The proceedings continued above a
week: and on Saturday May nth, the Biffiop was
permitted to plead for himfelf. This he did in a very
eloquent fpeech ; which he feelingly opens by com¬
plaining of the uncommon feverity he had experienced
in the Tower ; which was carried to fo great a length,
that not even his fon-in law Mr Morice was permitted
to fpeak to him in any nearer mode than (landing in
an open area, whilft the Biffiop looked out of a two-
pair-of-ftairs window. In the courfe of his defence he
obferves, “ Here is a plot of a year or two Handing,
to fubvert the government with an armed force ; an
invafion from abroad, an infurreftion at home: juft
all to the malice and management of a great minifter when ripe for execution, it is difeovered; and twelve
of Hate or two, who were refolved to remove him, on
account of fome perfonal prejudices, as well as the
conftant moleftation he gave them in parliament, and
the particular influence and aftivity he had ffiown in
the late eleftion. The friends to the miniftry, on the
other hand, were ftrongly of opinion, that the Biffiop
was fecretly a favourer of the Pretender’s caufe, and
had formerly been tampering with things of that na¬
ture, even in the Queen’s time, and while his party
was excluded from power; but upon their re-admif-
fton, had relinquiffied that purfuit, and his confede-
months after the contrivance of this fcheme, no con-
fultation appears, no men correfponding together, no
provifion made, no arms, no officers provided, not a
man in arms ; and yet the poor Biffiop has done all
this. What could tempt me to Hep thus out of my way ?
Was it ambition, and a defire of climbing into a higher
ftation in the church ? There is not a man in my office
farther removed from this than I am. Was money my
aim ? I always defpifed it too much, confidering what
occafion I am now like to have for it: for out of a
poor biffiopric of L.. 500 per annum, I have laid out
rates therein, and became a good fubjeft again. They no lefs than L. 1000 towards the repairs of the church
urged, that the influence which the late Duke of Or¬
mond had over him, affifted by his own private ambi-
N° 36. 2
and epifcopal palace ; nor did I take one (hilling for
dilapidations. The reft of my little income has been
fpent,
ATT [ 633 I ATT
Aturbury. fpent, as is necefiary, as I am a bifhop. Was I in-
  fluenced by any diflike of the eftabliihed religion, and
fecretly inclined towards a church of greater pomp
and power? I have, my lords, ever finee •! knew
what Popery was, oppofed it; and the better I knew
it, the more I oppofed it. I began my ftudy in divi¬
nity, when the Popiih controverfy grew hot, with
that immortal book of Tillotfon’s, when he undertook
the Proteftant caufe in general; and as fuch, I efteem-
ed him above all. You will pardon me, my lords, if I
mention one thing : Thirty years ago, I writ in de¬
fence of Martin Luther; and have preached, exprelfed,
and wrote to that purpofefrom my infancy; and what¬
ever happens to me, I will fuffer any thing, and, by
God’s grace, burn at the flake, rather than depart
from any material point of the Proteftant religion as
profefled in the church of England. Once more :
Can I be fuppofed to favour arbitrary power ? The
whole tenor of my life has been otherwife: I was al¬
ways a friend to the liberty of the fubjeft; and, to the
beil of my power, conftantly maintained it. I may
have been thought miftaken in the meafures I took to
fupport it ; but it matters not by what party I was
called, fo my adlions are uniform.” Afterwards,
fpeaking of the method of proceeding againft him as
unconflitutional, he fays : “ My ruin is not of that
moment to any number of men, to make it worth
their while to violate, or even to feem to violate, the
conftitution in any degree, which they ought to pre-
ferve againft. any attempts whatfoever. Though I am
worthy of no regard, though whatfoever is done to me
may for that reafon be looked upon to be juft; yet
your lordfhips will have fome regard to your ownTaft-
ing intereft and that of pofterity. This is a proceed¬
ing with which the conftitution is unacquainted; which,
under the pretence of fupporting it, will at laft effec¬
tually deftroy it. For God’s fake, lay afide thefe ex¬
traordinary proceedings; fet not up thefe new and
dangerous precedents. I, for my part, will voluntary
and cheerfully go into perpetual banifhment, and pleafe
myfelf that I am in fome meafure the occafion of put¬
ting a flop to fuch precedents, and doing fome good
to my country: I will live, wherever I am, praying
for its profperity; and do, in the words of Father Paul
to the ftate of Venice, fay, EJto perpetua. It is not
my departing from it I am concerned for. Let me de¬
part, and let my country be fixed upon the immoveable
foundation of law and juftice, and ftand forever.”—
After a folemn proteftation of his innocence, and an
appeal to the Searcher of Hearts for the truth of what
he had faid, he concludes thus : “If, on any account,
there fhall fti.l be thought by your lordftiips to be any
Vol. II. Part II. ^
feeming ftrength in the proofs againft me; if, by your Atterbury.
lordfhips judgments, fpringing from unknown motives,-y—"■**
1 fhall be thought to be guilty; if, for any reafons or
neceflity of ftate, of the wifdom and juftice of which I
am no competent judge, your lordfhips fhall proceed
to pafs this bill againft me ; I fhall difpofe myfelf
quietly and tacitly to fubmit to what you do ; God’s
will be done : Naked came I out of my mother’s
womb, and naked fhall I return; and, whether he
gives or takes away, bleffed be the name of the
Lord !”
On monday the 13th he was carried for the lafl
time from the Tower to hear the reply of the King's
counfel to his defence. Thefe were both men of great
knowledge and fagacity in law, but of different talents
in point of eloquence. Their fpeeches on this occa¬
fion were made public; and they feem to have formed
their “ Replies,” defignedly, in a different way. The
former flicks clofe to the matter in evidence, and en¬
forces the charge againfl the Bifhop with great ftrength
and perfpicuity : The latter anfwers all his objedlions,
and refutes the arguments brought in his defence, in
an eafy foft manner, and with great fimplicity of rea-
foning. Mr Reeve is wholly employed in fadls, in
comparing and uniting together circumflances, in or¬
der to corroborate the proofs of the Bifhop’s guilt: Mr
Wearg is chiefly taken up in filencing the complaints
of the Bifhop and his couhfel, and replying to every
thing they advance, in order to invalidate the allega¬
tions of his innocence. The one, in fhort, poffeffes
the minds of the Lords with ftrong convi&ions againfl
the Bifhop : The other difpoffefles them of any fa¬
vourable impreffion that might poffibly be made upon
them by the artifice of his defence. And accordingly
Mr Reeve is ftrong, nervous, and enforcing ; but Mr
Wearg, fmooth, eafy, and infinuating, both in the
manner of his expreffion and the turn of his periods.
Mr Wearg pays the higheft compliments to the Bi¬
fhop’s eloquence: but, at the fame time, reprefents it
as employed to impofe upon the! reafon, and mifguide
the judgment of his hearers, in proportion as it affedled
their pafiions; and he endeavours to flrip the Bifhop’s
defence of all its ornaments and colours of rhetoric.
On the 15th the bill was read the third time ; and,
after a long and warm debate, paffed on the 16th, by
a majority of 83 to 43. On the 27th the King came
to the Houfe, and confirmed it by his royal affent.
June 18. 1723, this emiment Prelate, having the day
before taken leave of his friends, who, from the time
of palTing the bill againft him to the day of his de¬
parture, had free accefs to him in the Tower (b), em¬
barked on board the Aldborough man of war, and
4 L landed
(b) The following anecdote was firft communicated to the public by the late Dr Maty, on the credit of
Lord Chefterfield : “ I went (faid Lord Chefterfield) to Mr Pope, one morning, at Twickenham, and found
a large folio bible, with gilt clafps, lying before him upon his table ; and, as I knew his way of thinking up¬
on that book, I afked him, jocofely, if he was going to write an anfwer to it ? It is a prefent, faid he, or rather
a.legacy, from my old friend the bifhop of Rochefter. I went to take my leave of him yefterday in the Tower,
where I faw this bible upon his table. After the firft compliments, the Bifhop faid to me, ‘ My friend Pope,
confidering your infirmities, and my age and exile, it is not likely that we fhould ever meet again ; and there¬
fore I give you this legacy to remember me by it. Take it home with you ; and let me advife you to abide
by it.’—‘ Does your Lordfhip abide by it yourfelf ?’—‘ I do.’—‘ If you do, my Lord, it is but lately. May
I
ATT [ 6u ] ATT
Atterbury. landed the Friday following at Calais. When he went
'“■"■"'v " on (hore, having been informed that Lord Bolingbroke,
who had, after the rifing of the parliament, received
the King’s pardon, was arrived at the fame place on
his return to England, he faid, with an air of pleafan-
try, “ Then I am exchanged!” and it was, in the
opinion of Mr Pope on the fame occafion, “ a fign of
the nation’s being curfedly afraid of being over-run
with too much politenefs, when it could not regain one
great man, but at the expence of another.” But the
feverity of his treatment did not ceafe even with his
banifhment. The fame vindiftive fpirit purfued him
in foreign climes. No Britifh fubjeft was even per¬
mitted to vifit him without the king’s fign manual,
W'hich Mr Morice -was always obliged to folicit, not
only for himfelf, but for every one of his family whom,
he carried abroad with him, for which the fees of of¬
fice were very high.
When biihop Atterbury firft entered upon his ba-
nilhment, Bruffels was the place deitined for his refi-
dence ; but, by the arts and inftigations of the Britiih Atterbury.
minillers, he was compelled to leave that place, and v 1 ,v
retire to Paris. There being folicited by the friends
of the Pretender to enter into their negociations, he
changed his abode for Montpelier in ryzS; and, after
refiding there about two years, returned to Paris,
where he died Feb. 15. 1731-2. The affliftion which
he fuftained by the death of his daughter in 1729, was
thought to have haftened his own difiblution. The
former event he hath himfelf related in a very affe&ing
manner, in a letter to Mr Pope : “ The earnelt defire
of meeting one I dearly loved, called me abruptly to
Montpelier; where, after continuing two months un¬
der the cruel torture of a fad and fruitlefs expe&ation,
I was forced at lafi; to take a long journey to Touloufe;
and even there I had miffed the perfon I fought, had
fhe not, with great fpirit and courage, ventured all"
night up the Garonne to fee me, which fhe above all
things defired to do before fhe died. By that means-i
fhe was brought where I was, between feven and eight
X beg to know what new light or arguments have prevailed with you now, to entertain an opinion fo contrary
to that which you entertained of that book all the former part of your life ?’—The bifhop replied, ‘ We have
not time to talk of thefe things; but take home the book; I will abide by it, and I recommend you to do fo =
too ; and fo God blefs you.”
Thefe anecdotes Mr Nichols has inferted in the “ Epiftolary Correfpondence,” Vol. II. p. 79. with the pro—
feffed view of vindicating Atterbury, in the following words of an ingenious correfpondent.
“ Dr Warton hath revived this ftory, which he juftly calls an ‘ uncommon’ one, in,his laft ‘ Effay on the
Genius and Writings of Pope.’ It was indeed very uncommon ; and I have my reafons for thinking it equally
groundlefs and invidious. Dr Warton, though he retails the ftory from ‘ Maty’s Memoirs,’ yet candidly ac¬
knowledges, that it ought not to be implicitly relied on. That this caution was not unneceffary, will, I appre¬
hend, be fufficiently obvious, from the following comparifon between the date of the ftory itfelf and Mr Pope’s
letters to the Bifhop.
“ According to Lord Chefterfield’s account, this remarkable piece of converfation took place but a few
days before the Bifhop went into exile : and it is infinuated that Mr Pope, till that period, had not even en¬
tertained the flighted fufpicion of his friend’s reverence for the bible : Nay, it is afferted, that the very re¬
commendation of it from a quarter fo unexpefted, daggered Mr Pope to fuch a degree, that in a mingled
vein of raillery and ferioufnefs, he was very eager to know the grounds and reafons of the Bifhop’s change of
fentiment.
“ Unfortunately for the credit of Lord Chefterfield and his ftory, there is a letter on record, that was
written nine months before this pretended dialogue took place, in which Mr Pope ferioufly acknowledged
the Bifhop’s piety and generofity, in interefting himfelf fo zealoufly and afte&ionately in matters which im¬
mediately related to his improvement in the knowledge of the holy fcriptures. The paffage I refer to is a very
remarkable one : and you will find it in a letter, dated July 27. 1722. It appears undeniably from this letter,
that the Bifhop had earneftly recommended to Mr Pope the fludy of the bible ; and had foftened his zeal with
an unufual urbanity and courtefy, in order to avoid the imputation of ill-breeding, and remove all occafion of
difguft from a mind fo ‘ trembling alive’ as Mr Pope’s. I will tranfcribe the paffage at large. ‘ I ought firft
to prepare my mind for a better knowledge even of good profane writers, efpecially the moralifts. See. be¬
fore I can be worthy of tailing the Supreme of books, and Sublime of all writings, in which, as in all the
intermediate ones, you may (if your friendfhip and charity towards me continue fo far) be the beft guide to.
Yours, A. Pope.’
“ The laft letter of Mr Pope to the Bifhop, previous to his going into exile, was written very early in
June 1723. It muft have been about this time that Pope paid his farewel vifit to the Bifhop in the Tower.
But whether fuch a converfation as that which hath been pretended aftually took place, may be left to
the determination of every man of common fenfe, after comparing Lord Chefterfield’s anecdote with Mr Pope’s
letter.
“ There muft have been a miftake, or a wilful mifreprefentation fomewhere. To determine its origin, or to
mark minutely the various degrees of its progrefs, till it iffued forth into calumny and falfehood, is impoffible.
1 have fimply ftated matters of faft as they are recorded ; and leave it to your readers to fettle other points not
quite fo obvious and indifputable, as they may think fit. My motives in this very plain relation arofe fi-om an ho-
neft wifli to remove unmeritecPobloquy from the dead. I fhould fincerely rejoice if the cloud which in other
tefpe&s ft ill fhades the charafter of this ingenious Prelate could be removed with equal facility and fuccefs. I
am, dear Sir, your faithful humble fervant, Samuel Babcock.”
ATT [ 635 ] ATT
Atterbury.In the morning, and lived 20 hours afterwards; which terred on the 12th of May following in Weflmlnifter Atterbary.
 time was not loft on either fide, but paffed in fuch a abbey, in a vault which in the year 1722 had been —
manner as gave great fatisfa&ion to both, and fuch as, prepared by his dire&ions. There is no memorial over
on her part, everyway became her circumftances and his grave: nor could there well® be any, unlefs his
chara&er: For Are had her fenfes to the very laft
gafp, and exerted them to give me, in thofe few
hours, greater marks of duty and love than (he had
done in all her lifetime, though Ihe had never been
wanting in either. The laft words fhe faid to me were
friends would have confented (which it is moft pro¬
bable they refnfed to do) that the words implying him
to have died bifhop of llochefter fhould have been o-
mitted on his tomb.
Some time before his death, he publifhed a vindica-
the kindeft of all; a refiedlion on the goodnefs of tion of himfelf, Bilhop Smalridge, and Dr Aldrich,
God, which had allowed us in this manner to meet
once more, before we parted for ever. Not many mi¬
nutes after that, fhe laid herfelf on her pillow, in a
fleeping pofture,
Placidaque ibi demum morte quievit.
Judge you, Sir, what I felt, and ftill feel on this occa-
iion, and fpare me the trouble of defcribing it. At
my age, under my infirmities, among utter ftrangers,
how fhall I find out proper reliefs and fupports ? 1 can
have none, but thofe with which reafon and religion
furnifh me; and thofe I laid hold on, and grafp as faft
as I can. I hope that he who'laid the burden upon
me (for wife and good purpofes no doubt) will enable
me to bear it in like manner as I have borne others,
with fome degree of fortitude and firmnefs.”
How far the Bifhop might have been attached in
his inclinations to the Stuart family, to which he
might be led by early prejudices of education, and
the divided opinions of the times, it is not neceffary
here to inquire : But that he ftiould have been weak
enough to engage m a plot fo inconfiftent with his fta-
from a charge brought againft them by Mr Oldmixon,
of having altered and interpolated the copy of Lord
Clarendon’s “ Hiftory of the Rebellion.” Bilhop
Atterbury’s “ Sermons” are extant in four volumes in
oftavo: thofe contained in the two firft were publifhed by
himfelf, and dedicated to his great patron Sir Jonathan
Trelawny bifhop of Winchefter ; thofe in the two laft.
were publifhed after his death by Dr Thomas Moore
his Lordfhip’s chaplain. Four admirable “ Vifitation
Charges” accompany his Epiftolary Correfpond-
ence.”
As to Bifhop Atterbury’s chara&er, however the
moral and political part of it may have been different¬
ly reprefented by the oppofite parties, it is univerfally
agreed, that he was a man of great learning and un¬
common abilities, a fine writer, and a moft excellent
preacher. His learned friend Smalridge, in the fpeech
he made when he prefented him to the Upper Houfo
of Convocation, as prolocutor, ftyles him Vir in
nullo literarum genere bofpes, in pierifque artibut et
Jiudiis diu et feliciter exercitatus, in viaxime pcrfettn
tion, and fo clumfily devifed (to fay the leaft of it, and liter arum difcliplinis per/eftifimur. In hiscontrovetfial
without entering into his folemn affeveration of inno¬
cence), is utterly inconfiftent with that cunning which
his enemies allowed him. The Duke’of Wharton, it
is well known, was violent againft him, till convinced
by his unanfwerable reafoning.
It has been faid that Atterbury’s wifhes reached to
the bifhopric of London, or even to York or Canter¬
bury. But thofe who were better acquainted with his
writings, he was fometimes too fevere upon his adver-
fary, and dealt rather too much in fatire and inventive :
but this his panegyrift imputes more to the natural
fervour of his wit than to any bitternefs of temper or
propenfe malice. In his fermons, however, he is not
only every way unexceptionable, but highly to be com¬
mended. The truth h, his talent as a preacher was
fo excellent and remarkable, that it may not impro-
views, knew that Winchefter would have been much perly be faid, that he owed his preferment to the pul-
more defirable to him than either of the others. And
there are thofe now living, who have been told from
refpe&able authority, that that bifhopric was offered
to him whenever it fhould become vacant (and till that
event fhould happen a penfion of L. 5000 a-year, be¬
pit; nor any hard matter to trace him, through his
writings, to his feveral promotions in the church. We
fhall conclude Bifhop Atterbury’s character, as a
preacher, with the encomium beftowed on him by the
author of “ the Taller;” who, having obferved that
fides an ample provifion for Mr Morice), if he would the Englifh clergy too much negleft the art of fpeak-
ceafe to give the oppofition he did to Sir Robert Wal¬
pole’s adminiftration, by his fpeeches and protefts in
the Houfe^of Lords. When that offer was rejected
by the Bifhop, then the contrivance for his ruin was
determined on.
ing, makes a particular exception with regard to our
prelate ; who, fays he, “ has fo particular a regard to
his congregation, that he commits to his memory what
he has to fay to them ; and has fo foft and grace¬
ful a behaviour, that it muft attradl your attention.
In his fpeech in the Houfe of Lords, the Bifhop His perfon (continues this author), it is to be confef-
mentions his being “ engaged in a correfpondence with fed, is no fmall recommendation; but he is to be high-
two learned men (Bifhop Potter and Dr Wall) on ly commended for not lofing that advantage, and add-
fettling the times of writing the four gofpels.” Part ing to propriety of fpeech (which might pafs the cri-
of this correfpondence is ftill in being, and will foon ticifm of Longinus) an adtion which would have been
be publifhed. The fame fubjedf the Bifhop purfued approved by Demofthenes. He has a peculiar force in
during his exile, having confulted the learned of all his way, and has many of his audience, who could
nations, and had nearly brought the whole to a con- not be intelligent^earers of his difeourfe were there
elufion when he died. Thefe laudable labours are an no explanation as well as grace in his a&ion. This
ample confutation of Bifhop Newton’s affertion, that art of his is ufed with the moft exadl and honeft fkill.
Atterbury “ wrote little whilft in exile but a few cri- He never attempts your, paffions, till he has convinced
ticifms on French authors.” your reafon. All the objections which you can form
His body was brought over to England, and in- are laid open and difperfed before lie ufes the leaft ve-
6 4 L 2 hemence
ATT [ 636 ] ATT
Atteflauon hemence in his fermon ; but when he thinks he has daughters; by marrying one of which, probably, Cra- Attica.
Attica your head, he very foon wins your heart, and never naus a wealty citizen afcended the throne. He en- —v——■*
» ^ ‘ ■ petends to fhow the beauty of holinefs, till he has joyed his crown peaceably for ten years; till, having s
convinced you of the truth of it.”—In his letters to married one of his daughters, named to Amphic-c^anaus•
Pope, &c. Bifhop Atterbury appears in a pleafing light, tyon the fon of Deucalion, he was by him dethroned, ^
both as a writer and as a man. In eafe and elegance and forced to lead a private life to the laft. From this Whence the
they are fuperior to thofe of Pope, which are more
ftudied. There are in them feveral beautiful references
to the claflics. The Bifhop excelled in his allulions to
facred as well as profane authors.
ATTESTATION, the a& of affirming, or wit-
neffing the truth of fomething, more efpecially in
writing.
ATTIC, any thing relating to Attica, or to the city
of Athens : thus Attic fait, in philology, is a delicate
poignant fort of wit and humour peculiar to the Athe¬
nian writers; Attic witnefs, a witnefs incapable of
corruption, See.
sIttic Order. See Architfcture.
Attic Bafs, a peculiar kind of bafe ufed by the
ancient archite&s in the Ionic order • and by Palladio,
and fome others, in the Doric.
Attic Story, in architeflure; a ftory in the upper
5 part of a houfe, where the windows are ufually fquare.
Boundaries ATTICA, an ancient kingdom of Greece, fituated
extent, &e. along the north coall of the gulf of Saron, bounded
daughter, the country, which before had been called country was
A flea, took the name of Attica. called At-
After a reign of 10 or 12 years, Amphiftyon was*'"’ 7
himfelf depofed by Eri&honius, faid to be the fon of Erldtho-
Vulcan and Tethys. Being lame of both his feet, he nlus.
is faid to have invented coaches, or, as others will have
it, inftituted horfe and chariot races in honour of Mi¬
nerva. He is alfo reported to have been the firft who g
{lamped filver coin. He reigned 50 years, and was Pandion. |
fucceeded by his fon Pandion the father of Progne and
Philomela; whofe hard fate, fp famous among the
poets, is fuppofed to have broke his heart, after a reign
of about 40 years. In his time Triptolemus taught
the Athenians agriculture, which he had learned from
Ceres. <7
Pandion was fucceeded by his fon Eredlheus, who Eredlheus. |
being reckoned the mod powerful prince of his time,
Boreas king of Thrace demanded his daughter Orithia
in marriage, and on being refufed carried her off by
force. After a reign of 50 years, Ere&heus being
on the well by Megara, mount Cithreron, and part of killed in a battle with the Elufians, was fucceeded by
Boeotia ; on the north by the gulph of Euripus, now
Stretto di negro ponte, and the reil of Boeotia ; and on
the eafl by the Europius. It extended in length from
north-well to fouth call about 60 miles; its breadth
from north to fouth was 56, decreafing as it approached
the fea.
The foil of this country was naturally barren and
craggy, though by the induftry of its inhabitants it
produced all the neceffaries of life. On this account
a Attica was lefs expofed to invafions than other more
Inhabiiants fertile countries; and hence it preferved its ancient in-
be°U!oducedhabitants beyond all the other kingdoms in its neigh-
from the bourhood ; fo that they were reputed to be the fpon-
fo;i. taneous produfkions of the foil; and as a badge of this,
Thucydides tells us, they wore golden grafshoppers in
their hair.
Cities. The chief cities in the kingdom of Attica were A-
thens the capital; next to it Eleufis, fituated on the
fame gulph, near the coafts of Megara; and next to
that Rhamnus, famed for the temple of Amphiaraus
and the ilatue of the goddefs Nemefis.
his fon Cecrops II. who is generally allowed to have ^'ecroFs
been the firll who gathered the people into towns;
they having till ten lived in houfes and cottages fcat-
tered here and there, without order or regular dillance.
After a reign of 40 years he was driven out by his bre¬
thren Metion and Pandorus, who forced him to fly in¬
to jEgialeaywhere he died. Ir J
Cecrops II. was fucceeded by his fon Pandion 11, pandion 11.]
and he was likewife driven out by Metion, who aflumed
the government. Pandion in the mean time fled into
Megara, where he married Pelia the daughter of Pylas
king of that place, and was appointed fucceffbr to the
kingdom. Here he had four fons, who returning to
Athens, whether with or without their father is uncer¬
tain, expelled the fons of Metion, and after the deceafe
of Pandion their father, divided the government among
themfelves; notwithftanding which, the royal dignity
did in effe£l remain with iEgeus the eldeft. ^
iEgeus, when he afcended the throne, finding him-
felf defpifed by his fubje&s becaufe he had no fons, and
fometimes infulted by his brother Pallas, who had no
Cecrops The firft king of this country, of whom we have any lefs than fifty, confulted the oracle of Apollo at Del-
the firll diftindl account, was Cecrops. Others indeed are faid phi. Receiving here, as was commonly the cafe, an
khig. t0 have reigned before him, particularly one A&reus, anfwer which could not be underllood without a com-
whofe daughter Cecrops married, and in her right laid mentator, he applied to Pittheus king of Troezen, fa-
the foundation of his new monarchy. Cecrops is faid mous for his {kill in expounding oracles. This prince
to have been the firft who deified Jupiter, fet up altars eafily prevailed with him to lie with his daughter iR-
and idols, and inftituted marriage among the Greeks, thra, who proved with child; and as none but thefe three
He is likewife affirmed to have taught his fubjedls navi- were privy to the fecret, iEgeus, before his return to
gation; and for the better adminitlration of juilice, and Athens, hid a fword and a pair of (hoes under a ilone,
promoting intercourfe among them, to have divided leaving orders with the princefs, that if the child pro-
them into the firft four tribes, called Cecropis, Autoch- ved a boy, Ihe fhould fend him to Athens with thefe
than, Aftea, and Paralia ; and he is alfo by fome faid tokens as foon as he was able to lift up that done. He
~ ’ ' charged her moreover to ufe all imaginable fecrecy, left
the fons of his brother Pallas ftiould way-lay and mur¬
der him. _
jEthra being delivered of a fon, Pittheus gave out rhefeus
that Neptune was the father of it. This child was born. |
j named
to be the founder of the Areopagus. From this mo¬
narch the Athenians affetled to call themfelves Cecro-
pidje till the reign of Ereftheus their ‘fixth king, after
whom they took the name of Eredhydne.
Cecrops dying after a reign of 50 years, left three
A T T [ 637 .] A T T .
and proved one of the moil famous them in one (hip, he gave the pilot two fails, the one
named Thefe
* heroes of antiquity. Being arrived at the age of 16.
his mother brought him to the (lone abovementioned
black to fail with, and the other white to be hoifted ^
up at his retun in cafe he came off victorious. Our
and he having lifted it with eafe, was defired to take hero had all the fuccefs he could wi(h: he killed the
up the fword and (hoes and prepare himfetf to go to
his father. He was advifed to go by fea rather than
by land, as, ever fince the departure of Hercules, the
roads had been exceedingly infelled by banditti. The-
feus, however, who had already begun to difcover
marks of uncommon ftrength and courage, no fooner
heard the name of Hercules mentioned, than he be¬
came defirous of imitating fo great a pattern ; and
after performing a number of glorious exploits, for
which fee the article Theseus, he arrived fafe at his
I4 father’s capital.
Is made The great atchievements of our young hero pro-
known to cured him a welcome reception at the court of iEgeus,
though his birth was unknown to all except Medea, to
whom the king had lately been married. This queen
jC>
his father.
Minotaur, prevailed with Minos to remit the tribute,
and his daughter Ariadne to run away with him ; but
her he left with child in the ifle of Naxos. Unfortu¬
nately, however, for .ZEgeus, the joy of Thefeus and Death ot
his company was fo great, that at their return they -ffigeus.
forgot to hoift the white flag in token of their viClory:
upon which the old king, taking for granted that his
fon was killed, threw himfelf into the fea, which ever
(ince has from him been called the JEgean fea. ^
Thefeus being thus left in poffeffion of the kingdom Thefeus
of Attica, began immediately to think of indulging his king of At-
warlike genius, and rendering the civil affairs of his tKa-
kingdom as little troublefome as poflible. To accom- ,3
plifh this purpofe, he began with gathering mod of the New-mo-
people of Attica into the old and new town, which he dels the go-
being a forcererefs, it is not to be fuppofed anything incorporated into one city. After this he diveftedvcrnrnenc’
could be concealed from her: (he therefore, by her dia¬
bolical penetration, quickly found out that Thefeus
was the king’s fon ; after which (he became fo jealous
of him on account of his valour, that (lie perfuaded her
old hulband to invite the young ftranger to a banquet,
and poifon him in a glafs of wine. Thepoifon was ac¬
cordingly prepared, and Thefeus invited ; but the
prince fuddenly drawing his fword, it was immediately
recognized by iEgeus to be the fame he had formerly
buried below the (tone. Upon this he ftepped forward
to Thefeus, throwing down the poifoned draught in
his way; and, embracing him with much tendernefs,
owned him for his fon before all the court.
At this time the king of Athens had great occafion
for fuch a champion as Thefeus. The fons of Pallas,
who had all along behaved with great infolence, upon
Thefeus being difcovered to be the king’s fon, and
heir apparent to the crown, broke out in open rebel-
15 lion. They were foon difcomfited ; but iEgeus and
He kill* the the whole country of Attica were dill in great diftrefs
Minotaur. on the following account. Some years before, Andro-
geus, the fon of M nos king of Crete, came to A-
thens to be prefent at one of their feafts. During this
vifit he contra&ed fuch an intimacy with the fifty fons
of Pallas, that VEgeus, fearing fome fatal confequen-
ces, caufed him to be privately murdered. Accord¬
ing to others, Androgens having undertaken to en¬
counter the Marathonian bull, was killed by it. Be
this as it will, Minos having received news of his fon’s afterwards married her. Soon after this, Thefeus con-
death, imputed it to the people of Attica; and there- tradled an intimacy with Perithous the fon of Ixion
himfelf of all his regal power, except the title of king,
the command of the army, and the guardianfhip of
the laws. The reft he committed to proper magiftrates
chofen out of three different orders of the people, whom
he divided into nobles, hulbandmen, and artificers.
The firll he invefted with the power of interpreting and
executing the laws, and regulating whatever related to
religion. The other two chofe their inferior magiftrates
from among themfelves, to take care of whatever rela¬
ted to their feparate orders : fo that the kingdom was
in fome meafure reduced to a commonwealth, in which
the king had the greateft poft, the nobles were next
to him in honour and authority, the huihandmen had
the greateft profit, and the artifts exceeded them in
number. He likewife aboliflied all their diftindf courts
of judicature, and built one common council-hall called
Prytaneutn, which (food for many ages afterwards.
Having thus new-modelled the government, his next
care was to join to his dominions the kingdom of Me-
gara, in right of his grandfather Pandion II. who had
married the daughter of Pylas, as abovementioned. On
this occafion he eredled the famous pillar in the ifthmus,
which (bowed the limits of the two countries that met
there. On the one fide of this pillar was infcribed,
“ This is not Peloponnefus, but Ionia and on the
other, “ This is Peloponnefus, not Ionia,’’ After this ip
he undertook an expedition againft the Amazons, Defeats the
whom he overcame, took their queen Hippolita, and Amazon-',
• - - - - - • ---■ - kills the
Centaurs,
- , , , and carries
fore, after feveral unfuccefsful attempts to revenge his and being invited to his nuptials, aflifted him in kill-off Helena.
ing a number of Centaurs, or rather Theffalian horfe-
men (who in their cups had offered violence to their
female guefts), and drove the reft out of the country.
Our two affociates then proceeded to Sparta, where
Thefeus fell in love with the famed Helena, at that
time not above nine years old, while he himfelf was
own quarrel, prayed to the gods to do it for him.
The Athenians, in confequence of this prayer, were vi-
filed with earthquakes, famine, and peftilence ; on ao
count of which they applied to the oracle. Here they
were informed, that no relief was to be had till they
were reconciled to the Cretan king. Minos refolving
to make them pay dear for their deliverance, impofed upwards of fifty. Her they carried off: and of the rape
upon them a tribute of feven young men and as many
virgins, whom he condemned to be devoured by the
Minotaur, a monfter feigned by the poets to have been
half man and half bull. This bloody tribute had been
twice paid, and Minos had already fent his meffengers
there are variotts accounts; but the following one, which
is given by Plutarch, is generally allowed to be the moft
authentic.
According to that hiftorian, they dole this beauty,
the greateft in the world at that time, out of the temple
the third time, when Thefeus willingly offered himfelf of Diana Ortia, where Helena happened to be dan-
to be one of the unhappy vi&ims; and embarking with cing. They were purfued as far as Tegea, but made
their
ATT [638] ATT
Attica, tlieir-efcape out of Peloponnefus; and thinking them- his lance. This viclory, though it did little honour to Attica,
feves now fecure of their prey, they agreed to caft lots him who gained it, was fo agreeable to the Athenians,
for her, upon condition that he to whofe lot flie fell that they depofed their cowardly king Thymaetes, af- ^
Ihould aflill the other in procuring fome celebrated ter he had reigned 8 years; and appointed MelanthusMelanthm.
beauty. Fortune having declared for Thefeus, he af- in his ftead, who after a reign of 37 years left the king- 26
filled his companion in the like attempt upon Prefer- dom to his fon Codrus. Cadrus the
pina daughter of Aidonius king of the Molloffi in This prince reigned about 21 years; during which,a(l.lcing
Epirus; who, being the next beauty to Helena, was time the Cores and Heraclidae had regained all 'himfelf(0*
guarded by the dog Cerberus, which had three heads, ponnefus, and were upon the point of entering into hi, Countr«
and was confequently a very formidable enemy. Her Attica. Codrus, being informed that the oracle had
father, however, underltanding that they deligned to promifed them victory provided they did not kill the
Ileal away his daughter, threw Perithous to be torn in king of the Athenians, came immediately to a refolu-
20 pieces by Cerberus, and put Thefeus in prifon, from tion of dying for his country. Difguifing himfelf,
by1 theThi w^ence *ie was afterwards relieved at the inlerceffion of therefore, like a peafant, he went into the enemy’s
of Epirus.**’ Hercules. camp, and, quarelling with fomc of the foldiers, was 1
After this misfortune, Thefeus at length returned to killed by them. On the morrow, the Athenians know-
Athens, but found himfelf very coolly received by his ing what was done, fent to demand the body of their
fubjeds. Mnellheus, the fon of Peteus, and great- king; at which the invaders were fo terrified, that they
grandfon of Ereftheus, had made nfe of the king's ab- decamped without llriking”a blow. ^ I
fence to ingratiate himfelf with the people; and, upon Upon the death of Codrus, a dilpute which happened Republican
the commencement of a war with Carter and Pollux, the among his fons concerning the fuccelfion, furnilhed the govern- |
two brothers of Helena, he perfuaded the people of Athenians with a pretence for ridding themfelves
Athens to open their gates to the two brothers. Up- their kings altogether, and changing the monarchical c
Driven cut on this, Thefeus was under the neceffity of conveying
U Athens. away himfelf and family with all poffible privacy. This
he luckily accomplilhed; and deligned to have failed to
Crete, to have obtained affiftance from Deucalion fon
of Minos, and now brother-in-law to Thefeus himfelf,
he having lately married Phaedra fifter to Deucalion.
Unfortunately, however, our hero was fliipwrecked on
-His dsath Scyros. Here he was at firft kindly re¬
form of government into a republican one. It was im¬
probable, they faid, that they Ihould ever have fo good
a king as Codrus; and to prevent their having a worfe,
they refolved to have no king but Jupiter. That they
might not, however, feem ungrateful to the family of
Codrus, they made his fon Medon their fupreme magi ■
Urate, with the title of archon. They afterwards ren¬
dered that office decennial, but continued it Hill in the
ceived by Lycomedes the king of that ifland; but was family of Codrus. The extin&ion of the Medontida;
foon after killed by a fall from a high rock, over which at laft left them without reftraint; upon which they not
fome fay he was pufhed by Lycomedes himfelf, who only made this office annual, but created nine archons.
had been prevailed upon to deftroy Thefeus in that By the latter invention they provided againlt the too
manner by Mneftheus, that he might with the more fe- great power of a (ingle perfon, as by the former they
^ curity enjoy the kingdom of Athens.
’Mneftheus, Mnefthens reigned 24 years, but loft his life at the
Demophon, fiege of Troy ; and was fucceeded by Demophon one
&c' of the fons of Thefeus by Phaedra, who was likewife at
the fiege of Troy, but had the good fortune to return
in fafety. In his reign was ere&ed the famous court
of the Ephetae; confifting originally of 50 Athenians
took away all apprehenfion of the archons having time
to eftabliffi themfelves, fo as to change the conftitution.
In a word, they now attained what they had long
fought, viz. the making the fupreme magiftrates de¬
pendent on the people.
We have a lift of thefe archons for upwards of 600
years, beginning with Creon, who lived about 684
and as many Argives, for trying of wilful murders. By years before Chrift, to Herodes, who lived only 60
this court the king himfelf afterwards fubmitted to be years before that time. The firft archon of whom we 2g
tried for having accidentally killed one of his fubjefts. hear any thing worth notice, is named Draco. He Draco !ej
’ '■ ’ ’ ’ " * reigned in the fecond, of,-as others fay, in the lail yearlatnr of i
of the 39th Olympiad, when, it is fuppofed, he publiih- thens.
ed his laws: but though his name is very frequently
mentioned in hiftory, yet no connedled account can be
found either of him or his inftitutions ; only, in gene¬
ral, his laws were exceedingly fevere, infliding death
for theTmalleft faults; which gave occafion to one De-
mades an orator to obferve, that the laws of Draco
written with blood and not with ink. For this
He reigned 33 years, and was fucceeded by his fon, ac¬
cording to fome, or according to others his brother,
Oxyntes, who reigned 12 years. Oxyntes was fuc-
ceededed by his (on Aphydas, who was murdered by
Thymnetes the baftard fon of Oxyntes.
Tliymites TH® king difeovered many bafe qualities unworthy
-depofed. of his dignity ; and at laft was depofed by his fubjeds
on the following occafion. Xanthus king of Bceotia
had a conteft with the Athenians about one of their
frontier towns. He offered to decide the matter by extraordinary feverity he gave no other reafon, than
that fmall faults feemed to him to be worthy of death,
and he could find no higher punilhment for the great-
eft. He was far advanced in years when he gave laws
to Athens; and to give his inllitutions the greater
weight, he would not fuffer them to be called nomoi,
or laws, but theft not, or fandions proceeding from more
than human wifdom. The extreme feverity of thefe
fingle combat with the king,; but this was declined by
Thymaetes. It happened, that at that time one Me-
lanthus a Mefienian, who had been driven out of his
country by the Heraclidae, was come to Athens; who
accepted the king of Bceotia’s challenge. ^At the firft
onfet, Melanthus alked his adverfary, why he had, con¬
trary to the articles, brought a fecond into the field with Lliat* * .... w......... ..-J
him? and as Xanthus immediately looked about to fee laws, however, foon made the Athenians weary both£Xpe|lt.)j
who was behind him., Melanthus run him thro’with of them and the author of them ; upon which Draco was the city.
obliged
ATT
obliged to retire to JEgina. Here he was received with
J the higheft honours: but the favour of the inhabitants
of this place proved more fatal to him than the hatred
of the Athenians; for coming one day into the theatre,
the audience, to (how their regard, threw, as the cuftom
[ 639 ]
ATT
During the time of this confufion, the Megarenfians Attica,
attacked Nifea, which they took, as well as Salami’s v—J
and fo completely routed the Athenians in every at- unfUcc|fs.
tempt to recover the latter, that a law was at laft paf-fu| War with
fed, by which it fhould be capital for any one to pro-Megari.
Wit) lenian
iylon’s
then was, their cloaks upon him ; and the multitude of pofe the recovery of Salamis. About the fame time
thefe being very great, they ftifled the old man, who  — ——*-   
was too weak to difengage himfelf from their load.
After the expullion of Draco, nothing remarkable
happened at Athens till the year before Chrift 606,
when we find the republic engaged in a war with the
Mitylenians about the city Sigseum, fituated near the
mouth of the river Scamander. The Athenian army
was commanded by Phrynon, a perfon equally remark¬
able for the comelinefs of his perfon and the generofity
of his mind. The Mitylenians were commanded by Pit-
tacus, one of the celebrated fages of Greece. As thefe
commanders looked upon the honour of their refpedtive
countries to be concerned, they exerted themfelves to
the utmofl. At laft they met in Angle combat: where¬
in Phrynon depended on his valour only; but Pittacus
concealed behind his fhield a net, wherewith he fud-
denly entangled his antagonift, and eafily flew him.
This, however, not putting an end to the war, Peri-
ander tyrant of Corinth interpofed ; and both parties
Having fubmitted to his arbitration, he decreed that
Sigseum fhould belong to the Athenians.
the city was dill urbed by reports of frightful appear¬
ances. and filled with fuperftitious fears; the oracle at
Delphi was therefore confulted, and an anfwer returned
that the city behoved to be expiated. Upon this, E-
pimenides the Pheftian was fent for from Crete, to
perform the neceffary ceremonies, he being reputed an
holy man, and one that was deeply fkilled in all the ^
myfteries of religion. His expiation confifted in ta- EpimerT
king fome black, and fome white fheep, turning them des’sexpia*
all loofe, and dire&ing fome perfons to follow them totio:' j”111
thofe places where they couched, and there to facrifice ProP eCi ’
them to the local deity. He caufed alfo many temples
and chapels to be erefted, two of which have been par¬
ticularly noted, viz. the chapel of Contumely and that
of Impudence. This man is faid to have looked will¬
fully on the port of Munychia for a long time, and then
to have fpoke as follows to thofe that were near him.
“ How blind is man to future things? for did the A-
thenians know what mifchief will one day be derived
to them from this place, they would eat it with their
teeth.This predi&ion was thought to be accom-
plifhed 270 years after, when Antipater conftrained
.. . About feven years after this war, a confpiracy r -   ,   
n pnacy. £orme(j Cylon fon-in-law to Theagenes tyrant of the Athenians to admit a Macedonian garrifon into
Megara, who, having by his affable behaviour procured that place,
many friends, formed a defign of feizing the fovereignty
of Athens. Having confulted the oracle as to the
moft proper time, he was direfted to make the attempt
when the citizens of Athens were employed in celebra¬
ting their higheft feaft to Jupiter. When many of the
citizens therefore were gone to the Olympic games,
Cylon and his affocians made themfelves mafters of the
citadel. Here they were inftantly befieged by Mega-
cles at that time archon, and foon reduced to great
Jdiftrefs fot want of water. The chief, together with
his brother, found means to make their efcape, but the
meaner fort were left to fhift for themfelves. In this
extremity they fled to the temple of Minerva- ; from
whence Megacles with much ado prevailed upon them
to come down and fubmit themfelves to the mercy of
their country. Having at laft affented to this, they
tied a cord to the image of the goddefs, and carried
the clue with them, to demonftrate, that though they
were out-of the temple they were ftill under Minerva’s
proteflion. Unfortunately, for them, however, as they
paHed the temple of the furies, the line fnapt of itfelf;
ft by Me- which Megacles conftruing into a renunciation by the
ties. goddefs, caufed his men fall upon them and difpatch as
many as they could find. Such as were without the
temple were immediately maflacred, and thofe who fled
thither again were murdered in their fanftuary. In fhort,
B none efcaped but fuch as bribed the wives of the offi¬
cers of juftice. This carnage, however, did not put an
end to the fedition. The remains of Cylon’s fadlion
created great difturbances, by infinuating that tire vio¬
lation of Minerva’s fanftuary had drawn down the an-
| 34 ger of the gods; and thefe difcourfes had fuch an effefl,
wledT*6* t'^at Megacles and his officers were ftyled execrablet and
Xpeoplc. ^Id to be perfons under the difpleafure of heaven.
About 597 years before Chrift, Solon the famed Solon the
Athenian legiflator began to fhow himfelf to his coun- wifelegif-
trymen. He is faid to have been lineally defcended lator*
from Codrus; but left by his father in circumftances
rather neceffitous, which obliged him to apply to mer¬
chandize : it is plain, however, both from his words
and writings, that he was a difmterefted patriot. The
fhameful decree, that none under pain of death Ihould
propofe the recovery of Salamis, grieved him fo much,
that having compofed an elegy, of 100 verfes, fuch as he
thought would be moft proper to inflame the minds of
the people, he ran into the market-place as if he had
been mad, with his night-cap on his head,' repeating
his elegy. A crowd being gathered round the pre- „
tended madman, his kiufman Filiftratus mingled among sa'arnjs re¬
tire reft, and obferving the people moved with Solon’s covered by¬
words, he alfo feconded him with all the eloquence he his meant,
was mafter of; and between them they prevailed fo far
as to have the law repealed, and a war was immediately
Commenced againft the people of Megara. Who was
commander in this expedition is not certain ; but the
city was recovered, according to the moft general
account, by the following ftratagem. Solon coming
with Pififtratus to Colias, and finding there the women
bufy in celebrating, according to cuftom, the feaft of
Ceres, fent a confident of his to Salamis, who pretend¬
ed to be no friend to the people of Attica, telling the
inhabitants of Salamis, that if they had a mind to
feize the faireft of the Athenian ladies, they might now
do it by pafiing over to Colias. The Megarenfians
giving eafy credit to what the man faid, immediately-
fitted out a fhip; which Solon perceiving from the op-
pofite fhore, difmifled the women, and having dreffed -
a number of bcardlefs youths in female habits, under
which •.
wife re¬
duced by
Solon’swif-
Athensin
great con-
fuflon.
ATT [ 640
which they concealed every one a dagger, he fent them
to the fea-iide to dance and divert themfelves as the
women were wont to do. When thofe who came from
Salamis faw thefe young perfons fkipping up and down,
they ftrove who fhonM be firit on (hore; but were every
one of them killed, and their veflelfeized; aboard which
the Athenians embarking, failed immediately to Sa¬
lamis and took it.
On the retun of Solon to Athens, he' was greatly
honoured by the people, to whom another occafion of
admiring his vviidom was quickly afforded. The in¬
habitants of Cirrha, a town fmated in the bay of Co-
inth, after having by repeated incurfions walled the
] ATT
Though this decifion reftored the public quiet for the Attica.
prefent, it-was not long before the people were divided 1 v—1
into three fadlions, contending about the proper form 4i
of government. Thefe were called the Diacrii, Pediai, fac*
and Parali: the firfl of fhefe were the inhabitants of up”8 art
the hilly country, who declared pofitively for demo¬
cracy ; the fecond, dwelling in the lower parts, and
wdio were far more opulent than the former, declared
for an oligarchy, as fuppofing the gpvernment would
f.m {n(:o their hands; the third party, who lived
on the fea-coaft, were people of moderate principles,
and therefore were for a mixed government. Beiides
the difturbances raifed on this account, others were o
territory of Delphic, at lad befieged the capital itfelf, cafioned by the rich opprefling the poor. According
ith a view of making themfelves mailers of the trea- to Plutarch, the poor being indebted to the rich, either
fares contained in the temple of Apollo. Advice of tilled their grounds and paid them the fixth part of the
this intended facrilege being fent to the Amphidlyons,
who were the flates-general of Greece, Solon advifed
that the matter fhould be univerfally refented, and that
all the dates fhouH join in punilhing the Cirrharans,
and faving the Delphic oracle. This advice was com¬
plied with, and a general war againd Cirrha declared.
Clydhenes, tyrant of Sicyon, commanded in chief, and
Alcmxon was general of the Athenian quota. Solon
went as aflidant or counfellor to Clydhenes, and by
following his advice the war was condufted to a pro-
fperous iffue. For when the Greek army had befieged
Cirrha for fome time without any appearance of fuc-
cefs, the oracle at Delphi was confulted, from whence
the following anfwer was returned:
“ In vain you hope to take the place before
“ The fea’s blue waves roll o’er the hallowed fhore,”
This anfwer {truck the whole army with furprife, till
Solon advifed Clydhenes to confecrate folemnly the
■whole territory of Cirrha to the Delphic Apollo; fo
as that was a maritime country, the fea mud then wafh
the facred coad. According to Paufanias, the city
was reduced by the following dratagem, like wife in¬
vented by Solon. He caufed the river Plidus, which
run through Cirrha, to be turned into another channel,
hoping thereby to have didrefled the inhabitants for
want of water : but finding they had many wells with¬
in the city, and were not to be reduced by that means,
he caufed a vail quantity of roots of hellebore to be
thrown into the river, which was then fuffered to re¬
turn into its former bed. The inhabitants, overjoyed at
the fight of running water, came in troops to drink of
it; whereupon an epidemic flux enfued, and the citi¬
zens being no longer able to defend the walls, the town
was eafily taken.
On the return of Solon to Athens he found things
again in the utmofl confufion. The remnant of Cy-
produce, or engaged their bodies for their debts, fo
that many were made (laves at home, and many fold
into other countries; nay, fome were obliged to fell
their children to pay their debts, and others in defpair
quitted Attica altogether. The greateft part, how¬
ever, were for throwing off the yoke, and began to
look about for a leader, openly declaring that they in¬
tended to change the form of government, and make
a repartition of lands. In this extremity, the eyes of
all the citizens were caft upon Solon. The moft pru¬
dent were for offering him the fovereignty; but he per¬
ceiving their intentions, behaved in fuch a manner as
to cheat both parties, and {hewed a fpirit of patriotifm
perhaps never equalled. He refufed the fovereignty
as far as it might have benefited himfelf; and yet took
upon himfelf all the care and trouble of a prince, for
the fake of his people.
He was chofen archon without having recourfe to Solon cho-.
lots, and after his ele&ion difapppinted the hopes of*®11 afcfion»i
both parties. It was Solon’s fundamental maxim, That
thofe laws will be bed obferved which power and ju-
(lice equally fupport. Wherever, therefore, he found
the old conftitution confonant to juftice in any tole¬
rable degree, he refufed to make any alteration at all,
and was at extraordinary pains to (how the reafon of
the changes he did make. In (hort, being a perfedl
judge of human nature, he fought to rule only by
(bowing his fubje&s that it was their intereft to obey,
and not by forcing upon them what he himfelf efteemed
bed. Therefore, to a perfon who a(ked whether he
had given the Athenians the bed laws in his power,
he replied, “ I have edablidied the bed they could re¬
ceive.”
As to the main caufe of fedition, viz. the oppreffed Settles all
date of the meaner fort, Solon removed it by a contri-<h-r°;ders.
vance which he called fifachthia, i. e. difeharge; but
what this was, authors are not agreed upon. Some
Ion’s faftion gave out, that all forts of misfortunes had fay that he releafed all debts then in being, and prohi-
Megacles’
party ba-
mfticd.
befallen the republic on account of the impiety of Me¬
gacles and his followers; which clamour was heighten¬
ed by the retaking of Salamis about this time by the
Megarenfians. Solon interpofed, and perfuaded thofe
who were dyled extcrable to abide a trial, and 300 per-
i fons were chofen to judge them. The event was, that
300 of Megacles’s party who were alive were fent in¬
to perpetual banidiment, and the bones of fuch as were
dead were dug up and fent without the limits of their
country.
N° 36.
bited the taking any man’s perfon for payment of a
debt for the future. According to others, the poor
were eafed, not by cancelling the debts, but by lower¬
ing the interdl, and increafing the value of money ; a
mina, which before was made equal to 73 drachms
only, being by him made equal to ico ; which was of
great advantage to the debtor, and did the creditor no
hurt. It is, however, moft probable that the fifach¬
thia was a general remittance of all debts whatever, o-
therwife Solon could not have boafted in his verfes that
he
ATT [ 641
Attica, he l\ad removed fo many marks of mortgages ( b ) as
l" ' 'v   were every where frequent; that he had freed from
45 apprehenfion fuch as were driven to defpair, &c.
Infamous But in the midft of all Solon’s glory, an accident tion of the ifland Atlantis, of which he wrote an ac-
A T T
Egypt, where he converfed with Pfenophis the Pie- Attica
liopolitan, and Sonchis the Saite, the moft learned '
priefts of that age. From thefe he learned the fitua-
behavnur befei which for a time hurt his reputation, and
friends tee ^ aim oft entirely ruined his fchemes. He had con-
fulted Conon, Clinias, and Hipponicus, his three
friends, on an oration prepared with a view to engage
the people’s confent to the difcharge; and thefe three
men, thus knowing there was to be a general difcharge
of debts, bafely took the opportunity of borrowing
vaft fums before the law was promulgated, in confe-
quence of which they were never obliged to return
them.
This was thought at firft to have been done with
Solon’s confent, and that he had (hared in the money;
but this afperfion was quickly wiped off when it ap-
count in verfe, which Plato afterwards continued*. * See At-
From Egypt he went to Cyprus, where he was
tremely well received by one of the petty kings. This
prince lived in a city called Apeia, built by Demo-
phon the fon of Thefeus, on an eminence near the ri¬
ver Clarius, but in a foil craggy and barren. Solon ob-
ferving a very pleafant plain below, engaged the king to
remove thither; aflifted in executing the fcheme he had
formed ; and fncceeded fo well, that a new city was
formed, which foon became populous, and out of gra¬
titude to the Athenian legiflator was called Solos- ^
But while Solon was thus travelling in queft of wif-Things fa'i
dom, and with a view to benefit thofe among whom heint<» d‘for'-
 i-  .  , r . , in hi.
peared that the lawgiver himfelf was a very confiderable came, his countrymen, who feem to have refolved on
46
E laws.
lofer by his own law. His friends, however, could
never recover their credit, but were ever afterwards
ftigmatized with the opprobrious appellation of ebreo-
CopicLe, or debt Jinkers.
Solon bla- Athenians were as little pleafed with Solon’s
med at firft, management as with their former condition; the rich
after- thinking he had done too much in cancelling the mo-
wards ap- ngy.jghts due to them, and the poor that he had done
chofen le n t0° becaufe he had not divided the lands of At-
giflator. tica equally. In a (hort time, however, they acquief-
ced in the new inftitutions, and gave a more public
token of their repentance than they had before (hown
of their difpleafure, inftituting a folemn facrifice under
the name of Sifafikia, at the fame time that Solon was
unanimoufly elefted legillator of Athens, with full
power to make laws, and alter or new model the con-
ftitution as he thought fit.
Compiles a Solon being now invefted with unlimited authority,
>dy fet about the arduous talk of compiling new laws for
the turbulent people of Attica; which having at laft
completed in the bed manner he was able, or in the beft
manner the nature of the people would admit, he pro¬
cured them to be ratified for 100 years, Such as re-
Ilated to private aftions were preferved on parallelo¬
grams of wood, with cafes which reached from the
ground, and turned about upon a pin like a wheel.
Thefe were thence called Axones; and were placed firft
in the citadel, and afterwards in the prytaneum, that
all the fubje&s might have accefs to them when they
pleafed. Such as concerned public inftitutions and fa-
criiices were contained in triangular tables of (tone
called cyrbes. The Athenian magiftrates were fworn
to obferve both ; and in procefs of time thefe monu¬
ments of Solon’s wifdom became fo famous, that all
public a&s were from them named Axones and Cyr-
les.
( tie goes a- After the promulgation of the laws, Solon found
himfelf obliged to leave Athens, to prevent his being
cn) ear . contjnually teazed for explanations and alterations of
them. He therefore pretended an inclination to mer¬
chandize, and obtained leave to abfent himfelf for 10
years, during which time he hoped the laws would be
grown familiar. From Athens Solon travelled into
Von. II. Part. II.
48
being diffatisfied at all events, had again divided them-a en°"'
felves into three fa&ions. Lycurgus put himfelf at
the head of the country people ; Megacles the fon of
Alcmaeon was at the head of thofe who lived on the
fea-coaft; and Pififtratus put himfelf at the head of
the poorer fort, to prote& them, as he pretended, from
tyranny, but in reality to feize on the fovereignty for
himfelf. All the faftions pretended to have a vaft re¬
gard for Solon and his laws, at the fame time that they
were very defirous of a change ; but how they were to
be bettered, none of them knew, or pretended to
know. jo
In the midft of this confufion the Jegiflator returned. He returns
Each of the faftions paid their court to him, and af-butrefufe*
fe&ed to receive him with the deepeft reverence and re-to refnme*
fpeft; befeeching him to reafiume his authority, and his office,
compofe the diforders which they themfelves kept up.
This Solon declined on account of his age, which, he
faid, rendered him unable to fpeak and aft for the good
of his country as formerly: however, he fent for the
chiefs of each party, befeeching them in the moft pa¬
thetic manner not to ruin their common parent, but
to prefer the public good to their Own private inte-
reft.
Pififtratus, who of all the three had perhaps the lead
intention to follow Solon’s advice, feemed to be the
moft affefted with his difeourfes; but as Solon percei¬
ved he affefted popularity by all poffible methods, he
eafily penetrated into his defigns of affuming the fo-
vereign power. This he fpoke of to Pififtratus him¬
felf, at firft privately ; but as he faw that his admoni¬
tions in this way had no effect, he then faid the fame
things to others, that the public might be on their
guard againft him.
All the wife difeourfes of Solon, however, were loft Pifift|a>l,3
upon the Athenians. Pififtratus had got the meaner r,ie
fort entirely at his devotion, and therefore refolved to^verei£n'
cheat them out of the liberty which they certainly de-
ferved to lofe. With this view he wounded hiinfelf,
and, as Herodotus fays, the mules that drew his cha¬
riot; then he drove into the market-place,’ and there
(bowed his bleeding body, imploring the proteftion of
the people from thofe whom his kindnefs to them had
4 M ren-
(b) The Athenians had a cuftom of hanging up billets to (how that houfes were engaged for fuch and fuch
fums of money.
ATT [ 642 ] ATT
rendered his implacable enemies. A concourfe of peo curgus to turn out Pififtratus, fo they now entered into Attica.'
pie being inftandy formed, Solon came among the reft, a treaty with Pififtratus to reinftate him in his princi- ' v—
and fufpedting the deceit, openly taxed Pififtratus with pality, as foon as they found Lycurgus would not be who foonl
his perfidious conduft; but to no purpofe. A general implicitly governed by them. To accomplifh this, they after rein-j
aiTembly of the people was called, wherein it was mo- fell upon a very ridiculous projeft ; which, however, ftates him*^
ved by one Arifton, that Pififtratus fhould have a guard, was attended with the defired fuccefs. They found out
Solon was the only perfon prefent who had refolution a woman whofe name was Phya, of a mean family and
enough to oppofe this meafure; the richer Athenians, fortune, but of a great ftature, and very handfome.,
perceiving that the multitude implicitly followed Pi- Her they dreffed in armour, placed her in a chariotj,
fiftratus, and applauded every thing he faid, remaining and having difpofed things fo as to fnake her appear
filent through fear. Solon himfelf, when he faw he with all pollible advantage, they conduced her towards
could prevail nothing, left the aflembly, faying he was the city, fending heralds before, with orders to fpeak
nvifer than fome, and Jlouter than others. A guard of to the people in the following terms Give a kind
400 men was now unanimoufly decreed to Pififtratus, reception, O Athenians, to Pififtratus, who is fo much
i we are told by Solon himfelf. This inconfiderable honoured by Minerva above all . other men, that the
body he made ufe of to enflave the people, but in what herfelf condefcends to bring him back to the citadel.”
manner he accomplifhed his purpofe is not agreed.
Certain it is, that with his guard he feized the citadel;
The report being univerfally fpread that Minerva was
bringing home Pififtratus, - and the ignorant multitude
but Polysenus hath given an account of a very fingular believing this woman to be the goddefs, addrefled their
method which he took to put it out of the power of the prayers to her, and received Pififtratus with the utmoft
Athenians to defend themfelves even againft fuch a joy. When he had recovered the fovereignty, Pifi-
fnaall number. He fummoned an affembly to be held ftratus married the daughter of Megacles as he had
at the Anacium, and direfted that the people fhould promifed, and gave the pretended goddefs to his fon
come thither armed. They accordingly came; and Hipparchus.
Pififtratus harangfied them, but in a voice fo low that
they could not tell what he faid. The people
Pififtratus did not long enjoy the kingdom to which Driven 0
he had been jteftored in fo ftrange a manner. He had a fecond
plaining of this, Pififtratus told them that they were married the daughter of Megacles, as already obferved;11
hindered from hearing him by the clangour of their but having children by a former wife, and remembering
arms ; but if they would lay them down in the por- that the whole family of Megacles was reprobated by
tico, he would then be heard diftindtly. This they the Athenians, he thought proper to let his new fpoufe
did ; and while they liftened very attentively to a long remain in a ftate of perpetual widowhood. This (he
and eloquent oration, Pififtratus’s guard conveyed patiently bore for fome time, but at laft acquainted
away their arms, fo that they found themfelves depri- her mother. An affront fo grievous could not fail to
Solon leaves ved power of refiftance. During the confufion be highly refented. Megacles inftantly entered into a
Athens. which followed this event, another afiembly was held, treaty with the malcontents, of whom there were al-
wherein Solon enveighed bitterly againft the mean- ways great plenty at Athens whatever was the form of '
nefs of his countrymen, inviting them to take up government. This Pififtratus being apprized of, and
arms in defence of their liberty. When he faw that perceiving a new ftorm gathering, he voluntarily quit¬
nothing would do, he laid down his own arms, faying, ted Athens, and retired to Eretria. Here having con-
that he had done his utmoft for his country and his fulted with his fons, it was refolved to reduce Athens
laws. According to Plutarch, he refufed to quit the by force. With this view he applied to feveral of the
city; but the moil probable opinion is, that he imme¬
diately retired from the dominion of Athens, and re-
Greek ftates, who furnifhed him with the troops he de¬
fired, but the Thebans exceeded all the reft in their
fufed to return, even at the folicitation of Pififtratus liberality; and with this army he returned to Attica, Cut^
himfelf.
according to Herodotus, in the 1 xth year of his banifti- w;rh ar
Pififtratus, having thus obtained the fovereignty, did ment. They firft reduced Marathon, the inhabitants army,
not overturn the laws of Solon, but ufed his power of which had taken no meafures for their defence, tho’
with the greateft moderation. It is not to be expe£t- they knew that Pififtratus was preparing to attack them,
ed, however, that fo turbulent a people as the Athe- The republican forces in the mean time marched out
nians could be fatisfied by any method of government of Athens to attack him; but behaving in a fecure and
i_ u 1— j  ^ beg;nn;ng 0f b;s admini- carelefs manner, they were furprifed by Pififtratus, and
he could lay down.
ft ration, Megacles and his family retired out of Atherts totally routed. While they were endeavouring to make
to fave their own lives, yet without defpairing of being
able fome time or other to return. With this view
Megacles and his afibciates entered into a treaty with
by Mega-
their efcape, he caufed his two fons ride before him
with all fpeed, and tell thofe they came up with that
nobody had any thing to fear, but that they might
Lycurgus; and having brought him and his party into every tsne return to his own home. This ftratagem „
a fcheme for depofing Pififtratus, they concerted mat- fo effeftually difperfed the republican army, that it jye takei.
„ . rvm j-oon 0bliged to feek was impoffible to rally them, and Pififtratus became apoffeffion
third time abfolute mafter of Attica. the city.
Pififtratus being once more in pofltsffion of the fove-
. ters fo well, that Pififtratus
for fhelter fomewhere elfe; and, on his departure, the
Athenians ordered his goods to be fold. Nobody,
however, except one perfon (Callias), would venture to reignty, took a method of eftabliftiing himfelf on the
buy any of them, from an apprehenfion, no doubt, throne direftly oppofite to what Thefeus had done. Hisfubj;
that they would foon be reftored to their proper owner, Inftead of collecting the inhabitants from the country Ihildifcoi
which accordingly happened in a very ftiort time.
into cities,
As Megacles and his party had negpeiated with Ly- cities. into the country,
order to apply them- ing hkm(
felves deration.
ATT [ 643 1 ATT
Attica, felves to agriculture. This prevented their meet-
y—jng together, and caballing againft him in fuch bo¬
dies as they had been accuftomed to do, By this
means alfo the territory of Athens was greatly melio¬
rated, and great plantations of olives were made over
all Attica, which had before not only been deftitute
of corn, but alfo bare of trees. He alfo commanded,
that, in the city, men fliould wear a kind of fheep-lkin
veft, reaching to the knees ; but fo intolerable were
the laws of Pififtratus to his fubje&s, that this kind
of garment in fucceeding times became proverbially the
habit of flavery.
As prince of Athens, Pififtratus received the tenth
part of every man’s revenues, and even ' of the fruits
of the earth ; and this alfo, though for the fervice of
the ftate, feemed to the Athenians a mott grievous
burden. In fhort, though Pififtratus behaved in all
refpe&s as a moft excellent prince, his fubjeAs fan¬
cied themfelves opprefted by tyranny, and were per¬
petually ^grumbling from the time he firft afcehded
the throne to the day of his death, which happened
about 33 years after he had firft affumed the fove-
reignty, of which lime, according to Ariftotle, he
I 60 reigned 17 years.
I Hipparchus Pififtratus left behind him two fons named Hippar-
and Hip- chus and Hippias, both men of great abilities, who
Vnt' fhared the government between them, and behaved with
lenity and moderation. But though by the mildnefs of
their government the family of the Piiiftratidse feemed
to be fully eftablifhed on the throne of Athens, a con-
fpiracy was unexpectedly formed againft both the bro¬
thers, by which Hipparchus was taken off, and Hip¬
pias narrowly efcaped. The moft material fa&s rela-
6r ting to this confpiracy are what follow.
Confpiracy There were at that time in Athens two young men
IdLs^af d'A- ca^e^ Harniodius and Arijiogiton ; the former of thefe
'was exquifitely beautiful in his perfon, and on that
r account, according to the infamous cuftom of the
Greeks, violently beloved of the other. This Harmo-
dius was alfo beloved of Hipparchus; who, if we may
believe Thucydides, forced him. This was grievoufly
refented, and revenge determined on ; to haften which,
another accident concurred. Hipparchus,finding that
Harmodius endeavoured to avoid him, publicly af¬
fronted him, by not fuffering his lifter to carry the of¬
fering of Minerva, as if fhe was a perfon unworthy of
that office. The two young men, not daring to fhow
any public figns of refentment, confulted privately
with their friends; among whom it was refolved, that
at the approaching feftival of Panathenasa, when the
citizens were allowed to appear in arms, they fhould
attempt to reftore Athens to its former liberty. In
this they imagined that they fliould find themfelves fe-
conded by the whole body of the people. But when
the day appointed was come, they perceived one of
their number talking very1 familiarly with Hippias; and
fipparchuafearing that they were difcovered, they immediately
ilkd. fell upon Hipparchus, and difpatched him with a mul¬
titude of wounds. In this exploit the people were fo
far from feconding them, as they expefted, that they
fuffered Harmodius to be killed by Hipparchus’s
guards, and feizing Ariftogiton themfelves, delivered
him up to Hippias. Some time afterwards, however,
the refpeft they paid to thefe two young men exceeded
all bounds. They caufed their praifes to be fung at the
Panathensa, forbid any citizen to call a Have by either Attics,
of their names, and ereAed brazen ftatues to them in ^ J
the forum ; which ftatues were afterwards carried into C(jnfp{_
Perfia by Xerxes, and fent back from thence by A-mors ex-
lexander the Great, Antiochus, or Seleucus, for au-♦•'avagantly
thors are not agreed by which. Several immunities h°noure<h
and privileges were alfo granted to the defcendants of
thefe two patriots, and all poffible means were taken
to render their memory venerable and refpe&ed by po-
fterity. _ D4
Hippias being now foie mafter of Athens, and pro- Cruelty of
bably exafperated by the murder of his brother, be- Hippias.
gan to alter his conduA greatly, and treat his fubjeAs
in an opprelfive and cruel manner. He began with
torturing Ariftogiton, in order to make him confefs
his accomplices : but this proved fatal to his own
friends : for Ariftogiton impeaching fuch as he knew
to be beft affeAed to Hippias, they were immediately
put to death ; and when he had deftroyed all thofe he
knew, at laft told Plippias, that now he knew of none
that deferved to fuffer death except the tyrant himfelf.
Hippias next vented his rage on a woman named Le-
ana, who was kept by Ariftogiton. She endured the
torture as long as fhe could ; but finding herfelf unable
to bear it any longer, (he at laft bit off her tongue, that
flie might not have it in her power to make any difco-
very. To her the Athenians ereAed the ftatue of a
lionefs, alluding to her name, without a tongue, on
which was engraved a fuitable infcription.
After the confpiracy was, as Hippias thought, tho¬
roughly quafhed, he fet himfelf about ftrengthening his
government by all the means he could think of. He
contraAed leagues with foreign princes, increafed his
revenues by various methods, &c. But thefe precau¬
tions were of little avail: the lenity of Pififtratus’s
government had alone fupported it; and Hippias
purfuing contrary methods, was' deprived of the fo-
vereignty in lefs than four years after the death of his
brother.
This revolution was likewife owing to the family ofHe Is driven
Megacles, who were ftyled Alcmaor.ida, and had fet- out of a-
tled at Lipfydrum.' In times of difcontent, which at thens>
Athens were very frequent, this family was the com¬
mon refuge of all who fled from that city; and at laft
they thought of a method of expelling the Pififtratidte
altogether. The method they took to accomplifh
their purpofe was as follows. They agreed with the
AmphiAyons to rebuild the teVple at Delphi; and
being pofleffed of immenfe riches, they performed their
engagement in a much more magnificent manner than
they were bound to do; for having agreed only to
build the front of common ftone, they built it of Parian
marble. At the fame time they corrupted the pro-
phetefs Pythia, engaging her to exhort all the Lace-
daemonians that came to confult the oracle either in
behalf of the ftate, or their own private affairs, to at¬
tempt the delivery of Athens. This had the defired ef-
feA : the Lacedemonians, furprifed at hearing this ad¬
monition inceffantly repeated, at laft refolved to obey
the divine command, as they imagined it to be; and
fent Anchimolius, a man of great quality, at the head
of an army into Attica, though they were at that time
in league with Hippias, and accounted by him his
good friends and allies. Hippias demanding affiftance
from the Theflalians, they readily fent him 1 oco horfe,
4 M 2 under
ATT
[ 644 1
ATT
under the command of one of their princes named Ci-
neas. The Lacedemonians being landed, Hippias fell
upon them fo fuddenly, that he defeated them with
great flaughter, killed their general, and forced the
{battered remains of their army to fly to their {hips.
The Spartans, incenfed at this unfortunate expedition,
determined to fend another army into Attica ; which
they accordingly did foon after under their king Cleo-
menes : and he having, at his entrance into the Athe¬
nian teritories, defeated the Thelfalian horfe, obliged
Hippias to lhut himfelf up in the city of Athens, which
he was foon after forced to abandon altogether. He
was, however, in no want of a place of refuge ; the
The{falian princes inviting him into their country,
and the king of Macedon offering his family a city
and territory, if they chofe to retire into his domi-
tians, contenting themfelves with oppofing the army Ai
commanded by Cleomenes in perfon. But this pow-
erful confederacy was quickly diflblved : the Corin¬
thians, who were allied with Cleomenes, doubting the
juftice of their caufe, returned home ; his other allies,
likewife beginning to waver, and his colleague Arifton,
the other king of Sparta, differing in fentiments, Cleo¬
menes was obliged to abandon the enterprife. The
Spartans and their allies being withdrawn, the Athe¬
nians took a fevere revenge of the Boeotians and Chal- Boe0'tI01,
cidians, totally touting their forces, and carrying off and Chalci-
a great number of prifoners. The prifoners taken in d*305 d
this war were put in irons, but afterwards fet at liber-^;ateci•
ty on paying a ranfom of two minas per head. Their
fetters were, however, hung up in the citadel; and
the Athenians confecrating the tenth of what they
nions. But Hippias chofe rather to go to the city of had received for ranfon, purchafed a flatue, reprefent-
Ard retires Sigeum, which Pififtratus had conquered, and left to
to Sigeum. his own family.
After the expulfion of the PififlratidEe, the Atheni¬
ans did not long enjoy the quiet they had propofed to
themfelves. They were quickly divided into two fac¬
ing a chariot and four horfes, which they fet up in the
portico of the citadel, with a triumphant infcription in
token of their victory.
Thefe indignities roufing the Boeotians, they im¬
mediately vowed^revenge, and engaged on their fide
tionsat the head of one was Clyfthenes, one of the the people of iEgina, who had an hereditary hatred
chief of the Alcmaeonidse ; and of the other, Ifagoras, at the Athenians; and while the latter bent all their
a man of great quality, and highly in favour with the attention to the Boeotian war, the ALgicetans landing
Athenian nobility. Clyfthenes applied himfelf to the
people, and endeavoured to gain their affedtion by in-
creafing their power as much as pofiible. Ifagoras per¬
ceiving that by this means his rival would get the bet¬
ter, applied to the Lacedemonians for affiftance, re¬
viving at the fame time the old flory of Megacles’s fa-
crilege, and infifting that Clyfthenes ought to be ba-
nifhed as being of the family of Megacles. Cleomenes
confidtrable army, ravaged the coafts of Attica. _
But while the Athenians were thus employed againil Anempt 0
the Boeotians and iEginetans, a jealoufy fprung up on the Spar-
the part of Lacedaemon, which was never afterwards V1”8 t°re"
eradicated. Cleomenes, after his unfuccefsful expedi-'I>’
tion againfl Attica, produced at Sparta certain oracles1
which he faid he had found in the citadel of Athens
while he was befieged therein ; the purport of thefe
The Spar- king of Sparta readily came into his meafures, and fud- oracles was, that Athens would in time become a rival
tansfiippoitdenly difpatched an herald to Athens with a dcclara- to Sparta. At the fame time it was difcovered, that
Ifagoras. tion of war in cafe all the Alcmteonidas were not im-
mediately baniflied. The Athenians did not hefitate
to banilh their benefa&or Clyfthenes, and all his rela¬
tions ; but this piece of ingratitude did not anfwer
their purpofe. Cleomenes entered Attica at the head
of a Spartan army; and, arriving at Athens, con-
Clyfthenes had bribed the prieftefs of Apollo to caufe
the Lacedemonians expel the Pififtratidae from A-
thens ; which was facrihcing their heft friends to thofe
whom intereft obliged to be their enemies. This had
fuch an effeft, that the Spartans, repenting their folly
in expelling Hippias, fent for him from Sigeum, in
demned to baniftiment 700 families more than what had order to reftore him to his principality : but this not
been fent into exile before. Not content with this, he
would have difiolved the fenate, and veiled the go¬
vernment in 3co of the chief of Ifagoras’s fadlion.
This the Athenians would by no means fubmit to; and
therefore took up arms, and drove Cleomenes and his
troops into the citadel, where they were befieged for
two days. On the third day Cleomenes furrendered.
being agreed to by the reft of the Hates, they were for¬
ced to abandon the enterprife, and Hippias returned
to Sigeum as he came. ^
About this time too, Ariftagoras the Milefian ha- Caufeofth^
ving fet on foot a revolt in Ionia againft the Perfian war w
king, applied to the Spartans for afliftance ; hut they Perfia-
declining to have any hand in the matter, he next ap-
condition that all thofe who were in the citadel plied to the Athenians, and was by them furnifhcd
ftiould retire unmolefled. This, though agreed to, was with 20 {hips under the command of Melanthus, a
not performed by the Athenians. They fell upon fuch nobleman univerfally efteemed. This rafti action coft
as were feparated from the army, and put them to the Greeks very dear, as it brought upon them the
death without mercy. Among the number of thofe whole power of the Peifian empire; for no fooner did
{lain on this occafion was Timefitheus the brother of the king of Perfia hear of the afiiftance fent from A-
Cleomenes himfelf.
ut with- r^'^e Spartan k'ng was no fooner withdrawn from
itfuccef*. Athens, than he formed a ftrong combination in fa¬
vour of Ifagoras. Pie engaged the Boeotians to at¬
tack Attica on the one fide, and the Chalcidians on
thens to his rebellious fubje&s, than he declared him-
felf the fworn enemy of that city, and folemnly be-
fought God that he might one day have it in his power
to be revenged on them.
The Ionian war being ended, by the redudlion of that
the o .;er, while he at the head of a powerful Spartan country again under the Perfian government, the king
army entered the territories of Eleufina. In this di-
ftrefs, the Athenians, not being able to cope with fo
many enemies at once, refolved to fuffer their
of Perfia fent to demand earth and water as tokens of
fubmiflion from the Greeks. Moft of the iflanders
yielded to this command out of fear, and among the
tories to be ravaged by the Chalcidians and Bceo- reft the people of iEgina ; upon which the Athenians
accufed
| They in-
A vade
it Greece.
pir.’tr a dt
royed.
ATT [ 645 ] ATT
accufed the inhabitants of this ifland of treachery to- power ; among whom were Mi'tiades, Ariftides, and Attica.
- wards Greece, and a war was carried on with them for Themiftocles, men of diftinguifhed valour and great
a long time. How it ended we are not informed 5 but abilities. But it being generally imagined that fo
its continuance was fortunate for Greece in general, fmall a body of troops would be unable to refill the
as, by inuring them to war, and fea-affairs in particu- fotmidable power of the Perfians, a meffenger was dif-
lar, it prevented the whole of the Grecian Hates from patched to Sparta to intreat the immediate affiftance of
being fwallowed up by the Perlians who were now a- that Hate. He communicated his bulinefs to the fe-
bout to invade them. nate in the following terms : “ Men of Lacedaemon,
Befides the difpleafure which Darius had conceived the Athenians defire you to affift them, and not to fuf-
againft the Athenians on account of the alfillance they fer the moll ancient of all the Grecian cities to be en-
had afforded the lonians, he was further engaged to an llaved by the barbarians. Eretria is already deftroyed,
expedition againft Greece by the intrigues of Hippias. and Greece confequently weakened by the lols of fo
Immediately on his returning unfuccelsfully from La- conliderable a place.” The affillance was leadily grant-
’-cedemon, as above related, Hippias paffed over into ed ; but at the fame time the fuccours arrived io flow-
Alia, went to Artaphernes governor of the adjacent ly, that the Athenians were forced to fight without
provinces belonging to the Perlian king, and excited them. In this memorable engagement in the plains of 76
him to make war upon his country, promiling to be Marathon, whither Hippias had condudled the Per-Perfiansde-
obedient to the Perlian monarch provided he was le- lians, the latter were defeated wth the lofs of 6300
ftored to the principality of Athens. Of this the A- men, while the Greeks loft only 192. The Perfians Marathon'
thenians being apprized, fent an baffadors to Arta- being thus driven to their Ihips, endeavoured to double
pheines, deliring leave to enjoy their liberty in quiet: Cape Sunium, in order to furprize Athens itfelf before
but'that nobleman returned for anfwer, that if they the army could return : but in this they were prevent-
would have peace with the great king, they muft; im- ed by Miltiades ; who, leaving Arillides with xoco
mediately receive Hippias ; upon which anfwer the men to guard the priloners, returned fo exptditioufly
Athenians refolved to affift the enemies of Darius as with the other 9000, that he was at the temple of
much as poffible. Tiie confequence of this refolution Hercules, which was but a fmall way diftant, befoie
was, that Darius commiflioned Mardonius to revenge the barbarians could attack the city. ^
him of the infults be thought the Greeks had offered After the battle, Aiiftides difeharged the truft re- integrity of .
him. But Mardonius having met with a ftorm at fea, pofed in him with the greateft integrity. Though there Ariftides..
and other accidents, which rendered him unable to do was much gold and lilver in the Perfian camp, and
any thing, Datis and Artaphernes the fon of Arta- the tents and fhips they had taken were filled with all
pherr.es abovementioned, were commilfioned to do forts of riches, he not only forbore touching any thing
what he was to have done. himfelf, but to the utmoft of his power prevented o-
The Perfian commanders, fearing again to attempt thers from doing it. Some, however, found means to
to double the promontory of Athos, where their fleet enrich themfelves; among the reft, oneCallias, coufin-
had formerly fuffered, drew their forces into the plains german to Ariftides himfelf. This man beingatorch-
of Cilicia ; and paffing from thence through the Cy- bearer, and, in virtue of his office, having a fillet on
clades to Euboea, dire&ed their courfe to Athens, his head, one of the Perfians took him for a king, and, .
Their charge from Darius was to deftroy both Eretria falling down at his feet, difeovered to him a vaft quan-
and Athens ; and to bring away the inhabitants, that tity of gold hid. in a well. Callias not only feized, and
they might be at his diXpoial. Their firfl attempt was applied it to his own ufe, but had the cruelty to kill .
on Eretria, the inhabitants of which fent to Athens the poor man who difeovered it to him, that he might
for affiftance on the firft approach of the Peifian fleet, not mention it to others; by which infamous adiun he
The Athenians, with a magnanimity almoft unparalle- entailed on his pofterity the name of Laccopluti, or
led at fuch a jundure, lent 4000 men to their affift- enriched by the ‘well.
arice ; but the Eretrians were fo much divided among After the battle of Marathon, all the inhabitants of Miltiades
themlelves, that nothing could be refclved on. One Plataea were declared free citizens of Athens, and Mil-unKratefuI*
party among them was for receiving the Athenian fuc- tiades, Themiftocles, and Ariftides, were treated with
cours into the city ; another for abandoning the city all poffible marks of gratitude and refped. This, thenjans.'
and retiring into the mountains of Euboea 5 while a however,“was but very fhort-lived; Miltiades propofed
third fought to betray their country to the Perfians for an expedition againft the ifland of Paros, in which ha-
their own private intereft. Seeing things in this fitua- ving been unfuccefsful, through what caufe is not well
tipn, therefore, and that no good could poffibly be known, he was, on his 1 etui n, accufed, and condemned
done, one iEfchines, a man of great authority among to pay 50 talents, the whole expence of the fcheme ;
the Eretrians, generoufiy informed the Athenian com- and being unable to. pay the debt was thrown into;
manders that they might return home. They accord- prifon, where he foon died of a wound received at
ingly retired to Qropus, by which means-they efcaped Paros.
deftruftion : for Eretria.being ioon after betrayed to If. any thing can exceed the enormity of fuch a pro-_4s likewifo
the Perfians, was pillaged, burnt, and , its inhabitants ceeding as this, it was the treatment Ariflides next re-Ariftides.
fold for flaves. ceived. Miltiades had propofed an expedition which
On the news of this difafter the Athenians immedi- had not proved fuccefsful, and in which he might pof-
ately drew together all the forces they were able, which fibly have had bad defigns ; but againft Arjftides not
after aft amounted to no more than 9000 men. Thefe, fo much as a fhadovv of guilt was pretended. On the
with 1000 Platasans who afterwards joined'them, were contrary, his extraordinary virtue had procured him the
commanded by ten general officers, who had equal title of Juft, and he had never been found to fwerve
6 from >.
ATT [ 646 ] ATT
Attica, from the maxims of equity. His downfal was occa-
fioned by the intrigues of Themiftocles : who being a
man of great abilities, and hating Ariftides on account
of the charafter he defervedly bore among his country¬
men, took all opportunities of infinuating that his
rival had in fail made himfelf mailer of Athens with¬
out the parade of guards and royalty. “ He gives
laws to the people (faid he); and what conftitutes a
tyrant, but giving laws ?” In confequence of this ftrange
argument, a Itrong party was formed againft the vir¬
tuous Ariftides, and it was refolved to banilh him for
mo years by the Qftracifm. In this cafe, the name of
the perfon to be banilhed was written upon a (hell by
every one who defired his exile, and carried to a cer¬
tain place within the forum inclofed with rials. If the
number of Ihells fo collected exceeded 6000, the fen-
tence was infli&ed ; if not, it was otherwife. When
the agents of Themiftocles had fufficiently accomplilh-
ed their purpofe, on a fudden the people flocked to
the forum defiring the oftracifm. One of the clowns
who had come from a borough in the country, bring¬
ing a fhell to Ariftides, faid to him, “ Write me Ari¬
ftides upon this.” Ariftides, furprifed, alked him if
he knew any ill of that Athenian, or if he had ever
done him any hurt ? “ Me hurt ! (faid the fellow), no,
I don’t fo much as know him ; but I am weary and
fick at heart on hearing him every where called the
juji.” Ariftides therefore took the Ihell, and wrote his
own name upon it; and when informed that the oftracifm
fell upon him, modeftly retired out of the forum, faying,
“ I befeech the Gods that the Athenians may never fee
that day which lhall force them to remember Ariftides.”
After the battle of Marathon, the war with iEgina
was revived with great vigour; but the iEginetans
generally had the fuperiority, on account of their great
naval power. Themiftocles obferving this, was conti-
cfi^advifes nua% exhorting his countrymen to build a fleet, not
the building only to make Ahem an equal match for the jEginetans,
of a fleet, but alfo becaufe he was of opinion, that the Perfians
would foon pay them another vifit. At laft, he had
the boldnefs to propofe, that the money produced by
the filver 'mines, which the Athenians had hitherto di¬
vided among themfelves, fhould be applied to the build¬
ing of a fleet: which propofal being complied with,
100 galleys were immediately put upon the ftocks; and
this fudden increafe of the maritime power proved the
gr means of faving all Greece from flavery.
Xerxes in- About three years after the banifhment of Ar iftides,
vades Xerxes king of Perfia fent to demand earth and water:
Greece. q)Ut Ihemiftocles defiring to make the breach with
that monarch ftill wider, put to death the interpreter
for-publilhing the decree of the king of Perfia in the
language of the Greeks; and having prevailed upon
the feveral ftates to lay afide their animofities, and
provide for their common fafety, got himfelf ele&ed
general of the Athenian army.
When the news arrived that the Perfians were ad¬
vancing to invade Greece by the ftraits of Thermo¬
pylae, and that they were for this purpofe tranfporting
their forces by fea, Themiftocles advifed his country¬
men to quit the city, embark on board their galleys,
and meet their enemies while yet at a diftance. This
they would by no means comply with ; for which reafon
Themiftocles put himfelf at the head of the army, and
having joined the Lacedemonians, marched towards
Tempe. Here, having received advice that the ftraits Attica.
of Thermopylas were forced, and that both Bceotia ' v—“
and Theffaly had fubmitted to the Perfians, the army
returned without doing any thing.
In this diftrefs the Athenians applied to the oracle
at Delphi : from whence they received at firft a very
fevere anfwer, threatening them with total deftruftion;
but after much humiliation, a more favourable one was
delivered, in which, probably by the direftion of The¬
miftocles, they were promifed fafety in nua/Zs of ’wood.
This was by Themiftocles and the greateft part of the
citizens interpreted as a command to abandon Athens, ga
and put all their hopes of fafety in their fleet. Upon Athens aJ
this, the opinion of Themiftocles prevailing, the great-bandoned
eft part began to prepare for this embarkation ; and^y^ inhl
had money diftributed among them by the council 0f°ltants» ^
the Areopagus, to the amount of eight drachms per ,
man: but this not proving fufficient, Themiftocles gave
out that fomebody had ftolen the fhield of Minerva;
under pretence of fearching for which, he feized on all
the money he could find. Some, however, there were
who refufed to embark with the reft, but railed to
themfelves fortifications of wood ; under ftanding the
oracle in its literal fenfe, and refolving to wait the ar¬
rival of the Perfians, and defend themfelves to the laft.
In the meantime Ariftides was recalled, when the A-
thenians faw it their intereft, left he ftiould have gone
over to the Perfians and affifted them with his advice. '
The Perfians having advanced to Athens foon after And '
the inhabitants had deferted it, met with no oppofition ftroyed b]
except from a few juft now mentioned ; who, as they the Per- !
would hearken to no terms of accommodation, were allfians-
cut in pieces, and the city utterly deftroyed. Xerxes, They^rej
however, being defeated in afea-fight at Salami's, was totally de,
forced to fly with prodigious lofs. SccSalamis. The-featedatSl
miftocles was for purfuing him, and breaking downlamis'. ‘
the bridge he had caft over the Hellefpont; but this
advice being reje&ed, he fent a trufty meffenger to
Xerxes, acquainting him that the Greeks intended to
break down his bridge, and therefore defired him to
make all the hafte he could, left by that means he
fhould be fhut up in Europe. According to Herodo¬
tus, he alfo advifed the Athenians to quit the purfuit
and return home, in order to build their ruined houfes.
This advice, though mifinterpreted by fome, was cer¬
tainly a very prudent one, as Xerxes, though once de¬
feated, was ftill at the head of an army capable of de-
ftroying all Greece ; and had he been driven to defpair
by finding himfelf flint up, or warmly purfued, it was
impoffible to fay what might have been the event. Af¬
ter this, Themiftocles formed a fcheme, for the aggran-
difement of Athens indeed, but a moft unjuft and in¬
famous one. It was, in fhort, to make Athens miftrefs
of the fea by burning all the fhips except thofe belong¬
ing to that republic. He told his countrymen that
he had fomething to propofe of great confequence,
but which could not be fpoken publicly: whereupon
he was defired to communicate it to Ariftides, by whom
the propofal was rejedled; and Ariflides having in¬
formed the Athenians that what Themiftocles had faid
wa? fvery advantageous but very unjuft, they defired
him to think no more of it. - •
When the fleet returned to Salamis, extraordinary Themifto-i
honours were paid to Themiftocles by the Lacedemo- c'es ho-
nians. On his entering that city, they decreed him a J£eu
wreath j
ATT
[ 647 ]
ATT
Attica, wreath of olive as the prize of prudence; prefented him fible, that it might not be liable to be again d?ftroved, Attica.
' with the moftmagnificent chariot in Sparta; and when
he returned to Athens, he was efcorted by 500 horfe,
an honour never paid to any ftranger but himfelf. On
his arrival at Athens, however, there were not want¬
ing fome who infinuated that the receiving fuch ho¬
nours from the Lacedemonians was injurious to the re¬
when the Perfians ihould take it into their heads to '
invade Greece. At this propofal the Lacedemonians
were exceedingly alarmed; and therefore remonftrated, c]es a(ivifes
that (hould Athens once be ftrongiy fortified, and the to fortify
Perfians become poffeffed of it, it would be impoffible Athens
to get them out of it again. At laft, feeing thefe ar-?r’'1
public; but Themiftocles confiding in his innocence, guments had no cffeft, they abfolutely forbid the A-Sjjaitans
186
Athens a
i fecond time
!deftroyed.
The Per-
I Platxa and
; Mycalc.
treated thefe clamours with contempt, and exhorted his
countrymen to entertain no doubts of their allies, but
rather endeavour to preferve the great reputation they
had acquired throughout all Greece.
The defeat of Xerxes at Salamis made Mardonius,
who was left to carry on the war by land, more ready
to treat with the Athenians than to fight them ; and
with this view he fent Alexander king of Macedon to
Athens to make propofals of alliance with that repub¬
lic, exclufively of all the other Grecian ftates. This
propofal, however, was reje&ed ; and the confequence
was, that Athens was a fecond time dettroyed, the
Spartans fending affiftance fo flowly, that the Atheni¬
ans were forced to retire to Salamis: but they were Coon
freed from all apprehenfions by the total defeat and
thenians to carry their walls any higher. This com- who oppofe
mand gave great offence; but Themittocles, confidering it.
the power of Sparta at that time, advifed the Athenians
to temporize; and to affure the ambaffadors, that they
{hould proceed no farther in their work, till, by an em-
baffy of their own, fatisfadtion {hould be given to their
allies. Being named ambaifador at his own defire to
Sparta, with fome other Athenians, Themiftocles fet out
alone, telling the fenate that it would be for the intereft
of the ftate to delay fending the other ambaffadors as
long as pofiible. When arrived at Sparta, he put off
from time to time receiving an audience, on account of
his colleagues not being arrived: but in the mean time
the walls of Athens were building with the utmoft ex¬
pedition ; neither houfes nor fepulchres being fpared
death of Mardonius at Platsea; where Ariftides, and for materials; and men, women, children, ftrange
the body of troops under his command, diftinguiftied citizens, and fervants, working without intermiflion.
themfelves in a moft extraordinary manner. Of this the Lacedemonians having notice, and the reft
themfelves in a moft extraordinary
The fame day that the battle of Plataea was fought,
the Perfians were defeated in a fea-fight at Mycale in
Ionia, wherein it was allowed that the Athenians who
having n
of the Athenian ambaffadors being arrived, Themi¬
ftocles arid his colleagues were fummoned before the
ephori, who immediately began to exclaim againft the
were there behaved better than any of the other Greeks; Athenians for their breach of promife. Themiftocles
but when it was propofed to tranfport the lonians into denied the charge : he faid his colleagues affured him
Europe, that they might be in perfedf fafety, and give of the contrary : that it did not become a great ftate
them the territories of fuch Grecian ftates as had fided to give heed to vague reports, but that deputies ought
with the Perfians, the Athenians refufed to comply, to be fent from Sparta to inquire into the truth of the
fearing the lonians would rival them in trade, or refufe
the obedience they ufed to pay them : befides which,
they would then lofe the opportunity of plundering the
Perfians in cafe of any quarrel with Ionia. Before they
returned home, however, the Athenians croffed over
matter, and that he himfelf would remain as a hoftage,
to be anfwerable for the event- This being agreed to,
he engaged his affociates to advife the Athenians to
commit the Spartan ambaffadors to fafe cuftody till he
{hould be releafed; after which he publicly avowed
the Cherfonefus, and befieged Seftos. The fiege was the whole tranfa&ionj took the fcheme upon himfelf,
long and troublefome : but at laft the garrifon, being and told the Lacedemonians that “ all things are law-
"hey ro
nild their
ity.
preffed with hunger, and having no hopes of relief,
divided themfelves into two bodies, and endeavoured to
make their efcape ; but were purfued, and all either
killed or taken. Oibafus, one of their commanders,
was facrificed to a Thracian god; and the other, call¬
ed Artyafles, impailed alive, and his fon ftoned before
his face, becaufe he had rifled the fepulchre of Prote-
filaus.
After the vi&ories at Plataeaand Mycale, the Athe¬
nians returned without any apprehenlion, and began to
ful for our country.” The Spartans feeing no reme¬
dy, concealed their refentment, and fent Themiftocles
home in fafety.
The next year, being the laft of the 75th Olympiad, Makes the
Themiftocles obferving the inconvenience of the portPyrteum
Phalerum, thought of making the Pyraum the port ofthe Port °f ‘
Athens. This he did not at firft think proper to men-Ath£ns*
tion publicly; but having fignified to the people that
he had fomething of importance to communicate, they
appointed Xanthippus and Ariftides to judge of his
rebuild their city in a more magnificent manner than propofal. They readily came into his meafures, and
before. Here they were no fooner arrived than a dif- told the people that what Themiftocles propofed would
pute was ready to be commenced about the form of be of the utmoft advantage to the ftate, at the fame
' rr*—— time that it might be performed with eafe. Upon this
they were defired to lay the matter before the fenate ;
who coming unanimoufly into their meafure, ambaffa¬
dors were difpatched to Sparta to infinuate there bow
proper it would be for the Greeks to have fome great
port, where a fleet might always watch the defigns of
the Perfians; and thus having prevented any umbrage
from their firft undertakings, the work was fet about
with fuch expedition, that it was finifhed before the
Lacedemonians knew well what they were about. -
At this time alfo the fovereignty of the fea was
trans¬
government. The commons, with Themiftocles at
their head, were for a democracy ; to which Ariftides,
rather than hazard the railing difturbances, confented.
It was therefore propofed, that every citizen {hould
have an equal right to the government; and that the
archons {hould be chofen out of the body of the people,
without preference or diftin&ion : and this propofal
being agreed to, put an end to all difeontents for the
prefent.
At this time alfo Themiftocles propofed that the city
of Athens {hould be fortified in the beft manner pof-
ATT
Attica, transferred from Sparta to Athens, through the haugh
' w ty behaviour of Faufanias the Lacedemonian. He
Sov^reim commanded at Platsea, and itill enjoyed the fu-
ty of the preme authority in the war which was all this time
tea trans- carrying on againft. the Perfians; but being elated with
fcrred to his fuccefs at Plataea, and having entered into a trea-
fonable correfpondence with the enemy, he treated the
captains under his command with the greateft haugh-
tinefs, giving the preference to the Spartans in fuch a
[ 648 1
ATT
Athens.
very honourable means. He accepted of the command,
however; and gained fuch immenfe booty in this ex-L
pedition, that the Athenians were thereby enabled to
lay the foundation of thofe long extended wTalls which
united the port to the city. The foundation was laid
in a moorifh ground; fo that they were forced to fink
it very deep, and at a great expence ; but to this Ci-
mon himfelf contributed out of his own fhare of the
fpoils, which was very confiderable. He alfo adorned
manner that the reft of the Greeks could no longer hear the foriun with palm trees, and beautified the academy
liis infolence. On the contrary, Ariftides, and Cimon
the fon of Miltiades, who commanded the Athenians,
by their obliging behaviour gained the favour of every
body; fo that the allies, having publicly affronted Pau-
fanias, put themfelves under the protettion of the A-
with delightful walks and fountains. ^
The Perfians having foon after this expedition in-Hefubdue
vaded Cherfonefus, and with the afiiftance of the Thra- the Chcifd
cians made themfelves mafters of it, Cimon was fentncfus*
againft them in a great hurry. He had only four (hips;
thenian republic; and thenceforward the Athenians, but neverthelefs with thefe he took 13 of the Perfian
and not the Lacedemonians, had the fupreme com¬
mand.
The Greeks being now fenfible that they would al¬
ways have occafion to be on their guard againft the
Perfians, and that it was neceflary to eftablifti a fund
galleys, and reduced the whole of the Cherfonefus.
After this he marched againft the Thracians, who re¬
volting againft the Athenians, had made themfelves
mafters of the gold mines lying between the rivers
Nyffus and Strymon. The Thracians were quickly ob-
mordinary ky a common taxation of all the ftates, Ariftides was liged to yield ; after which the Athenians lent a great
1 ^ i . 1  (1 ,J A rT1l  L * r
pitched upon as the only perfon that could be trufted
with the power of allotting to each of the ftates its
proper quota. This difficult tafk he undertook, and
colony to Amphipolis a city of Thrace, which for
tome time made a confiderable figure, but afterwards
attempting to penetrate into the country of the Edonei,
executed in a manner unparalleled in the annals of hi- great part of them were dtftroyed.
ftory. All parties were pleafed, and his taxation was
flyled the happy lot of Greece. The grofs amount of it
94 was 450 talents.
Tbemifto- Jt now came to the turn of Themiftocles to experi-
cles baniflr- ence t^e gratitiule of his countrymen. His fervices
had been fo effential, that the treatment he received
Cimon alfo fell upon the following expedient to A.
make Athens irrefiftible at fea by the other ftates ofthens ii
Greece. Many of the Greek ftates, by virtue of A- bftible
riftides’s taxation, were bound to furniffi men and gal- ^a-
leys, as well as to pay the tax for their fupport. But
when they faw themfelves out of danger from the Per-
may perhaps be a fufficient excufe for modern patriots fians, mott of them were very unwilling to furnifti their
when they conneft their own intereft with the fervice
of their country. Themiftocles had plainly faved the
ftate from ruin by his advice ; he had diftinguifhed
himfelf by his valour ; had rendered Athens, by his
policy, fuperior to the other ftates of Greece ; and
entirely fuhverted the Lacedemonians fcheme of power.
Yet notwithftanding all this, he was baniftied by the
oftiacifm, without the fmalleft crime pretended, unlefs
that he was hated by the Lacedemonians, and that he
had eredied a temple, near his own houfe, dedicated to
Diana, the giver of the bejl council: intimating that he
himfelf had given the beft council for the fafety both
of Athens and of all Greece, which was no more than
the truth. Nay, he was not only driven out of Athens,
but out of all Greece; fo that he was forced to feek
quota of men. This the Athenian generals being of¬
fended with, were for having recourfe to force ; but
Cimon permitted fuch as were defirous of flaying at
home to do fo, and accepted a fum of money in lieu
of a galley completely manned. By this means he in¬
ured the Athenians, whom he took on board his galleys,
to hardftiip and difeipline ; while the allies who re¬
mained at home became enervated through idlenefs,
and from being confederates, dwindled into tributaries,
and almoft fiaves. In the laft year of the 77th Olym¬
piad, Cimon was lent to affift tfie Lacedemonians
againft their Helotes, who had revolted from them. In
this he was attended with his ufual fuccefs; but, fome
time after, the Lacedemonians being engaged in the
fiege of Ithotne, fent again to the Athenians for (uc-
ffielter from the king of Perfia, againft whom he- had cour, and Cimon was a (econd time fent to their relief;
fought with fo much valour. That monarch gave him
a gracious reception; and he was never recalled, be-
caufe the Greeks had no occafion for his fervices.
The war with Perfia was not yet difeontinued 5 the
Greeks found their advantage in plundering and en-
but the Spartans having received a fufficient fupply of
troops from other quarters before the arrival of the A-
thenxan general, he and his men were difiniffed without
doing any thing. This grievoufly offended the people
o of Athens, who thenceforward hated not only the La-
Fa-.nft the ri'ching themfelves with the fpoils of the king of Per- cedemonians, but all their own citizens who were
w a..s. f]p>s fu'pjc£ts. For this reafon, in the end of the 77th thought to be friends to that ftate. .
Olympiad, they equipped a navy, under a pretence of It was not poffible, however, that any perfon wkoH,^ba.
relieving fuch of the Greek cities in Afia as were fub- had ferved the ftate (hould efcape banilhment at A-ni(hed.
jeft to the Perfians. Of this fleet Cimon, the fon of thens. Cimon had gained great wealth both to the
public and to himfelf. In his public chara&er he had
behaved with unimpeached honefty, and as a private
Miltiades by the daughter of the Icing of Thrace, was
appointed commander in chief. He had already tafted
tbejulliee and generofity of his countrymen, having citizen he dedicated his wealth to the mo ft excellent
been thrown into prifon for his father’s fine, from which purpofes. He demolifhed the inclofures about his
he was releafed i by CW//rf/, whom his filler Elpinice grounds and gardens, permitting everyone to enter
married on account of his great wealth procured by no and tak£ what fiuits they pleafed; he kept an open
N°37. table,
vrJL
| tween A-
thens and
Cpana.
' 106
id ^Athenians
:3i 'defeated.
ATT t 649 ]
ATT
table, where both rich and poor were plentifully en-
' tertained. If he met a citizen in a tattered fuit of
clothes, he made fome of his attendants exchange with
him ; or if the quality of the perfon rendered that
kindnefs unfuitable, he caufed a fum of money to be
privately given him. All this, however, was not fuf-
ficient : he did not concur with every meafure of the,
commonalty ; and therefore the popular party deter¬
mined not to banifh him, but to put him to death.
The crime laid to his charge was, that by prefents from
the Macedonians he was prevailed upon to let flip a
manifeft. opportunity of enlarging his conquefts, after
taking from the Perfians the gold mines of Thrace.
To this accufation Cimon replied, that to the utmoll
of his power he had profecuted the war againft the
Thracians and other enemies of the (late of Athens;
but that it was true he had not made any inroads into
Macedonia, becaufe he did not imagine he was to aft
as a public enemy of mankind, and becaufe he was
ftruck with refpeft for a nation modeft in their car¬
riage, juft in their dealings, and ftriftly honourable in
their behaviour towards him and the Athenians : that
if his countrymen looked upon this as a crime, he
muft abide their judgment 5 but, for his part, he could
never be brought to think fuch conduft amifs. Elph
nice, Cimon’s After, ufed all her intereft in his behalf,
and amongft others fpoke to Pericles the celebrated
ftatefman and orator. He was indeed Cimon’s rival,
and had no doubt aflifted in ftirring up the profecution
againft him; but he did not defire his death: and there¬
fore, though appointed to accufe him, Pericles fpoke in
fuch a manner that it plainly appeared he did not think
him guilty; and, in confequence of this lenity, Cimon
was only baniftied by the oftracifm.
The Athenian power was now rifen to fuch an height,
that all the other ftates of Peloponnefus looked upon
this republic with a jealous eye, and were continually
watching every opportunity of making war upon it
when the ftate was engaged in troublefome affairs, and
feemed to be lefs able to reflft. Thefe attempts, how¬
ever, fo far from leffening, generally contributed to in-
creafe, the power of the Athenians; but in the year
before Chrift 458, the republic entered into a war with
Sparta, which was fcarce put an end to but by the de-
ftruftion of the city of Athens. For this war, there
was no recent provocation on the part of the Spartans.
They had fent a great army to affift the Dorians againft
the Phocians, and the Athenians took this opportunity
to revenge themfelves of foriher quarrels. Having
therefore drawn in the Argives and Theffalians to be
their confederates, they polled themfelves on the Ifth-
mus, fo that the Spartan army could not return with¬
out engaging them. The Athenians and their confe¬
derates amounted to 14,000, and the Spartans to
r ) ,500. The Spartan general, however, not very will¬
ing to hazard a battle, turned afide to Tanagra, a city
in Bceotia, where fome of the Athenians who inclined
to ariftocracy entered into a correfpondence wuth him.
But before their deftgns were ripe for execution, the
Athenian army marched with great expedition to Ta¬
nagra, fo that a battle became inevitable. When the
armies were drawing up in order of battle, Cimon pre-
fented himfelf before his countrymen in complete ar¬
mour, and went to take poft among thofe of his own
tribe ; but the popular party raffed fuch a clamour a-
Vol. II. Part II,
gainft him, that he was forced to retire. Before he de¬
parted, however, he exhorted Euthippus and the reft
of his friends to behave in fuch a manner that they
might wipe off the afperfion thrown upon him, as if he
had defigned to betray his country’s caufe to the La¬
cedemonians. Euthippus deflred him to leave his ar¬
mour, which he did; and a battle enfuing, the Athe¬
nians were defeated with great lofs, and Euthippus with
the reft of Cimon’s friends were all killed in defence
of his armour' which they had furrounded. Another
engarrement foon followed, wherein both armies fuffered
fo much, that they were glad to conclude a flrort truce,
that each might have time to recruit their fliatteied
forces.
The fcaleof fortune, now feemed to turn in favour They gain
of the Athenians. The Thebans, who had been de-great ad-
prived of the command of Bceotia on account of over^e
having fided with Xerxes, were now reftored to it byspartanj.
the Lacedemonians. At this the Athenians were fo
difpleafed, that they fent an army under Myronides the
fon of Callias into Boeotia to overturn all that had been
done. That general was met by the Thebans and their
allies, who compofed a numerous and well-difciplined
army. Neverthdefs, though the Athenian army was
but in handful in comparifon of their enemies, Myro¬
nides gained a complete viftory over the allies, in fome
fenfe more glorious than either that of Marathon or
Plataea. In thefe battles they had fought againit effe¬
minate and ill-difciplined Perfians, but now they en¬
countered and defeated a fuperior army compofed of
the braveft Greeks. After this viftory, Myronides
marched to Tanagra; which he took by ftorm, and ra¬
zed to the ground: he then plundered Boeotia; defeated
another army which the Boeotians had drawn together
to oppofe him ; then fell upon the Locrians ; and,
having penetrated into Theffaly, chaftifed the inha¬
bitants of that country for having revolted from the
Athenians, and from thence returned to Athens laden
with riches and glory.
The next year Tolmides the Athenian admiral in¬
vaded Laconia, where he made himfelf mafter of feveral
places; and on the back of this, Pericles invaded Pclo-
ponnefus with great fuccefs, burning, fpoiling, or ta¬
king, whatever places he attempted. On his return he loi
found the people greatly out of humour on account of Clffl'’n rck
Cimon’s banifhment; fo he was immediately recalled. 041 e *
Cimon was no fooner returned than he fell to his old
employment of plundering the Perfians; hnd, accord¬
ing to Plutarch, he had now nothing lefs in view than
the conqueft of the whole Perflan empire. The Per-
fian monarch finding he could have no reft, at laft fent
orders to Artabazus and Megabizus, his commanders,
to conclude a treaty ; which was done on the following
conditions: x. That the Greek cities in Afia fhould be
free, and governed by their own laws. 2. That the
Perfians fliould fend no army within three days journey
of the fea. 3. That no Perfian flup of war ftiould fail
between Thefalis and Cyrene, the former a city of Pam-
phylia, and the latter of Lycia. 10j
While this treaty was carrying on Cimon died, whe-Hisdeath,
ther of ficknefs or of a wound he had received is not
known ; and after his death the Athenian affairs be¬
gan to fall into confufion. It was now the misfortune
of this ftate to be alike hated by her enemies and allies ;
the confequence of which was, that the latter were per-
4 N petually
ATT
[
650 ] ATT
territory of Epidamnum, a city of Macedonia found- Attica,
ed by the Corcyrians, one party called in to their af- v-”
Attica, petually revolting whenever they thought they had an
opportunity of doing fo with impunity. The Mega-
rians, at this time, who had been long under the pro- fiftance the Illyrians, and the other the Corcyrians.
teftion or dominion of Athens, thought proper for The latter negle&ing the matter, Corinth was applied
fome reafon or other to difclaim all dependence on to, as the Corcyrians were a colony from that place,
their former protedlors, and have recourfe to Sparta, ~c —-l-~ f-rj—
with which ttate they entered into a ftrift alliance.
The Corinthians, partly out of pity to the Epidam-
nians, and partly out of fpleen to the Corcyrians, fent
This the Athenians revenged by ravaging the country a very great fleet to the affiftance of the former, by
of the Megarians; which foon brought on a renewal which means that party which had applied to Corinth
of the Lacedemonian war that had been for a little time was thoroughly eftabliihed. This being relented by
fufpended. Pericles, however, procured the return of the Corcyrians, they fent a fleet to Epidamnum to fup-
the fir ft Lacedemonian army, without bloodflied, by port the exiles; and accordingly this fleet began to
bribing Chandrides the young king of Sparta’s tutor, aft offenfively on its entering the port, the chief com-
In the winter, Tolmides refolved to undertake an expe- manders having inftruftions to propofe terms of ac*
dition into Boeotia with a fmall body of troops; which commodation, to which the Corinthians would by r
defign he put in execution contrary to the advice of means agree. The next year ^he Corcyrians defeated
Pericles, and his raflinefs was foon punifhed by his own at fea the Corinthians and their allies, and took Epi-
A thirty death and the total defeat of his army. Notwithftand- damnum by ftorm ; after which they wafted the terri-
years truce ing this misfortune, however, Pericles foon after inva- tories of the allies of the Corinthians, which greatly
with the ded and reduced Euboea ; and the Lacedemonians, exafperated the latter. At Corinth, therefore, they
JUcedemo- finding it was not for their intereft to carry on the began to make great preparations for carrying
mans. warj concluded a truce with the Athenians for 30
the
war, and prefled their confederates to do the fame, that
they might be in a condition to retrieve the honour
they had loft, and humble this ungrateful colony which
had thus infulted her mother-chy.
The Corcyrians were no fooner acquainted with
thefe proceedings, than they difpatched ambafladors to
Athens with their complaints ; and thefe were quickly
followed by others from Corinth on the fame errand.
 , - . At firft the people of Athens inclined to favour the ,
of the corn abovementioned, was profecuted with fuch Corinthians; but they foon changed their minds, and A?’iens^tf*
feverity, that no lefs than 5000 perfons, who till then took part with the Corcyrians : they contented them-
had been confldered as free-men, were fold for flaves. felves, however, with entering into- a defenfive alliance * 1
' ' " ' ^ ^ with that little ftate, whereby.they promifed to aflift
years.
About this time Pfammiticus, king of Egypt, fent
by way of prefent to the people of Athens 40,000
l05 bufliels of wheat; which proved a great misfortune to
Cruelty of the city : for Pericles, out of fpite to Cimon, who had
I’ericks. children by an Arcadian woman, had preferred a law
whereby the Athenians of the half blood were disfran-
chifed; and this law, on account of the diftribution
Number of This piece of cruelty has been of great fervice to the
the A the- critics, as by means of it we know exactly the number each other, in cafe either party fhould be attacked ;
man cm- Qf Atfienjan citizens, which at this time amounted to and in confequence of this treaty, they furnilhed the
no more than 14,040 perfons, though Athens was Corcyrians with ten galleyt
now aiming at no lefs than erecting an univerfal mo-
narchy.
Six years after the conclufion of the peace between
Athens and Sparta, a war broke out between the Sa-
^ < . under Lacedaemonius the
fon of Cimon, with whom were joined Diotenes and
Proteus as colleagues.
As foon as the feafon of the year permitted, the
Corinthians failed for the coaft of Corcyra with a fleet
icy
Samos re¬
duced by
Pericles.
mians and Milefians about the city of Priene, feated of 150 ihips, under the command of Xenoclides, afr
under mount Mycale in Ionia. How this war came to fifted by four other Corinthian admirals; each fqua-
aflFeft the Athenians is not certainly known : but, fome-
how or other, this republic was induced to take the part
of the Milefians ; and the ifland of Samos was reduced
dron of their allies being commanded by a chief of
their own. The Corcyrian and Athenian fleet amount¬
ed to 120, but the Athenians had orders to give as
by Pericles, who eftabliflied there a democracy, and little afliftance as pofiible. The aftion was very briik
left an Athenian garrifon. He was no fooner gone, for fome time : the Corcyrian right wing broke the
however, than the Samians, difliking their new form left of the Corinthian fleet; and forcing fome of the
of government, drove out the garrifon he had left; but
Pericles quickly returning, befieged and took their
city, demolilhed their walls, and fined them of the whole
Ihips on Ihore, landed, pillaged their camp, and made
a great number of them prifoners : on the other hand,
the Corinthian Ihips in their right wing beat the Cor-
exp^nce of the war; part of which he obliged them to cyrian {hips there, they being but very faintly affifted
pay down, and took hoftages for the remainder. When
Pericles returned, he procured himfelf to be appointed
by the Athenians, till the latter were at laft obliged to
defend themfelves, which they did fo well, that the
to pronounce the publicoration in honour of thofe who Corinthians were glad to retire. The next day pre¬
fell ; which he did with fuch eloquence, that when he parations were made on both fides for another engage-
came down from the pulpit the women gathered about ment; but 20 fhips coming from Athens to the affift-
him, took him by the hand, and crowned him with ance of the Corcyrians, the Corinthians declined the
garlands.
War be- ^ ^tt^e a^ter t^,s commenced the war between the
tween the Corcyrians and Corinthians, which by degrees brought
Corcyrians the Athenians into thofe engagements that proved the
and Corin ruiu of their date. The caufcs of this war were the
thia“s' following. An inteftine. war breaking out in the.little
combat.
As foon as the Corcyrian war broke out, the Athe- Potidjea i*
nians fent orders to the citizens of Potidaea to demolilh fieired by
a part of their wall, to fend back the magiftrates they t^e Athe-
had received from Corinth, and to give hoftages for nian5‘
their own behaviour. Potidjea was a town in Mace,-
3 dqnia.
ATT
[ 651 ]
ATT
Attica, donla, founded by the Corinthians, but at that time whereas the Peloponnefians had no fuch advantages.
—in alliance with the Athenians. Perdiccas king of For thefe reafons he propofed as the moft feafible, and u
likewife the moft equitable fatisfaftion that could be
Macedon, who hated the Athenians, took this oppor¬
tunity to perfuade the Potidseans to revolt. Accor¬
dingly they fent ambaffadors to Athens to intreat the
revocation of thefe orders; but at the fame time fent
deputies to Sparta, to join with the Corinthians and
Megarians in their complaints againft the Athenians.
The Athenians upon this fent a confiderable fleet a-
gainft. Potidsea under the command of Calias,
given, that they would reverfe their decree againft Me-
gara, if the Lacedemonians would allow free egrets
and regrefs in their city to the Athenians and their al¬
lies ; that they would leave all thofe ftates free who
were free at the making of the laft peace with Sparta,
provided the Spartans would alfo leave all ftates free
who were under their dominion ; and that future dif-
bleman of great courage. The Corinthians on their putes fliould be fubmitted to arbitration. In cafe thefe
part difpatched one Arifteus with a confiderable body
of troops to the afliftance of that city. An engage¬
ment following, the Athenians were viftors, but with
the lofs of their general. Phormio, who fucceeded in
the command, invefted the city in form, and fhut up
offers fhould be rejected, he advifed them to hazard a
war ; telling them, that they fliould not think they ran
that hazard for a trifle, or retain a fcruple in their
minds as if a fmall matter moved them to it, becaufe
on this fmall matter depended their fafety, and the re-
its port with his fleet; but the Potidseans dreading to putation of their conftancy and refolution ; whereas, if
fall into the hands of the Athenians, made a moft ob-
flinate defence, while in the mean time they warmly
folicited the Corinthians to perform their promifes, and
they yield in this, the next demand of the Lacede¬
monians would be of a higher nature; for having once
difcovered that the Athenians were fubjeft to fear.
Greece.
engage the reft of the ftates of Peloponnefus in their they would thence conclude that nothing could be de-
' nied to Sparta, whereas a fliff denial in this cafe would
teach them to treat Athens for the future on terms of
equality. He enforced thefe reafons by fhowing that
their anceftors had always a died on the like principles,
and in all cafes preferred their glory to their eafe, and
their liberty to their poffeflions.
This was the origin of the Peloponnefian war,
ni quarrel,
The Spar- The Lacedemonians having heard what the Corin-
tans de- thians and other little ftates of Greece had to fay a-
ration for1" t^ie Athenians, fent ambafladors to the latter,
theTinjuriesdemanding reparation for the injuries, with orders, in
offered to cafe of a refufal, to declare war. The terms demand-
e ftates of ed were, in the flrft place, the expulfion of thofe A-
thenians who were allied to the family of Megacles fo which makes fo great a figure in ancient hiftory. The
often mentioned. This article was on account of Pe- immediate preliminary to general hoftilities was an at- x,3
rides ; for he was the fon of Xanthippus the Athenian tempt of the Thebans to furprife Platsea. With this Attempt of
commander at Mycale, by Agarifte niece to the famous view they fent Eurymachus with 300 Thebans to aflift ‘he The-
Clyfthenes, who corrupted the prieftefs of Apollo in fuch of the Platasans as they had drawn over to their
1   — -r intereft, in making themfelves mafters of the place.
In this defign they fucceeded very well at firft, the
Platseans, who hadpromifed to open the gates, keeping
their words exaftly, fo that they were inftantly in pof-
feffion of the city. The other party, however, per¬
ceiving how fmall a number they had to contend with,
unanimoufly rofe upon them, killing a great many,
and forcing the reft to furrender themfelves prifoners
of war. Another party came from Thebes to aflift
their countrymen ; but they arrived too late : the Pla-
order to procure the expulfion of the Pififtratidae.
They next infifted that the fiege of Potidaea fltould be
raifed; thirdly, that the inhabitants of digina fliould
be left free ; and laftly, that a decree made againft the
Megarians, whereby they were forbid the ports and
markets of Athens, ftiould be revoked, and all the
Grecian ftates under the dominion of Athens fet at
nx liberty.
T^eir terms Thefe terms the Athenians were perfuaded by Peri-
tejedted by cles to rejeft. The arguments ufed by him were in fub-
advice of ftance as follows: That whatever the Lacedemonians taeans, however, forefeeing that they would wafte their
might pretend as to the juftice of the complaints of the
allies, the true ground of this refentment was the pro¬
country, promifed to releafe the prifoners if they
would forbear to fpoil their lands. On this the The- They a
fperity of the Athenian republic, which the Spartans bans withdrew; and the Plataeans cruelly put to death maflacred.
always hated, and now fought an opportunity of hum- all their prifoners, to the number of 180, with Eury-
* —ai :—4-1  machus their chief, alleging that they had not pro¬
mifed their releafe but in cafe of peace. The Athe¬
nians, as foon as they had notice of this attempt of
bling; that it muft be owing to the Athenians them¬
felves if this defign fucceeded, becaufe for many rea¬
fons Athens was better able to engage in a long and
expenfive war than the Peloponnefians. He then laid the Thebans, caufed all the Boeotians in their terri-
before the people an exa<ft account of their circum- tory to be arrefted ; and when they underftood how
fiances; putting them in mind, that the treafure the Plataeans had delivered themfelves, they fent a
brought from Delos amounted to 10,000 talents; great convoy of provifions to that city, and a nume-
and that tho* 4000 of thefe had been expended on the rous body of troops to efcort their wives and children
ftately gate of their citadel, yet that 6000 were ftill in to Athens. _
hand ; that they were alfo intitled to the fubfidies Both parties now prepared in earneft for war, both ArcoUnt of
paid by the confederate ftates; that the ftatues of their fent ambafladors to the Perfians, and both fought to the alliescn
gods, the Perfian fpoils, &c. were worth immenfe fides.
fums; that private men were arrived at vaft fortunes ;
roufe their allies. Moft of the Greek ftates inclined to both tides,
favour the Spartans, becaufe they afted on this occa-
and that, confidering their trade by fea, they had a fion as the deliverers of Greece, and becaufe they either
certain annual increafe of wealth; that they had on had been, or feared that they would be, opprefled by
foot an army of 12,000 men, and in their colonies and
garrifons 17,000; that their fleet confifted of 300 fail;
the Athenians. With the Spartans joined all the Pe¬
loponnefians, except the Argives and part of the A-
4 N 2 chseans;
ATT {6S
Attic#, chreans; without Pcloponnefus, the Megarians, Pho-
^ cians, Locrians, Boeotians, Ambraciots, Leucadians,
and Anattorians, declared themfelves on their fide. On
the other hand, the Chians, Lefbians, Platseans, Mef-
fenians, Acarnanians, Corcyrians, Zacynthians, Cari-
ans, Dorians, Thracians, moft part of the iflands, and
all the Cyclades excepting Melos and Thera, with Eu-
boea and Samos, joined the Athenians.
Firft year of The Peloponnefian war commenced 431 years before
tb? war. Chrift. The Lacedemonian army was afiembled at
the Klhmusj and confifted of no lefs than 60,000 men;
but before Archidamus king of Sparta, who com¬
manded in chief, would enter Attica, he difpatched a
herald to Athens. The herald was fent back without
any anfwer, by which all hopes of peace were cut otF.
As Archidamus was a friend to Pericles, the latter
apprehended that he might forbear plundering his e-
ftates. With this he immediately acquainted the peo¬
ple ; telling them at the fame time, that in fuch a cafe
he made a prefent of his lands to the public. He then
advifed the citizens to take no care of defending their
country-feats, but to attend only to the city, bufy
themfelves in the equipping of fhips, and fettle a
thorough refolution not to be intimidated with the firft
evils of war. This propofal the Athenians readily
complied with, and appointed Pericles commander in
chief, with nine more generals to afiift him.
The firft year, the Spartan army committed great
ravages in Attica, Pericles having no force capable of
oppofing it, and refufing to engage on difadvantageous
terms, notwithftanding prodigious clamours were railed
againft him by his countrymen. The allies, however,
had no great reafon to boall of the advantages they
gained this year; an Athenian fleet ravaged the coafts
of Peloponnefus; another infefted the Locrians, drove
out the inhabitants of iEgina, and repeopled the illand
from Athens. They likew ife reduced Cephalenia, and
fome towns in Acarnania and Leucas which had de¬
clared for the Lacedemonians; and in the autumn,
w hen the Peloponnefisns were retired, Pericles enter¬
ing the Megarian territory, did all the mifchief that
could be expefted from a provoked enemy.
The fpring of the fecond year was very fatal to A-
thens by a dreadful plague which deftroyed great num¬
bers of the citizens, while the Peloponnefians under
Archidamus wafted every thing abroad. In the midft
of thefe diftrefles, however, Pericles retained his cou¬
rage, and would fuffer none of his countrymen to ftir
without the city either to efcape the plague or infeft
the enemy. He caufed a great fleet to be equipped,
on board which he embarked 4000 foot and 300 horfe,
with which he failed to Epidaurus. Upon this the
enemy withdrew their forces out of Attica ; but Peri¬
cles was able to do no great matter on account of the
plague, which made fo great havock among his men,
that he brought back to Athens only 1500 of the 4000
Athenians carrie^ out- By this misfortune the Athenians were
iue fur thrown into defpair ;. they immediately fued for peace,
which the Spartans were now too proud to.grant; then
turning their rage upon Pericles, they difmifled and fi¬
ned him. Soon after, Pericles’s children and almoft
all his relations died of the plague ; fo that this great
ftatefman was overwhelmed with melancholy, and for
fome time fhut himfelf up from public view : at laft,
through the perfuaficn of Aleibiades and fome others.
Sectnd
year. A
dreadful
plague at
Athens.
peaca.
2 ] ATT
he fhowed himfelf to the people. They received him Attica,
with acclamations, and at his requeft: repealed the un- j
juft law he had made, whereby all Athenians of the reJ
half blood were disfranchifed, and then reinftated him quells the ]
in all his former honours. Hereupon he inrolled the repeal of \
only fon he had left, who before had been counted ^aw’
baftard on account of his mother being a Milefian.
This year alfo the ifland of Zacynthus was wafted
by the Peloponnefians; and the city of Potidaea fub-
mitted to the Athenians, after the inhabitants had been
driven to fuch extremity as to feed upon human flefti.
The Athenians permitted the men to depart with one
garment, and the women with two ; after which, the
town was repeopled by a colony from Athens. IJO
The third year of the Peloponnefian war was re- Third yean
markable for the death of the great Pericles, who was Pericles
taken off by the plague. Plataea aifo was befieged by aies‘
Archidamus ; but without fuccefs, even though the I2I 1
greateft part of it was fet on fire ; the Platarans refol- Platxa he-1
ving to lubmit to every kind of mifery rather than fieged. |
abandon the Athenian caufe. In the end, therefore,
the king of Sparta was obliged to turn the fiege into a
blockade ; and having thrown up an intrenchment for¬
tified with a deep ditch, he left a fufficient number of
men to guard his lines, and then returned back to Pe¬
loponnefus. 12% 1
The following fummer, the Peloponnefians under the Fourth ;
command of Archidamus invaded Attica, yvhere they ytar-
wafted every thing with fire and fword; at the fame Pf™*® *£- :i
time the whole ifland of Lefbos, except the difti ift ofthe Plata- I
Methymna, revolted from the Athenians, who here-ans,
upon inverted the city of Mitylcne. Ail this time the
city of Plat as a was blocked ap by the Peloponnefians ;
and its inhabitants being now greatly diftreffed for want
of provifions, the garrifon, conlilting of 400 natives and
80 Athenians, came to the defperate relolution of for¬
cing a paffage through the enemy’s lines. When they
came to attempt this, however, many of them were in¬
timidated : but 300 perlifted in their refolution ; and-
of thefe 2 12. got fafe through and marched to Athens,
but the reft were compelled to retire. gj
In the beginning of the fifth year, the Peloponne- year< j
fians fent 40 ihips to the relief of Mitylene ; but with- Mitylene, \
out effefl, for the place had furrendered before the&c- takem ■
fleet could come to. its affiftance. Paches, the Athe-
nian commander, likewife chafed away the Peloponne-' ’ j
fian fleet upon its arrival; and returning to Lefbos fent
the Lacedemonian miniller whom he found in Mity¬
lene, together with a deputation, to Athens. On their
arrival, the Lacedemonian was immediately put to
death ; and in a general affembly of the people, it was
rcfolved, that all the Mitylenians who were arrived at
man’s eftate (hould be put to death, and the women
and children fold for flaves. The next day, however,
this cruel decree was reverfed, and a galley fent with
all expedition to countermand thefe bloody orders.
This laft veffel, however, could not get before the o-
thcr : but Paches, being a man of great humanity, had
taken a day to.confider on the orders he had received;
during which time the laft; mentioned galley arrived ;
in confequence of which, only about iocq of the moft
forward rebels were put to death ; the walls of the city
were alfo demoliflied, their fhips taken away, and their
lands divided among the Athenians, who let them again
to their old mafters at very high rents. The fame fum-
ATT C 653 ] ATT
, Attka. mer the Athenians feized the illand of Minoas, lying
t ‘ over againll the territory of Megara ; and likewife
I the port Nii’ffin, which laft they fortified, and it proved
ij ,a4 afterwards a place of the utmoft importance to them,
ipiatsata- At this time alfo the Platasans, driven to the laft ex-
,kon and ra-jrern{ty> furrendered to the Lacedemonians, by whom
they were, to the number of 208, including 25 Athe¬
nians, put to death, and their women fold for flaves.
Their city was foon after rafed by their implacable ene¬
mies the Thebans, who left only an inn to (how where
it flood. The fame of Platea, however, induced A-
lexander the Great afterwards to rebuild it.
Sedition of year happened the famous fedition of Cor-
|Corcyra. cyra, whence other feditions, when their effedls ren¬
dered them terrible, have been called Corcyrian. It
hath been already obl’erved, that the war between the
Corcyrians and Corinthians brought on the general war
throughout Peloponnefus. A great number of Corcy¬
rians were in the beginning of this war carried away
prifoners into Peloponnefus, where the chief of them
were very well treated, but the reft fold for flaves. The
reafon of this conduct of the Corinthians was a do fig n
they had formed of engaging thefe Corcyrians to in¬
fluence their countrymen to fide with them and their
allies. With this view they treated them with all ima¬
ginable lenity and tendernefs, inftilling into them by
degrees an hatred of democratic government ; after
which they were told, that they might obtain their li¬
berty upon condition of ufing all their influence at home
in favour of the allies, and to the prejudice of Athens.
This the Corcyrians readily promifed, and endeavoured
to perform. At firlt, thofe who were for an arifto-
cracy prevailed, and murdered all thofe of the oppofite
party that fell into their hands, in which they were af-
lifted by a fleet of Peloponnefians: but the Athenians
fending firft one fleet and then another to the afliftance
of the diftrefled party, the Peloponnefians were forced
to withdraw ; after which, the democratic party fuffi-
ciently revenged themfidves, and deftroyed their anta-
gonifts without mercy. The worft of all was, that,
this example once fet, the feveral ftates of Greece felt
in their turns the-like commotions, which were always
heightened by agents from Sparta and Athens; the
former endeavouring to fettle ariftocracy, and the lat¬
ter democracy, wherever they came.
ng While the Athenians were thus engaged in a war
in a wherein they were already overmatched, they foolishly
h engaged in a new one, which in the end proved more
fatal than all the reft. The inhabitants of Sicily were
fplit into two fa&ions; the one called the Doric, at
the head of which was the city of Syracufe ; the other
the Ionic, which owned the Leontines for their chiefs:
the latter perceiving themfelves too weak without fo¬
reign aid, fent one Georgias, a celebrated orator, to
apply to Athens for relief; and he by his fine fpeeches
fo captivated the giddy and inconftant Athenians, that
they ran headlong into a war which they were unable
to maintain while engaged with all the Peloponne¬
fians. Enticed by this new profpeil, therefore, and
grafping at the conqueft of Sicily, as well as of all
Greece, they fent a fleet to the. affiftance of the Le¬
ontines, under the command of Lachetes and Chabrias 5
and they were no fooner failed, than another fleet
for the fame purpofe was begun to be fitted out. All
this time the plague continued to rage with great vio¬
lence at Athens, cutting off this year 4000 citizens, Attica,
befides a much greater number of the meaner fort of w—*
people. Ia7
The fixth year of the Peloponnefian war was remark-Sixth year,
able for no great exploit : Agis the fon of Archida-
mns, king of Sparta, affembled an army in order to in¬
vade Attica, but was prevented from fo doing by' many
great earthquakes which happened throughout Greece.
The next year, however, he entered Attica with his
army, while the Athenians on their part fent a fleet
under the command of Demofthenes, to infeft the coafts Seventh
of Peloponnefus. As this fleet paffed by Laconia, the year-
commander took notice that the promontory of Pyll,s>
which was joined to the continent by a narrow neck of Athenians,
land, had before it a barren ifland about two miles in
circumference, in which, however, there was a good
and fafe port, all winds being kept off by the head¬
land or by the ifle. Thefe advantaees made him ap¬
prehend, that a garrifon left here wmuld give the Pelo¬
ponnefians fo much trouble, that they would find it more
advifable to protedl their own country than to invade
that of their neigbours. Accordingly, having raifed
a ftrong fortification, he himfdf with five fhips Raid to
defend it, while the reft of the fleet proceeded on their
intended expedition. On the news of this event, the Btfieged,
Peloponnefian army immediately returned to befiege
Pylus. When they arrived before the place, they took
poffeffion of the harbour, and then caufed a chofen bo¬
dy of Spartans take poffeflion of the ifland of Spha&e-
ria, after which they attacked the fort with great vi¬
gour. Demofthenes and his garrifon defended them¬
felves with great valour ; and an Athenian fleet arriving
very feafonably, offered battle to the Peloponnefian Ir:r
fleet. This being refufed, the Athenians boldly failed Spar*-an -
into the harbour, broke and funk moft of the veffels fleet de-
therein, after which they befieged the Spartans inftroyed-'
Sphacteiia. The Peloponnefians now began to treat
with their enemies, and a truce was concluded during
the time that negociations were carried on at Athens.
One of the articles of this truce was, that the Pelopon-
nelians fhould deliver up all their fhips, on condition of
having them pundtually returned in cafe the treaty did
not take effe£l. The A-lfien‘ans -having heard the
Spartan ambaffadors, were inclined to put an end to
this deftru&ive war: but Cleon, one of their orators,
a warm and obftinate man, perfuaded his countrymen
to iniift on very unreafonable terms ; upon which the r,T
ambaffadors returned, and by doing fo put an end to Treachery*
the truce. The Peloponneiians then demanded their of the a*
veffels ; but the Athenians refufed to deliver them, yn- dienians.
der pretence of their having broke the truce. 1^z
Hoftilities being thus recommenced on both Tides, They at-
the Lacedemonians attacked the Athenians at Pylus, tack Sphae»
while the latter attacked the Spartans at Sphadleria.teiia*
The Spartans, though but an handful of men and under
every imaginable difeouragement, behaved with fuch
bravery, that the fiege proceeded very flowly, fo that
the people of Athens became very uneafy. They be-Cleon the
gan then to wifh they had embraced the offers of the orator ap- -
Spartans, and to rail vehemently againft Cleon, who, '
to excufe himfelf, faid, it would be eafy for the generalnera *
of the forces they were at that time fending, to attack
the Spartans in the ifle, and reduce them at once. Ni-
cias, who had been appointed to this command, replied,
that if Cleon believed he could do fuch great things,
he.;
ATT C 654 ]
lie would do well to go thitlier In perfon s the latter,
imagining this only meant to try him, faid he was
ready to go with all his heart; whereby Nicias catched
him, and declared that he had relinquiihed his charge.
Cleon thereupon faid, that he was no general: but
Nicias told him that he might become one; and the
people pleafed with the controverfy, held the orator
to his word. Cleon then advancing, told them he was
fo little afraid of the enemy, that, with a very inconfi-
derable force, he would undertake, in conjun&ion with
thofe already atPylus, to bring to Athens the Spartans
who gave them fo much trouble in 20 days. The people
ATT
ans, who thereupon fent new fupplies of men, money, Attica,
and fhips, to the Macedonian coaft ; but all their care v""*
could not prevent a great defertion from their intereft
in thofe parts, where the valour and condud of Bra-
fidas carried all before him.
In the ninth year, the Spartans made new propofals eai(
of peace, which the Athenians were now more inclined a truce * '
to accept than formerly ; and finding their affairs very concluded
much unfettled by the lofs of Amphipolis, a truce foran<i broke®
a year was quickly agreed on, while negociations were
in the mean time carrying on for a general peace.
This pacific fcheme, however, was very foon
He takes
• the place.
laughed at thefe promifes : however, they furnifhed thrown by the following accident in Thrace. The city
■ End of the
Corcyrian
fedition.
*36
Eighth
him with the troops he defired ; and to their furprife,
Cleon brought the Spartans prifoners to Athens within
the time appointed.
This fummer likewife an Athenian fleet was fent to
Sicily, with inllrudions to put in at Corcyra, and aflift
the government againft: the Lacedemonian fadion
Which ftill fubfifted in that ifland. This they effedually
performed ; for by their means the exiles fell into the
hands of the other party : thefe they imprifoned ; and
then drew them out by 20 at a time, to fuffer death,
which was inflided with all the circumftances of cruel¬
ty that party-rage could fuggeft. When only 60 re¬
mained, they intreated the Athenians to put them to
death, and not to deliver them up to their countrymen':
but upon this the Corcyrians furrounded the place
where they were confined, endeavouring to bury them
under their darts ; upon which the unhappy captives
all put an end to their own lives.
In the eighth year Nicias reduced the ifle of Cythera
on the coaft of Laconia; as likewife Thyraea, on the
confines of that country. The latter had been given
to the Aiginetans when expelled from their own coun¬
try by the Athenians : and they were now condemned
to death, as inveterate enemies of the Athenian ftate
and nation.—In Sicily, one Hermocrates of Syracufe
perfuaded all the inhabitants of the ifland to adjuft their
of Scione, and that ef Menda, revolted to Brafidas ;
who, knowing nothing of the truce, fought to draw o-
ver Potidseaalfo. The Athenians, pretending thatScione
revolted two days after the truce was concluded, made
heavy complaints, aflerting that this was a breach of
the truce, and that both it and Menda fliould be re-
ftored to them. This not being effected by negocia¬
tions, an army was fent againft the two cities, by which
Menda was reduced } but Scione making an obftinate
defence, the fiege was turned into a blockade.
In the tenth year, Brafidas made an attempt upon Tenth\ ear
Potidaea ; which having failed, the Athenians began to Cleon de¬
recover fome courage. The truce expiring on the day feated and
of the Pythian games, Cleon perfuaded the Athenians
to fend an army into Thrace under his own command.
It confifted of 1200 foot and 300 horfe, all Athenian
citizens, who embarked on board 30 galleys. Bra¬
fidas had an army muck inferior; but obferving that
the Athenian general was become carelefs, and ne¬
glected difcipline, he attacked him. In this engagement
Cleon was killed, and the Athenians defeated with the
lofs of 600, while the Spartans loft only feven;
but among thefe was their brave commander Brafidas,
whofe death affeCted them almoft as much as the lofs
138
Athenians
lofe their
of their army did the Athenians.
As the death of Cleon "deprived the Athenians of A fiffy
differences among themfelves ; upon which the Athe- # one of their beft fpeakers, and one who had been very years peact
nian generals returned home, and for fo doing two of induftrious in promoting the war, they were now much
them were banilhed, and the third fentenced to pay a more difpofed than formerly to hearken to terms of ac-
heavy fine. commodation. Amongft the Spartans, too,there was a
The Athenians next laid fiege to Megara under the party, at the head of whom was Pliftonax their king,
conduCt of Hippocrates and Demofthenes ; but Brafi- who earneftly wifhed for peace ; and as Nicias laboured
das a Spartan general coming to its relief, a battle en- no lefs affiduoufly at Athens to bring about this de-
fued, by which, though neither party got the better, firable event, a peace was at laft concluded for fifty
the Lacedemonian faftion prevailed in Megara, and years between the two nations. The conditions were,
many who favoured the Athenians were forced to with- that a reftitution of places and prifoners fhould be made
draw. After this, fuch as had been banifhed for ad- on both fides; excepting that Nifoea fhould remain to
hering to the Lacedemonians were allowed to return, the Athenians who had taken it from the Megarians ;
on their taking an oath to forget what was paft, and and that Platasa fhould continue with the Thebans, be-
attempt nothing that might difturb their country. As caufe they abfolutely would not give it up. The Boeo-
foon as they were fettled, however, they forgot their tians, Corinthians, and Megarians, refufed to be in¬
oath ; and caufing 100 of thofe who were moft obnoxi- eluded in this peace ; but the reft of the allies yielded
ous to be apprehended, forced the people to condemn to it; and it was accordingly ratified, receiving the
them to death. They then changed the whole form name of the Nician peace, from Nicias who had fo vi-
of government, introduced an oligarchy, and pofiefled goroufly promoted it.
themfelves of the fupreme power. By this means, however, tranquillity was far from New dif-
In Bceotia fome commotions were raifed in favour being reftored. Such of the ftates of Peloponnefus ascontents.
of the Athenians ; but their generals Hippocrates and were diflatisfied, began immediately to league among
Demofthenes being defeated by the oppofite party, all themfelves, and to fet on foot a new confederacy, the
hopes ceafed of the Athenian power being eftablifhed head of which was to be the ftate of Argos. The La¬
in Bceotia. In the mean time Brafidas reduced the ci- cedemonians, too, found it impofiible to perform ex-
ty of Arhphipolis, which greatly alarmed the Atheni- actly the articles of agreeement; the city of Amphipolis
ATT [ 655 ] . ATT
Attica, in particular, abfolutely refufed to return under the A- the redu&ion of the ifland would be a work of time, he Attics,
v—' thenian government; for which reafon the Athenians left a confiderable body of forces there, and returned
refufed to evacuate Pylus. In the winter, new nego- to Athens. In his abfence the capital of Melos fur-
ciations were entered into on all fides, but nothing de- rendered at difcretion, and the inhabitants were treat- ,
termined, and univerfal murmuring and difcontent took ed with the utmoft cruelty ; all the men capable of
Heighten-place. Thefe difeontents were not a little heightened bearing arms being flaughtered, and the women and
edbyAlci-by Alcibiades, who now began to rival Nicias, and, children carried into captivity. ,4p .
biades. perceiving the Lacedemonians made their court moftly In the beginning of the 17th year, Nicias was ap-Seveu-
to his rival, took all opportunities to incenfe his coun- pointed commander of an expedition againft the Syra-teenthyear»
trymen againft that nation. Nicias, on the other hand, cufans, along with Alcibiades and Lamachus as col-
whowilhed for nothing fo much as peace, ufed all his en- leagues. But while the neceffary preparations were ma- cily loft, 1
deavours to bring about a reconciliation. The artifiefs king, all things were thrown into confulion by the de- and Alcibi-
of Alcibiades, however, added to the turbulent and facing of the Hermae, or ftatues of mercury, of which ades flies te*
haughty difpofition of both nations, rendered this im- there was a ^reat number in the city. The authors of sFarla’
poffible ; fo that though Nicias went on purpofe to this facrilege could by no means be difeovered, though
o—1  »v.:— rewards were offered for this purpofe : atlaft thefufpi-
fell upon Alcibiades; and for this weighty reafon
Sparta, he returned without doing any thing.
Alcibiades having thus difpofed every thing accord-
:sfortheing to his wilhes, and a war being inevitable, he began he was commanded to return from Sicily to take his
:ty °f to take the moft prudent methods for preferving his trial. Alcibiades, however, knew the' temper of his
1Ca' country in fafety. With this view he entered into a countrymen too well to truft himfelf to their mercy;
league for 100 years with the Argives, which he hoped
would keep the war at a diftance : he next paffed over
into the territories of Argos, at the head of a confi¬
derable army; and laboured, both at that city and at
Patrae, to perfuade the people to build walls to the
fea, that fo they might the more eafily receive affiftance
frpm the Athenians. But though great preparations
for war were now made, nothing was undertaken this
year; only the Argives thought to have made them-
and therefore, inftead of returning to Athens, he fled
immediately to Sparta, where he met with a gracious
reception ; while the infatuated Athenians were feverely
puniftied by the lofs of their army, generals, and fleet,
in Sicily, which the fuperior abilities of Alcibiadea
would in all probability have prevented.
The 19th and 20th years of the war were fpent byNinetecntS?
the Athenians in equipping a new fleet in order to re- and twen-
pair their valt Ioffes : but Alcibiades hurt their inte- years» -
 A.  U  _ 'TVA' 1 ote*
felves matters of Epidaurus, but were hindered by the refts very much, by jserfuading Tiffaphernes the Perfian
Lacedemonians putting a garrifon into it.
to league with the Spartans againft them ; at the fame
iurteenth The next.year (the 14th after the Peloponnefian war time he perfuaded feveral of the Ionian ftates to revolt!
of Agis,. entered the territory of Argos where the con¬
federate army lay; but juft as the engagement was a-
bout to begin, a truce was fuddenly concluded by two
of the Argive generals and the king of Sparta. With
gain to fubmit. Notwithftanding all thefe fervices,-Alcibiades
however, Alcibiades had rendered himfelf fo hateful to flics toi'er-
Agis by debauching his wife, that he foon found him- ^
felf obliged to fly to the Perfians, where Tiffaphernes
this neither party was pleated, and both the king and gave him a very favourable reception, and profited
generals were very ill treated by their citizens. On much by his advice, which was, to let the Greeks wea-
146 the arrival of fome frefh troops from Athens, therefore, ken one another by their mutual wars, and that the
fhemans, the Argives immediately broke the truce : but the al- Perfians ought never to fee one ftate totally deftroyed,
if Man- army-was ^oon a^ter defeated with great daughter but always to fupport the weaker party.
5a. 3 by Agis;.notwithftanding. which, however, the Eleans When Tiffaphernes had acquiefced with thefe coun- propofes
and Athenians invefted Epidaurus. In rhe winter, a fels, Alcibiades privately .wrote to fome of the officers the aboli-
ftrong party in Argos joined the Lacedemonians; in in the Athenian army at Samos, that he had beention of de*
confequence of which that city renounced her alliance treating with the Perfians in behalf of his countrymen, ™0yracy
with Athens,, and concluded one with Sparta for 50. but did not choofe to return till the democracy ftiould A en3'
years. In compliment to their. new allies^ alfd, the be abolifhed ; and to incline the citizens to comply
Argives aboliihed democracy in their city, eftablifhing with this meafure, he told them that the Perfian king
an ariftocracy in its place, and affifted the Lacedemo- difliked a democracy, but would immediately affift:
nians with a confiderable body of troops to force the them if that was aboliflied, and an oligarchy eredtedin
O*  * „ r  a i
Sicyonians to do the fame.
1 keenth In the beginning of the jytkyear, the Argives, with
a levity.feemingly natural to all the Greeks, renoun¬
ced their alliance with Sparta, aboliihed ariftocracy,
drove all the Lacedemonians out of the city, and re-,
newed their league with Athens. The Athenians, in
its ftead.
On the arrival of Pifander and other deputies from
the army, with the propofals of Alcibiades, the Athe¬
nians without; hefitation refoived to overturn that de^
mocracy which they had all along fo ftrenuoufly de¬
fended. The iffue of their prefent debates was, that
I 3tC
the mean time, being convinced of the treachery of Pifander with ten deputies ftiould return to Alci
Perdiccas king of Macedon, renounced their alliance biades, in order to know on what terms the king of
with him, and declared war againft him.
Next year Alcibiades terminated the difputU in the
Perfia would make an alliance with them; but that
cunning Athenian having perceived that Tiffaphernee
r| ^ j’ city of Argos, by the baniftiment of the Spartan fac- was by no means difpofed to affift the Athenians on
HLui. tion; after which he failed to the ifland of Mi ’
account of their having been lately fuccefsful, he fefc
L- L J • .1 1 • r Vi r ,
atheA- uon; arier wnicn ne laUe{1 t0 ttle llland ot Melos, o , ........  
: fcaiaus. whofe inhabitants had a died with the greateft invete- up fuch high demands in the king of Perfia’s name.,
racy againft hia countrymen; perceiving, however, that that.the Athenians of themfelves broke.off the treaty*
ATT [ 656 ] ATT
Attica, and thus Alcibiades prefevved the friendfliip of both
'r~~' parties.
Pifander having engaged the army at Samos in his
fcheme of overturning democracy, that form of go-
!53 vernment was abolifhed firft. in the cities fubjeft to A-
New form thens, and laftly in the capital itfelf. Pifander’s new
of govern- fcheine Wae, That the old form of government (hould
blffted! a'be totally diflblved: that five prytanes fhould be eledi¬
ed : that thefe five {hould choofe X 00; and that each
of the hundred {hould choofe three : that the 400 thus
elefted {hould become a fenate with full power ; but
Jhould occafionally confult with 5000 of the moft weal¬
thy citizens, who ihould thenceforward be efteemed
only the people; and that no authority {hould remain
with the loweft clafs. Though the people were not
very fond of this change, thofe who condu&ed it,
being men of great parts, found means to eftablifh it
by force; for when the people were gone out of the
city to their ordinary employments, the 400, ha¬
ving each a dagger concealed under his veil, attend¬
ed by a guard of 120 men, entered the fenate-houfe,
diffolved the old fenate, and without ceremony turn¬
ed them out; after which the commons, not knowing
whom to fubmit to, or to whom to apply, made no
oppofition.
The firft ftep of the new governors was to deftroy
all their enemies; who, however, were not very nu¬
merous, fo that little blood was ihed. They next fent
ambaffadors to Agis to fue for peace ; but he, taking
for granted that the Athenians would never defend an
oligarchy, gave no anfwer to the ambaffadors, but im¬
mediately marched towards the capital with a defign to
attack it. On his arrival, however, he was quickly
convinced of his miftake, being repulfed with lofs, and
*54 obliged to retire to his old poll.
The army In the mean time the Athenian army declared again
declare fora for a democracy ; and having recalled Alcibiades, in-
andrecal^ ve^e^ ^ Power> and infifted on his imme-
Alcibiades. diate return to Athens to reftore the ancient govern¬
ment. This meafure he refufed to comply with, and
perfuaded them to ftay where they were, in order to
fave Ionia: he alfo prevailed on them to allow fome
deputies, who had been fent from the new gover¬
nors of Athens, to come and deliver their meffage.
To thefe deputies Alcibiades replied, that they fhould
immediately return to Athens, and acquaint the 400,
that they were commanded immediately to refign their
power and reftore the fenate; but that the 5000
might retain theirs, provided they ufed it with mode-
J55 ration.
Great con- By this anfwer the city was thrown into the utmoft
fufion at A-confufion ; but the new government party prevailing,
thens. ambaffadors were difpatched to Sparta with orders to
procure peace on any terms. This, however, was not
to be effe&ed ; and Phrynicus, the head of the em-
baffy, and likcwife of the new government party, Vas
murdered on his return. After his death, Theramenes,
the head of the other party, feized the chiefs of the
400 ; upon which a tumult enfued that had almoft pro¬
ved fatal to the city itfelf. The mob, however, being
at laft difperfed, the 400 affembled, though in great
fear, and Cent deputies to the people, promifing to fet
all things to rights. In confequence of this deputa¬
tion, a day was appointed for convoking a general af-
fembly, and fettling the ftate; but when that day carre,
N° 37.
news was brought that the Lacedemonian fleet appear- Attic*. 1
ed in view, and fteered dire&ly for Salamis. Thus all
was again thrown into confufion ; for the people, in-
ftead of deliberating on the fubjeft propofed, ran in
crowds down to the port, and perceiving the Spartans
made towards Euboea, a fleet of 36 {hips was immedi¬
ately difpatched under the command of Thymochares, Ij6 ]
to engage the enemy. This fleet was utterly defeated,
22 of the Athenian {hips being taken, am’ moft of the ftroyed'bi
others funk or difabled ; but what was worfe, this de- the Spar-
feat was followed by the revolt of all the country of tans. |
Euboea except Orcus.
When thefe difmal tidings arrived at Athens, eveiy
thing was given up for loft; and had the Lacedemo¬
nians taken this opportunity of attacking the city,
they had undoubtedly fucceeded, and thus put an end
to the war: but being at all times flow, efpecially in
naval affairs, they gave the Athenians time to equip a
new fleet, and to retrieve their affairs. One good ef-
fe& of this difafter, however, was the putting an end
for a time to the internal diffenfions of this turbulent j
people ; infomuch that Thucydides the hiftorian is of J
opinion, that the republic never enjoyed fo much quiet
as at this time. jjj \
Alcibiades now {bowed his abilities and inclination Exploits <
to ferve his country in an eminent manner. By his A'‘Clkia<i<
intrigues he fo effedtually embroiled the Perfians and
Peloponnefians with each other, that neither party ]
knew whom to truft. Thrafybulus, with 55 {hips,
gained a vi&ory over the Peloponnefian fleet confifting
of 73 : after which he took 8 galleys coming from Ba-
zantium ; which city had revolted from the Athenians,
but was foon after taken, and the inhabitants feverely
fined. The fleet being afterwards joined by Alcibi¬
ades, nine more of the Peloponnefian galleys were ta¬
ken, the Halicarnafiians were conftrained to pay a large
fum of money, and Cos was ftrongly fortified ; which
tranfa&ions ended the 2 1 ft year of the £eloporinefian
war.
In the fucceeding years of this famous war, the A- j
thenians had at firft great advantages. Thrafybulus
gained a fignal vidtory at fea ; and Alcibiades gained
two vidtories, one by fea and another by land, in one
day, took the whole Poloponnefian fleet, and more
fpoil than his men could carry away. The Spartans ^
were now humbled in their turn, and fued for peace *taU5 ^*5
but the Athenians were fo intoxicated with their fuc- pCuce,
cefs, that they fent back the ambaffadors without an an¬
fwer ; which they foon had fufficient reafon to repent |
of. The beginning of the Athenians misfortunes was
the taking of Pylus by the Spartans. The Athenians ,
had fent a fleet under the command of one Anytus to ub
its defence : but he was driven back by contrary Pylus. 1
winds; upon which he was condemned to death, be-
caufe he could not cauie the wind blow from what ^
quarter he pleafed: this fentence, however, was re¬
mitted on his paying a vaft fum of money. This mif-
fortune was quickly followed by another. The Me- j
garians furprifed Nifasa ; which enraged the Athe- ! *
nians fp much, that they immediately fent an army in¬
to thatrCountry, who defeated the Megarians who op-
pofed them, with great {laughter, and committed horrid ‘ 11
devaftations.
Thefe misfortunes as yet, however, were overbalan¬
ced by the great a&ions of Alcibiades, Thrafybuh *, I
4 and
T T [ 657 1 ATT
When Alcibiades returned, he moft complete viftory; Conon, with eight galleys only, Attfea.
efcaping to Cyprus; after which Lyfander returned to
Attica, and Theramenes.
■ —  brought with him a fleet of 200 fhips, and fuch a load
i ^]cibfades fp°^s as never been feen in Athens fince the
{ enters a.- conclufion of the Perfian war. The people left their
,) thens in city deftitute, that they might crowd to the port, to
k triumph, behold Alcibiades as he landed; old and young blefled
him as he pafled; and next day when he made a ha¬
rangue to the aflembly, they direfted the record of his
banifhment to be thrown into the fea, abfolved him
from the curfes he lay under, and created him general
with full power. Nor did he feem inclined to indulge
161 himfelf in eafe, but foon put to fea again with a fleet
He is dif- of too ftiips. He had not been long gone, however,
graced. before all this was forgot. Alcibiades failed to the
Hellefpont with part of his fleet, leaving the reft un¬
der the command of Antiochus his pilot, but with
Lampfacus, where he put to death Philocles with 3000
of his foldiers, and all the officers except Adiamantus.
This execution being over, he reduced all the cities
fubjeft to Athens ; and with great civility fent home
their garrifons, that fo the city might be overftocked
with inhabitants, and deftitute of provifions, when he
came to befiege it; which he did foon after by fea,
while Agis with a great army invefted it by land. 164
For a long time the Athenians did not fo much as Who rates
defire a peace; but at laft were forced to fend deputies Athens,
to Agis, who fent them to Sparta, where no terms
could be granted except they confented to demolifh
their walls. They next fent to Lyfander, who after a
long attendance referred them to Sparta ; and thither
ftrift orders to attempt nothing before his return. This Theramenes with fome other deputies was immediately
Command the pilot paid no regard to, but provoked
Lyfander the Lacedemonian admiral to an engage¬
ment, and in confequence- of his temerity was defeated
with the lofs of ry fliips, himfelf being killed in the
engagement. On the news of this defeat Alcibiades
fent. On their arrival, they found the council of the
confederates fitting, who all except the Spartans gave
their votes that Athens fliould be utterly dellroyed :
but they would not confent to the ruin of that city,
which had deferved fo well of Greece. On the return Terms of
returned, and endeavoured to provoke the Lacedemo- of Theramenes, peace was concluded, on condition, peace.
nians to a fecond battie: but this Lyfander prudently
declined : and in the mean time the Athenians, with
unparalleled ingratitude and inconftancy, deprived Al¬
cibiades of his command, naming ten new generals in
his room.
'he Athe- This was the laft ftep the Athenians had to take for the walls to be pulled down ; all the mufic in his army
ians gain perfefting their ruin. Conon, who fucceeded to the playing, on that very day of the year on which they
great vie- command, was defeated by Callicratidas Lyfander’s fuc- -* c-i—*■:*'- 1:1 :r„
pr> ai^P.ut ceflbr ; but being afterwards ftrongly reinforced, the
that the long walls and the fortifications of the port
fhould be demoliflied ; that they fhould give up all
their Ihips but 12, receive all they had banifhed, and
follow the fortune of the Lacedemonians. Thefe fe-
vere terms were punctually executed. Lyfander caufed
had beat the Perfians at Salamine. He likewife efta-
blifiied an oligarchy exprefsly againft the will of the
, Lacedemonians were entirely defeated with the lofs of people; and thus the ruin of Athens ended the 27th
77 fhips. Such a viftory might at this time have infpi
red the Athenians with fome kind of gratitude to¬
wards the generals who gained it: but inftead of this,
on pretence of their not having affifted the wounded
during the engagement, eight of them were recalled:
year of the Peloponnefian war, and the 404th before
thrift.
As foon as Lyfander had demolifhed the long walls, The thirty
and the fortifications of the Pyrasum, he conftituted a tyrants,
council of thirty, with power, as was pretended, to
two were wife enough not to return; and the fix who make laws, but in truth to fubjugate the ftate. Thefe
trufted to the juftice of their country v
death.
163
hey art . .
Jitterly de- of what fleet the Peloponnefians had left, with which
|feated by jjg took Thafus and Lampfacus. Conon was difpatch-
ed againft him with 180 fhips, which being greatly
fuperior to Lyfander’s fleet, that general refufed to
come to an engagement, and was blocked up in the
river iEgos. While the Athenians lay there, they
e all put to are the perfons fo famous in hiftory, under the title of
tie thirty tyrants. ' They were all the creatures of Ly-
Lyfandcr;
The next year Lyfander was appointed commander fander ; who, as they derived their rife from conqueft
.1... o-i i-f*- and the law of the fword, exercifed their offices in a
fuitable manner ; that is, with the higheft teflimonies
of pride, infolence, and cruelty. Inftead of making
laws, they governed without them; appointed a fenate
and magiftrates at their will; and, that they might do
all things without danger of controul, they fent for a gar-
grew quite idle and carelefs; infomuch that Alcibiades, rifon from Lacedemon: which was accordingly granted
who had built a caflle for himfelf in the neighbour¬
hood, intreated them to be more on their guard, as he
well knew Lyfander’s abilities. They anfwered, that
they wondered at his affurance, who was an exile and
a vagabond, to come and give laws to them ; telling
him, that if he gave them any farther trouble, they
would feize and fend him to Athens. At the fame
time they looked on viftory as fo certain, that they
confulted what they fhould do with their prifoners;
which, by the advice of Philocles their general, was to
cut off all their right hands, or, according to Plutarch,
their right thumbs ; and Adiamantus one of their of¬
ficers rendered himfelf very obnoxious by faying, that
fuch idle difeourfe did not become Athenians. The
confequences of fuch conduft may be eafily imagined.
Lyfander fell unexpeftedly upon them, and gained a
Vol. II. Part II.
them, under the command of Callidius, upon their pro-
mife to pay the foldiers regularly. One of the firfl
fteps they took was to punifh all informers; which,
though Cevere, was popular; but when, through flattery
and bribes, they had wholly drawn over Callidius to
their party, they fuffered bad men to live in quiet, and
turned their rage againft the good. ,
Critias and Theramenes were at the head of the Critias and
thirty, men of the greateft power and abilities inTherame-
Athens. The former was ambitious and cruel with- nes> their
out meafure ; the latter was fomewhat more merciful: characters
the former pufhed on all the bloody fchemes framed by
his confederates, and carried into execution many of
his own ; the latter always oppofed them, at firft with
moderation, at laft with vehemence. He faid, that
power was given them to rule, and not to fpoil, the
4 O com-
ATT
Attica, commonwealth ; that it became them to ad like (hep-
v herds, not like wolves ; and that they ought to be¬
ware of tendering themfelves at once odious and ridi¬
culous, by attempting to domineer over all, being fuch
a handful of men as they were. The reil, difliking much
[ 658 I
ATT
rife and refcue the Athenian prifoners, who in purfir-
ance of the Lacedemonian decree were carried bound '
through their territories.
Thrafybulus, and fuch as with him had taken fhelter
in the Theban territory, refolved to hazard every thing
the former part of his difcourfe, catched hold of the lat- rather than remain perpetual exiles from their country;
ter, and immediately chofe out 3000, whom they made and though he had but 30 men on whom he could de-
the reprefentatives of the people, and to whom they
granted this notable privilege, that none of them (hould
be put to death but by judgment of the fenate, thereby
openly affuming a power of putting any other of the
Athenian citizens to death by their own authority. A
glorious ufe they made of this new-affumed privilege ;
for as many as they conje&ured to be no friends to the
government in general, or to any of themfelves in par¬
ticular, they put to death, without caufe, and without
mercy. Theramenes openly oppofing this, and abfo-
lutely refufing to concur in fuch meafures, Critias ac-
cufed him to the fenate as a man of untteady princi¬
ples, fometimes for the people, fometimes againft them,
always for new things and ftate-revolutions. Thera¬
menes owned, that he had fomeiimes changed his mea¬
fures, but alleged that he had always done it to ferve
the people. He faid that it was folely with this view he
169
pend, yet confidering the victories he had heretofore ob¬
tained in the caufe of his country, he made an irruption
into Attica, where he feized Phyla, a caftle at a very Thrafybi
fmall diftance from Athens, where in a very fhort fpace lus feize
his forces were augmented to 700 men ; and though Phy11,
the tyrants made ufe of the Spartan garrifon in their
endeavours to reduce him and his party, yet Thrafybu¬
lus prevailed in various Ikirmiihes, and at lafl. obliged
them to break up the blockade of Phyla, which they
had formed. The thirty and their party conceiving it
very advantageous for them to have the pofleflion of
Eleulina, marched tbnher, and having perfuaded the
people to go unarmed out of their city, that they
might number them, took this opportunity moll inhu¬
manly to murder them. The forces of Thrafybulus in-
creafing daily, he at length polfefled himfelf of the Pi-
raeum, which he fortified in the bell manner he fconld
made the peace with Sparta, and accepted the office of but the tyrants being determined to drive him from
e of the thirty; that he had never oppofed their mea- thence, came down againft him with the utmoft force
Thera-
fures while they cut off the wicked ; but when they
began to deftroy men of fortune and family, then he
owned he had differed with them, which he conceived
to be no crime againft the ftate. —
While Theramenes was fpeaking, Critias withdrew,
menes put perceiving that the fenate were thoroughly convinced of a captain of the Pirasum,
they could raife. Thrafybulus defended himfelf with
great obftinacy ; and in the end they were forced to
retreat, having loft before the place not only a great
number of their men, but Critias the prefident of the Critias
thirty, another of the fame body, and one who had been killed.
to death.
the truth of what Theramenes had faid: but he quickly
returned with a guard, crying out, that he had ftruck
Theramenes’s name out of the lift of the 3000 ; that
When they came to demand the dead from Thrafy¬
bulus, in order for their interment, he caufed a crier
he had with him to make a fhort fpeech in a very loud
the fenate had therefore no longer cognizance of the voice to the people, intreating them to confider, that
caufe, which the thirty had already judged, and con- as they were citizens of Athens without, fo thofe againft'
demned him to death. Theramenes perceiving that whom they fought, and thofe who fought to prtferve
they intended to feize him, fled to the altar, which
was in the midft of the fenate-houfe, and laying his
hands thereon, faid, “ I do not feek refuge here be-
caufe I expedl to efcape death or defire it; but that,
tearing me from the altar, the impious authors of my
murder may intereft the gods in bringing them to fpeedy
judgment, and thereby reftore freedom to my country.”
The guards then dragged him from the altar, and car¬
ried him to the place of execution, where he drank the
poifon with undaunted courage, putting the people in
mind with his laft breath, that as they had ftruck his
name out of the 3000, they might alfo ftrike out any
©f theirs. His death was followed by a train of mur¬
ders, fo that in a fhort time 60 of the worthieft and
themfelves within the fort, were Athenian citizens alfoj
wherefore, inftead of thinking how to ruin and deftroy
their brethren, they ought rather to confult how all
differences ought to be compofed, and efpecially ought
to rid themfelves of thofe bloody tyrants, who, in the
ftrort time they had had the adminiftration in their
hands, had deftroyed more than had fallen in the Pelo-
ponnefian war. The people, though moved by thefe dif-
courfes, differed among themfelves; the confequence of
which was, that they expelled the thirty, and chofe ten TheVyr
men out of each tribe to govern in their ftead, where- expelled.!
upon the tyrants retired to Eleufina. The citizens,
however, though they changed the government, made
no agreement with thofe in the Piraeum; but fent away
moft eminent citizens of Athens fell by the cruelty of deputies to Sparta, as did alfb the tyrants from Eleu-
   A -v- ^ , f., i ^ A mtmn XTC /vno T~»loirainnP that
die thirty. Among thefe, the moft pitied was Ni-
ceratus the fon of Nicias ; a man univertally beloved
for his goodnefs, and univerfally admired for his vir¬
tues. As for the Spartans, they, loling their former
generofity, were extremely pleafed with thefe things,
and by a public decree commanded that fuch as fled
from the thirty tyrants fiiould be carried back bound
to Athens:: which extraordinary proceeding frightened
all Greece ; but the Argives and Thebans only had
courage to oppofe it: the former received the Athe¬
nian exiles with humanity and kindnefs; the latter pu-
nifhed with a mulct fuch of their citizens as did not
fina, complaining, that the Athenians had revolted,
and defiring their affiftance to reduce them. The Spar-
tans fent thereupon a large fum of money to encourage Attempt
their confederates, and appointed Lyfander commander the Spar-)
in chief, and his brother to be admiral; refolving t°Vlr!St^^
fend fea and land forces to reduce Athens a fecondf^^6"
time ’r intending, as moft of the Greek ftates fufpedled, time. i
to add it now to their own dominions. It is very pro¬
bable that this defign of theirs would have taken ef-
feft, if Paufanias king of Sparta, envying Lyfander,.
had not refolved to obftru& it. With this view, he
procured another army to be raifed againft the Athe¬
nians,.
:
ATT [ 659 ] ATT
Attica, mans, of which himfelf had the command, and with
l“—“v which he marched immediately to befiege the Piraeum.
While he lay before the place, and pretended to attack
it, he entered into a private correfpondence withThra*
fybulus, informing him what propofitions he fltould
make in order to force the Lacedemonians, who were
T73 fufpe&ed by their allies, to grant them peace.
How fra- The intrigues of Paufanias had all the fuccefs he
flrated. could wilh. TheEphori who were with him in the camp
concurred in his meafures, fo that in a Ihort fpace a*
treaty was concluded on the following terms: That all
the citizens of Athens Ihould be reftored ito their houfes
and privileges, excepting the thirty, the ten which had
fucceeded them and who had afted no lefs tyrannically
than they, and the eleven who during the time of the
oligarchy had been conftituted governors or keepers of
the Pirseum ; that all Ihould remain quiet for the fu¬
ture in the city; and that if any were afraid to truft to
this agreement, they (hould have free leave to retire to
Eleufina. Paufanias then marched away with the Spar¬
tan army, and Thrafybulus at the head of his forces
marched into Athens, where, having laid down their
arms, they facrificed with the reft of the citizens in the
temple of Minerva, after which the popular govern¬
ment was reftored. Yet quiet was not thoroughly efta-
blilhed. The exiles at Eleufina having endeavoured
by the help of money to raife an army of foreigners,
by whofe aid they might recover the authority they
had loft : but firft depending on their friends in the
city, they fent fome of the principal perfons amongft
them as deputies, to treat with the citizens; but ftri&ly
inftru&ed them to fow jealoufies and excite difeords
among them. This the latter quickly perceiving, put
thele perfons to death ; and then remonftrating to thofe
at Eleufina, that thefe contentions would undoubtedly
end either in their own or the deftruftion of their coun¬
try, they offered immediately to pafs an aft of oblivion,
which they would confirm with an oath.
This being accepted, thofe who had withdrawn re¬
turned to the city, where all differences were adjufted,
and both parties moft religioufly obferved the agree¬
ment they had made, and thereby thoroughly refettled
.. *74 the ftate. In this whole tranfaftion, the virtue of Thra-
Phrat - fyhulus deferves chiefly to be admired. When he firft
U1US, feized the caftle of Phyla, the tyrants privately offered
to receive him into their number inftead of Theramenes,
and to pardon at his requeft any I z perfons he ftiould
name : but he generoufiy anfwered, That his exile was
far more honourable than any authority could be, pur-
chafed on fuch terms; and by perfifting in his ddign,
Iaccomplilhed, as we have feen, the deliverance of his
country. A glorious deliverance it was; fince, as Ifo-
crates inform us, they had put 1400 citizens<to death
contrary to and without any form of law, and driven
5000 more into banifliment; procuring alfo the death
of Alcibiades, as many think, tho’ at a great diftance
from them.
From this time to the reign of Philip of Macedon, the
Athenians continued in a pretty profperous fituation,
though they never performed any fuch great exploits
as formerly. By that monarch and his fon Alexander
all Greece was in effeft fubdued; and the hiiloryof all
the Grecian ftates from that time becomes much lefs
iRterefting. Of the hiftory of Athens from that time
to the prefeat, the following elegant abridgment is gi¬
ven by Dr Chandler *. “ On the death of Alexander, Attica.
the Athenians revolted, but were defeated by Antipa- ^ 1'f
ter, - who garrifoned Munychia. They rebelled again, ^ *
but the garrifon and oligarchy were reinftated. De- ™
metrius the Phalerean, who was made governor, beau- 175
tified the city, and they erefted to him 360 ftatues; HiftMy of
which on his expulfion they demolifhed, except one
in the Acropolis. Demetiius Poliorcetes withdrew thCf^g of A.
garrifon, and reftored the democracy; when they deified lexander
him, and lodged him in the Opifthodomos or the back the Great
part of the Parthenon, as agueft to be entertained by Fre‘
their goddefs Minerva. Afterwards they decreed, that16" ’
the Piraeus, with Munychia, fhould be at his difpofal ;
and he took the Mufeum. They expelled his garifon,
and he was perfuaded by Craterus a philofopher to
leave them free. Antigonus Gonatas, the next king,
maintained a garrifon in Athens: but, on the death of
his fon Demetrius, the people, with the afiiftance of
Aral us, regained their liberty ; and the Pirasus, Mu¬
nychia, Salamis, and Sunium, on paying a fum of
money.
“ Philip, fon of Demetrius, encamping near the city,
deftroying and burning the fepulchres and temples in
the villages, and laying their territory wafte, the Athe¬
nians were reduced to folicit proteftion from the Ro¬
mans, and to receive a garrifon, which remained until
the war with Mithridates king of Pontus, when the
tyrant Ariftion made them revolt. jyg
“ Archelaus the Athenian general, unable to with-Athens be-
ftand the Roman fury, relinquilhed the long walls, andfiegde and
retreated into the Piraeus and Munychia. Sy 11a laid g34.^1 ^
fiege to the Piraeus and to the city, in which Ariftion
commanded. He was informed that fome perfons had
been overheard talking in the Ceramicus, and blaming
Ariftion for his negleft of the avenues about the Hep-
tachalcos, where the wall was accefiible. Sylla refolved
to ftorm there, and about midnight entered the town at
the gate called Dypylon or the Pirasan ; having levelled
all obftacles in the way between it and the gate of the
Piraeus. Ariftion fled to the Acropolis, but was com¬
pelled to furrender by the want of water ; when he was
dragged from the temple of Minerva, and put to death.
Sylla burned the Piraeus and Munychia, and defaced the
city and fuburbs, not fparing even the fepulchres.”
The civil war between Caffar and Pompey foon fol¬
lowed, and their natural love of liberty made them
fide with Pompey. Here again they were unfortu¬
nate, for Caefar conquered. But Caefar did not treat
them like Sylla. With that clemency which made fo
amiable a part of his charafter, he difmiffed them by a
fine allufion to their illuftrious anceftors, faying, that
he fpared the living for the fake of the dead.
Another ftorm followed foon after this; the wars of
Brutus and Cafiius with Auguftus and Antony. Their
partiality for liberty did not here forfake them : they
took part in the conteft with the two patriot Romans,
and erefted their ftatues near their own ancient deli¬
verers Harmodius and Ariftogiton, who had flain Hip¬
parchus. But they were ftill unhappy, for their ene¬
mies triumphed.
“ They next joined Antony, who gave them iEgina *
and Cea, with other iflands. Auguftus was unkind to
them; and they revolted four years before he died.
Under Tiberius the city was declining, but free, and
regarded as an ally of the Romans. . The high privi-
4 O 2 lege
Attica.
Till
By Alaric
the Goth.
ATT [ 660 ] ATT
lege of having a li&or to precede the magiftrates was
conferred on it by Germanicus ; but he was cenfured
as treating with too much condefcenfion a mixture of
nations, inftead of genuine Athenians, which race was
then confidered as extinft.
“ The emperor Vefpafian reduced Achaiato a pro¬
vince paying tribute and governed by a proconful.
Nerva was more propitious to the Athenians ; and
Pliny, under Trajan his fucceffor, exhorts Maximus to
be mindful whether he was fent, to rule genuine Greece,
a ftate compofed of free cities. ‘ You will revere the
gods and heroes their founders. You will refpedt
their priftine glory, and even their age. You will ho¬
nour them for the famous deeds, which are truly,
nay for thofe which are fabuloufly, recorded of them.
Remember, it is Athens you approach.’ This city
was now entirely dependent on Rome, and was redu¬
ced to fell Delos and the iflands in its pofftffion.
“ Hadrian, who was at once emperor and an archon
of Athens, gave the city laws, compiled from Draco,
Solon, and the codes of other legiflators; and difplayed
his affe&ion for it by unbounded liberality. Athens
reflourilhed, and its beauty was renewed. Antoninus
Pius who fucceeded, and Antoninus the Philofopher,
were both benefa&ors.
“ The barbarians of the north, in the reign of Vale¬
rian, befieging Theffalonica, all Greece was terri¬
fied, and the Athenians reftored their city-wall, which
had been difmantled by Sylla, and afterwards ne-
gledted.
“ Under the next emperor, who was the archon
Gallienus, Athens was befieged, the archontic office
eeafed ; and the Strategus or general, who had before
afted as overfeer of the agora or market, then became
the fupreme magiftrate. Under Claudius the fucceffor,
the city was taken, but foon recovered.
“ It is related, that Conftantine, when emperor,
gloried in the title of general of Athens ; and rejoiced
exceedingly on obtaining from the people the honour
of a ftatue with an infcription, which he acknowledged
by a yearly gratuity of many bufhels of grain. He
conferred on the governor of Attica and Athens the
title of grand duke That office was at firft
annual, but afterwards hereditary. His fon Conftans
bellowed feveral iflands on the city, to fupply it with
“ In the time of Theodofius the Firft, 380 years
after Chrift, the Goths laid wafte Theffaly and Epirus;
but Theodore, general of the Achaeans, by his prudent
condudl preferved the cities of Greece from pillage, and
the inhabitants from being led into captivity. A ftatue
of marble was erefted to him at Athens by order of the
city ; and afterwards one of brafs, by command of the
emperor, as appears from an infcription in a church de¬
dicated to a faint of the fame name, not far from the
French convent. It is on a round pedeftal, which fup-
ports a flat ftone ferving for the holy table. Eudocia
the wife of Theodofrus the Second was an Athenian.
“• The fatal period now approached, and Athens
was about to experience a conqueror more favage even
than Sylla. This was Alaric king of the Goths ; who,
tinder the emperors Arcadius aud Honorius, over-ran
Greece and Italy, lacking, pillaging, and deftroying.
Then the Peloponnefian towns were overturned, Arca¬
dia and Lacedemon were laid wafte, the two feas by
the Ifthmus were burnifhed with the flames of Corinth,
and the Athenian matrons were dragged in chains by
barbarians. The invaluable treafures of antiquity, it is
related, were removed; the ftately and magnificent
ftru&ures converted into piles of ruin; and Athens was
ftripped of every thing fplendid or remarkable. Syne-
fius, a writer of that age, compares the city to a viftim,
of which the body had been confumed, and the hide
only remained.
“ After this event, Athens became an unimportant
place, and as obfcure as it once had been famous. We
read that the cities of Hellas were put into a ftate of
defence by Juftinian, who repaired the walls, which at
Corinth had been fubverted by an earthquake, and at
Athens and in Bceotia were impaired by age ; and here
we take a long farewell of this city. A chafm of near
700 years enfues in its hiftory, except that, about the
year 1130, it furniffied Roger the Firft king of Sicily
with a number of artificers, whom he fettled at Palermo,
where they introduced the culture of filk, which then
paffed into Italy. The worms had been brought from
India to Conftantinople in the reign of Juftinian.
“ Athens, as it were, re-emerges from oblivion in
the 13th century, under Baldwin, but befieged by a
general of Theodorus Lafcaris, the Greek emperor.
It was taken in 1427 by Sultan Morat. Boniface, mar¬
quis of Montferrat, poffeffed it with a garrifon ; after
whom it was governed by Delves, of the houfe of Ar-
ragon. On his death, it was feized, with Macedonia,
Theffaly, Bceotia, Thocis, and the Pdoponnefus, by
Bajazet ; and then, with the ifland Zante, by the Spa¬
niards of Catalonia in the reign of the Greek emperor
Andronicus Pakeologus the elder. Thefe were difpof-
feffedby Reinerius Acciaioli, a Florentine; who,leaving
no legitimate male iffue, bequeathed it to the ftate of Ve¬
nice. His natural fon, Antony, to whom he had given
Thebes with Bceotia, expelled the Venetians. He was
fucceeded in the dukedom by his kinfmanNerius, who
was difplaced by his own brother named Antony, but
recovered the government when he died. Nerius lea¬
ving only an infant fon, was fucceeded by his wife. She
was ejedted by Mahomet on a complaint from Francus
fon of the fecond Antony, who confined her at Me-
gara, and made away with her ; but her fon accufing
him to Mahomet the Second, the Turkiflr army under
Omar advanced, and he furrendered the citadel in 1455;
the Latins refufing to fuccour him unlefs the Athe¬
nians would embrace their religious tenets. Mahomet,
it is related, when he had finifhed the war with the
defpot of the Morea, four years after, furveyed the city
and Acropolis with admiration. Thejanizariesinformed
him of a confpiracy; and Francus Acciaioli, who re¬
mained lord of Boeotia, was put to death. In 1464^0
Venetians landed at the Piraeus, furprifed the city, and
carried off their plunder and captives to Euboea.
“ It is remarkable, that, after thefe events Athens was
again in a manner forgotten. So lately as about the
middle of the 16th century, the city was commonly be¬
lieved to have been utterly deftroyed, and not to exift,
except a few huts of poor fifhermen. Crufius, a learned
and inquifitive German, procured more authentic in¬
formation from his Greek correfpondents refiding in
Turky, which he publiffied in 1584, to awaken curio-
fity and to promote farther difcoveries. One of thefe
letters is from a native, of Nauplia, a town near Argo*
Attica.
178-
By the
Turks.
ATT r 66! 1 ATT
Attica, in the Morea. This writer fays, that he had been often
'■“-v at Athens-, and that it ftiil contained many things wor¬
thy to be feen, fome of which he enumerates, and then
fubjoins: “ But why do I dwell on this place ? It is as
the fkin of an animal which has been long dead.”
It now remains to give fome idea of the charac¬
ter, government, and religion, of this once fo famous
179 PeoPle-
Chara&er The Athenians, fays Plutarch, are very fubjeft to
of the an- violent anger ; but they are foon pacified. They are
cient Athe-ljkewife eafjly imprefled with humanity and compafiion.
That this was their temper, is proved by many hiftori-
cal examples. We (hall produce a few. The fentence
of death pronounced againft the inhabitants of Mity-
lene, and revoked the next day: The condemnation
of Socrates, and that of the ten chiefs, each followed
by quick repentance and moft pungent grief.
The minds of the fame people, adds Plutarch, are
not formed for laborious refearches. They feize a fub-
jeft, as it were, by intuition ; they have not patience
and phlegm enough to examine it gradually and mi¬
nutely. This part of their chara&er may feem fur-
priiing and incredible. Artifans, and other people
of their rank, are in general flow of com prehen fion.
But the Athenians of every degree were endowed
with an inconceivable vivacity, penetration, and deli¬
cacy of tafte. Even the Athenian foldiers could re¬
peat the fine paflages of the tragedies of Euripides.
Thofe artifans and thofe foldiers affifted at public de¬
bates, were bred to political affairs, and were equally
acute in apprehenfion and in judgment. We may in¬
fer the underftanding of the hearers of Demofthenes
from the genius of his orations, which were laconic
and poignant.
As their inclination, continues Plutarch, leads them
to aflift and fupporc people of low condition, they like
difcourfe feafoned with pleafantry, and productive of
mirth. The Athenians patronize people of low de¬
gree ; becaufe from them their liberty is in no danger,
and becaufe fuch patronage tends to fupport a demo-
cratical conftitution. They love pleafantry; which
turn of mind proves, that they are a humane focial
people, who have a tafte for raillery and wit, and are
not foured with thatreferve which marks the defpot or
the flave.
They take pleafure in hearing themfclves praifed;
but they can likewife patiently bear raillery and een-
fure. We know with what art and fuccefs Arifto-
phanes and Demofthenes applied their praife and their
irony to the Athenian people. When the republic
enjoyed peace, fays the fame Plutarch in another
place, it encouraged the adulation of its orators: but
when it had important affairs to difcufs, when the
ftate was in danger, it became ferious; and preferred,
to its eloquent fycophants, the honeft orators who
oppofed its follies and its vices; fuch ingenious and
bold patriots as a Pericles,, a Phocion, and a De-
mofthenes.
The Athenians, continues Plutarch, often make
their governors tremble, and fhow great humanity to
their enemies. They were very attentive to the infor¬
mation and inftruftion of thofe citizens who were moft
eminent for their policy and eloquence ; but they were
on their guard againft the fuperiority of their talents j
they often checked their boldnefs, and repreffed their Attica:,
exuberant reputation and glory. That this was their
temper, we are convinced by the oftracifm ; which was
eftablifhed to reftrain the ambition of thofe who had
great talents and influence, and which fpared neither
the greateft nor the beft men. The deteftation of ty¬
ranny and of tyrants, which was inherent in the Athe¬
nians, rendered them extremely jealous of their privi¬
leges, made them zealous and aftive in defence of their
liberty, whenever they thought it was violated by men
in power.
As to their enemies, they did not treat them with
rigour. They did not abufe vi&ory by a brutal inhu¬
manity to the vanquifhed. The aft of amnefty, which
they paffed after the ufurpation of the 30 tyrants,
proves that they could eafily forgive injuries. It was
this mildnefs, this humanity of dilpofition, which made
the Athenians fo attentive to the rules of politenefs
and decorum. In their war with Philip, having fei-
zed one of his couriers, they read all the letters he
bore, except one from Olympias to her huiband,-
which they fent back unopened. Such was their ve¬
neration of love and conjugal fecrecy; thofe facred
rights, which no enmity, no hoftility, warrants us to
violate !
The views of conqueft cherilhed by a fmall republic,
were extenfive and aftoniftiing; but this people, fo
great, fo ambitious in their projefts, were, in other
refpefts, of a different charafter. In the expences of
the table, in drefs, in furniture, in houfes, in fliort, in
private life, they were frugal. Ample, modeft, poor;
but fumptuoua and magnificent whenever the ho¬
nour of the ftate was concerned. Their conqueftsr
their viftories, their riches, their conneftions with
the inhabitants of Afia Minor, never reduced them to
luxury, to riot, to pomp, to profulion. Xenophon
remarks, that a citizen was not diftinguiflied from a
flave by his drefs. The wealthieft citizen, the molt
renowned general, was not- aftiamed to go himfelf to
market.
The tafte of the Athenians, for all the arts and
fciences, is well known. When they had delivered
themfelves from the tyranny of Pififtratus, and after
this had defeated the vail efforts of the Perfians, they
may be confidered as at the fummit of their national
glory. For more than half a century afterwards they
maintained, without contreulr the fovereignty of
Greece; and that afeendant produced a fecurity,
which left their minds at eafe, and gave them leifure
to cultivate every thing liberal or elegant. It was then
that Pericles adorned the city with temples, theatres,
and other beautiful, public buildings. Phidias, the
great fculptor, was employed as his architeft, who,
when he had erefted edifices, adorned them himfelf,
and added ftatues and baffo-relievo’s, the. admiration of
every beholder. It was then that Polignotus and My-
ro painted ; that Sophocles and Euripides wrote ; and:.
not long after, that they faw the divine Socrates.
Human affairs are, by nature, prone to change ;
and ftates, as well as individuals, are born to decay.
Jealoufy and ambition infenfibly fomented wars, and
fuccefs in thefe wars, as in others, was often various.
The military ftrength of the Athenians was firft im«
paired by the Lacedemonians; after that, it was again
hu*
ATT [ 662 ] ATT
Attka, humiliated, under Epaminondas, by the Thebans;
“ * and laft of all it was wholly cruihed by the Macedo¬
nian, Philip.
Nor, when their political fovereignty Was loll, did
their love of literature and arts link along with it.
Juft, at the clofe of their golden days of empire flou-
rilhed Xenophon and Plato, the difciples of Socrates,
and from Plato defcehded that race of philofophers
called the Old Academy. Ariftotle, who was Plato’s
difciple, may be faid, not to have invented a new phi-
lofophy, but rather to have tempered the fublime afid
rapturous myfteries of his niafter with method, order,
and a ftrifter mode of reafoning. Zeno, who was
himfelf alfo educated in the principles of Platonifm,
^nly differed from Plato in the comparative eftimate
of things, allowing nothing to be intrinficaily good
but virtue, nothing intrinfically bad but vice, and con-
iidering all other things to be in themfelves indifferent.
He too and Ariftotle accurately cultivated logic, but
in different ways ; for Ariftotle chiefly dwelt upon
the fimple fyllogifm; Zeno upon that which is derived
out of it, the compound or hypothetic. Both too, as
well as other philofophers, cultivated rhetoric along
with logic ; holding a knowledge in both to be requi-
fite for thofe who think of addreffing mankind with
all the efficacy of perfuafion. Zeno elegantly illuftra-
ted the force of thefe two powers by a fimile, taken
from the hand; the clofe power of logic he compared
to the fift, or hand eompreil; the diffufe power of lo¬
gic, to the palm, or hand open.
The new academy was founded by Arcefilas, and
ably maintained by Cameades. From a miftaken imi¬
tation of the great parent of philofophy Socrates (par¬
ticularly as he appears in the dialogues of Plato), be-
caufe Socrates doubted fome things, therefore Arce-
fdas and Carneades doubted all.—Epicurus drew from
another fource ; Democritus had taught him atoms and
a void ; by the fortuitous concourfe of atoms he fan¬
cied he could form a world ; while by a feigned vene¬
ration he complimented away his gods, and totally de¬
nied their providential care, left the trouble of it ffiould
impair their uninterrupted ftate of blifs. Virtue he
recommended, though not for the fake of virtue, but
pleafure : pleafure, according to him, being our chief
and fovereign good. See Aristotle, Epicurus,
Plato, Socrates, &c.
We have already mentioned the alliance between
philofophy and rhetoric. This cannot be thought
wonderful, if rhetoric be the art by which men are per-
fuaded, and if men cannot be perfuaded without a
knowledge of human nature : for what but philofophy
can procure us this knowledge ? It was for this reafon
the ableft Greek philofophers not only taught, but wrote
alfo, treatifes upon rhetoric. They had a farther induce¬
ment, and that was the intrinftc beauty of their lan¬
guage as it was then fpoken among the learned and po¬
lite. They would have been alhamed to have deliver¬
ed philofophy, as it has been too often delivered fince,
in compofitions as clumfy as the common diale£t of the
mere vulgar.
The fame love of elegance, which made them at¬
tend to their ftyle, made them attend even to the pla¬
ces where their phrlelophy was taught. Plato deli¬
vered his lectures in a place lhaded with groves, on the
banks of the river Iliffus; and which, as it once be¬
longed to a perfon called Acade?nus, was called after
his name, the Academy. Ariftotle chofe another fpot
of a fun liar charadfter, where there were trees and lhade ;
a fpot called the Lyceum. Zeno taught in a portico
or colonnade, diftinguifhed from other buildings of that
fort (of which the Athenians had many) by the name
of the Variegated Portk'), the walls being decorated with
various paintings of Polygnotus and Myro, two ca¬
pital mafters of that tranfcendent period. Epicurus
addreffed his hearers in thofe well-known gardens, call¬
ed, after his own name, The gardens of Epicurus.
Thefe places of public inftitution were called among
the Greeks by the name of Gymnafia; in which, what¬
ever that word might have originally meant, were
taught all thofe exercifes, and all thofe arts, which
tended to cultivate not only the body but the mind.
As man was a being conlifting of both, the Greeks
could not confider that education as complete, in which
both were not regarded, and both propeily formed.
Hence their Gymnafia, with reference to this double
end, were adorned with two ftatues, thofe of Mercury
and of Hercules, the corporeal accompliftiments being
patrOnifed (as they fuppofed) by the god of ftrength,
the mental acComplilhments by the god of ingenuity.
It was for the cultivation of every liberal accom-
plifhment that Athens was celebrated (as we have
faid) during many centuries, long after her political
influence was loft and at an end.
She was the place of education, not only for Greeks
but for Romans. It was hither that Horace was
fent by his father; it was here that Cicero put his fon
Marcus under Cratippus, one of the ableft philofophers
then belonging to that city.—The fe&s of philofo¬
phers, which we have already defcribed, were ftill ex-
ifting when St Paul came thither. We cannot enough
admire the fuperior eloquence of that apoftle, in his
manner of addreffing fo intelligent an audience. We
cannot enough admire the fublimity of his exordium ;
the propriety of his mentioning an altar which he had
found there; and his quotation from Aratus, one of their
well-known poets. Nor was Athens only celebrated
for the refidence of philofophers, and the inftitution of
youth : men of rank and fortune found pleafure in a
retreat, which contributed fo much to their liberal en¬
joyment.
We {hall finifh this pifture of the Athenians by the
addition of one object more, to which every one will
admit they have a right; an objeft which was promi¬
nent and ftriking, in all their a&ions and in all their
e'nterprizes: We mean their ardent love of liberty.
This was their predominant quality ; the main fpring
of their government. From the beginning.of the Per-
fian war, they facrificed every thing to the liberty of
Greece. They left, without hefitation, their cities,
their houfes, to fight at fea the common enemy, from
whom they were in danger of fervitude. What a glo¬
rious day was it for Athens, when all her allies, grow¬
ing flexible to the advantageous offers which were made
to them by the king of Perfia, (he replied by Ariftides,
to the ambaffadors of that monarch,—“ That it was
AttUa.
impoffible for all the gold in the world to tempt the re¬
public of Athens: to prevail with her to fell her liber¬
ty, and that of Greece.” It was by thefe generous
fenti-
ATT [ 663 ] ATT
j Attica, ffntiments that the Athenians not only became the
''—""'v bulwark of Greece, but likewife guarded the 1 eft of
Europe from a Perfian invaiion.
Thefe great qualities were blended with great fail¬
ings, feemingly incompatible with patriotifm. For the
Athenians, notwithftanding their tenacious jealouly of
the rights pf their country, were a volatile, inconftant,
H Tg0 capricious people.
Religion. There never was a people more attentive to the wor¬
ship of the gods than the Athenians. The vvorlhip of
their principal deities was diffufed over all Greece, and
even beyond its limits.
Each temple had its particular religious rites : the
pomp, the ceremonies, the duration, and the fuccef-
fion of the folemn feafts, were all appointed by fixed
rules. The worfhip paid to each divinity, whether
public or private, was founded on traditions, or on laws
conftantly obeyed. The feaft of Bacchus, the Pana-
thentea, the feaft of the myfteries of Eleufis, were ce¬
lebrated according to eftabliftied rules, moft of which
were as ancient as the feafts themfelves. The old cu-
ftoms, of which the priefts were the guardians, were
obferved in the temples. It is probable that the priefts
were confulted on affairs in which the worfhip of a
deity was interefted, and that their anfwer was decifive.
We are certain that the Eumolpidae had this authority.
They were the interpreters of the ancient laws on which
the worfhip of Ceres was founded, its magnificence,
and its mode—laws which were not written, as Lyfias
informs us, but were perpetuated by a conftant obferva-
tioh. The abufes which had gradually crept into the
celebration of thofe feafts, had given rife to feveralnew
regulations; to that of the orator Lycurgus, for ex¬
ample, and to the law of Solon, which enjoined the
ferrate to repair to Eleufis on the fecond day of the
feaft : but neither thefe nor the other particular regu¬
lations which we find in Samuel Petit’s colle&ion of
Attic laws, could make a religious code. There was no
general fyftem which comprehended all the branches
of their religion, which, by combining all its articles,
might regulate their belief and conduft, and direft the
judges in their deciiions.
181 Crimes againft religion were only puniflied as they
tiaftreli- l^e ^ate i an(^ confequently they were tried by
on why the magiftrate. Mere raillery, though fomewhat pro-
metimes fane, was thought productive of no worfit confequence
miffed than offending the miuitters of the gods. The Athe-
'y eve* nians acknowledged no other religion than the heredi¬
tary public worfhip ; no other gods than thofe they
had received from their anceftors ; no other ceremonies
I than thofe which had been eftablifhed by the laws of
the ftate, and praCtifed by their country from time im¬
memorial. They were only felicitous to preferve this
worfhip, which was clofely interwoven with their go¬
vernment, and made a part of its policy. They were
likewife attentive to the ceremonial pomp; becaufe or-
jr der, the regular vigour of legiflation, depends greatly
on the awe impreffed by externals. But as to the in-
I confiftent and monftrous romance of fables, foreign o-
pinions, popular traditions, and poetical fiftions, which
d - formed a religion quite different from that of the ftate
1! —in it they were very little interefted, and allowed
every one to think of it as he pleafed.
This explanation will reconcile a feeming contradic¬
tion in the conduCl of the Athenians, who gave great
licence to their poets, and feverely punifhed the ci- Attica,
ttzens who were guilty of impiety. Ariftophanes,
who made as free with the gods as with the great, was
applauded by the Athenians. They condemned So¬
crates to death, who revered the deity, but difapproved
the public manner of worfhipping him. The life of
iEfchylus was in danger from a fufpicion that he had
revealed fome of the feertts of Eleufis in one of his
pieces. The wit of Ariftophanes’s drama was unpu-
nifhed. _
The priefts were not confined to the care of the al-Priefts their
tars; they who were veiled with the facerdotal digni-duty-
ty, which was only incompatible with profeffions
merely ufeful and lucrative, might likewife hold the
moft important offices of the commonwealth. This
we could prove by a great number of examples ; we
fhall cite that of Xenophon the illuftrious hiftorian and
philofopher : he was likewife a famous general, and he
was a prieit. He was performing the facerdotal func¬
tion when he received the news of his fon’s death, who
was killed at the battle of Mantinea.
,The facred miniitry was not only compatible with
civil offices, but likewife with the profeffion of arms.
The prieft and the foldier were often blended. Cal-
lias, the prieft of Ceres, fought at Plataea. This cu-
ftora was not peculiar to the Athenians. The La¬
cedemonians, after the battle which we have juft men¬
tioned, made three graves for their flain ; one for the
priefts, one for the other Spartans, and one for the
Helots.
As every mean employment was incompatible with Sacred re-
the facerdotal dignity, the priefts had a revenue fixed vcnue*'&ct'
to their office. We know that a part of the viclims
was their right, and that apartments were affigned
them near the temples. But, befide thefe advantages,
they had a falary proportioned to the dignity of their
functions and to the rank of the deities whom they
fer ved. Their falary was probably paid from the re¬
venue of the temples. Thofe revenues, which kept the
temples in repair, and defrayed the faerificial expences,
were very coniiderable. They were of many different
kinds.
A great part of the facred revenues arofe from fines,
which individuals were condemned to pay for various
offences;- fines, of which the tenth part was appro¬
priated to Minerva Polias, and the fiftieth to the other
gods and to the heroes whofe names their tribes bore.
Befides, if the PrytaneS did not hold the affemblies
conformably with the laws, they were obliged to pay
a fine of 1000 drachms to the goddefs. If the Proe-
dri, e. the lenators whofe office it was to lay before
the affembly the matters on which they were to delibe¬
rate, did not difeharge that duty according to the
rules preferibed to them, they were likevvife condemned
to pay a fine, which, as the former, was applied to the
uie of Minerva- By thefe fines her temple ftiuft have'
been greatly enriched.
Befides this revenue, which was the common pro¬
perty of the gods, and which varied according to the
number and degrees of the mifdemeanors, the temples
had their permanent revenues: We mean the produce
of the lands which were confecrated to the deities.
We do not here allude to the lands confecrated to the
gods, which were never to be cultivated ; fuch as the
territory of Cirrha, proferibed by a folemn decree of
1 A©
ATT
the Amphi&yons ; the land betwixt Megara and At¬
tica, which was confecrated to the goddefles of Eleu-
fis, and many others. We would fpeak only of thpfe
which were cultivated, the fruits of which enriched the
temples.
There were likewife lands belonging to the ftate, the
produce of which was deftined to defray the expence of
the facrifices which were offered in the name of the re¬
public. There were likewife firfl-fruits which the pu¬
blic officers levied on all lands, for the ufe of the gods.
All thefe emoluments made a part of the revenue of the
temples.
The gods, befides the revenues immediately apper¬
taining to their temples, had certain rights which were
granted them by particular compasdl. The Lepreatae,
for inflance, were obliged to pay every year a talent to
Olympian Jupiter, on account of a treaty of alliance
.which they made with the Eleans in one of their wars.
The inhabitants of Epidaurus, to obtain leave from
the Athenians to cut down olive-trees for ftatues,
which the Pythian prieftefs had commanded them to
make, engaged to fend deputies every year to Athens,
to offer facrifices in their name to Minerva and to Nep¬
tune. But this prerogative was rather honorary than
lucrative.
The tenth part of the fpoils taken in war was like¬
wife the property of Minerva. Sacred veffels were
bought with the effe&s of the 30 tyrants. In fhort,
the gods were profited by almoft. every public accident.
But what contributed moll to enrich the famous tem¬
ples of Greece, was the money which was conftantly
brought to them by individuals, in confequence of vows
they had made, or to pay for facrifices which were offered
in their names. The credulity of the people was an
inexhauftible fund. That credulity enriched the tem¬
ples of Deli and Eleufis, and fupported the magnifi¬
cence of Delphi. And thofe immenfe treafures which
were the fruit of fuperftition, were often a prey to
avarice.
Thefe revenues were not depofited with the priefts;
nor did they expend them. A moderate falary was all
their gain ; and to offer facrifices to the deities whofe
minifters they were, was all their employment.
It is very probable that all the facred revenues were
paid into the hands of officers who were appointed to
receive them, and who were to give an account of the
difcharge of their truft. Nay, we cannot doubt of
this, after reading a paffage in Ariflotle, who, fpeak-
ing of the officers of the temples, exprefsly mentions
thofe who were entrufled with the money appertaining
to the gods. Citizens, without doubt, of approved
integrity, were chofen to this office ; and their duty
muff have been, to keep the temples in repair and or¬
der, and to difburfe and keep an account of the ordi¬
nary facred expences.
As to the folemn feafts, which were incredibly mag¬
nificent, fuch as the feaft of Bacchus, and the Pana-
thenasa, they were celebrated at the expence of the
Choregus; e. of the chief of the choir of each tribe :
for each tribe had its poet and its muficians, who fung,
emulating each other, hymns in honour of the deity.
The richeft citizens were appointed chiefs of the dif¬
ferent choirs ; and as their office was very expenfive,
*0 indemnify them in fome degree, the Choregus of
the victorious tribe had the privilege of engraving his
•N0 3,7* 5
ATT
name on the tripod which that tribe fufpended to the Attica.
roof of the temple. This office, though ruinous, was  
eagerly folicited ; and naturally, in a republican ftate.
It led to honours, like the Curule dignity at Rome ;
and it greatly tended to ingratiate its poffeffor with a
people who were more affefted with pleafures than
with effential fervices, and who, confequently, would
more highly efteem a profufe Choregus than a vifto-
rious general.
With regard to the fines, which were in the whole,
or in part, the property of Minerva and of the other
deities, there were at Athens public treafurers ap¬
pointed to receive them. They were ten in number,
and they were nominated by lot. They were called
Treafurers of the Goddefs, or Receivers of the facred
money. That money they received in the prefence of
the fenate; and they were empowered to diminifh or to J
annihilate the fine, if they thought it unjuft. The fta-
tue of JVlinerva, that of the viftories, and the other in¬
valuable pledges of the duration of the ftate, were de¬
pofited with them.
The treafury in which the money confecrated to the
gods was kept, was in the citadel, behind the temple
of Minerva Polias ; and from its fituation it was termed
Opifodomus. It was furrounded with a double wall.
It had but one door, the key of which was kept by the
Epiftates, or chief of the Prytanes : his dignity was
very confiderable ; but it lafted only one day. In this <
treafury a regifter was kept, in which were written j
the names of all thofe who were indebted to the ftate ;
he who owed the fmalleft fine was not omitted. If the \
debtors proved infolvent, they were profecuted with ex¬
treme rigour, and often puniftred with a cruelty which j
religion could not excufe ; though the intereff of the J
gods was the motive, or rather the pretext. The fa¬
cred treafurers held a confiderable rank among the ma- j
giftrates, who received the public finances. Of thefe
magiftrates there were many kinds, as there were many'
forts of revenues.
The Athenian priefts did not compofe an order di- |
ftinft and feparate from the other orders of the ftate.
They did not form a body united by particular laws, !
under a chief whofe authority extended to all his infe¬
riors. The dignity of foverrign pontiff was unknown j
at Athens ; and each of the priefts ferved his particular
temple, unconnetfted with his brethren. The temples, |
indeed, of the principal deities ; thofe of Minerva, for
inftance, of Neptune, of Ceres, and of Proferpine, had
many minifters ; and in each of them a chief prefided,
who had the title of High-Priejl. The number of fub-
altern minifters was in proportion to the rank of the
deity ; but the priefts of one temple were altogether a
feparate fociety from thofe of another. Thus at A-
thens there was a great number of high-priefts, be-
caufe many deities were worihipped there, whofe fer-
vice required many minifters. The power of each
prieft was confined to his temple ; and there was no fo-
vereign pontiff, the minifter-general of the gods, and
the prefident at all the feafts.
It naturally follows from this account, that the mi- ;
nifters of the gods at Athens were not judges in matters
of religion. They were neither authorifed to take
coghifance of crimes committed againft the deity, nor
to punilh them. Their function was to offer facrifices
to the gods, and to intreat their acceptance of the ■
ado-
[ 664 1
ATT [ 665 ] ATT
adorations of the people. But the punilhment of
impiety, of facrilege, of the profanation of myfteries,
and of other irreligious crimes, was not entrufted to
their zeal.
The priefts were not only incapable of avenging
crimes againil religion by a temporal procefs; they
even could not, without an exprefs’ order either from
the fenate or the people, exercife their right of de¬
voting criminals to the infernal gods. It was in con-
fequence of a civil fentence pronounced againft Alci-
biades, that the Eumolpkhe launched their anathema
againft him. It was in virtue of another decree that
they revoked their imprecations, when his countrymen
wanted his fervice, and therefore reftored him to their
favour.
Religious caufes, according to M. de Bougainville,
fell under the jurifdidlion of the Htliaftas.
The government, though often altered, continued
pretty much on the plan eitabliffied by Solon.
The people of Athens were freemen, fojourners, or
flaves. The citizens, called in Greek Politai, were very
numerous; but, what may feem ftrange, were as many
in the time of Cecrops as in the moft flourilhing ftate
of the commonwealth, hardly ever exceeding 20,000.
It was Solon who decreed that none ihould be accounted
free but fuch as were Athenians both by father and
mother. After his time it fell into defuetude, till re¬
vived by Pericles, and again at his inftance repealed.
After the expulfion of the 30 tyrants, Solon’s law was
reftored. A perfon born of a ftranger was ftyled Nothos,
“ a baftard;” whereas the fon of a free woman was called
Cne/Ios, i. e. “ legitimate.” There was in Cynofarges a
court of judicature, to which caufes of illegitimacy
properly belonged ; and the utmoft care was taken to
prevent any from being inrolldd Athenian citizens,
who had not a clear title thereto. The citizens were
divided by Cecrops into four tribes; the firft called
Cecropcs, from Cecrops ; the fecond Autochthon, from
a king of that name ; the third Aftdi, from Adieus
another king of Athens, or rather from Afte, which
fignifies “ a ftiore the fourth Puralia. Thefe names
were altered by Cranaus, and again by Eridlhonius. In
the reign of Eridtheus, they were again changed ; the
foldiers were called Oplitai, the craftfmen Ergatai, the
farmers Georgoi, the graziers and ihepherds Aigicorai:
in this ftate they were when Solon fettled the common¬
wealth, and appointed the fenate to be compofed of
400, 100 out of each tribe. Clyfthenes increafed the
number of the tribes to 10; and made the fenate coniift
of 500, taking 50 out of each tribe. In fucceeding
times, two other tribes were added. Each tribe was fub-
divided into its Demoi or wards ; and with refpedl to
thefe it was that Solon inftituted the public feafts be-
forementioned, at which fometimes the whole tribe af-
fembled, fometimes feveral wards, and fometimes only
the inhabitants of one ward.
The fecond fort of inhabitants we mentioned were
called Metoicoi, i. e. fojourners; thefe were perfons
who lived always at Athens, yet were not admitted
free denizens ; as for fuch as did not conftantly refide
in Athens, they were ftyled Xenoi, i. e. Jirangers.
The fojourners, were obliged to cboofe out of the citi¬
zens protestors, who were ftyled Patrons : they paid
fervices to the Hate, and befules thefe an annual tribute
of 1 2 drachms for every man, and fix for every wo-
Vot. II. Part II.
man : but fuch as had fons, and paid for them, were Attica,
exempted. If people fell to poverty, and were not^ 1 ‘
able to pay the tribute, they were feized by the tax-
mafters, and actually fold for flaves ; which, as Dio¬
genes Laertius tells us, was the fate of Xenocrates the
philofopher. The fojourners in Attica were under the
fame law as thofe in Athens. As to fervants, they
were freemen, who through indigency were driven to
receive wages, and while they were in this ftate had no
vote in the aflembly. As to flaves, they were abfo-
lutely the property of their matters, and as fuch Were
ufed as they thought fit. They were forbidden to wear
clothes or to cut their hair like their matters ; and,
which is indeed amazing, Solon prohibited them to
love boys, as if that had been honourable. They were
likewife debarred from anointing or perfuming them-
felves, and from worfhipping certain deities. They
were not allowed to be called by honourable names ;
and in moft other refpefts were ufed like dogs. They
ftigmatized them at their pleafure, that is, branded
them with letters in the forehead and elfewbere. How¬
ever, Thefeus’s temple was allowed them as a fanftuary,
whither, if they were exceedingly ill ufed, they might
fly, and thereby oblige their owners to let them be
transferred to another matter. In this and many other
refpe<£Is the Athenian flaves were in a much better con¬
dition than thofe throughout the reft of Greece : they
were permitted to get eftates for themfelves, giving a
fmall premium to their mailers, who were obliged to
make them free if they could pay their ranfom ; they
likewife obtained the lame favour from the kindnefs of
their mailers, or for having rendered military fervices
to the Hates. When they were made free, they were
obliged to choofe patrons; and had likewife the privi¬
lege of choofing a curator, who, in cafe their patrons
injured them, was bound to defend them.
The general afiembly of the people, which Solon General af-
made the dernier refort, was called \\k Ecclejta ; and fen-b,y of
confifted of all the freemen of Athens, excepting fuVpthe Peoilc*
as were atirnoi or infamous. The meetings of thefe af-
femblies were either ordinary or extraordinary. The
ordinary were fuch as were appointed by law, the ex¬
traordinary fuch as necelfity required.’ Of the firft
there were four in 35 days. In the firft aflembly
they approved or rejedled magiftrates, heard propofals
for the public good, and certain caufes. In the fecond
they received petitions, and heard every man’s judge¬
ment on the matters that were before them, in the
third they give audience to foreign ambafladors. The
fourth was employed altogether in affairs relating to
the gods and their worlhip. The extraordinary meet¬
ings were appointed by the magiftrates when occafion
required, whereas to the ordinary affemblies the peo¬
ple came of their own accord. The fit ft were held ei¬
ther in the market-place, in the Pnyx a place near the
citadel, or in the theatre of Bacchus; as to the latter,
the magiftrates who appointed the extraordinary meet-
ing appointed alfo the place where they Ihould be held.
II any hidden tempeft rofe, or any earthquake hap¬
pened, or any fign notorioufly inaufpicious appeared,
the affenibly was immediately adjourned, to prevent the
people from apprehending unhappy confequences from
their deliberations. But if the weather was fair and
ferene, and nothing happened out of the ordinary courfe
of things, they proceeded to purify the place where
4 l1 ‘ the
ATT [ 666 ]
the aflembly was held, which was done by fprinkling tribes '
it round with the blood of young pigs: then the crier
made a fblemn prayer for the profperity of the republic,
and that heaven would bellow a happy iffiie on their
counfels and undertakings; he then pronounced a bit¬
ter execration againll any who Ihould in that alfembly
propound what might be disadvantageous to the Hate.
A T
drawn with the beans. The tribe to which Attic*,
the white bean anfwered, prefided firll; and the reft
according to the order in which they were drawn.
The Prytanes, while the Senate confided of 500, Prytane!
were 50 in number. For the farther avoiding of con-
fufion therefore, 10 of thefe prefided a week, during
which fpace they were called Proedri; and out of thefe
Thefe ceremonies being over, they proceeded to bufi- an Epiftate orprefident was chofen, whofe office lafted
,86 nefs.
Method of There were feveral magiftrates who had the overfee-
pivm r their ;.ng anci regulating thefe aflemblies. Thefe were, firft,
■ O*>:molls- the Epiftate, or prelident of the affembly, who was
chofen by lot out of the Proedri: his office was to give
the Signal for the people’s voting. Next to him ’
but one day, and by law no man could hold it more
than once : the reafon of this was, that he had in his
cuftody the public feal, the keys of the citadel, and
the charge of the exchequer. The reader mull di-
ftinguilh between the Epillates and Proedri lalt men¬
tioned and thole fpoken of in the former paragraph,
the Prytanes, i. e. a committee of the fenate, who of becaufe, though their titles were the fame, their office
courfe were prefent on this occalion : by their order ;
programma, or fcheme of the bufinefs to be propofed
at the affembly, was previoully fet up in fome public
place, that every man might know what bufinefs to
apply his thoughts to. The Proedri were nine in nuim
her, appointed by lots out of all the tribes to which the
were perfectly diftindl. The fenate affembled by di-
re&ion of the Plytanes once every day, excepting fe>
llivals, and fometimes oftener in the fenate-houfe, which
was thence called Prytaneum.
When a member of the fenate made a motion for a
new law, it was immediately engraven on tablets, that
189
Prytanes did not belong: they had the right of pro- the members when they came next might be prepared"
poling to the people what they were to deliberate upon,
and their office ended with the affembly; there fat with
to fpeak to it. At the fubfequent alfcmbly the Epi-
llates opened the matter, after which every fenator that
them affeffors, who were to take care that nothing they pleafed delivered his fentiments; then any of the Pry-
propofed was detrimental to the commonwealth. The tanes drew up the decree, and repeated it aloud : after
firft ftep to bufinefs was the crier’s reading the decree which they proceeded to vote, and if there was a ma-
of the fenate whereon the affembly was to deliberate ; jority of white beans, then it became pfephifma, and
when he had finilhed this, he made proclamation in
thefe wmrds : Who of the men above 50 •will ?nake an
was afterwards propounded to the people : if they ap¬
proved it, it became a law; otherwife it was of no force
oration? When the old men had done fpeakfng, the longer than the fenate who decreed it fubhfted. The
crier made proclamation again that any Athenian power of the fenate was very great: for they took the
ght then offer his fentiments, whom the law allowed account of magiftrates at the expiration of their offices;
fo to do; that is, all fuch as were above 50 years old,
and were not infamous. If fuch a one rofe up to fpeak,
they direfted the provifions made for poof citizens out
of the public treafure ; they had the luperintendancy
the Prytanes interpofed, and bid him be filent; and if of public prrfons, and a power of puniihing fuch as
he did-not obey them, the lidtors pulled him down by committed adls morally evil, though not prohibited by
force. When the debates were over, the prefident per- any law ; they had the care likewife of the fleet; and
mitted the people to vote ; which they did by calling beiides all thefe they had many other branches of au-
firft beans, but in after-times pebbles, into certain vef- thority, which it is not neceffary for us to mention-
fels: thefe were counted, and then it was declared that Before they took their feats, they were conltrained to
the decree of the fenate was either rejedled or approved: undergo a very ftridl examination, wherein the whole
o after which, the Prytanes difmiffed the affembly.
The1 fenate. ^enate was inftituted by Solon to prevent the
courfe of their lives was inquired into ; and if the leaft
flur on their reputation appeared, they were fet afide.
dangerous confequences of leaving the fupreme power When this examination was over, they took an oath.
in the people. At the time of his inftitutien-, it was to
confift of 400, too out of each tribe ; it was increafed
to 500, when the tribes were augmented to 10; and
when they, came to 12, it was alio fwelled to 600.
They were elefted by lots after this manner: At a day
whereby they bound themfelves to promote in all their
councils the public good, to advife nothing contrary to
the laws, and to execute their funftions exactly. The
higheft fine the fenate could impofe was 500 drachms:,
if they thought the offender deferved a heavier mulft,
appointed, towards the clofe of the year, the prefident they then tranfmitted the caufe to the Thefmothetse,.
of each tribe gave in a lift of fuch perfons belonging
thereto, as were fit for and defired to appear for this
dignity: thefe names were engraven on tablets of brafs,
and a number of beans equal to the number of the a-
who punilhed them as they thought fit. The fenators,
when their year was out, gave an account of their ma¬
nagement to the people: but that they might have the
lefs to do, they always punilhed fuch of their number
mount of them, among which were too white ones, put as they found had offended, by expullion ; and in this
veffel; and then the names of the candidates and they were mighty exabl. Yet an expelled fenator was
jnto
the beans were drawn one by one, and fuch as
drawn by the white beans were received into the fenate.
notwithftanding eligible to any ether office, the moft
trivial omiffion being fufficient to oceafion a difmiliion
After the fenate was defied, they proceeded to ap- from the fenatorial dignity ; and therefore, when the
point the officers who were to prefide in the fenate :
thefe were the Prytanes beforementioned, and they
were defied thus: The names of the ten tribes were
tribes chofe their fenators, they alfo chofe a certain
number of fubfidiaries, out of which, when a fenator
vas expelled, another was fubftituted in his place.
thrown into one veffd, and nine black beans and a Each fenator was allowed a drachm every day: for it
white one into another veffd. Then the names of the was a conftant rule with the Athenians, that the public
ought
Attica.
' aoo
Archons,
Nomophy-
tees, &c.
I '.aws re
I yarding
I orators.
liCnurts of
iikftice.
ATT [ 667 1 ATT
ought to pay for every man’s time; and therefore fuch
of the poor Athenians as thought fit to demand it, had
three oboli for going to the affembly. If during their
adminiilration any fhips of war were built, the fenators
had crowns decreed them ; but if not, they were forbid
to fue for them.
Next to the fenate was the court of Areopagus,
for a defeription of which fee that article.
The chief magiftrates of Athens were Archons, and
inferior to them there were norrt others; of whom it
will be neceffary to mention fome. In the firft place
they had Nomophylaces, who were alfo ftyled the eleven,
becaufe they were fo many in number, one chofen out
of each tribe, and a clerk or fecretary who made up the
eleventh. Their duty it was to look to the execution
of the laws: they had authority to feize robbers and
other capital offenders ; and if they confefied, to put
them to death. Dr Potter thinks they refembled our
Iheriffs. -The Phylarchi were the prefidents of the A-
thenian tribes; but in time this became a military title.
The Philobafileus was an officer in each tribe, who did
the fame things within his jurifdidtion as the Baiileua
did with refpeft to the ftate. The Demarchi were the
principal magiftrates in wards. The Lexarchi were fix
in number, and were bound to take care that the peo¬
ple came duly to the affemblies; in their cuftody was
the public rCgifter of the citizens names. They had
under them Toxotse, who were li&ors or bailiffs ; they
were fometimes 1000 in number: thefe men were ne¬
ceffary : but, like moft of their fort, were in a manner
infamous, as may be gathered from the comedies of A-
riftophanes; they were generally Scythians, raw-boned,
brawny fellows, ready to execute any thing they were
commanded. The Nomothetae were 1000 in number;
their bufinefs was to watch over and infpeft into the
laws. There were two forts of orators in the fervice
of the ftate. Some were appointed to defend an old law,
when a motion was made to repeal it ; thefe had their
fee from the ftate, but the fame man was incapable of
being elected twice. Befides thefe, there were 10 fet¬
tled orators called Rhetores, elefted by lot ; their bufi-
ntfs was to plead public caufes in the fenate-houfe.
For this they had their ftated fees; and with refpeft to
their qualifications, the law ran thus: “ Let no one be
a public orator who. hath ftruck his parents, denied
them maintenance, or (hut them out of his doors; who
hath refufed to ferve in the army; who hath thrown a-
way his fhield; who hath beert addicted to lewd women;
notoiioufly effeminate, or has run out his patrimony.
If any man who has been guilty of thefe crimes dare
to deliver an oration, let him be brought to trial upon
the fpot. Let an orator have children lawfully begot¬
ten, and an eftate within Attica. If in his oration he
talks impertinently, makes idle repetitions, afftfts an
unbecoming raillery, digreffes from the point in que-
ftion, or, after the affembly is over, abufes the pre-
fident, let the Proedri fine him 50 drachms; and if
that is not thought enough, let him be brought before
the next affembly and fined again.”
We Ihall conclude this draught of the Athenian go¬
vernment with an account of their courts of juftice,
which, exclufive of the Areopagus, were 10 in num¬
ber; four had cognifance of criminal, and fix of civil
caufes. Thefe 10 courts were numbered with the 10
firft letters of the alphabet, and were thence ftyled
Alpha, Beta, Gamma, &c. When an Athenian was
at leifure to hear caufes, he wrote his own name, that
of his father, and the ward to which he belonged^ upon
a tablet; this he prefented to the Thefmothetse, who
returned it again to him with another tablet, with the
letter which fell to his lot; then he went to the crier
of the court, who prefented him a feeptre, and gave
him admiffion. When the caufes were over, every
judge went and delivered his feeptre to the Prytanes,
and received a ftated fee for every caufe that was tried.
But as this was intended only to compenfate their lofs
of time, fo that there might be no appearance of co-
vetoufnefs, a man was forbid to fit in two courts on the
fame day. The firft criminal court after the Areopa¬
gus was that of the Ephetee. It confifted of 51 mem¬
bers, all upwards of 51 years old. Draco gave it a
very extenfive jurifdidtion ; but Solon took away from
them the power of judging in any other caufes than
thofe of manflaughter, accidental killing, and lying in
wait to deftroy : the Balileus entered all caufes in tin’s
court. The fecond criminal court was called Delphi*
niiim, becaufe it was held in the temple of Apollo Del-
phinius. It had cognizance of fuch murders as were
confeffed by the criminal, but at the fame time jufti-
fied under fome pretence or other. The Prytaneum
was the third criminal court. It held plea of. fuch cafes
where death enfued from inanimate things. Caufes were
heard here with the fame folemnity as in other courts;
and on judgment given, the thing, whatever it was,
that had oceafioned the death of a man, was thrown
out of the territory of Athens.- The laft criminal court
was ftyled Phreatum. It fat in a place not far from the
fea-fhore; and fuch perfons were brought before this
court as had committed murders in their own country
and fled to Attica. The proceedings of this court were
fo fevere, that they did not permit the criminal to come
on Ihore, but obliged him to plead his caufe in his
veffel; and if he was found guilty, he was committed
to the mercy of the winds and feas.
Of the judicatures for hearing civil caufes, the firft
was the Parabajlcn; fo called, as fome think, becaufe
in it no matter could be heard if the caufe of aftion
was above one drachm. The Cainon, or new court,
was the fecond tribunal. The third was ftyled the
court of Lycus, becaufe it affembled in a temple dedi¬
cated to that hero, whofe ftatue, reprefented with the
face of a wolf, was fet up in' all courts of juftice. The
Trigonon was fo called becaufe it was triangular in its
form. The court Metidius derived its appellation from
the architeft who built it. The fixth and laft court
was called Helieea. It was by far the greateft, and is
generally conceived to have derived its name from the
judges fitting in the open air expofed to the fun. All
the Athenians who were free citizens were allowed by
law to fit in thefe courts as judges; but before they
took their feats were fworn by Apollo Patrius, Ceres,
and Jupiter the king, that they would decide all things
righteoufly and according to law, where there was any
law to guide them ; and by the rules of natural equity,
where there was none. The Helasaftic court confifted
at leaft of 50, but its ufual number was 500, judges!
when califes of very great confequence were to be tried',
1000 fat therein ; and now and then the judges were
increafed to 1500, and even to 2000. There were
many inferiot courts in Athens for the decifion of tri-
4 P 2 vial
Attrla.
ATT [ 668 1 ATT
Atticus, vial caufes ; but of thefe there is no necefllty of fpeak-
, Attlla- ing, fmce we defign no more than a fuccind view of
v"~ the Athenian republic, as it was fettled by and in con-
fequence of Solon’s law's
ATTICUS (Titus Pomponius), one of the moft
honourable men of ancient Rome. He underflood the
art of managing himfelf with fuch addrefs, that, with¬
out leaving his (late of neutrality, he preferved the e-
fteem and affcfUon of all parties. His ftrick friendfhip
with Cicero did not hinder him from having great in¬
timacy with Hortenfius. The contefts at Rome be¬
tween Cinna’s party and that of Marius induced him
to go to Athens, where he continued for a long time.
He was very fond of polite learning, and kept at his
boufe feveral librarians and readers. He might have
obtained the moft confiderable pofts in the government;
but chofe rather not to meddle, becaufe in the corrup¬
tion and fatftion w'hich then prevailed he could not dif-
charge them according to the laws. He wrote Annals.
He married his daughter to Agrippa ; and attained to
the age of 77.
ATTILA, king of the Huns, furnamed the
fcourge of God, lived in the 5th century. He may be
ranked among the greateft conquerors, fince there w'as
fcarcely any province in Europe which did not feel the
weight of his vi&orious arms.
C.ibion's Attila deduced his noble, perhaps his regal, de-
Xo’kc, {cent from the ancient Huns, who had formerly con-
vol. iii. tended with the monarchs of China. His features, ac-
P- 357’ cording to the obfervation of a Gothic hiftorian, bore
the ftamp of his national origin ; and the portrait of
Attila exhibits the genuine deformity of a modern
Calmuck : a large head, a fwarthy complexion, fmall
deap-feated eyes, a flat nofe, a few hairs in the place
of a beard, broad fhoulders, and a fhort fquare body,
of nervous ftrength, though of a difproportioned form.
The haughty ftep and demeanour of the king of the
Huns exprefled the confcioufnefs of his fuperiority a-
btove the reft of mankind ; and he had a cuftom of
fiercely rolling his eyes, as if he wifhed to enjoy the
terror which he infpired. Yet this favage hero was
aot inacceflible to pity : his fuppliant enemies might
confide in the affurance of peace or pardon ; and At¬
tila was confidered by his fubjefts as a juft and indul¬
gent mafter. He delighted in war: but, after he had
afeended the throne in a mature age, his head, rather
than his hand, atchieved the conqueft of the north;
and the fame of an adventurous foldier was ufefully ex¬
changed for that of a prudent and fuccefsful general.
The effefts of perfonal valour are fo inconfiderable,
except in poetry or romance, that viftory, even amopg
barbarians, muft depend on the degree of fkill with
which the paffions of the multitude are combined and
guided for the fervice of a Angle man. The arts of At¬
tila were fkilfully adapted to the chara&er of his age and
country. It was natural enough that the Scythians
{hould adore, with peculiar devotion, the god of war; but
as they were inqgpable of forming either an abftract
idea, or a corporeal reprefentation, they worfhipped
their tutelar deity under the fymbol of an iron feimitar.
One of the fhepherds of the Huns perceived that a
heifer who was grazing had wounded herfelf in the
foot, and curioufly followed the tia£t of the blood
till he difqovered among the long grafs the point of
au ancient fword j which he dug out of the ground,
and prefented to Attila. That magnanimous, or ra¬
ther that artful, prince accepted with pious grati¬
tude this celeftial favour; and, as the rightful poffef-
for of the fword of Mars, afferted his divine and inde-
feafible claim to the dominion of the earth. If the rites
of Scythia were praftifed on this folemn occafion, a
lofty altar, or rather pile of faggots, 300 yards in
length and in breadth, was raifed in a fpacious plain ;
and the fword of Mars was placed 'ereft on the fummit
of this ruftic altar, which was annually confecrated by
the blood of ftieep, horfes, and of the hundredth cap¬
tive. Whether human facrifices formed any part of
the worftrip of Attila, or whether he propitiated the
god of war with the viftims which he continually of¬
fered in the field of battle, the favourite of Mars foon
acquired a facred charafter, which rendered his con-
quefts more eafy and more permanent; and the barbarian
princes confefied, in the language of devotion or flat¬
tery, that they could not preiume to gaze with a Hea¬
dy eye on the divine majefty of the king of the Huns.
His brother Bleda, who reigned over a confideiable
part of the nation, was compelled to refign his feeptre
and his life. Yet even this cruel aft was attributed to
a fupernatural impulfe; and the vigour with which At¬
tila wielded the fword of Mars, convinced the world
that it had been referved alone for his invincible arm.
But the extent of his empire affords the only remain¬
ing evidence of the number and importance of his vic¬
tories; and the Scythian monarch, however ignorant
of the value of fcience and philofophy, might per¬
haps lament that his illiterate fubjefts were dellitute
of the art which could perpetuate the memory of his
exploits.
If a line of reparation-were drawn between the civi¬
lized and the favage climates of the globe; between
the inhabitants of cities who cultivated the earth and
the hunters and fhepherds who dwelt in teryts; Attila
might afpire to the title of fupreme and foie monarch
of the Barbarians. He alone, among the conquerors of
ancient and modern times, united the two mighty
kingdoms of Germany and Scythia ; and thofe vague
appellations, when they are applied to his reign, may
be underftood with an extenfive latitude. Thuringia,
which ftretched beyond its aftual limits as far as the
Danube, was in the number of his provinces; he in-
terpofed, with the weight of a powerful neighbour, in
the domeftic affairs of the Franks; and one of his lieu¬
tenants chaftifed, and almoft exterminated, the Bur¬
gundians of the Rhine. He fubdued the iflands of the
ocean, the kingdoms of Scandinavia, encompaffed and
divided by the waters of the Baltic; and the Huns might
derive a tribute of furs from that northern region,
which has been protefted from all other conquerors by
the feverity of the climate and the courage of the na¬
tives. Towards the eaft, it is difficult to circumfcribe
the dominion of Attila over the Scythian defertst yet
we may be affured, that he reigned on the banks of the
Volga ; that the king of the Huns was dreaded, not
only as a warrior, but as a magician; that he infulted-
and vanquiffied the Khan of the formidable Geougen ;
and that he fent ambaffadors to negociate an equal al¬
liance with the empire of China. In the proud review
of the nations who acknowledged the fovereignty of
Attila, and who never entertained during his lifetime
the thought of a revolt,, the Gepidse and the Oftrogoths
6 were
ATT [ 669 I ATT
Attila were didinguMhed by their numbers, their bravery, and
N the perfonal merit of their chiefs. The renowned Ar-
. tt0^ney' daric king of the Gepidse, was the faithful and faga-
cious counfellor of the monarch; who eileemed his
intrepid genius, whilft he loved the mild and difcreet
virtues of the noble Walamir king of the Oftrogoths.
The crowd of the vulgar kings, the leaders of fo many
martial tribes, who ferved under the ftandard of Atti¬
la, were ranged in the fubmiffive order of guards and
domeftics round the perfon of their mafter. They
watched his nod ; they trembled at his frown ; and at
the firft fignal of his will they executed without
murmur or hefitation his (tern and abfolute commands.
In time of peace, the dependent princes, with their na¬
tional troops, attended the royal camp in regular fuc-
cefiion ; but when Attila collefted his military force,
he was able to bring into the field an army of five, or,
according to another account, of feven hundred thou-
fand Barbarians.
For an account of his exploits and death, fee the ar¬
ticle Huns.
ATTIRE, in hunting, fignifies the head or horns of
a deer. The attire of a (tag, if perfedt, confiits of bur,
pearls, beam, gutters, antler, fur-antler, royal, fur-royal,
and crotches; of a buck, of the bur, beam, brow-antler,
advancer, palm, and fpellers.
ATTITUDE, in painting and fculpture, the gef-
ture of a figure or ftatue ; or it is fuch a difpofition of
their parts as fervesto exprefs the action and fentiments
of the perfon reprefented.
AT1TUM (anc. geog.), a promontory on the
north weft of Corfica (Ptolemy). It (till retains fome
traces of its ancient name, being now called Punta di
Accluolo (Cluverius).
ATTLEBURY, a town in the county of Norfolk
in England. E. Long. o. 40. N. Lat. 52. 23.
ATTOLLENS, in anatomy, an appellation given to
feveral mufcles otberwife called levatores and ekvatores.
See An atomy, 'Table of the Mufcles.
ATTORNEY at law, anlwers to the Procurator
or Prodtor of the civilians and canonifts: And he is
one who is put in the place, (lead, or turn, of another,
to manage his matters of law. Formerly every fuitor
was obliged to appear in perfon, to profecute or de- '
fend his fuit (according to the old Gothic conftitu-
tion), unlefs by fpecial licence under the king’s letters
patent. This is itill the law in criminal cafes. And
an idiot cannot to this day appear by attorney, but in
per.fon ; for he hath not difcretion to enable him to
appoint a proper fubflitute: and upon his being
brought before the court in fo defencelefs a condition-,
the judges are bound to take care of his interefts, and
they (hall admit the heft plea in his behalf that any
one prefent can fugged. But, as in the Roman
law, cum olim in ufu fuijfet, alterius nomine agi nan ptffe,
fea, quia hoc non .minimam incommoditatem habebat, cce-
perunt homines per procuratores litigare; fo, with us, on
the fame principle of convenience, it is now permit¬
ted in general, by divers ancient ftatutes, whereof
the fir ft is ftatute Weft. 2. c. 10. that attorneys may
be made to profecute or defend any adt-ion in the ab-
fence of the parties to the fuit. Thefe attorneys are
now formed into a regular corps; they are admitted to
the execution of their office by the fuperior courts of
Weftiiiiiifter-hall; and are in all points officers of the
refpedtive courts in which they are admitted ; and as Attorney,
they have many privileges on account of their atten- AttraAron.
dance there, fo they are peculiarly fubjedt to the cen-^ "
fure and animadverfion of the judges.. No man can
pradfife as an attorney in any of thofe courts, but fuch
as is admitted and fworn an attorney of that particular
court. An attorney of the court of king’s bench can¬
not pradlife in the court of common pleas, nor vice
verfa. To pradlife in the court of chancery, it is alio
neccftary to be admitted a folicitor therein : and by
the ftatute 22d Geo. II. c. 46. no perfon (hall adl as
an attorney at the court of quarter-feffions, but fuch
as has been regularly admitted in fome fuperior court
of record. So early as the ftatute 4 Hen. IV. c. 18.
it was ena&ed, that attorneys fhould be examined by
the judges, and none admitted but fuch as were vir¬
tuous, learned, and fworn to do their duty. And many
fublequent ftatutes have laid them under farther regula¬
tions.
Letter of attorney pays by different adts 6s. By
25 Geo. III. c. 80. the following duties are to bs
paid by every folicitor, attorney, notary, prodtor, a-
gent, or procurator, viz. for every warrant to profecute
for a debt of 40s. or to defend, a (lamp duty of 2s. 6d.
And they are to take'out certificates annually ; and.
if refident in London, Weftminfter, the bills of mor¬
tality, or Edinburgh, they are now obliged pay
L. 5 for the fame ; and in every other part of Great
Britain, L.3. The duties are under the management
of the commiffioners of ftamps : and every adling foli¬
citor, and other perfon as above, (hall annually deliver
in a note of his name and refidence, to the proper offi¬
cer of the court in which he pradtifes ; the entering
officers are to certify notes delivered, and iffue annual
certificates, ftamped as above, which mull be renewed
ten days before the expiration. Refufing to iffue, or
improperly iffuing certificates, is a penalty of L. 50, and
damages to the party aggrieved. Adling without a
certificate, or giving in a falfe place of refidence, is
a penalty of L.50, and incapacity to fue for fees due.
A ftamped memorandum (hall be given to the pro¬
per officer, of the names of the parties in every adtion;
and in luch cafes as ufed to require precipes. Officers
who receive ftamped memorandums, are to file tha
fame, on penalty of L. jo; and perfons not adling
conformable to this adt forfeit L.5,
Attornetc General% is a great officer under tha
king, made by letters patent. It is his place to exhi¬
bit informations, and profecute for the crown, in mat¬
ters criminal; and to file bills in the exchequer, fos
ar ; concerning the king in inheritance or pro-
fi . I others may bring bills againll the king’s
attorney. His proper place in court, upon any tpe-
cial matters of a criminal nature, wherein his attend¬
ance is required, is under the judges on the left
hand of the clerk of the crown; but this is only upon
folemn and extraordinary occalions for ufually ha
does not fit there, hut within the bife in the face o£
the court..
ATTOURNMENT, or Attornment, in law, a
transfer from one lord to another of the homage and
fervice a tenant makes 5 or that acknowledgment of
duty to a new lord.
ATTRACTION, in natural philofophy, a general
term ufed to denote the caufe by which bodies.teri
towards
ATT t 670 .] A T T ..
Attradion towards each other, and cohere till feparated by fome all impulfion we know of; impulfe being always ^
other power. found to aft in proportion to the furfaces of bodies, *
The principle of attraftion, in the Newtonian fenfe whereas gravity afts according to their folid content,
of it, feems to have been firil furmifed by Copernicus, and confequently mull arife from fome caufe that pe-
“ As for gravity,” fays Copernicus, “ I confider it as netrates or pervades the whole fubftance thereof. This
nothing more than a certain natural appetence unknown principle, unknown we mean in refpeft of
tentia) that the Creator has impreffed upon all the its caufe, for its phenomena and effefts are mod obvi-
parts of matter, in order to their uniting or coalefcing ous, with all the fpecies and modifications thereof, we
into a globular form, for their better prefervation; and call attraSion; which is a general name, under which
it is credible that the fame power is alfo inherent in all mutual tendencies, where no phyfical impulfe ap-
the fun and moon and planets, that thofe bodies may pears, and which cannot therefore be accounted for
conftantly retain that round figure in which we be- from any known laws of nature, rnay be ranged,
hold them.” De Rev. Orb. Calejl. lib. i. cap. g. And And hence arifes divers particular kinds of attrac-
Kepler calls gravity a corporeal and mutual affeftion tion ; as, Gravity, Magnetifm, Electricity, &c. which
between fimilar bodies in order to their union. AJl. are fo many different principles afting by different
Nov. in Introd. And he pronounces more'pofilively, laws, and only agreeing in this, that we do not fee any
that no bodies whatfbever were abfolutely light, but phyfical caufes thereof; but that, as to our fenfes,
only relatively fo; and confequently that all matter they may really arife from fome power or efficacy in
was fubjefted to the law of gravitation. Ibid. fuch bodies, whereby they are enabled to aft even upon
The firfl in this country who adopted the notion of diftant bodies, though our reafon abfolutely difallows
attraftion was Dr Gilbert, in his book De Magnete; of any fuch. aftion.
and the next was the celebrated Lord Bacon, Nov. Attraftion may be divided, with refpeft to the law
Organ, lib. ii. aphor. 36. 45. 48. Sylv. cent. i. exp. 33. it obferves, into two kinds.
In France it was received by Fermat and Roberval ; 1. That which extends to a fenfible diftance. Such
and in Italy by Galileo and Borelli. But till Sir Ifaac are the attraftion of gravity, found in all bodies j and
Newton appeared, this principle was very imperfeftly the attraftion of magnetifm and eleftricity, found in
defined and applied. particular bodies. The feveral laws and phenomena of
It muft'be obferved, that though this great author each, fee under their refpeftiye articles,
makes ufe of the word attraftion in common with the The attraftion of gravity, called alfo among mathe-
fchool philofophers, yet he very ftudioufly diflinguifhes matidans the centripetal force, is one of the greateft
between the ideas. The ancient attraftion was fup- and moll 'univerfal principles in all nature. We fee
pofed a kind of quality inherent in certain bodies and feel it operate on bodies near the earth, and find
themfelves, and arifing from their particular or fpecific by obfervation that the fame power (/. e. a power
forms. The Newtonian attfaftion is a more indefinite which afts in the fame manner, and by the fame rules,
principle ; denoting not any particular kind or man- vi%. always proportionably to the quantities of matter,
ner of aftion, nor the phyfical caufe of fuch aftion ; and as the fquares of the diftances reciprocally) does'
but only a tendency in the general, a conatus accedendi, alfo obtain in the moon, arid the other planets piimary
to whatever caufe, phyfical or metaphyfical, fuch ef- and fecondary, as well as in the comets; and even that
feft be owing ; whether to a power inherent in the this is the very power whereby they are all retained in
bodies themfelves, or to the impulfe of an external their orbits, &c. And hence, as gravity is foand in
agent Accordingly, that author, in his Philofoph. all the bodies which come under our oblei ration, it is
Nat. Prin. Math, notes, “ that he ufes the words eafily inferred, by one of the fettled ruks of philofo-
attraction, impulfe, and propenfien to the centre, indif- phizing, that it obtains in all others: and as it is found
ferently; and cautions the reader not to imagine that to be as the quantity of matter in each body, it mull
by attraftion he exprefles the modus of the aftion, or be in every particle thereof; and hence every particle
the efficient caufe thereof, as if there were any proper in nature is proved to attraft every other particle, &c.
powers in the centres, which in reality are only ma- See the demonftration hereof laid down at large, with
thematical points; or as if centres could attraft.” the application of the principle to the celeftial motions,
Lib. i. p. 5. So he “ confiders centripetal powers as under the article Astronomy, Seft. IV.
attraftions, though, phyfically fpeaking, it were per- From this attraftion arifes all the motion, and edn-
liaps more juft to call them impulfes.” Ib. p. 147. fequently all the mutation, in the great world. By
He adds, “ that what he. calls attraftion may poffibly this heavy bodies defeend, and light ones afeend ; by
be effefted by impulfe, though not a common or cor- this projeftiles are direfted, vapours and exhalations
poreal impulfe, or after fome other manner unknown rife, and rains, &c. fall. By this rivers glide, the air
to us.” Optic, p. 322. preffes, the ocean fwells, &c. In effeft, the motions
Attraftion, if confidered as a quality arifing from arifing from this principle make the fubjeft of that
the fpecific forms of bodies, ought, together with fym- extenfive branch of mathematics, called mechanics or
pathy, antipathy, and the'whole tribe of occult quali- fatics, with the parts or appendages thereof, hydrofta-
ties, to be exploded. But when we have fet thefe tics, pneumatics, &c
afidc, there will remain innumerable phenomena of na- 2. That which does not extend to fenfible diftances.
ture, and particularly the gravity or weight of bodies, Such is found to obtain in the minute particles where-
or >.heir tendency to a centre, which argue a principle of bodies are compofed, which attraft each other at
of aftion feemingly diftinft from impulfe, where at or extremely near the point of contaft, with a force
leaft there is no fenfible impulfion concerned Nay, much fuperior to that of gravity, but which at any
what is more, this aftion in fome refpefts differs from diftance from it decreafes much fafter than the-power
5 of
ATT [ 671 ] ATT
Attrition, of gravity. This power a late ingenious author choofes
v to call the attraction of cohefion, as being that whereby
the atoms or infenfible particles of bodies are united
* into fenfible mafles.
This latter kind of attra&ion owns Sir Ifaac New¬
ton for its difcoverer; as the former does for its im¬
prover. The laws of motion, percuffion, &c. in fen-
fible bodies under various circumftances, as falling,
proje&ed, &c. afcertained by the later philofophers, do
not reach to thofe more remote, inteftine motions of
the component particles of the farhe bodies, whereon
the changes of the texture, colour, properties, &c. of
bodies depend : fo that our philofophy, if it were on¬
ly founded on the principle of gravitation, and carried
fo far as that would lead us, would necefi'arily be very
deficient.
- But befide the common laws of fimfible maffes, the
minute parts they are compofed of are found fubjedl
to fome others, which have been but lately taken no¬
tice of, and are even yet imperfedly known. Sir Ifaac
Newton, tovvhofe happy penetration we owe the hint,
contents himfelf to eftabli'.h that there are fuch mo¬
tions in the minima natura, and that they flow from
certain powers or forces, not reducible to any of thofe
in the great world. In virtue of thefe powers, he
{hows, “ That the fmall particles aft on one ano¬
ther even at a diftance ; and that many of the phe¬
nomena of nature are the refult thereof. Senfible
bodies, we have already obferved, aft on one another
divers ways; and as we thus perceive the tenor
and courfe of nature, it appears highly probable that
there may be other powers of the like kind ; nature
being very uniform and confiftent with herfelf. Thofe
juft mentioned reach to fenfible diftances, and fo have
been obferved by vulgar eyes; but there may be others
which reach to fuch fmall diftances as have hitherto
«fcaped obfervation; and it is probable eleftricity may
reach to fuch diftances, even without being excited by
friflion.”
The great author juft mentioned proceedsto confirm
the reality of thefe fufpicions from a great number of
phenomena and experiments,, which plainly argue fuch
powers and aftions between the particles, e. g. of falls
and water, oil of vitriol and water, aquafortis and iron,
fpirit of vitriol and faltpetre. He alfo {hows, that
thefe powers, &c. are unequally ftrong between diffe¬
rent bodies ; ftronger, e. g. between the particles of
fait of tartar and thofe of aquafortis than thofe of fil-
ver, between aquafortis and lapis calaminaris than iron,
between iron than copper, copper than filver or mer¬
cury. So fpirit of vitriol afts on water; but more on
iron or copper, &c.
The other experiments which countenance the cxift-
ence of fuch principle of attraction in the particles of
matter are innumerable.
Thefe adtions, in virtue whereof the particles of the
bodies abovementioned tend towards each other, the
author calls by a general indefinite name attraliion;
which is equally applicable to all adtipns whereby di-
ftant bodies tend towards one another, whether by im-
pulfe or by any other more latent power: and from
hence he accounts for an infinity of phenomena; other-
wife inexplicable, to which the principle of gravity is
inadequate.
Thus (adds our author) will nature be found
very conformable to herfelf and very fimple ; per- Attrafllon.
forming all the great motions of the heavenly bodies' v——-'
by the attra&ion of gravity, which intercedes thofe
bodies, and almoft all the fmall ones of their parts, by
fome other attractive power diffufed through the par¬
ticles thereof. Without fuch principles, there never
would have been any motion in the world; and with¬
out the continuance thereof, motion would foon perifti,
there being otherwife a great decreafe or diminution
thereof, which is. only fupplied by thefe adrive princi-
- pies.”
We need, not fay how unjuft it is in the generality
of foreign philofophers to declare againft a principle
which furnilhes fo beautiful a view, for no other reafon
but becaufe they cannot conceive how one body (hould
a<ft on another at a diftance. It is certain, philofophy
allows of no aftion but what is by immediate contadl
and impulfion (for how can a body exert any adtive
power there where it does not exift? to fuppofe this of
any thing, even the Supreme Being himfelf, would
perhaps imply a contraciidlion) : yet we fee effedls*
without feeing any fuch impulfe; and where there are
cffedls, we can eafily infer there are caufes whether
ws fee them or no. But a man may confider fuch ef¬
fedls without entering into the eonfideration of the’
caufes, as indeed it feems the bufinefs of a philofopher
to do : for to exclude a number of phenomena which
we do fee, will be to leave a great chafm in the hiltory
of nature; and to argue about adlions which we do
not fee, will be to build caftles in the air.—It follows,
therefore, that the phenomena of attradlion are matter
of phyfical confideration, and as fuch intitledto a {hare
in the fyftem of phylics; but that the caufes thereof
will only become fo when they become fenfible, i. e*
when they appear to be the effedl of fome other higher
caufes (for a caufe is no otherwife feen than as itfelf is
an effedf, lb that the firft caufe mult from the nature
of things be invifible) : we are therefore at liberty to
fuppofe the caufes of attradlions what we pleafe, with¬
out any injury to the effedls.—The illuftrious author
himfelf feems a little irrefolute as to the caufes; incli¬
ning fometimes to attribute gravity to the adtion of
an immaterial caufe [Optics, p. 343, &c.), and fome¬
times to that of a material one (lb. p. 325.)
In his philofophy, the refearch into caufes is the lad
thing, and never comes under confideration till the
laws and phenomena of the effedl be fettled; it being
to thefe phenomena that the caufe is to be accommo¬
dated. The caufe even of any, the groffeft and moft;
fenfible adlion, is not adequately known. How im-
pulfe or percuffion itfrlf produces its effedls, /. e. how
motion is communicated by body to body, confounds
the deepeft philofophers; yet is impulfe received not
only into philofophy, but into mathematics: and ac¬
cordingly the laws and phenomena of its effedls make
the greateft part of common mechanics.
The other fpecies of attradlion, therefore, in which
no impulfe is remarkable, w-hen their phenomena are
fufficiently afcertained, have the fame title to be pro¬
moted from phyfical to mathematical confideration ;
and this without any previous inquiry into their caufes,.
which our conceptions may not be proportionate to;,
let their caufes be occult, as all caufes ftiidlly fpeaking
are, fo that their effedls, which alone immediately
concern us, be but apparent.
I
Attra&ion
■I!
Atribu-
ATT [67
Our great phllofopher, then, far from adulterating
fcience with any thing foreign or metaphyfical, as
many have reproached him with doing, has the glory
of having thrown every thing of this kind (Jut of his
fyftem, and of having opened a new fource of fublimer
mechanics, which duly cultivated might be of infinite¬
ly greater extent than all the mechanics yet known.
It is hence alone we mnfi expert to learn the manner
of the changes, productions, generations, corruptions,
04c. of natural things ; with all that fcene of wonders
opened to us by the operations of chemiftt y.
Some of our own countrymen have profecuted the
difcovery with laudable zeal: Dr Keil particularly has
endeavoured to deduce fome of the laws of this new
aClion, and applied them to folve divers of the more
general phenomena of bodies, as cohefion, fluidity,
elafticity, foftnefs, fermentation, coagulation, &c.; and
Dr Friend, feconding him, has made a further appli¬
cation of the fame principles, to account at once for
almoft all the phenomena that chemiftry prefents: fo
that fome philofophers are inclined to think that the
new mechanics fhould feem already raifed to a com¬
plete fcience, and that nothing now can occur but
■what we have an immediate folution of from the at¬
tractive force.
But this feems a little too precipitate : A principle
fo fertile fhould have been funher explored ; its parti¬
cular laws, limits, &c. more induftrioufly detected and
laid down, before we had proceeded to the application.
Attraction in the grofs is fo complex a thing, that it
may folve a thoufand diflerent phenomena alike. The
notion is but one degree more Ample and preeife than
aCtion itfelf; and, till more of its properties are afeer-
tained, it were better to apply it lefs and ftudy it
more. It may be added,, that fome of Sir Ifaac New¬
ton’s followers have been charged with falling into that
error which he iuduflrioufly avoided, viz. of confider-
ing attraction as a caufe or aCtive property in bodies,
not merely as a phenomenon or effeCt.
jIttraction of Mountains. See Mountains.
Elective Attraction. See Chemistry -Index.
ATTREBATII. See At re bath.
ATTRIBUTE, in a general fenfe, that which a-
grees with fome perfon or thing; or a quality deter¬
mining Tomething to-be after a certain manner. Thus
underltanding is an attribute of mind, and extenfion
an attribute of body. That attribute which the -mind
conceives as the foundation of all the. reft, is called its
ejfentiai attribute: thus extenfion is by.fome, and foli-
dity by others, efteemed the efl'ential attributes of body
or matter.
ATTRIBUTES, in theology, the feveral qualities
or perfections of the Divine nature.
Attributes, in logic, are the predicates of any
fubjeCt, or what may be affirmed or ‘denied .of any
thing.
Attributes, in painting and fculpture, are fymbols
added to leveral figures, to intimate their particular
office and character. Thus the eagle is an attribute of
Jupiter ; a peacock, of Juno.; a qadnce, of Mercury ;
a club, of Hercules ; and a palm, of Victory.
ATTRIBUTIVES, in grammar, are words which
are fignificant of attributes; and thus include adjeCtives,
verbs, and particles, which are attributes of fubftances;
and adverbs, which denote the attr ibutes only of attri-
.^37.
2 ] ATT
butes. Mr Harris, who has introduced this diftribu-
tion of words, denominates the former attributives of
the-firji order, and the latter attributives of the fecond
order.
ATTRITION, the rubbing or ftriking of bodies
one againft another, fo as to throw off fome of their
fuperficial particles.
ATURzE, an ancient town in the diftriCl of No-
vempopulana in Aquitania, on the river Aturus ; now
Aire in Gafcony, on the Adour. E. Long. o. 3.
N. Lat. 43. 40.
AVA, a kingdom of Alia, in the peninfula beyond
the Ganges. The king is very powerful, his domi¬
nions being bounded by Mogulftan on the weft, Siam
on the fouth, Tonquin and Cochin-China on the eaft,
and by Tibet and China on the north. Several#large
rivers run through this country, which annually over¬
flow' their banks like the Nile, and thus render it ex¬
tremely fertile. Here are mines of lead and copper,
together with fome of gold and filver, befides large
quantities of the fiueft oriental rubies, fapphires, eme¬
ralds, &c.
Ava, the metropolis of the kingdom of the fame
name, is fituated in E. Long. 96,. 30. N. Lai;. 21. o.
It is pretty large; thehoufes built with timber or bam¬
boo canes, with thatched roofs, and floors made of
teak plank or fplit bamboo. The ftreets are very
ftraight, with rows of trees planted on each fide. The
king’s palace is an exaCt quadrangle, each fide of which
is 800 paces, and is furrounded with a brick wall; but
the palace itfelf is of Hone. It has four gates; the
golden gate, through which all ambaffadors enter; the
gate of jullice, through which the people bring peti¬
tions, accufations, or complaints ; the gate of grace,
through which thofe pafs who have received any fa¬
vours, or have been acquitted of crimes laid to their
charge; and the gate of ftate, through which his
majefty himfelf pafles- when he fhows himftlf to the
people.
AVA ava, a plant fo called by the inhabitants of
Otaheite, in the South -Sea, from the leaves of which
they exprefs an intoxicating juice. It is drank very
freely by the chiefs and other confiderable perfons,
who vie with each other in drinking the greateft num¬
ber of draughts, each draught being about a pint:
but it is carefully kept from their women.
AV ADOUTAS, a fe& of Indian Bramins, who
in aufterity furpafs all the refl. The other lefts retain
earthen vefiels for holding their provifions, and a Hick
to lean on : but none of thefe are ufed by the Avadou-
tas; they only cover their nakednefs with a piece of
cloth ; and fome of them lay even that afide, and go
ftark naked, befmearing their bodies with cow-dung.
When hungry', fome go into houfes, and, without
fpeaking, hold out their hand ; eating on the fpot
■whatever is given them. Others retire to the fides
of holy rivers, and there exptft the peafants to bring
■them provifions, which they generally do very libe¬
rally.
AVAIL of Marriage, in Scots law, that cafualty
in ward-holding, by which the fuperior was intitled to
a certain fum from his vaffal, upon his attaining the age
of puberty, as the value or avail of his tocher.
AVALANCHES, a name given to prodigious
fnow-balls that frequently roll down the mountains^ in
Savoy
A U B f 673 ] AUG
Avalon Savoy, particularly Mount Blanc, to the extreme dan-
11 ger of fuch adventurous travellers as attempt to afcend
, u ^nne', thofe ftupendous heights. Some of the avalanches are
aboutaoo feet diameter; being fragments of the ice-
rocks which break by their own weight from the tops
of the precipices. See Mount Blanc.
AVALON, a fmall but ancient city of Burgundy
in France, about 500 paces long and 300 broad.
E. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat. 47. 3 8.
AVANIA, in the Turkilh legidature, a fine for
crimes and on deaths, paid to the governor of the place.
In the places wherein feveral nations live together un¬
der a Turkifh governor, he takes this profitable me¬
thod of punifhing all crimes among the Chriftians or
Jews, unlefs it be the murder of a Turk.
AVARICUM, an ancient town of the Bituriges
in Gallia Celtica, fituated on the rivulet Avara, in a very
fertile foil (Csefar). Now Bourges in Berry. E. Long.
2. 30. N. Lat 47. 10.
AVAST, in the lea-language, a term requiring to
Hop, or to (lay.
AVAUNCHERS, among hunters, the fecond
branches of a deer’s horns.
AUBAGNE, a town of Provence in France, fitua¬
ted on the river Veaune, on the road from Marfeilles
to Toulon. rrhe Hates fometimes hold their feffions at
this place. E. Long. 5. 52. N. Lat. 43. 1 7.
AUBAINE, in the cultoms of France, a right veil¬
ed in the king of being heir to a foreigner that dies
within his dominions.
By this right the French king claims the inheritance
of all foreigners that die within his dominions, not-
withllanding of any teftament the deceafed could make.
An ambalfador is not fubjedl to the right of aubaine ;
and the Swifs, Savoyards, Scots, and Portuguefe, are
alfo exempted, being deemed natives and regnicoles.
AUBENAS, a town of Languedoc in France,
fituated on the river Ardefche, at the foot of the
mountains called the Cevennes, E. Long. 4. 32. N. Lat.
44. 40.
AUBENTON, a town of Picardy in France, fitu¬
ated on the river Aube. E. Long. 4. 25. N. Lat.
49- 51--
AUBETERRE, a town of France in the Angu-
mois, on the river Droune. E. Long. o. 10. N. Lat.
45 • 1 v
AUBTGNE, a town of Berry in France, fituated
on the river Verre, in a flat agreeable country. It is
b. furrounded with high llrong walls, wide ditches, and
1 high eounterfearps. The callle is within the town,
and is very handfome. E. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 47. 29.
AUBiGIZNY, a dukedom in France belonging to,
the Dukes of Richmond in England; confirmed to the
prefent duke, and regiilered in the parliament of Pa¬
ris 17 77.
AUBIN du comier, a town of Brittany in France.
W. Long. 1.15. N. Lat. 48. 15.
I Aubin, in horfemanlhip, a broken kind of gait,
between an amble and a gallop, accounted a defeat.
AUBONNE, a town of Switzerland, in the can¬
ton of Bern. E. Lbng. 5. 54. N. Lat. 48. 30. It
is fituated near a river of the fame name, feven miles
1 north of the lake of Geneva, upon an eminence which
has a gentle declivity, at the foot of which runs the
river with an impetuous torrent. The town is built in
'I Vot. II. Part li¬
the form of an amphitheatre; on the upper part of Aubry
which Hands a very handfome caHle with a fine court,
and a portico fupported by pillars of a fingle Hone UCI*
each; above there is a covered gallery that runs round
the court; and as the cafile Hands high, there is a moll
delightful profpedl, not only of the town and neigh¬
bouring fields, but of the whole lake of Geneva and
the land that furrounds it. At Thonen, in Savoy, on
the other fide of the lake, is a town covered with tin,
which makes a glittering appearance when the fun is in
a certain pofition ; and the caflle of Aubonne has like-
wife a tower of the fame kind, which at certain hours
makes a fimilar appearance to the Savoyards. The
balliage of Aubonne contains feveral villages, which
are moHly at the foot of the mountain Jura. In one
part of this mountain there is a very deep cave, where¬
in thofe that go down find a natural and perpetual ice-
houfe. At the bottom is heard a great noife like that
of a fubterraneous river, which is fuppofed to be that
of the river Aubonne, becaufe it firtt appears, with fe¬
veral fources, about 100 paces from the foot of that
mountain.
AUBREY (John), a famous Englilh antiquary, de-
fcended from an ancient family in Wiltlhire, was born
in 1626. He made the hiflory and antiquities of
England his peculiar Hudy and delight; and contribu¬
ted confiderable afliHance to the famous Monajlicon
Anglicanum. He fucceeded to feveral good efiates;
but law-fuits and other misfortunes confumed them
all, fo that he was reduced to abfolute want. In this
extremity he found a valuable benefaflrefs in the Lady
Long of Draycot in Wilts, who gave him an apart¬
ment in her houfe, and fupported him to his death,
which happened about the year 1 700. He was a man
of capacity, learning, and application, a good Latin
poet, an excellent naturaliH, but fomewhat credulous,
and tinftured with fuperfiition. He left many works
behind him. He wrote, 1. Milcellanies. 2. A Per¬
ambulation of the county of Surry, in five volumes, oc¬
tavo. 3. The Life of Mr Hobbes of Malmlbury.
4. Monumenta Britannica, or a difcourfe concerning
Stonehenge, and Roll-Rich Hones in Oxfordlhire.
5. Architetionica Sacra; and feveral other works Hill
in manufcript.
AUBURN, a market-town in Wiltlhire, in Eng¬
land. W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 53. 20.
AUBUSSON, a fmall town of France, in the pro¬
vince of La Marche, and the government of the Lyon-
nis. Its fiuation is very irregular, on the river Creufe,
in a bottom furrounded with rocks and mountains.
A manufa£lure of tapeHry is carried on here, by which
the town is rendered very populous. E. Long. 2. 15.
N. Lat. 45. 78.
AUCAUGREL, the capital of the kingdom of
Adel in Africa, feated on a mountain. E. Long. 44.
25. N. Lat. 9. 10.
AUCH, a city of France, the capital of the coun¬
ty of Armagnac, and the metropolis of all Gafcony.
The archbilhop affumes the title of primate of Aqui-
tain. It lies on the fummit and declivity of a very
Heep hill, which is furrounded by other hills that rife
at a fmall dillance ; and through the vale below runs
a rivulet, called the Gcrr. The inhabitants are about
6000; the buildings are modern and elegant; the
Hreels, though in general narrow,, yet are clean and
4 Q_ well
AuiSion.
I!
Auditor.
A U D [ 674 ] A U D
well paved. In the centre of the city hands the ca¬
thedral, which is one of the moft magnificent in France,
both as to its conftru&ion and the internal decora¬
tions. The painted windows are only inferior to thofe
of Gouda in Holland. The chapels are of equal beau¬
ty, and ornamented at a prodigious expence. The re¬
venues of the fee of Auch amount annually to three
hundred thoufand livres. The palace is a very hand-
fome building; and its apartments are furnifhed with
a voluptuous fplendor, rather becoming a temporal
than a fpiritual prince. E. Long. o. 40. N. Lat.
43- 40-
AUCTION, a kind of public fale, very much in
ufe for houfehold goods, books, plate, &c. By this
method of fale the higheft bidder is always the buyer.
This was originally a kind of fale among the ancient
Romans, performed by the public crier fub hajla> i. e.
under a fpear ftuck up on that occafion, and by fome
magiftrate, who made good the fale by delivery of the
goods.
AUDEANISM, the fame with anthropomorphifm.
See Anthropomorphites.
AUDEUS, the chief of the Audeans, obtained
the name of an heretic, and the punifhment of ba-
nifhment, for celebrating Eafter in the manner of
the Jews, and attributing an human form to the Dei¬
fy. He died in the country of the Goths, about the
year 370.
AUDIENCE given to ambaffadors, a ceremony
pbferved in courts at the admiffion of ambaffadors or
public minifters to a hearing.
In England, audience is given to ambafiadors in the
prefence-chamber; to envoys and refidents, in a gal¬
lery, clofet, or in any place where the king happens
to be. Upon being admitted, as is the cuftom of all
courts, they make three bow's; after which they cover
and fit down; but not before the king is covered and
fat down, and has given them the fign to put on their
hats. When the king does not care to have them co¬
vered and fit, he himfelf Hands uncovered ; which is
taken as a flight. At Conftantinople, minifters ufually
have audience of the prime vizier.
Audience is alfo the name of a court of juftice
eftablxlhed in the Weft-Indies by the Spaniards, an-
fwering in effect to the parliament in France. Thefe
courts take in feveral provinces, called alfo audien¬
ces from the names of the tribunal to which they be¬
long.
Audience is alfo the name of an ecclefiaftical court
held by the archbifhop of Canterbury, wherein diffe¬
rences upon ele&ions, confecrations, inftitutions, mar¬
riages, &c. are heard.
AUDIENDO & terminando, a writ, or rather a
commiffipn to certain perfons, when any infurre&ion
or great riot is committed in any place, for the appea¬
ring and punifhment thereof.
AUDIENTES, or Auditores, in church-hiftory,
an order of catechumens;, confifting of thofe newly in-
ftrufted in the myfteries of the Chriftian religion, and
not yet admitted to bjptifm.
AUDIT, a regular hearing and examination of an
account by fome proper officers, appointed for that
puijofe.
AUDITOR, in a general fenfe, a hearer, or one
who Hftens and attends to any thing.
Auditor, according to our law, is an officer of the
king, or fome other great perfon, who, by examining
yearly the accounts of the under officers, makes up a
general book, with the difference between their re¬
ceipts and charges, and their allowances to alloca¬
tions.
jluviroR of the Receipts, is an officer of the exche¬
quer who files the tellers bills, makes an entry of
them, and gives the lord treafurer a certificate of the
money received the week before. He alfo makes de¬
bentures to every teller, before they receive any money,
and takes their accounts. He keeps the black book
of receipts, and the treafurer’s key of the treafury,
and fees every teller’s money locked up in the new trea¬
fury.
Auditors of the Revenue, or of the exchequer, offi¬
cers who take the accounts of thofe who colie61 the re¬
venues and taxes raifed by parliament, and take the
accounts of the fheriffs, efcheators, colledtors, tenants,
and cuftomers, and fet them down in a book, and per-
fedl them.
Auditors of the Preji and I nip reft, officers of the ex¬
chequer, who take and make up the accounts of Ire¬
land, Berwick, the mint, and of any money impreffed
to any man for the king’s fervice. 1'hey received poun¬
dage on all accounts paffed by them, which amounted
to a prodigious fum, efpecially-in time of v/ar. But
the office is npw abolifhed, and L.7000 a-year given to
the incumbents.
Auditors Collegiate, Conventual, &c. officers for¬
merly appointed in colleges, &c. to examine and pafs
their accounts.
AUDITORES, in church hiftory. See Audien-
Auditor.i
Auditory,
The auditores formed one branch of the Manichean
feft, which was divided into eleft and auditors ; cor-
refponding, according to fome writers, to clergy and
laity ; and according to others, to the faithful and ca¬
techumens among the Catholics. By the Manichean
rule, a different courfe of life was prefcribed to the
eleft from that of the auditors. The latter might eat
flefh, drink wine, bathe, marry, traffic, poffefs eftates,
bear magiftracy, and the like; all which things were
forbidden to the eleft. The auditors were obliged to
maintain the eleft, and kneeled down to afk their blef-
fing. Beaufobre obferves, that the eleft were eccle-
fiaftics, and in general fuch as made profeffion of ob
ferving certain counfels, called evangelic; fuch as the
clergy and monks; and they were called theperfeft by
Theodoret. The auditors were the laity, and fo deno¬
minated, becaufe they heard in the church whilit others
taught and inftrufted.
AUDITORIUM, in the ancient churches, was
that part of the church where the audientes flood to
hear and be inflrufted.
The auditorium was that part now called navis ec-
clefta*. In the primitive times, the church was fo*see
ftrick in keeping the people together in that place, that Nave.
the perfon who went from thence in fermon-time was
ordered by the council of Carthage to be excommuni¬
cated.
AUDITORY, fomething relating to the fenfe of
hearing.
Auditory, or Audience, an affembly of people
who attend to hear a perfon who fpeaks in public,
i Au-
A U D [ 675 ] ' A U D
Auditory Auditory is alfo ufed for the bench whereon a ma-
| II giftrate or judge hears caufes.
. AHdr?n ^ Auditory, in . ancient churches. See Audito-
' RIUM.
Auditory Pajfage, (meatus auditorius), in anato¬
my; the entrance of the ear. See Anatomy, p. 763,
1 Auditory Nerves. See Anatomy, p. 760.
AUDRAN (Claude), a French engraver, the firft
of the celebrated artitls of that name, was the fon of
Lewis Audran, an officer belonging to the wolf-hun-
ters, in the reign of Henry IV. of France; and was
1 born at Paris in 1592. He never made any great pro-
grefs in the art; fo that his prints are held in little or
no eftimation. Yet though he acquired no great re¬
putation by his own works, it was no fmall honour to
ihim to be the father of three great artifts, Germain,
Claude, and Girard; the laft of whom has immorta¬
lized the name of the family for ever. Claude Audran
retired from Paris to Lyons, where he redded, and
died in 1677.
Audran (Carl), a very eminent engraver, was bro¬
ther to the preceding, though fome affert he was only
hiscoufin-german; and was born at Paris in 1594. In
i his infancy he difcovered much tafte, and a great difpo-
fition for the arts; and to perfect himfelf in engraving,
which he appears to have been chiefly fond of, he went
to Rome, where he produced feveral prints that did him
great honour. At his return, he adopted that fpecies
of engraving which is performed with the graver only.
He fettled at Paris, where he died in 1674, with¬
out having ever been married. The Abbe Marolles,
who always fpeaks of this art id with great praife, at¬
tributes 130 prints to him: amongft which, the annun-
ciation, a middling-fized plate, upright, from Anna-
ble Caracci; and the ajfumption, in a circle, from
Domenichino, are the moft efteemed. In the ear¬
ly part of his life he marked his prints with C, or
the name of Carl, till his brother Claude publilhed
fome plates with the initial only of his baptifmal name;
when, for diftin&ibn fake, he ufed the letter K, or
wrote his name Karl, with the K inftead of the C.
Audran (Germain), the eldeft fon of Claude, men¬
tioned in the preceding article but one, was born in
1631 at Lyons, where his parents then refided. Not
content with the inflru&ions of his father, he went to
Paris, and perfe&ed himfelf under his uncle Carl; fo
that, upon his return to Lyons, he publiflied feveral
prints which did great honour to his graver. His me¬
rit was in fuch eftimation, that he was made a mem¬
ber of the academy eftablifhed in that town, and cho-
fen a profeffor. He died at Lyons in. 1710, and left
behind him four fons, all artifts; namely, Claude, Be-
•noift, John, and Louis.
Audran (Claude), the fecond of this name, and
fecond fon to Claude above mentioned, was born at
Lyons in 1639, and went to Rome to ftudy paint¬
ing ; where he fucceeded fo well, that at his return he
was employed by Le Brun to alfift him in the battles
of Alexander, which he was then painting for the king
of France. He was received into the Royal Academy
in the year 1675, an(^ unmarried at Paris in
l - 1684. His virtues (fays Abbe Fontenai) were as
I .praife-worthy as his talents were great. M. Heineken
mentions this artift as an engraver, without fpecifying Audran.
any of his works in that line. 1——y—
Audran (Girard, or Gerard), the moft celebrated
artift of the whole family of the Audrans, was the
third fon of Claude Audran mentioned in a preceding
article, and born at Lyons in 1640. Fie learned
from his father the firft principles of defign and engra-
ying; and following the example of his brother, he left
Lyons and went to Paris, where his genius foon began
to manifeft itfelf. His reputation there brought him
to the knowledge of Le Brun, who employed him to
engrave the battle of Conjlantine, and the triumph of
that emperor ; and for thefe works he obtained apart¬
ments at the Goblins. At Rome, whither he went
for improvement, he is faid to have ftudied under Carlo
Maratti, in order to perfeft himfelf in drawing; and
in that city, where he refided three years, he engraved
feveral fine plates. M. Colbert, that great encourager
of the arts, was fo ftruck with the beauty of Audran’s
works whilft he refided at Rome, that he perfuaded
Louis XIV. to recal him. On his return he applied
himfelf affiduoufly to engraving; and was appointed
engraver to the king, from whom he received great
encouragement. In the year 1681 he was named coun-
fellor of the Royal Academy; and died at Paris in
1703. He had been married; but left no male iflue
behind him.
The great excellency of this artift above that of any Strutt', DU-
other engraver was, that though he drew admirably
himfelf, yet he contra&ed no manner of his own ; but
tranferibed on copper Amply, with great truth and
fpirit, the ftyle of the matter whofe pictures he copied.
On viewing his prints you lofe fight of the engraver,
and naturally fay, it is Le Brun, it is Pouffin, it is
Mignard, or it is Le Sueur, &c. as you turn to the
prints which he engraved from thofe mafters. Let
any one examine the battles above-mentioned from
Le Brun, the prefervation ef the young Pyrrhus from
Nicholas Pouffin, the pefl from Mignard, and the mar¬
tyrdom of St Laurence from Le Sueur, and then judge
candidly of the truth of this obfervation. The fol¬
lowing judicious obfervations by the Abbe Fontenai, /
taken chiefly from M. Bafan, with fome fmall varia¬
tion and additions, will fully illuftrate the merits of
Gerard Audran. “ This fublime artift, far from con¬
ceiving that a fervile arrangement of ftrokes, and the
too frequently cold and affefled clearnefs of the gra¬
ver, were the great efientials of hiftorical engraving*,
gave worth to his works by a bold mixture of free
hatchings and dots, placed together apparently without
order, but with an inimitable degree of tafte; and has
left to pofterity moft admirable examples of the ftyle
in which grand compofitions ought to be treated. His
greateft works, which have not a very flattering ap¬
pearance to the ignorant eye, are the admiration of
true connoifleurs and perfons of fine tafte. He ac¬
quired the moft profound knowledge of the art by the
conftant attention and ftudy which he beftowed upon
the fcience of defign, and the frequent ufe he made of
painting from nature. This great man always knew
how to penetrate into the genius of the painter he
copied from; often improved upon, and fometimes
even furpafled him. Without exception, he was the
moft celebrated engraver that ever exifted in the hifto-
4 Qj5 riea*
A U D [ 6/6 ] A V E
rical line. We have feveral fubje&s which he engraved
from his own defigns, that manvfefted as much tafte
as charafter and facility. But, in the battles of A-
lexander, he furpaffed even the expectations of Le
Brun himfelf.” 'Fhefe confift of three very large prints,
length-ways, each confiding of four plates, which join
together, from Le Brun: namely, the pajfage of the
Granicus ; the battle of Arbela ; Porus brought to A-
lexander, after his defeat.— To this fet are added two
more large prints, length-ways, on two plates each, alfo
from Le Brun, as follow: Alexander entering the tent of
Darius ; and The triumphal entry of Alexander into
Babylon. The former was engraved by Girard Ede-
link, and the latter by Girard Audran. It is to be
remarked of all thefe plates, that thofe impreffions
are generally mod edeemed which have the name of
Goyton the printer marked upon them.—The Pefl,
from Peter Mignard, a large plate length-ways, alfo
deferves particular notice. In the fird impredions, the
figure in the clouds, is Juno with her peacock behind
her ; in the latter, the peacock is obliterated, and the
wings of an angel are added to the figure.
Audran (Benoit), the fecond fon of Germain Au¬
dran, was born at Lyons in 1661, where he learn¬
ed the fird principles of defign and engraving under
the indrudlipns of his father. But foon after going to
Paris, his uncle Girard Audran took him under his
tuition; and Benoit fo greatly profited by his infiruc-
tions, that though he never equalled the fublime dyle
of his tutor, yet he defervedly acquired great reputation.
Nay, the Abbe Fontenai adds this eulogium: “ We ad¬
mire in his works a diare of thofe beauties which we find
in the engravings of the illudrious Girard.” He was
honoured with the appellation of the king’s engraver,
and received the royal penfion. He was made an aca¬
demician, and admitted into the council in 1715- He
died unmarried at Louzouer, where he had an edate, in
1721. His manner was founded upon the bold clear dyle
of his uncle. His outlines were firm and determined ;
his drawing correft; the heads of his figures are in
general very expredive ; and the other extremities well
marked. His works, when compared with thofe of
his uncle, appear to want that mellownefs and harmo¬
ny which are fo confpicuous in the latter; they are
more dry ; and the round dots with which he finidies
his fii’di upon the lights are often too predominant.
In his mod finilhed plates, we find the mechanical part
of the engraving extremely neat, and managed with
great tade and judgment. Among his neated prints
may be reckoned that which reprefents Alexander fck,
drinking from the cup which his phyfician prefents to
him; a circular plate, from Le Suer.
Audran (John), the third fon of Germain Au¬
dran, was born at Lyons in 1667; and, after having
received indru&ions from his father, went to Paris to
perfeft himfelf in the art of engraving under his uncle
Girard Audran. At the age of 20 years, the genius
of this great artid begun to difplay itfelf in a furpri-
fing manner ; and his future fuccefs was fuch, that
in 1^07, he obtained the title of engraver to the
king, and had a penfion allowed him by his majedy,
with apartments in the Gobelins; and the following
year he was made a member of the Royal Academy,
pie was 80 years of age before he quitted the graver ;
and near 90 when he died at his apartments afiigned
him by the king. He left three fons behind him; one Aud-an
of whom was alfo an engraver, as we fhall fee below.
“ The mod maderly and bed prints of this artid (in
Mr Strutt’s opinion) are thofe which are not fo plea-
fing to the eye at fird fight. In thefe the etching
conditutes a great part ; and he has finidied them in
a bold rough dyle. The fcientific hand of the mader
appears in them on examination. The drawing of the
human figure, where it is drown, is correft. The
heads are expreflive and finely finidied; the other ex¬
tremities well marked.1 He has not, however, equalled
his uncle. He wants that harmony in the effeft ; his
lights are too much and too equally covered; and there
is not fufficient difference between the dyle in which
he has engraved his back grounds and his draperies.
This obfervation refers to a fine print by him of Atha-
liah, and fuch as he engraved in that dyle. At other
times he feems aimed to have quitted the point, and
fubdituted the graver. But here I think he has not
fo well fucceeded. The effedl is cold and filvery: fee,
for example, the Andromache from Silvedre. One of
his bed finifired prints, in this neat dyle, feems to me
to be Cupid and Pfyche from Ant. Coypel.”
Audran (Louis), the lad fan of Germain Au-
dran, Was born at Lyons in 1670; from whence he
went to Paris, after the example of his brothers, to
complete his dudies in the fchool of his uncle Girard.
He died fuddenly at Paris in vj\2, before he had
produced any great number of prints by his own hand.
He afiided, it is prefumed, his brothers in their more
extenfive works. Among the mod edeemed prints
by this artid are the feven atts of mercy, on feven mid-
ling-fized plates, length-ways, from Sebadian Bourdon.
Audran (Benoit), the fecond engraver of that
name, was the fon of John Audran, and nephew to
the former Benoit; and was alfo edablidred at Paris.
He engraved but a few plates. It is neceffary, how¬
ever, to be careful not to confound him with his uncle.
But a little attention will eafily prevent this midake ;
for the fecond Benoit is vadly inferior to the fird in
point of merit. We have fome few portraits by this
artid; and among other plates, the defeent from the
crofs, from a pi&ure of Pouffin.
AVEIRO, a confiderable city of Portugal, feated
near the head of a fmall gulf formed by the tide at the
mouth of the river Vouga. This river forms a fmall
haven with a bar, over which veffels may pafs that do
not draw above eight or nine feet water. The city
dands in a long plain, well watered, and very fertile.
This plain is nine miles broad, from Porto to Coimbro;
and is bounded on the ead by a chain of mountains
called Sara d’Atcoba, whjph reach from the one town
to the other. Near this city there is fait made in fuf¬
ficient quantity to ferve two or three provinces. Here
is a remarkable nunnery, where none are received but
the daughters of the ancient nobility. The inhabitants
of Aveiro have the Angular privilege, that no dranger
whatever can pafs a night there without leave of the
magidrate. W. Long. 9. 8. N. Lat. 40. 30.
AVELLANE, in heraldry, a crofs, the quarters
of which fome what refemble a filbert-nut. Sylvan us
Morgan fays, that it is the crofs which enfigns the
mound of authority, or the fovereign’s globe.
AVELLINO, a city of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, with a bilhop’s fee. It was almod ruined by
Avellinol
Avellino
A V E C 677 1 A V E
an earthquake in 1694. It is, however, at prefent a
pretty confiderable place, extending a mile in length
down the declivity of a hill, with ugly (treets, but to¬
lerable houfes. The churches have nothing to recom¬
mend them, being crowded with monftrous ornaments
in a barbarous ftyle, which the Neapolitans feem to
have borrowed from the Spaniards. The cathedral is
a poor building, in a wretched fituatipn, with little to
attradt the eye. The good people here need not run
to Naples to fee the blood of St Januarius ; for they
have a ftatue of St Lawrence, with a phial of his
blood, which for eight days in Auguft entertains them
with a fimilar miraculous liquefaction. Their only edi¬
fice of note is a public granary, of the Compofite or¬
der, adorned with antique ftatues, and a very elegant
bronze one of Charles II. of Spain, while a boy, call
by Cavalier Coiimo. The number of inhabitants a-
mounts to 8coo, feme fay ic,oco. The bifliop’s re¬
venue is about 6coo ducats (L,. 1125) a-year. The
magiftracy conlifts of a Syndic and four Eletti, all
annual; which offices are e.ngrofled by a certain num¬
ber of families of fojne diflincfion, that neither inter¬
marry nor affiiciate with the reft of the burghers. There
is a confiderable manufacture of cloth here of various
qualities and colours, but chiefly blue. Many wealthy
merchants have a concern in this bufinefs,- fome with a
capital of eighty thoufand ducats (L. 15,000). The
poor women who fpin the wool muft work very hard
to earn above four grana a- day. T he fecond article of
trade is maccaroni and pafte of many kinds, which be¬
ing of an excellent quality, are in high repute all over
the country. Wooden chairs are alfo made and fold
here in great quantities. Avellino abounds with pro-
viiions of every fort; each ftreet is fupplied with whole-
fome water ; the wine is but indifferent. The foil of
this diftridt, which confifts chiefly of volcanic fubllan-
ces, produces little corn, but fruit in abundance, of
which the apple is defervedly held in great efteem.
The moft profitable, however, of all its fruit-trees is the
hazel. Nut buflres cover the face of the valley, and in
good years bring in a profit of fixty thoufand ducats
(L. 11,250). The nuts are moftly of the large round
fpecies of filbert, which we call Spanijh. Thefe buflres
were originally imported into Italy from Pontus, and
known among the Romans by the appellation of Nux
Pontica, which in procefs of time was changed into
that of Kitx Avsliana, from the place wLere they had
been propagated with the greateft fuccefs. The pro¬
prietors plant them in rows, and by dreffing form them
into large bulhes of many ftems. Every year they re-
frefh the roots with new earth, and prune off the {hag¬
gling (hoots with great attention.
AVE-MAR1A, the angel Gabriel’s falutation of
the Virgin Mary, when he brought her the tidings of
the incarnation —It is become a prayer or form of de¬
votion in the Romifh church. 'I heir chaplets and ro-
faries are divided into fo many ave-marias, and ft) many
pater-nofters, to vrhich the Papifts aferibe a wonderful
efficacy.
AVENA, oats : A genus of the digynia order,
belonging to the triandria clafs of plants; and in the
natural method ranking under the 4th order, Gramina.
The calyx has a double valve, and the awn on the
back is contorted. The fpecies are 13; fix of them
natives of Britain: viz. i. The nuda, or naked oats.
2. The fatua, or bearded oat-grafs. 3. The praten-
fis, or meadow oat-grafs. 4. The pubefeens, or rough
oat-grafs. 5. The elatior, or tall oat-grafs. 6. The
flavefeens, or yellow oat-grafs. it is remarkable, that
the native place of the fativa, or common oat, cultiva¬
ted in our fields, is almoft totally unknown. Anfon
fays, that he obferved it growing wfild or fpontaneoufly
in the ifland of Juan Fernandez. But a vague obfer-
vation from an author of that kind is not to be depend¬
ed on.—For the culture. See Agriculturf, n° 137.
Oats are an article of the materia medica. Gruels
made from them have a kind of foft mucilaginous qua¬
lity; by which they obtund acrimonious humours, and
prove ufeful in inflammatory difeafes, coughs, hoarfe-
nefs, and exulcerations of the fauces.
AVENACEOUS, fomething belonging to or par¬
taking of the nature of oats.
AVENAGE, in law, a certain quantity of oats paid
by a tenant to a landlord, inftead of rent or fome other
duties.
II.
Aventine.
AVENCHF, an ancient city of Switzerland, in the
canton of Bern, formerly the capital of all Switzerland,
but now (hows its former greatnefs only by its ruins.
E. Long. 7. 7. N. Lat. 46. 50.
AVENES, a fmall but ftrong town in French Flan¬
ders, in the county of Hainault, feated on the river
Thefpes. It contains about 2500 inhabitants; but the
houfes are wretchedly built, and the ftreets irregular.
It was fortified by M. Vauban in a ftrong regular man¬
ner. About this place are a prodigious number of
white ftones proper for building, and ufed by fculptors
for ftatues : they are known by the name of Stones of
Avenes. E. Long. 3.40. N. Lat. 50. 10.
AVENIO, an ancient town of the Cavares, and one
of the moft opulent in Gallia Narbonenfis; now Avig¬
non, in Provence. See Avignon.
AVENOR, an officer belonging to the king’s {tables,
who provides oats for the horfes. He adts by warrant
from the mailer of the horfe.
AVENS, in botany. See Cariophyllus.
AVENTINE (John), author of the Annals of Ba¬
varia, was born of mean parentage, in the year 1466,
at Abenfperg in the country juft named. He ftudied
firft at Ingolllad, and afterwards in the univerfity of
Paris. In 1503, he privately taught eloquence and
poetry at Vienna; and in 1507, he publicly taught
Greek at Cracow in Poland. In 1509, he read ledtures-
on fome of Cicero’s pieces at Ingoldlladt; and in 1512,
was appointed to be preceptor to prince Louis and
prince Erneft, fons of Albert the Wife, duke of Ba¬
varia; and travelled with the latter of thofe two princes.
After this he undertook to write the Annals of Bava¬
ria, being encouraged by the dukes of that name, who
fettled a penfion upon him, and gave- him hopes that
they wou'd defray the charges of the book. This work,
which gained its author great reputation, was firft pu-
blifhed in 1554, by Jerome Zieglerus, profeflbr of
poetry in the univerfity of Ingoldftadt; and afterwards
at Baiil in 1580, by Nicholas Cifner. An affront which
Aventine received in the year 1529, ftuck by him all
the reft of his life : he was forcibly taken out of his
lifter’s houfe at Abenfperg, and hurried to a jail ; the
true caufe of which violence was nevep known : but it
would probably have been carried to a much greater
length, had not the Duke of Bavaria interpofed, and
A V E [ 678 ] A V E
Atsntlcms uken this learned man Into his protection. Mr Bayle
Avemie ,'emar^C3’ that the incurable melancholy which from this
time poffefled Aventine, was fo far from determining
him to lead a life of celibacy, as he had done till he was
64, that it induced him perhaps to think of marrying.
The violence of his new paffion was not, howeverj fo
great, but that it fuffered him to advife with two of his
friends, and confult certain paffages of the Bible rela¬
tive to marriage. The refult was, that it was beft for
him to marry; and having already loft too much time,
confidering his age, he took the firft woman he met
with, who happened to be his own maid, ill-tempered,
ugly, and extremely poor. He died in 1534, aged 68 5
leaving one daughter, who was then but two monnths
old. He had a fon, who died before.
AVENTINUS mons, one of the feven hills on
which ancient Rome flood. The origin of the name
Aventinus is uncertain : but this hill was alfo called
■ -Murcius, from Murcia the goddefs of doth, who had
a little chapel there; and CoUis Diana, from the temple
of Diana; likewife Remonius, from Remus, who wanted
to build the city, and who was buried there. It was ta-
4cen within the compafs of the city by Ancus Marcius.
To the eaft it had the city walls; to the fouth, the Cam¬
pus Figulinus; to the weft, the Tiber; and to the north,
Mons Palatinus, in circuit two ihiles and a quarter.
AVENTURE, in law-books, means a mifchance
caufing the death of a perfon without felony.
AVENUE, in gardening, a walk planted on each
fide with trees, and leading to an houfe, garden-gate,
wood, &c. and generally terminated by Tome diftant
obje&.
All avenues that lead to a houfe ought to be at
leaft as wide as the whole front of the houfe, if wider
they are better Hill; and avenues to woods and pro-
fpeCls ought not to be lefs than 60 feet wide. The
trees ftiould not'be planted nearerfto one another than
35 feet, efpeeially if they are trees of a fpreading
kind; and the fame ought to be the diftance, if they
are for a regular grove.
• The trees moft proper for avenues with us, are the
Englifti elm, the lime, the horfe-chefnut, the common
chefnut, the beech; and the abele. The Englifti elm
will do in all grounds, except fuch as are very wet and
fhallow; and this is preferred to all other trees, be-
caufe it will bear cutting, heading, or lopping in any
manner, better than moft others. The rough or fmooth
Dutch elm is approved by fome, becaufe of its quick
growth: this is a tree which will bear removing very
well; it is alfo green almoft as foon as any plant what¬
ever in fpring, and continues fo long as any, and it
makes an incomparable hedge, and is preferable to all
other trees for lofty efpaliers. The lime is valued for
its natural growth and fine (hade. The horfe-chefnut
"is proper for all places that are not too much expofed
to rough winds. The common chefnut will do very
‘well in a good foil; and rifes to a confiderable height,
when planted fomewhat clofe ; though, when it Hands
fingle, it is rather, inclined to fpread than to grow tall.
The beech is a beautiful tree, and naturally grows well
with us in its wild ftate; but it is lefs to be chofen for
avenues than the before-mentioned, becaufe it does not
bear tranfplantirig well, but is very fubjeft to mifca’rry.
Daftly, the abele is fit for any foil, and is the quickeft
grower of any foreft-tree. It feldom fails in trattf- AvewsoSr.:
planting; and fucceeds very well in wet foils, in which ''““"v
the others are apt to fail. The oak is but little ufed
for avenues, becaufe of its flow growth.
The old method of planting avenues was with re¬
gular rows of trees, and this has been alway kept to
till of late ; but we have now a much more magnifi¬
cent way of planting avenues; this is by fetting the
trees in clumps, or platoons, making the opening
much wider than before, and placing the clumps of
trees at about 300 feet diftant from one another. In
each of thefe clumps there Ihould be planted either fe¬
ven or nine trees; but it is to be obferved, that this it
only to be pradtifed where the avenue is to be of fome
confiderable length, for in ihort walks this will not ap¬
pear fo lightly as fingle rows of trees. The avenues
made by clumps are fitteft of all for parks. The trees
in each clump Ihould be planted about 30 feetafunder :
and a trench fliould be thrown up round the whole
clump, to prevent the deer from coming to the trees
to bark them.
AVENZOAR, abu merwav abdalmalec ebm
zohr, an eminent Arabian phyfician, flourilhed about
the end of the eleventh or the beginning of the twelfth
century. He was of noble defcent, and born at Se-
vil, the capital of Andalufia, where he exercifed his
profefiion with great reputation. His grandfather
and father were both phyficians. The large eftate
he inherited from his anceftors, fet him above prac-
tifing altogether for gain: he therefore took no fees
from the poor, or from artificers, though he refufed
not the prefents of princes and great men. His li¬
berality was extended even to his enemies ; for which
reafon he ufed to fay, that they hated him not for any
fault of his, but rather out of envy. Dr Friend writes,
that he lived to the age of 135; that he began to prac-
tife at 40, or (as others fay) at 20 ; and had the ad¬
vantage of a longer experience than almoft any one
ever had, for he enjoyed perfect health to his laft hour.
He left a fon, known alfo by the name of Ebn Zohr,
who followed his father’s profeffion, was in great fa¬
vour with A1 Manzur emperor of Morocco, and wrote
feveral treatifes of phyfic.
Avenzoar was cotemporary with Averroes, who, ac¬
cording to Leo Africanus, heard the ledftures of the
former, and learned phyfic of him; this feems the
more probable, becaufe AVerroes more than once gives
Avenzoar a very high and deferved encomium, calling
him admirable, glorious, the treafure of all knoouledge,
and the moft fupremt in phyjtc from the time of Galen to 4
his o’wn. Avenzoar, notwithftanding, is by the genera- i
lity of writers reckoned an empiric: But Dr Friend
obferves, that this chara&er fuics him lefs than any of
the reft of the Arabians. “ He was bred,” continues
that author, “ in a phyfical family, his father and
grandfather being both pradtitioners, whom he always
remembers with great gratitude and honour. We have
his own teftimony that he had a regular education; and
tha't he not only learned what properly belongs to a
phyfician, but, out of a great defire of knowledge,
every thing befides which relates to pharmacy or fur-
gery.” Dr Friend afterwards obferves “ that he was
averfe to quackery, and rejedls the idle fuperftitions of
aftrologers; and throughout all his work profeffes him-
A V E t 679 ] A V E
Average felf fo much of the dogmatical or rational fe£t, which
■ II ^ was direftly oppolite to the empirical, that he has a
vernus’, great deal of reafoning about the caufes and fymp-
toms of deftempers; and as in his theory he chiefly, if
not only, follows Galen, fo he quotes him upon all
occafions, oftener than the reft of the Arabians do.
Notwithftanding he is fo Galenical, there’ are feveral
particulars in him which feldom or never occur in other
authors; and there are fome cafes which he relates
from his own experience, which are worth perufing.”
He wrote a book intitled, Taya (fir fi'lmadanvat <w> al-
tadbir, i.e. “ The method of preparing medicines and
diet;” which is much efteemed. This work wastranf-
lated into Hebrew, in the year of Chrift 1280, and
thence into Latin by Paravicius, whofe verfion has had
feveral editions. The author added a fupplemeftt to
it, under the title of Jame, or a Co lie ft wn. He alfo
wrote a treatife Fi’ladiviyat nua’laughdiyat, i. e. Of
Medicines and Food;” wherein he treats of their qua¬
lities.
AVERAGE, in commerce, fignifies the accidents
and misfortunes, which happen to (hips and their car¬
goes, from the time of their loading and failing to
their return and unloading ; and is divided into three
kindsi 1. The fimple or particular average, which
confifts in the extraordinary expences incurred for the
fh ip alone, or for the merchandizes alone. Such is the
lofs of anchors, mafts, and rigging, occafioned by the
common accidents at fea ; the damages which happen
to merchants by ftorm, prize, Ihipwreck, wet, or rot¬
ting; all which muft be borne and paid by the thing
which fuffered the damage. 2. The large and common
average, being thofe expences incurred, and damages
fuftained, for the common good and fecurity both of
the merchandizes and veflels, confequently to be borne
by the (hip and cargo, and to be regulated upon the
whole. Of this number are the goods- or money gi¬
ven for the ranfom of, the fhip and cargo, things
thrown overboard for the fafety of the fhip, the ex-,
pences of unloading for entering into a river or har¬
bour, and the provifions and hire of the failors when
the fhip is put under an embargo. 3. The fmall aver¬
ages, which are the expences for towing and piloting
the fhip out of or into harbours, creeks, or rivers, one
third of which muft be charged to the fhip, and two
-thirds to the cargo.
Average is more particularly ufed for a certain con¬
tribution that merchants make proportionably to their
Ioffes, who have had their goods call into the fea in
the time of a tempeft. It alfo fignifies a fmall duty
which thofe merchants, who fend goods in another
man’s {hip, pay to the mafter for his care of them over
and above the freight. Hence it is expreffed in the bills
of lading, paying fo much freight for the faid goods,
with primage and average accuftomed.
AVERDUPOIS. See Avoirdupois.
AVERNUS, a lake of Campania in Italy, near
Baise, famous among the ancients for its poifonous
qualities. It is defcribed by Strabo as lying within
the. Lucrine bay, deep and darkfome, furrounded with
fteep banks that hang threatening over it, and only
acceflible by the narrow paffage through which you
faff in. Black aged groves ftretched their boughs over
tft& watery abyfs, and with impenetrable foliage exclu¬
ded almoft every ray of vvholefome light; mephitic
vapours afcending from the hot bowels of the earth, Avernuj.
being denied free paffage to the uppef atmofphere, f—*
floated along the furface in poifonous mifts. Thefe
circumftances produced horrors fit for fuch gloomy
deities; a colony of Cimmerians, as well fuited to the
rites as the places itfelf, cut dwellings in the bofom of
the furrounding hills, and officiated as priefts of Tar¬
tarus. Superftition always delighting in dark ideas,
early and eagerly feized upon this fpot, and hither fhe
led her trembling votaries to celebrate her difmal or¬
gies ; here fhe evoked the manes of departed heroes—
here file offered facrifices to the gods of hell, and at¬
tempted to dive into the fecrets of futurity. Poets
enlarged upon the popular theme, and painted its aw¬
ful fcenery with the ftrongeft colours of their art. Ho¬
mer brings Ulyffes to Avemus, as to the mouth of the
infernal.abodes; and in imitation of the Grecian bard,
Virgil condufts his hero to the fame ground. Who¬
ever failed thither, firft did facrifice; and endeavoured
to propitiate the infernal powers, with the affiftance of
fome priefts who attended upon the place, and directed
the myftic performance. Within, a fountain of pure
water broke out juft over the fea, which was fancied
to be a vein of the river Styx ; near this fountain was
the oracle; and the hot waters frequent in thofe parts
were fuppofed to be branches of the burning Phlege-
thon. The poifonous effluvia from this lake were faid
to be fo ftrong, that they proved fatal to birds endea¬
vouring to fly over it. Virgil afcribes the exhalation
not to the lake itfelf, but to the cavern near it, which
was called aivernus, or Cave of the Sibyl, and through
which the poets feigned a defcent to hell. Hence the
proper name of the lake h Lacus Averni, the “ lake
near the. cavern,” as it is called by fome ancient au¬
thors.
The holinefs of thefe {hades remained unimpeached
for many ages : Hannibal marched his army to offer
incenfe. at this altar ; but it may be fufpe&ed he was
led to this a«ft of devotion rather by the hopes of fur-
prifing the garrifon of Puteoli, than by his piety. Af¬
ter a long reign of undifturbed gloom and celebrity',
a fudden glare of light was let in upon Avernus; the
horrors were difpelled, and with them vaniihed the
fan&ity of the lake : the axe of Agrippa brought its
foreft to the ground, difturbed its fleepy waters with
fhips, and gave room for all its malignant effluvia to
efcape. The virulence of thefe exhalations, as defcri¬
bed by ancient authors, has appeared fo very extraor¬
dinary, that modern writers, who know the place in a
cleared ftate only, charge thefe accounts with exagge¬
ration: but Mr Swinburne thinks them intitled to more-
refpeft; for even now, he obferves, the air is feverifh
and dangerous, as the jaundiced faces of the vine-dref-
fers, who have fucceeded the Sybils and the Cimmeri¬
ans in the poffeffion of the temple, moft ruefully tefti-
fy. Boccaccio relates, that, daring his refidence at
the Neapolitan court, the furface of this lake was fud-
denly covered with dead fifh, black and finged, as if.
killed by fome fubaqueous eruption of-fire.
At prefent the lake abounds with tench ; the Lu¬
crine with eels. The change of fortune in thefe lakes
is Angular: In the fplendid days of imperial Rome
the Lucrine was the chofen fpot for the brilliant par¬
ties of pleafure of a voluptuous court: now, a flimy
bed of rufhes covers the fcattered p9ols of this once
beau-,-
A V E f 680 | A V E
Avcrrhna. beautiful flieet of water; while tbe once dufliy Aver- where a partial one comes otat, the leaf moves in a few A
nus is clear and fercne, offering a mofl alluring furface feconds in the fame manner as if you had touched the ”
and charming fcene for fimilar amufements. Oppofite partial petiolus.
to the temple is a cave ufually flyled the Sybil’s grotto; Whether the impreffion be made by pun&ure, per-
but apparently more likely to have been the mouth of cuflion, or compreffion, the motion does not inftantly
a communication between Cuma and Avernus, than follow; generally feveral feconds intervene, and then
the abode of a prophetefs; efpecially as the fybil is it is not by a jirk, but regular and gradual. After-
pofnively faid by hiftorians to have dwelt in a cavern wards, when the leaves return to their former fitua-
under the Cumean citadel. tion, which is commonly in a quarter of an hour or
AVERRHOA in botany: A genus of the decan- lefs, it is in fo flow a manner as to be almofl imper-
dria order, belonging to the pentagynia clafs of plants ; ceptible,
and in the natural method ranking under the 14th or- On flicking a pin into the univerfal petiolus at its
der, Gruinales. The calyx has 5 leaves, the petals are origin, the leaf next it, which is always on the outer
5, opening at top; and the apple or fruit is penta- fide, moves firft; then the firft leaf on the oppofite
gonous, and divided into 5 cells. There are 3 fpecies, fide, next the fecond leaf on the outer, and fo on.
viz. the blimbi, the carambola, and the acida, all na- Bul> this regular progrefiion feldom continues through-
tives of the Indies. • out; for the leaves on the outer fide of the pinna feem
VIM. Tranf. The fecond of thefe, the carambola, called in Bengal to be affefted both more quickly, and with more ener-
vol. 75. the camrue or camrunga, is remarkable for poffelfing a gy, than thofe of the inner; fo that the fourth leaf on
part 1. power fomewhat fimilar to thofe fpecies of Mimofa the outer fide frequently moves as foon as the third on
which are termed fenfttive plants; its leaves, on being the inner; and fometimes a leaf, efpecially on the in-
touched, moving very perceptibly. In the mimofa the ner fide, does not move at all, whiift thofe above and
moving faculty extends to the branches; but from the below it are affedled in their proper time. Sometimes
hardnefs of the wood, this cannot be expedled in the the leaves at the extremity of the petiolus move fooner
camvunga. The leaves are alternately pinnated, with than feveral others which were neaier the place where
an odd one ; and in their moll common polition in the the pin was put in. On making a compreffion with a
day-time are horizontal, or on the fame plane with the pair of pincers on the univerfal petiolus, between any
branch from which they come out. On being touch- two pair of leaves, thofe above the comprelfed part, or
ed, they move themfelves downward, frequently in fo nearer the extremity of the petiolus, move fooner than
great a degree that the two oppofite almott touch one thofe under it, or nearer the origin ; and frequently
another by their under fides, and the young ones the motion will extend upwards to the extreme leaf,
fometimes either come into contadl or even pals each, wfiilfi. below it perhaps does not go farther than the
other. The whole of the leaves of one pinna move by neared pair. If the leaves happen to be blown by the
linking the branch with the nail of the finger or other wind againd one another, or againd the branches,
hard fubltance; or each leave can be moved fingly, by they are frequently put iii motion; but when a branch
making an impreffion that fhall not extend beyond that is moved gently, either by the hand or the wind, with-
leaf. In this way the leaves of one fide of- the pinna out driking againd any thing, no motion of the leaves
may be made to move, one after another, wdiild the takes place.
oppofite continue as they were ; or you may make When left to themfelves in the day-time, ffiaded
them move alternately, or in fiiort in any order you from the fun, wind, rain, or any didurbing caufe, the
pleafe, by touching in a proper manner the leaf you appearance of the leaves is different from that of other
wifii to put in motion. But if the impreffion, al- pinnated plants. In the lad a great uniformity fub-
though made on a fingle leaf, be drong, all the leaves fids in the refpeclive pofition of the leaves on the pin-
on that pinna, and fometimes on the neighbouring na; but here fome will be feen on the horizontal
ones, will be affeAed by it- Notwithdanding this ap- plane, fome railed above it, and others fallen under k ;
parent fenfibility of the leaf, however, large incifions and in an hour or fo, without any order or regularity
may be made in it with a pair of (harp feiffars, with- which can be obferved, all thefe wili have changed their
out occafioning the fmailed motion ; nay, it may even refpedlive pofitions.
be cut almod entirely off, and the remaining part dill Cutting the bark of the branch down to the wood,
continue unmoved, when by touching the wounded and even feparating it about the fpace of half an inch
leaf with the finger or point of the feiffars, motion all around, fo as to dop all communication by the vef-
will take place as if no injury had been offered. The fels of the bark, does not for the firil day affett the
reafon of this is, that although the leaf be the oden- leaves, either in their polition or their aptitude formo-
fible part which moves, it is in fa£l entirely paffive, tion. In a branch, which was cut through in fuch a
and the petiolus is the feat both of fenfe and aCfion ; manner as to leave it fufpended only by a little of the
for although the leaf may be cut in pieces, or fqueezed bark no thicker than a thread, the leaves next day did
with great force, provided its direction be not changed not rife fo high as the others; but they were green and
without any motion being cccafioned; yet if the im- frelh, and, on being touched, moved, but in a much
preffion on the leaf be made in fuch a way as to affedl lefs degree than formerly.
the petiolus, the motion will take place. When, After fun-fet the leaves go to fleep, fird moving
therefore, it is wanted to confine the motion to a fingie down fo as to touch one another by their under fides:
leaf, you either touch it fo as only to affedl its own they therefore perform rather more extenfive motion
petiolus, or without meddling with the leaf, touch the at night of themfelves than they can be made to do in
petiolus with any fmall-pointed body, as a pin or knife, the day-time by external impreffions. With a convex
By compreffing the univerfal petiolus near the place lens the rays of the fun may be colledled on a leaf, fo
N° 37. as
A V E [ 681 ] A V E
Averroes
II
Ave: lion.
as to burn a hole in it, without occafioning any mo¬
tion. But upon trying the experiment on the petio-
lus, the motion is as quick as if from ftrong percufiion,
although the rays be not - fo much concentrated as to
caufe pain when applied in the fame degree on the
back of the hand. The leaves move very fail from the
ele&Hcal (hock, even although a very gentle one.
AVERROES, one of the moft fubtile philofophers
that ever appeared among the Arabians, flourifiied at
the end of the i tth and beginning of the i 2th centu¬
ry. He was the fon of the high-priett and chief
judge of Corduba in Spain. He was educated in the
univerfity of Morocco; and ftudied natural philofophy,
piedicine, mathematics, law, and divinity. After the
death of his father, he enjoyed his polls ; but notwith-
ftanding his being exceeding rich, his liberality to men
of letters in necefitty, whether they were his friends or
enemies, made him always in debt. He was after¬
wards dripped of all his pods, and thrown into prifon,
for herefy; but the oppreffions of the judge who fuc-
ceeded him, caufed him to be redored to his former
employments.
He died at Morocco in the year 1206. He was
exceflively fat, though he eat but once a-day. He fpent
all his nights in the dudy of philofophy; and when he
was fatigued, amufed himfelf with reading poetry or
hidory. He was never feen to play at any game, or
to partake in any diverfion. He was extremely fond
of Aridotle’s works, and wrote commentaries on them;
whence he was dyled The Commentator, by way of emi¬
nence. He likewife wrote a work on the whole art of
phyfic, and many amorous verfes; but when he grew
old, he threw thefe lad into the fire. His other poems
are lod, except a fmall piece, in which he fays, “ That
when he was young, he afted againd his reafon ; but
that when he was in years, he followed its dictates
upon which he utters this wi(h ; “ Would to God I
had been born old, and that in my youth I had been
in a date of perfe&ion !” As to religion, his opinions
were, that -Chridianity is abfurd; Judaifm, the religion
of children; Mahometanifm, the religion of fwine.
AVERROISTS, a feft of peripatetic philofophers,
who appeared in Italy fome time before the redoration
of learning, and attacked the immortality of the foul.
They took their denomination from Averroes, the
celebrated interpreter of Aiidotle (fee the preceding
article), from whom they*borrowed their didinguifhing
do&rine.
The Averroids, who held the foul was mortal, ac¬
cording to reafon or philofophy, yet pretended to fub-
mit to the Chridian theology, which declares it im¬
mortal. But the didin&ion was held fafpicious ; and
this divorce of faith from reafon was rejected by the
doctors of that time, and condemned by the lad coun¬
cil of the Lateran under Leo X.
AVERRUNCI (D£ 1), certain gods, whofe bufinefs
it was, according to the Pagan theology, to avert mif-
fortunes. Apollo and Hercules were of the number of
thefe gods among the Greeks, and Cador and Pollux
among the Romans.
AVERSA, _a town of Italy in the kingdom of
Naples, with a bifhop’s fee. It is fituated in a very
fine plain, in E. Long. 14. 20 N. Lat. 41. O.
AVERSION, according to Lord Kames, is oppofed
to affection, and not to dtfire, as it commonly is. Wc
Vol. II. PartIL
have an afTeflion to one perfon; we have an averfion to
another: the former difpofes us to do good to its ob-
je6t, the latter to do ill. ^
AVERTI, in horfemanfhip, is applied to a regular
dep or motion enjoined in the leffons. In this fenfe
they fay pas averte, fometim;s pas ecouic, and pas d'ccole,
which all denote the fame. The work is mere French,
and fignifies advlfed.
AVES, one of the Caribbee illands, 451 miles fouth
of Porto Rico, with a good harbour for careening of
(hips. It is fo called from the great number of birds
that frequent it. There is another of the fame name
lying to the northward of this, in N. Lat. 15. o.; and
a third near the eaftern coafl of Newfoundland, in
N. Lat. 50. 5.
ArES, Birds, the name of Linnaeus’s fecond clafs of
animals See Zoology, n° 8. and Ornithology.
AVESBURY (Robert), an Engliih hiftorian, of
whom little more is known than that he was keeper
of the regiftery of the court of Canterbury in the reign
of Edward III. and confequently that he lived in the
14th century. He wrote. Memorabilia gejia magnifici
regis Anglia domini Edwardi tertii pojl conquejlum, pro-
cerumqae; taciis primitus quibufdam gejlis de tempore pa-
tris fui domini Edivardi ftcundi, qua in regnis Anglia,
Scotia, et Francia, ac in Aquitannia et Britannia, non
humana fed Dei potentia, contigerunt, per Robertum de
AveJbury. This hiftory ends with the battle of Poic-
tiers, about the year 1356. It continued in manu-
feript till the year 1720, when it was printed by the
induftrious Thomas Hearne at Oxford, from a manu-
feript belonging to Sir Thomas Seabright. It is now
become very fcarce.
AVEZZANO, a town of Italy in the kingdom of
Naples in the Farther Abruzzo. It is built on an al-
molt imperceptible declivity, one mile from the lake
of Celano, to which an avenue of poplars leads from
the baronnial caftle. This edifice (lands at a little di-
dance from the town, is fquare, and flanked with towers.
It was eredfed by Virginio Orfini, to which family this
and many other great lordfliips belonged before they
were wrefled from them in times of civil war and
transferred to the Colonnas. Avezzano was founded
in 860, and contains 2700 inhabitants, and two reli¬
gious communities within its walls, which are indeed
in a ruinous condition. The houfes are in general
mean ; but there are fome large buildings and opulent
families of the clafs of gentlemen, not poffefled of fees-
held in capite.
AUGE, a territory of Normandy in France, which
gives title to a vifeount. It extends from Falaife and
Argenton as far as the fea, between the rivers Dives,,
Vie, and Tougues. The arable land is fliff, and pro¬
duces but little good corn: but they fow fainfoin.;,
which fucceeds fo well that they have five good crops
fucceffively: they likewife fow flax and hemp; and have
a vaft quantity of apples, with which .they make cy¬
der. Hoffes are bred here in great numbers; and;
the inhabitants fatten the oxen which come from Poic-
tou and Brittany.
AUGEAS, in fabulous hiftory, was king of Elis,,
and particularly famed for his ftable, which contained
3000 oxen, dnd had not been cleaned for 30 years.
Hercules was defired to clear away the filth from.tins,
ftable in one day ; and Augeas promifed,, if he per-
4 R formed)
AUG [68
Augment formed it, to give him a tenth part of the cattle. This
II talk Hercules is faid to have executed -by turning the
. ° ^ courfe of the river Alpheus through the liable ; when
Augeas refufing to Hand by his engagement, Hercules
flew him with his arrows, and gave his kingdom to
Phykus his fon, who had Ihown an abhonence of his
father’s iniincerity. '
AUGMENT, in grammar, an acpident of certain
tenfes of Greek verbs, being either the, prefixing of a
fyllable, or an increafe of the quantity of the initial
vowels.
AUGMENTATION, in a general fenfe, is the a£t
of adding or joining fomething to another with a defign
to render it large.
Augmentation is alfo ufed for the additament or
thing added.
Augmentation was alfo the name of a court ere&ed
27 Hen. VIII. fo called from the augmentation of the
revenues of the- crown, by the fuppreffion of religious
houfes ; and the office Hill remains, wherein there are
many curious records, tho’ the court has been diffolved
long fince-
Augmentation, in heraldry, are additional charges
to a coat-armour, frequently given as particular marks
of honour, and generally borne either in the efcutch-
eon or a conton ; as have all the baronets of England,
who have borne the arms of the province of Ulfter in
Ireland.
AUGRE, or Awgre, an inllrument ufed by car¬
penters and joiners to bore large round holes; and con-
lifting of a wooden handle, and an iron blade terminated
at bottom with a Heel bit.
AUGSBURG, a city of Germany, capital of the
circle of Suabia, feated near the confluence of the
Ardech and Lech, in one of the moll beautiful plains-
that can be imagined. It is one of the largefl and
handfomeft cities of the empire ; but the fortifications
are after the old manner, and very irregular; the ftreets
are broad and flraight; the houfes moftly of timber,
plaflered and whitened without, or adorned with paint¬
ings; the reft are of free-ftone; the churches and foun¬
tains are generally ornamented with fine figures of brafs.
Many of the churches are ilately, and adorned within
with curious workmanfhip and paintings. That part
of the city erefted by the noble family of the Fuggers,
who are lords of the adjacent country, confifts of feve-
ral ftreets crofs-wife, containing 106 houfes: the poor
people that inhabit them are maintained by an annual
penfion. Its magnificent town-houfe is little inferior
to that of Amfterdam, it being a vaft fquare ftone-
building, with a marble portico ; at the top of the
front, within the pediment, is a large fpread eagle,
holding a fceptre and globe in its talons, of brafs
gilt, faid to weigh 2200 weight; the great portal is of
a very beautiful reddifh marble, over which is a balcony
of the fame colour, fupported by two pillars of white
marble; over the gate there are two large griffins of
brafs; mod of the rooms are wainfeotted and ceiled
with very fine timber: the great hall is very magnifi¬
cent, and paved with marble : it is no feet long, 58
broad, and 52 high, and its roof is fupported by eight
columns of red marble; the ceiling of the upper wall is
of very curious workmanfhip of polifhed afh, confifting
of compartments, the fquares and pannels of which are
enriched with gilded fculptures, and filled with pic-
] AUG
tures and other ornaments ; this is likewife fupported Augfbiirj
by eight pillars'with bafes and chapiters of'Vafs: the ——*
other rooms are handfomely adorned with very fine
paintings.
In the fquare, near the town-houfe, is the fountain j
of Auguftus, which is a marble bafon, furrounded with
iron balluftrados finely wrought: at the four corners are
four brafs ftatues as big as the life, two of which are wo¬
men and two men; in the middle of the bafon is a pede-
ftal, at the foot of which are four large fphinxes fquirt-
ing water out of their breafts; a little above thefe are
four infants holding fgqr dolphins in their arms, which
pour water out of their mouths ; and over thefe infants
are feftoons and pine apples all of brafs; upon the pe-
deftal is the ftatue of Auguftus as large as the life.
The fountain moft remarkable next to this is that of
Hercules, which is a hexagon bafon with feveral brafs
figures, particularly Hercules engaging the hydra.
Another curiofity is the fecret gate, which was contri¬
ved to let. in perfons fafely in time of war. It has fo
many engines and divifions with gates and keys, and
apartments for guards at fome diftance from each other,
where paffengers are examined, that it is impoflible for
the town to be turprifed this way: the gates are bolted
and unbolted, opened and fhut, by unfeen operators,
infomuch that it looks like enchantment. The water-
towers are alfo very curious, of which there are three
feated on a branch of the river Lech, which runs thro’
the city in fuch a torrent as to drive many mills, which
work a number of pumps that raife the water in large
leaden pipes to the top of the towers : one of thefe
lends water to the public fountains, and the reft to
near 1000 houfes iu the city.
The Lutherans have a college here, which is a vaft
fquare building, with a fine clock on the top of the
front. In this there are feven different claffes, a hall
for public difputations, and a theatre for dramatic re-
prefentations. The cathedral is a large, gloomy, Go¬
thic building, with two fpire fteeples. It is adorned
with paintings upon whimiical fubjedls, and has a
great gate all of brafs, Over which are feveral feripture
paffages well reprefented in baffo relievo. The Jefuits
had a fpkndid college here, with a church full of gild-
ing, painting, and carving ; and a fine library. Tho’
half the inhabitants are Lutherans, there are a great
many Popifii proedfions. "There are no Jews in the
town, nor are they fuffered to lie there; but they in¬
habit a village at about a league diftance, and pay fo
much an hour for the liberty of trading in the day¬
time. The Benedidtine abbey is a vaft Gothic build¬
ing, the ceiling of which is faid to be the higheft in
Germany, and overlooks all the reft of the churches;
it is adorned with feveral ftatues, and has one very grand
altar. The church of St Croix is one of the hand¬
fomeft in Augfburg for architecture, painting, fculpture*
gilding, and a fine fpire.
The inhabitants look upon Auguftus Casfar as the
founder of the town. It is true that that emperor fent
a colony there ; but the town was already founded,
though he gave it the name of Augujla Vindelicorum. f
Augfburg, indeed, is one of the^ldeft towns in Ger¬
many, and one of the moft remarkable of them, as it
is there and at Nuremberg that you meet with the
oldeft marks of German art and induftry. In the 14th
and ijth centuries, the commerce of this town was
the j
AUG [ 683 ] AUG
the moft extenfive of any part of fouth Germany, and
contributed much to the civilization of the country by
the works of art and variety of neceffaries to the com¬
fort and convenience of life whirl .it was the means of
introducing. Many things origmated in this town
which have had a great influence on the happinefs of
mankind. Not to mention the many important diets
of the empire held here ; here, in 952, did a council
confirm the order for the celibacy of priefts ; here, in
1530, was the confeffion of faith of the Proteftants
laid before the emperor and other eftates of Germany;
and here, in 1535, was figned the'famous treaty of
peace, by which religious liberty was fecured to Ger¬
many.
Though the Proteftants were very powerful at Augf-
burg, they could not keep their ground; for the Ba¬
varians drove them from thence: but Guftavus Adol¬
phus reftored them again in 163 2; fince which time they
have continued there, and (hare the government with
the Catholics. In 1703, the eleftor of Bavaria took
the city after a fiege of feven days, and demoliftied the
fortifications : .however, the battle of Hoehfted refto¬
red their liberty, which they yet enjoy under the go¬
vernment of their own magiftrates, the bilhop having
no temporal dominion in the city. The chapter is
compofed of perfons of quality, who are to bring
proofs of their nobility. The canons have a right of
defting their own bilhop, who is a fovereign, in the
fame manner as feveral other of the German bifhops.
The police of the place is very good ; and though
the town has no territory, it has no debts. Augfburg
is, however, no longer what it was. It no longer
has a Fugger and a Welfer in it to lend the emperor
millions. In this large and handfome town, formerly
one of the greateft trading towns in Germany, there are
no merchants at prefent to be found who have capitals of
more than L. 20,coo. The others, moft of whom
muft have their coaches, go creeping on with capitals
of L. 3,000 or L. 4,000, and do the bufinefs of bro¬
kers and commilfioners. Some houfes, however, carry
en a little banking trade; and the way through Tyrol
and Graubundten occafions fome little exchange be¬
tween this place and Germany. After thefe brokers
and doers of bufinefs by commiflion, the engravers, fta-
tuaries, and painters, are the moft reputable of the la¬
bouring part of the city. Their produftions, like the
toys of Nuremberg, go every where. There are al¬
ways fome people of genius amongft them; but the
fmall demand for their art affords them fo little en¬
couragement, that to prevent ftarving they are moftly
confined to the fmall religious works which are done
elfew'here by Capuchin monks. They furnifh all Ger¬
many with little pictures for prayer books, and to
hang in the citizens houfes. There is an academy of
arts inftituted here under the proteftion of the magi-
flrates : the principle aim of which is to produce good
mechanics, and preferve the manufactures of the city.
This town, which is 9-*- miles in circumference, con¬
tains, according to Mr Riefbeck, hardly 30,000 inha¬
bitants; but Mr Nicolai makes them about 354000,
and fays there are 28,000 houfes.
The city has its drinking water from the river Lech,
which runs at fome diilance from it; and the aqueduCls
which convey the water are much to be admired. As the
court of Bavaria has it in its power to cut off this indif-
penfable neceiTary, by threatening the town with doing Augfburg
fo, it often lays it under contribution. But as it has, II
befides this, other means of keeping the high council in Augury' ^
a ftate of dependance, to fecure itfelf from this oppref- v
fion, the city feeks the emperor’s protection, upon
whom it makes itfelf as dependant on the other fide,
fo as to be indeed only a ball which both courts play
with. Tne emperor’s minifter to the circle of Suabia
generally refides here, and by fo doing fecures to his
co; 't a perpetual influence. There are always Auftrian
a •Pruffian recruiting parties quartered here, and the
partiality of the government to the former is very re¬
markable. In the war of 1756, the citizens were di¬
vided into equal parties for the two courts. The Ca¬
tholics confidered the emperor as their god, and the
Proteftants did the fame by the king of Prulfia. The
flame of religion had almoft kindled a bloody civil war
ampngft them.—The bifhop takes his name from this
town, but refides at Dillingen. He lias an income of
about L. 20,000 per annum. As a proof of the ca-
tholicifm of this place, the Pope throughout his whole
progrefs met nowhere with fuch honours as he did
here. This he owed to his friends the Jefuits, who
have ftill great influence.. E. Long. 10. 58. N. Lat.
48. 24.
Augsburg ConfeJJion, denotes a celebrated confeflion
of faith drawn up by Luther and MelanClhon, on be¬
half of themfelves and other ancient reformers, and
prefented in 1530-to the emperor Charles V. at the
diet of Augufta or Augfburg, in the name of the
evangelic body. This confeflion contains 28 chapters;
of which the greateft. part is employed in reprefenting,
with perfpicuity and truth, the religious opinions of
the Proteftants, and the reft in pointing out the er¬
rors and abufes that ocoafioned their reparation from
the church of Rome.
AUGUR, an officer among the Romans appointed
to foretel future events, by the chattering, flight, and
feeding, of birds. There was a college or community
of them, confilling originally of three members witk-
refpedt to the three Luceres, Rhamnenfes, and Tatien-
fes: afterwards the number was increafed to nine, four
of whom were patricians and five plebians. They bore
an augural ftaff or wand, as the enfign of their autho¬
rity ; and their dignity was fo much refpedled, that
they were never depofed, nor any fubftituted in their
place, tbo’ they ftiould be convi&ed of the moft enor¬
mous crimes. See Augury.
AUGURAL, fomething relating to the augurs.—.
The augural inftruments are reprefented on feveral an¬
cient medals.
Augural Supper, that given by a prieft on his firft
admiflion into the order, called alfo by Varro Adjl-
clalis.
Augural Books, thofe wherein the difeipline and
rules of augury were laid down.
AUGURALE, the place in a camp where the ge¬
neral took aufpicia. This anfwered to the Augurato*
riwn in the city.
Augublale is alfo ufed in Seneca for the enfign or
badge of. an augur", as the iituus.
AUGURATORIUM, a building on the Palatine
mount, where public auguries were taken.
AUGURY, in its proper fenfe, the art of fore¬
telling future events by obfervations taken from the
4 R 3 chattering^
AUG [684
/..ugwy. chattering, tinging, feeding, and flight, of birds;
though it is ufed by fome writers in a more general
fignification, as comprifing all the different kinds of di¬
vination.
Augury was a very ancient fuperftition. We know
1 AUG
Hand equidem credo, quia fit divinitas illis Auguft
Jngenium. II „
But to return to Ariftophanes. The firft part of ~ u^lu a‘
the chorus, from whence the fore-cited pafiage is ta¬
ken, feems, with all its wildnefs, to contain the fabu-
from HeGod, that hufbandry was in part regulated by lous cant, which the augurs made ufe of in order to
the coming or going of birds ; and mod probably it account for their impudent impofitions on mankind,
had been in ufe long before his time, as aftronomy was It fetS out with a cofmogony ; and fays, That in the
thfcn in its infancy. In procefs of time, thefe animals beginning were Chaos and Night, and Erebus and
feem to have gained a greater and very wonderful au- Tartarus: That there was neither water, nor air, nor
thority, till at laft no affair of confequence, either of fky: That Night laid an egg, from whence, after a
private or public concern, was undertaken without time, Love arofe : That Love, in conjunction with
confulting them. They were looked upon as the in- Erebus, produced a third kind ; and that they were
terpreters of the gods; and thofe who were qualified the firft of the immortal race, &c.
to underftand their oracles were held among the chief AUGUST (Augujlus), in a general fenfe, fome-
men in the Greek and Roman ftates, and became the thing majeftic, venerable, or facred. The appellation
aflelfors of kings, and even of Jupiter himfelf. How- was firft conferred by the Roman fenate upon OCta-
ever abfurd fuch an iriftitution as a college of Augurs vius, after his being confirmed by them in the fove-
may appear in our eyes, yet, like all other extrava- reign power. It was conceived as expreffing fome-
gant inftitutions, it had injsart its origin from’hature, thing divine, or elevated above the pitch of mankind.
When men confidered the wonderful migration of being derived from the verb augeo, “ I increafe,” tan-
birds, how they difappeared at once, and appeared quamfapra humanamfortam audus. See Augustus.
again at ftated times, and could give no guefs where August, in chronology, the eighth month of our
they went, it was almoft natural to fuppofe, that they year, containing 31 days. Auguft was dedicated to
retired fomewhere out of the fphere of this earth, and the honour of Auguftus Csefar, becaufe, in the fame
perhaps approached the ethereal regions, where they month, he was created conful, thrice triumphed in
might converfe with the gods, and thence be enabled Rome, fubdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and
to predift events. It was almoft natural for a fuper- made an end of civil wars: being before called Sexatilis,
ftitious people to imagine this; at leaft to believe it, as or the fixth month from March,
foon as fome impoftor was impudent enough to aflert AUGUSTA, or Austa, an ifland in the Adria-
it. Add to this, that the difpofition in fome birds to tic fea, on the coaft of Dalmatia, near Ragufa, fub-
imitate the human voice, muft contribute much to the jeCt to Venice. E. Long. 17. 50. N. Lat. 42. 35.
confirmation of fuch a doCtrine. This inftitution of Augusta Aufciorum, a town of Aquitania, fo na-
augury feems to have been much more ancient than med out of compliment to Auguftus, being originally
that of arufpicy ; for we find many inftances of the for- called Climberrum, which name it afterwards refumed,
mer in Homer, but not a Angle one of the latter, tho’ In the middle age, it took the name of the people,
frequent mention is made of facrifices in that author. Aufci; and is now called Auch, the capital of Gaf-
From the whole of what has been obferved, it feems cony.
probable that natural augury gave rife to religious au- Augusta Emerita, a town of Lufitania on the river
gury, and this to arufpicy, as the mipd of man makes Anas, the capital of the province; a colony of the
a vety eafy tranfition from a little truth to a great deal Em syiti, or fuch foldiers as had ferved out their legal
of error. time, were men of experience, or had received marks
A paffage in Ariftophanes gave the hint for thefe of favour. The colony was founded by Auguftus; and
obfervations. In the Comedy of the Birds, he makes is now called Merida, a city of Spain, in Eftremadura,
one of them fay this: ‘ The greateft bleffings which on the river Guadiana. See Meridan.
can happen to you, mortals, are derived from us; firft, Augusta Pratoria a town and colony of Gallia
we fhow you the feafons, viz. Spring, Winter, Au- Cifalpina, and capital of the Salaffi; feated at the foot
tumn. The crane points out the time for flowing, of the Alps Graiae on the Duria. Now Aoufe in Pied-
when fhe flies with her warning notes into Egypt 5 (he mont. See Aouste.
bids the failor hang up his rudder and take his reft, Augusta Rauracorum, a town of Gallia Belgica ;
and every prudent man provide himfelf with winter- now a fmall village called Auguf, at the bend of the
garments. Next the kite appearing, proclaims another Rhine northwards, but from the ruins, which are ftill
fleafon, viz. when it is time to (hear his ftreep. After to be feen, appears to have been a confiderable co-
that the fwallow inforprs you W'hen it is time to put on lony, at the diftance of fix miles from Bafil to the eaft.
fummer clothes. We are to you, (adds the chorus), Augusta Suejfonum, a town of Gallia Belgica on
Ammon, Dodona, Apollo : for, after confulting us, the Axona; fo called from Auguftus, and with great
you undertake every thing ; merchandize, purchafes, probability fuppofed to be the Noviodunum Sueffonum
marriages, &c.’ Now, it feems not improbable, that of Csefar. Now Soiffons, on the river Aifne, in the
the fame tranfition was made in the' Speculations of Ifle of France. See Soissons.
men which appears in the poet’s words; and that they Augusta Taurinorum, a town of the Taurini at the
were eafily induced to think, that the furprifing fore- foot of the Alps where the Duria Minor falls into the
fight of birds, as to the time of migration, indicated Po ; now Turin, the capital of Piedmont
fomething of a divine nature in them ; which opinion Augusta Treba, a town of the Aiqui, near the
Virgil, as an Epicurean, thinks fit to enter his proteft fprings of the river Anio in Italy; now Trevi, in Um-
againft, when he fays, bria, or in the eaft of the Campagna di Roma.
Augusta
AUG [ 685 ] AUG
Aogufta Augusta Trevirorum, a town of the Treviri, a
I! . people inhabiting between the Rhine and the Meufe,
.Auguftm. kut efpeCia]ly about the Mofelle; now Triers, or
Treves, in the circle of the Lower Rhine on the Mo¬
felle.
Augusta Vendelicorum, a town of the Licates on
the Licus ; called by Tacitus a noble colony of Rh<e-
tia; now Augshurg, capital of Suabia.
Augusta Hijloria, is the hiftory of the Roman em¬
perors from the time of , Adrian to Carinus, that is,
from the year of our Lord 157 to 285, compofed by
fix Latin writers, iEl. Spartianus,. Julius Capitolinus,
7R1- Lampridius, Vulcatius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pol-
lio, and Flavius Vopifcus.
AUGUSTALES, in Roman antiquity, an epithet
given to the flamens or priefts appointed to facrifice to
Auguftus after his deification ; and alfo to the ludi or
games celebrated in honour of the fame prince on the
fourth of the ides of O&ober.
AUGUSTALTA, a feftival inftituted by the Ro¬
mans in honour of Auguftus Csefar, on his return to
Rome, after having fettled peace in Sicily, Greece,
Syria, Alia, and Parthia; on which occafion they like-
wife built an altar to him, inferibed Fortunes reduci.
AUGUSTALIS pr^fectus, a title peculiar to a
Roman magiftratc who governed Egypt, with a power
much like that of a procopful in other provinces.
AUGUSTAN Confession. See Augsburg Con-
fejjion.
AUGUSTIN, or Austin, (St), the firft arch-
bifhop of Canterbury, was originally a monk in the
convent of St Andrew at Rome, and educated under
St Gregory, afterwards Pope Gregory I. by-whom he
was difpatched into Britain with 40 other monks of the
fame order, about the year 596, to convert the Eng-
lifh Saxons to Chriftianity. They landed in the ifle of
Thanet; and having fent fome Frenph interpreters to
king Ethelbert with an account of their errand, the
king gave them leave to convert as many of his fub-
je&s as they could, and affigned their place of refi-
dence at Dorovernum, fince called Canterbury; to
which they were confined till the king himfelf was con¬
verted, whofe example had a powerful infldence in pro¬
moting the converfion of his fubje&s; but though he
was extremely pleafed at their becoming Chriftians, he
never attempted to compel them. He difpatched a
prieft and a monk to Rome, to acquaint the pope with
the fuccefs of his million, and to defire his refolution
of certain queftions. Thefe men brought back with
them a pall, and feveral, books, veftments, uterifils, and
ornaments for the churches. His holinefs, by the lame
meflengers, gave Auguftin directions concerning the
fettling of epifcopal fees in Britain ; and ordered him
not to pull down the idol temples, but to convert them
into Chriftian churches; only deftroying the idols, and
fprinkling the place with holy water, that the natives,
by frequenting the temples they had been always ac-
cuftomed to, might be the lefs Ihocked at their entrance
into Chriftianity. Auguftin refided principally at Can¬
terbury, which thus became the metropolitan church
of England ; and having eftablifhed bilhops in feveral
of the cities, he died on the 26th of May 607. The
Popilh writers aferibe feveral miracles to him. The
oblervation of the feftival of St Auguftin was firft in-
joined in a fynod held under Cuthbert archbifhop of
Canterbury, and afterwards by the pope’s bull in the Auguftkc.
reign of king Edward III.
AUGUSTINE (St), an illuftrious father of the
church, was born at Thagafte, a city of Numidia, on
the 13th of November 354. His father, a burgefs
of that city, was called Patricius; and h:. mother,
Monica, who being a woman of great virtue, inftni&ed
him in the principles of the Chriftian religion. In
his early youth he was in the rank of the catechumens;
and falling dangeroufly ill, earneftly defired to be bap¬
tized ; but the violence of the diftemper ceafing, his
baptifm was delayed. His father, who was not yet
baptized, made him ftudy at Thagafte, Madaura, and
afterwards at Carthage. Auguftine having read Ci¬
cero’s books of philofophy, began to entertain a love
for wifdom, and applied himfelf to the ftudy of the
holy feriptures; neverthelefs, he fuffered himfelf to
be feduced by the Manicheans. At the age of 19
he returned to Thagafte, and taught grammar, and
alfo frequented the bar: he afterwards taught rhetoric
at Carthage with applaufe. The infolence of the
fcholars at Carthage made him tak^ a refolution to go
to Rome, tho’ againft his mother’s will. Here alfo he
had many fcholars ; but difliking them, he quitted
Rome, and fettled at Milan, and was chofen public
profelfor of rhetoric in that city. Here he had oppor¬
tunities of hearing the fermons of St Ambrofe, which,
together with- the ftudy of St Paul’s epiftles, and t,he
converfion of two of his friends, determined him to
retra£ his errors, and quit the feil of the Manicheans.
This was in the 3 2d year of his age. In the vacation of
the year 386, he retired to the houfe of a friend of his,
named Vereciindus, where he ferioully applied himfelf
to the ftudy of the Chriftian religion, in order to pre¬
pare himfelf for baptifm, which he received at Eafter,
in the year 387. Soon after this, his mother came to
fee him at Milan, and invite him back to Carthage; but
at Oftiaj whither he went to embark in order to his
return, fhe died. He arrived in Africa about the end
©f the year 388 ; and having obtained a garden-plot
without the walls of the city of Hippo, he aflbeiated
himfelf w'ith 11 other perfons of eminent fan&ity, who
diftinguilhed themfelves by wearing leathern girdles,
and livedjthere in a monadic way for the fpace of three
years, exercifing themfelves in fading, prayer, ftudy,
and meditation, day and night: from hence fprung
up the Auguftine friars, or eremites of St Auguftine,
being the firft order of mendicants; thofe of St Jerome,
the Carmelites, and others, being but branches of this
of St Auguftine. About this time, or before, Vale¬
rius bilhop of Hippo, againft his will, ordained him
prieft : neverthelefs, he continued to refide in his little
monaftery, with his brethren, who, renouncing all
property, poffelfed their goods in common. Valerius,
who had appointed St Auguftine to preach in his place,
allowed him to do it in his prefence, contrary to the
cuftom of the churches in Africa. He explained the
creed in a general council of Africa held in 393.‘
Two years after, Valerius, fearing he might be pre¬
ferred to be biftiop of another church, appointed him
his coadjutor or colleague, and caufed him to be or¬
dained biftiop of Hippo, by Megales biftiop of Ca-
lame, then primate of Numidia. St Auguftine died
the 28th day of Auguli, 430, aged 76 years, having
had the misfortune to fee his country invadedrby the
Van-
AUG
Auguftine Vandals, and the city where he was bifliop beiieged
for feven months.
The works of St Auguftine make ten volumes ; the
„ beft edition of them is that of Maurin, printed at’Ant*
weip in 1700. They are but little read at this time,
except by the cldrgy of the Greek church and in the
Spanifh univerfities. The bookfellers of London receive
686 ] AUG
AUGUSTOMAGUS, an ancient town of Gallia Augufte-
Belgica ; now Sentis> in the Me of France. E. Long. ,1,agu*
z. 30. N. Lat. 49. 10. P
AUGUSTOltITUM (ane. geog.), according to ^ .
fome authors the capital of thePidlones, afterwards called
PiQavi; now Pointers. But by Antonine's Itinerary
from Burdigala to Argantomagus (or Argenton, as it
frequent eommiflions for them, and indeed for the moll is interpreted by many), it can be no other but the-
of die fathers, from Ruffia, and alfo from Spain.
Augustine.(St), a fort of North America, on the
call coall of Gape Florida, fituated in W. Long. 8 1.
10. N. Lat. 30. o. This fort was-built by the Spa¬
niards; who were fcarce well eftablilhed there when they
were attacked by Sir Francis Drake in 1586, who re¬
duced and pillaged the fort and town adjacent. In
1665, it underwent a fimilar fate, being attacked by
Captain Davis at the head of a confiderable company
of bucaneers. In 1702 an attempt was made by
Colonel More to annex St Auguftine to the Britilh do¬
minions. He invefted it with only 500 Englilh and
700 Indians ; which fmall force, however, would have
been fufficient to reduce the place, had not fuccours
arrived when it was on the point of furrendering.
Even then, it is thought that he might have defeated
the reinforcement which arrived; but he chofe to raife
the fiege, and retire with precipitation. In 1740, ano¬
ther unfuccefsful attempt was made on this fort by Ge¬
neral Oglethorpe : it was, however, together with the
whole country of Florida, ceded to Great Britain by
the treaty of Paris in 1763 ; but has fmce been reftored
to Spain by the treaty of peace 1783.
Augustine, a cape of South America W. Long.
35. 4. S. Lat. 8. 30.
AUGUSTINS, or Augustinians, an order of re¬
ligious ; thus called from St Auguftine, whofe rule they
obferve. The Auguftins, popularly alfo called Auftin
friars, were originally hermits, whom Pope Alexander
IV. firft congregated into one body, under their general to hope to be confounded
Lanfranc, 101256. Soon after their inftitution, this with that extraordinary man.
order was brought into England, where they had about
thirty-two houfes at the time of their fuppreflion.
The Auguftins are clothed in black, and make one
of the four orders of mendicants. From thefe arofe a
reform, under the denomination of bure-foot Augujlim,
or Minarets, or Friers minor.
There are alfo canons regular of St Auguftine, who
are clothed in white, excepting their cope, which is
black. At Paris they are known under the denomination
of Religious of Gf.hkvif.vf.; that abbey being the chief could allege any hereditary claim to the honours of the
of the order. There are alfo nuns and canoneffes, who
obferve the rules of St Auguftine.
capital of the Lemovices, now Limoges, fituate between
Vefunnaof the Petrocorii, or Perigueux, and Arganto¬
magus. E. Long. 1. 22. Lat. 45. 52.
AUGUSTOW, a fmall but ftrong town of Poland,
in the duchy and Palatinate of Polakia, feated om the
river Narieu. E. Long. 24. 2. N. Lat. 53. 25.
AUGUSTUS (Fort), a fmall fortrefs feated on a
plain at the head of Lochnefs in Scotland, between
the rivers Taavf and Oich; the lait is a confiderable
ftream, and has over it a ftone bridge of three arches.
The fort confifts of four baftions ; within is the go¬
vernor’s houfe, and barracks for 400 men. It was ta¬
ken by the rebels in 1746, who immediately deferred
it, after demolilhing what they could. The name of
this fort in Erfe is KillChuimin, or “ the burial place of
the Cummins.” It lies on the road to the Me of
Sky, which is about 52 miles off; but on the whole
way there is not a place fit for the reception of man or
horfe.
AUGUSTUS, the appellation conferred upon Cae-
far Odlaviarius, the firft Roman emperor. See Octa-
vianus and Rome.
The obfcure name of OBavianus, Mr Gibbon ob-
ferves, he derived from a mean family, in iheTittle
town of Aricia. It was ftained with the blood of the
profciiption ; and he was defirous, had it been pofliblej
to erafe all memory of his former life. The illuftrious
furname of Ceefar he had affumed as the adopted fon
of the di&ator; but he had too much good fenfe either
:o wdlh to be compared
It was propofed in the
fenate, to dignify their minifter with a new appella¬
tion ; and after a very ferious difcuffion, that of Au-
guflus was chofen among feveral others, as being the
moft expreffive of the character of peace and fandlity,
which he uniformly affedled. Augufus was therefore a
perfonal, Citfar a family, diftindtion. The former ftiould
naturally have expired with the prince on whom it was
bellowed; and however the latter was diffufed by adop¬
tion and female alliance, Nero was the laft prince who
Julian line. But at the time of his death, the praftict
of a century had infeparablyconnedted thofe appellations
Augustinians are alfo thofe divines who maintain, with the imperial dignity, and they have been preferved
on the authority of St Auguftine, that grace is effec¬
tual from its nature, abfolutely and morally, and not re¬
latively and gradually. They are divided into rigid and
relaxed.
AUGUSTOBONA, a city of the Tricaffers, in
ancient. Gaul, from whom it was afterwards called ‘Tri-
caffes, and Trecajfa; and ftill farther corrupted to
Thracee, or Treci; whence the modern name Troyes, in
Champaigne on the Seyne. See Troyes.
AUGUSTODUNUM, the capital of the Aidui,
where there w'as a famous academy or fchool for the
education of youth; now A.uftun, orAutun, in the duchy
of Burgundy on the Arroux. See Autun.
by a long fucceffion of emperors, Romans, Greeks,
Franks, and Germans, from the fall of the republic to
the prefent time. A diftinftion was, however, foon
introduced. The facred title of Augujlus was always
referved for the monarch; the naane of Csefar was more
freely communicated to -his relations ; and from the
reign of Hadrian at leaft, was appropriated to the fe»
cond perfon in the Hate, who was conlidered as the
prefumptive heir of the empire.
AVIARY, a place fet apart for feeding and propa¬
gating birds. It fhould be fo large as to give the
birds fome freedom of flight; and turfed, to avoid the
appearance of foulnefs on the floor.
AVICENA,
Avlecna.
AVI [ 687 ] AVI
AVICENA, or Avicenes, the prince of Arabian
philofophers and phylicians, was born at Affena, a
village in the neighbourhood of Bokhara. His father
was from Balkh in Perfia, and had married at Bokhara.
The firft years ef Avicenes were devoted to the ftudy
of the Koran and the Belles Eettres. He foon fhow-
ed what he was likely to become afterwards; and the
progrefs he made was fo rapid, that when he was but
ten years old, he was perfectly intelligent in the moft
Ridden fenfes of the Koran-
Abou-Abdoullah, a native of Napoulous in Syria,
at that timC profeffed philofophy at Bokhara' with the
greateit reputation. Avicenes ftudied under him the
principles of logic ; but foon difgufted with the flow
manner of the fchools, he fet about ftudying alone,
and read all the authors that had written on philofophy,
w'ithout any other help than that of their commenta¬
tors. Mathematics had no fewer charms for him ; and
after reading the firft fix propofitions of Euclid, he
got alone to the laft, having made himfelf perfeft ma¬
iler of them, and treafured»up all of them equally in
his memory. \
Poflefled with an extreme avidity to be acquainted
wnth all forts of fciences, he likewife devoted himfelf
to the ftudy of medicine. Perfuaded that this divine
art confifts as much in pradtice as in theory, he fought
all opportunities of feeing the fick ; and afterwards
confefted that he bad learned more from experience
than from all the books he had read. He was now in
his 16th year, and already was celebrated for being
the light of his age. He refolved at this age to refume
his ftudieaof philofophy, which medicine had made
him negledt: and he fpent a year and a half in this
painful labour, without ever fleeping all this time a
whole night together. If he felt himfelf opprefled
by fleep, or exhanfted by ftudy, a glafs of wine re-
frelhed his wafted fpirits, and gave him new vigour for
^jftudy; if in fpite of him his eyes for a few minutes
(hut out the light, it then happened to him to recoi¬
led! and meditate tipon all the things that had occu¬
pied his thoughts before fleep. At the age of 21, he
conceived the bold dtfign of incorporating, in one
work, all the objedls of human knowledge ; and carried
it into execution in an Encyclopedic of 20 volumes, to
which he gave the title of the Utility of Utilities.
Several great princes had been taken dangeroufly ill,
and Avicenes was the only one that could know their
ailments and cure them. His reputation increafed dai¬
ly, and all the kings of Afia defired to retain him in
their families. •
Mahmud, the fon of Sabektekin, the firft fultan of
the Dynafty of the Samanides, was then the moft
powerful prince of the eaft. Imagining that an im¬
plicit obedience fhould be paid by all manner of per-
fons to the injundtions of his will, he wrote a haughty
letter to Mamun fultan of Kharazm, ordering him to
fend Avicenes to him, who was at his court, with fe-
veral other learned men. Philofophy, the friend of li¬
berty and independence, looks down with fcorn on the
fhackles of compulfion and reftraint. Avicenes, ac-
cuftomed to the moft flattering •diftindtiems among the
great, could not endure the imperious manner of Mah¬
mud’s inviting him to his court, and refufed to go
there. But the fultan of Kharazm, who dreaded his
refentment, obliged the philofopher to depart with
5
others whom that prince had demanded to be fent to
him. l"
Avicenes pretended to obey; but inftead of repair¬
ing to Gazna, he took the rout of Giorgian. Mah¬
mud, who had gloried in the thoughts of keeping him
at his palace, was greatly irritated at his flight. He
difpatched portraits done in crayons of this philofo¬
pher to all the princes of Afia, with orders to have him
conduced to Gazna, if he appeared in their courts.
But Avicenes had fortunately efcaped the moft dili¬
gent fearch after him. He arrived in the capital of
Giorgian, where under a difguifed name he performed
many admirable cures.
Cabous then reigned in that country. A nephew,
whom he was extremely fond of, being fallen fick, the
moft able phyficians were called in, and none of them
were able to know his ailment, or give him any eafe.
Avicenes was at laft confulted. So foon as he had felt
the young prince’s pulfe, he was confident with him¬
felf, that his illnefs proceeded from a violent love,
which he dared not to declare. Avicenes commanded
the per fon who had the cate of the different apart¬
ments in the palace, to name them all in their refpe&ive
order. A more lively motion in the ptince’s pulfe,
at hearing mentioned one of thefe apartments, betray¬
ed a part of his fecret. The keeper then had orders
to name all the flaves that inhabited that apartment.
At the name of one of thefe beauties, the young Ca¬
bous could not contain himfelf; an extraordinary beat¬
ing of his pulfe completed the difeovery of what he
in vain defired to keep concealed. Avicenes, now
fully affured that this flave was the caufe of this prince’s
illnefs, declared, that fhe alone had the power to cure
him.
The Sultan’s confent was neceffary, and he of courfe
was curious to fee his nephew’s phyfician. He had
fcarce looked at him, when he knew in his features
thofe of the crayoned portrait fent him by Mahmud ;
but Cabous, far from forcing Avicenes to repair to
Gazna, retained him for fome time with him, and
heaped honours and prefents on him.
This philofopher paffed afterwards into the court of
Nedjmeddevle, Sultan of the race of the Bouides.
Being appointed firft phyfician to that prince, he found
means to gain his confidence to fo great a degree, that
he raifed him to the poft of Grand Vifir. But he did
not long enjoy that illuftrious dignity. Too great an
attachment for pleafures, efpecially thofe of love and
the table, made him lofe at the fame time his poft and
his mafter’s favour. From that time Avicenes felt all
the rigours of adverfity, which he had brought upon
himfelf by his ill condufl. He wandered about as a
fugitive, and was often obliged to ftiift the place of his
habitation to fecuie his life from danger. He died at
Hamadan, aged 58 years, in the 428th year of the
Hegira, and of Chriil 1036.
The perfeft knowledge he had of phyfic did not fe-
cure him from the ailments that a-ffliA human nature.
He was attacked by feveral maladies in the courfe of
his life, and particularly was very fubjeft to the co¬
lic. His exceffes in pleafures, and his infirmities,
made a poet fay, who wrote his epitaph, that the pro¬
found ftudy of philofophy had not taught him good
morals, nor that of medicine the art of preferring his
own health.
No
AVI L 6S8 ] AVI
Avicenes, No one compofed with greater facility tha Avice- red ; the capfule is leathery, rorab-like, and monofper-
Avicenia, ^ negj wr|ting, when he fat down to it, 50 pages gene* mous. • There are two fpecies ; the tomentofa or
* rally in a day, without fatiguing himfelf. The doc- downy, and the nitida or (hining. The feeds of the
tors of Chiras, having made a colle&ion of objections firft are faid to be the Malacca beans formerly kept
againft one of his metaphyfical works, fent it to him in the (hops (though this is doubtful)j the kernels of
at Ifpahan by Cafem. This learned man, not arriving which were eaten as almonds. The plant,producing
till towards evening, came to Avicenes’s houfe, with the Malacca bean, as it is called, is rather thought to
whom he fat difcourfing till midnight. When Cafem be the Bohtca Germinans..
was retired, he wrote an anfwer to the obj'e&ions of the AVIGATO pear. See Laurus.
Chirazians, and finifhed it before fun-rife. He irn ne- AVIGLIANO, a ftnall town of Piedmont in Italy,
diately delivered it to Cafem, telling him, that he had E. Long-* 7. 5- N. Lat. 44. 40.
made all poffible difpatch in order not to detain him AVIGNON, a city of Provence in France, the ca-
any longer at Ifpahan. pital of the county of Venailfin, and feated on the
Avicenes, after his death, enjoyed fo great a repu- banks of the Rhone. It is an archbifhop’s fee, and
tation, that till the 1 2th cenfury he was preferred for the refidence of feveral popes at this place for 70 years
the (ludy of philofophy and medicine to all his prede- has rendered it confiderable. It ftill belongs and is
ceflbrs. Plis works were the only writings in vogue in- fubjeft to the pope, who fends a vice-legate every
fchools, even in Europe. The following are the titles, three years, who in fome fenfe is the governor: and
1. Of the Utility and Advantage of Sciences, XX Mr Swinburn is of opinion the ecclefiaftical govern-
books. 2. C)f Innocence and Criminality, II books, ment here is more for the benefit of the people than
3. Of Health and Remedies, XVIII books. 4. On if they were fubjecl to thjrking of France. Near the
the means of preferring Health, III books. 5. Ca- Rhone there is a large rock, within the circumference
nons of Phyfic, XIV books 6. On Allronomical of the walls, upon which is a platform, from whence
Obfervations, I book. 7. On Mathematical Sciences, may be had a profpeft of the whole city and the places
8. Of Theorems, or Mathematical and Theological about it. This city is about three miles and two fur-
Demonftrations, I book. 9. On the Arabic Lan- longs in circumference, and is in general ill built, ir-
guage, and its Proprieties, X books. 10. On the regular, and devoid of beauty. But it is furrounded
Laft Judgment. 11. On the Origin of the Soul, and by handfome battlemented walls and turrets, not un-
the Refurreftion of Bodies. 12. Of the end we like thofe of Rome ; and its public edifices are large*
fliould propofe to ourfelves in Harangues and Philo- folid, and gVand as the tafte of the fourteenth century
fophical Argumentations. 13. Demonftration of the could make them. Several popes and antipopes,'who
collateral Lines in the Sphere. 14. Abridgement of during their lives fiiook the Romiih church with vio-
Euclid. 15. On Finity and Infinity. 16. On Phy- lence and mutual altercation, repofe quietly near each
fics and Metaphyfics. 17. On Animals and Vegeta- other in the various monafteries of the place. The
bles, &c. 18. Encyclopedic, 20 volumes—Some, church of the Cordeliers contains, in an obfcure cor-
however, charge him with having ftolen what he pu- ner, the almoft defaced tomb of Petrarch’s Laura and
blifhed from a celebrated phyfician who had been his her hufband Hugh de Sade; and nearly oppofite is
mafter. This man had acquired fo much honour and the tomb of the brave Gullon, fo well known for his
wealth, that he was folicited by many to take their invincible courage as well as for his inviolable attach-
fons to be his fcholars, or even his fervants; but be- ment to his fovereign Henry IV. Many produ&ions
ing refolved not to difcover the fecrets of his art, he of Rere of Anjou are to be feen in the city; whofe
would receive none of them. Avicenes’s mother formed inhabitants amount to above 30,0004 of which 1000
the following llratagem: file offered him her fon as are ecclefiaftics and fome hundreds of Jews. The
a fervant, pretending he was naturally deaf and dumb ; palace of the vice-legate is compofed of feveral large
and the youth, by his mother’s inftruftions, counter- fquare towers, and he gives audience in a great hall
feited thefe defedts fo well, that the phyfician, after which is full of fine paintings, as is alfo the chapel
making feveral trials to difcover the reality of them, and the apartments. The arfenal is near the palace,
took the boy into his fervice, and by degrees trufted The church of Notre Dame is ancient, but not large,
him fo far as to leave his writings open in his room and is one of the bed adorned in the city. After ha-
when he went abroad : Avicenes took that opportunity ving afcended about 50 fteps, you come to a very an¬
te tranfcribe them, and carried the copies to his mo- cient portico, which fuftains a great tower ; as you en-
ther; and after the death of his mailer he publifiied ter the church on the left hand, you fee paintings
them under his own name. Indeed if we refleft that which equal the fined in Italy. The great altar is very
he lived but 58 years, that he was a wanderer and a magnificent, and is adorned with a fiirine that contains
fugitive, and that he was much addi&ed to his plea- the relics of we know not how many faints. The trea-
fures, we Ihall have fome difficulty to conceive how he fure of the facridy is worthy of the curiofity of the
could find time to compofe fo many works. Phyfic, traveller. The little palace where the archbifiiop re-
however, is indebted to him for the difcovery of caffia, fides is formed of three bodies of lodgings, accompa-
rhubarb, mirabolans, tamarinds; and from him alfo, it nied with courts and fmall pavilions. It overlooks the
is faid, came to us the art of making fugar. Rhone, the city, and the fields. Thefe buildings and
AV1CENIA, Eastern Anacardium : A genus the mint adorn a large fquare, which is the common
of the angiofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia walk of the inhabitants.
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking un- In Avignon they reckon feven gates, feven palaces,
der the 40th order, Perfonata. Thy calyx is quinque- feven colleges, feven hofpitals, feven monaderies, fe-
partite; the corolla is bilabiated, the upper lip fqua- ven nunneries, and feven popes who have lived there
N° 38. in
Avlgato
II
Avignon.
AVI [ 6S9 ] AVI
Avignon. In 70 years. The fteeples are numerous, and the bells
L—"v—^ are never at reft; one of filver is rung only on the
death of a pope. The church of the Celeftines is
very magnificent, and full of fine monuments; and the
reft are not without their'cur.iofities. The univerfity
has four colleges ; and the place where the Jews live
is a diftindf quarter, from whence the Jews who pay
tribute dare not ftir out without yellow hats, and the
women mull have fomething yellow about their heads,
to diftinguifh them from the Chriltians. Their num-
her is very confiderable in a very confined place, where
the only way of enlarging their abodes is by building
their houfes higher. Their fynagogue is fo dark, that
they are obliged to light lamps. However, they are
forced to hear a monk pleach a fermon every week.
Acrofs the Rhone, here, extend the ruinous and de¬
cayed arches of that bridge againft which Madame de
Grignan was fo near being loft, and of which Madame
de Sevigne makes terrified mention. It was demolifh-
ed in 1699 by one of the inundations common to the
Rhone. When entire, it was not lefs than a quarter
of a mile in length ; but being fo narrow as not to
permit two carriages to pafs in any part, it had pre-
vioufiy become almoft ufelefs ; and motives of policy
prevent the conftrudlion of a new bridge, while Avig-
|L non belongs to the papal fee. The curious that travel
this way go to fee the fountain of Vauclufe, where
the river Sorgues, which paffes through this city, has
its fource; and whither Petrarch fo often retired to
indulge his grief and hopelefs love. It is lituated in
a valley five miles diftant from the city. The fides of
the river are Ikirted by meadows of the moft lively
green j above which rife abrupt and lofty rocks, that
feem defigned to feclude it from human view. The val¬
ley becomes gradually narrower toward the extremity,
and winding continually defcribes the figure of a horfe-
ihoe. The viewr is at length terminated by an enormous
mafs of rock, forming a barrier acrofs it, of a prodigious
heighth, and abfolutely perpendicular. Through its vaft
receffes run the ftreams which fupply the fountain of
Vauclufe, and at its foot appears a bafon of water feveral
hundred feet in circumference, ftretehed like an expanfe,
filent and quiet. The fides are very fteep, and it is
faid that in the middle no bottom can be difcovered,
though attempts have been often made for that pur-
pofe ; a circuiriftance probably re fulling from the vio-
i; lence with which the fprings bubble up, which pre¬
vents any weight from-defcendingbeyond acertain depth.
Though the fountain is clearer in itfelf than cryftal, yet
the incumbent rock cafts a continual {hade, approaching
to black, over its furface. The water efcaping from
this ftate of inaction by a narrow palfage, is imme¬
diately precipitated in a cafcade down a rocky channel,
where it foams over a number of vaft detached ftones,
which intercept and impede its progrefs.. They are
covered with a deep green mofs of many ages, and
have probably tumbled from the mountains that over¬
hang the torrent. The rocks themfelves, which fur-
round and inveft this romantic fpot, are worn by time
and the inclemency of the weather into a thoufand ex¬
traordinary and fantaftic forms, to which imagination
gives ftiape and figure. On one of the pointed extre¬
mities, and in a fituation which appears almoft inaccef-
fible, are feen the remains of an ancient.caftle, pro-
jedding over the water. The peafants call it II Cajkllo
I Vol. II. Part II.
di Petr area; and add, with great fimplicity, that Avignon
Laura lived upon the oppofite fide of the river, under Av|[on
the bed of which w'as a fubterranean paffage by which
the two lovers vifitedeach other. Nothing is, however,
more certain, than that thefe are the ruins of the cha¬
teau belonging to the Lords or Seigneurs of Avignon;
and the biihop of Cavaillon refided in it during the
frequent vifits which he ufed to make to Petrarch.—
The poet’s dwelling was much lower down, and nearer
to the bank of the Sorgue, as evidently appears from
his minute defeription of it, and the relation he gives
of his quarrel with the Naiads of the ftream, who en¬
croached during the winter on his little adjoining ter¬
ritory. No remains of it are now to be difeerned.
Relow the bridge there is an ifland where the Sorgues
joins the Rhone, in which are feveral houfes of plea-
fure. £. Long. 4. 59. N. Lat. 43. 57.
yiGNON-Berry, the fruit of a fpecies of lycium ;
growing plentifully near Avignon and in other parts
of France. The berry is fomewhat lefs than a pea ;
its colour is green, approaching towards a yellow;
and it is of an aftringent and bitter tafte.—It is much
ufed by the dyers, who ftain a yellow colour with it;
and by the painters, who alfo make a fine golden yellow
of it.
AVILA, a city of Old Caftile, in Spain, feated
on an eminence on the banks of the river Adaja, and
in fight of the mountains of Pico. It is fortified both
by nature and art, having a wall 9075 feet in circum¬
ference, adorned with 26 lofty towers and 10 hand-
fome gates. There are 1 7 principal ftreets, the houfes
in which are generally good, and fome of them {lately.
It hath nine fquares, 2000 houfes, nine parilhes, as many
monafteries, feven nunneries, two colleges, nine ho-
fpitals, 18 chapels, and an allowance of to,coo ducats
yearly for the maintenance of orphans and other poor
people. It has an univerfity, and a confiderable bi-
ihopric; befides a noble cathedral, which has eight dig¬
nitaries, 20 canons, and the fame number of minor
canons. It {lands in the middle of a fine large plain,
furrounded with mountains, and covered with fruit-
trees and vineyards. There is likewife a manufadlure
of cloth. W. Long. 4. 13. N. Lat. 40. 35.
AVIS, a fmall town of Alentejo in Portugal, feated
on an eminence with a callle near the river Avis. Hence
the military order of the knights of Avis have their
name. W. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 38. 40.
Avis (Knights d’Avis), an order of knighthood in
Portugal eftablilhed about the year 1 162. When the
city of Evora was taken from the Moors, in the reign
of the firft king of Portugal, it was garrifoned by fe¬
veral perfons who affumed the title of knights of St
Mary of Evora, which was foon after changed for
that of knights d’Avis, which the king gave them,
and whither .they removed from Evora. The badge
of the order is a green crofs flory, and they obferve the
rule of St Benedidl.
AVISO, a term chiefly ufed in matters of commerce
to denote an advertifement, an advice, or piece of in¬
telligence.
AV1SON (Charles), organift of Nevvcaftle, and a
difciple of Geminiani, was the author of an effay on
muiical expreffion, publilhed in the year 1752, in which
are fome judicious refledlions on mufic in general, but
his divifion of the modern authors into clafles is rather
4 S fanciful
A U L [ 690 ] A U N
fanciful than juft. Throughout his booh he celebrates
Marcello and Geminiani; the latter frequently in pre¬
judice to Mr Handel. In the year 1753 came out re¬
marks on Mr Avifon’s eflay on mufical expreffion, the
author whereof firft points out fundry errors againft
the rules of compofition in the works of Avifon. In
the fame year Avifon republifhed his effay, with a re¬
ply to the author of the remarks; and a letter, con¬
taining a number of loofe particulars relating to mufic
colledted in a courfe of various reading, unqueftionably
written by Ur Jortin. Avifon promoted and affifted
in the publication of Marcello’s mufic to the pfalms
adapted to Englifti words. Of his own compofition
there are extant five collections of concertos for vio¬
lins, 44 in number; and two lets of fonatas for the
harpfichord and two violins, a fpecies of compofition
little known in England till his time. The mufic of
Avifon is light and elegant, but it wants originality;
a nectflary confequence of his too clofe attachment to
the ftyle of Geminiani, which in a few particulars only
he was able to imitate.
AUK, in ornithology. See Alca.
Bishop’s AUKLAND, a town in the biftiopric of
Durham in England, fituated on the river Were. It
is a fanctuary for debtors; and here the bifhop has a
princely palace and a noble park. W. Long. o. 57.
N. Lat. 54. 44.
AULA is ufed for a court baron by Spelman ; by
fome old ecclefiaftical writers for the nave of a church,
and fometimes for a court-yard.
Aula Regia or Regis, a court eftablilhed by William
the Conqueror in his own hall, compofed of the king’s
great officers of ftate, who refided in his palace, and
were ufually attendant on his perfon. This court was
regulated by the article which forms the eleventh chap¬
ter of Magna Charta, and eftablifhed in Weftminfter-
hall, where it hath ever fince continued. See King’s
Bunch.
AULCESTER, a town of Warwickffiire in Eng¬
land. W. Long. 1. 47. N. Lat. 52. 15.
AULETES, in antiquity, denotes a flute-player.
One of the Ptolemies, king’s of Egypt, father of Cleo¬
patra, bore the furname or denomination of Auletes.
AUL1C, an epithet given to certain officers of the
empire, who compofe a court which decides, without
appeal, in all proceffes entered in it. Thus we fay,
aulic council, aulic chamber, aulic counfellor.
The aulic council is compofed of a prefident, who
is a catholic ; of a vice-chancellor, prefented by the
archbifhop of Metz; and of 18 counfellors, nine of
whom are proteftants and nine catholics. They are
divided into a bench of lawyers, and always follow the
emperor’s court; for which reafon they are called ju-
Jlitium imperatoris, the emperor’s juftice, and aulic
council. The aulic court ceafes at the death of the
emperor ; whereas the imperial chamber of Spire is
perpetual, reprefenting not only the deceafed emperor,
but the whole Germanic body, which is reputed never
to die.
Auric, in the Sorbonne and foreign univerfities, is
an aft which a young divine maintains upon being ad¬
mitted a doftor in divinity. It begins by an harangue
of the chancellor, addreffed to the young doftor; after
which he receives the cap, and prefides at the aulic or
deputation.
AULIS (anc. geog.), a town of Bceotia, over a*
gainft Chalcis of Euboea, on the Euripus, where that
ilrait is narroweft ; and which were fometimes joined
together by a mole or caufeway (Diodorus Siculus) :
a craggy iituation (Homer, Nonnus); and a village of
the Tanagraei (Strabo), diftant from Chalcis three
miles : a harbour famous for the rendezvous of a thou-
fand flips under Agamemnon previous to the Trojan
expedition ( Livy, Virgil, Pliny). Now entirely de*
ftroyed.
AULNEGER. SccAlnager.
AULON, anciently a town and dock or ftation for
fhips in Illyricum, on the Adriatic ; now Valona, or
Volana,, a port-town in the duchy of Ferara on one of
the mouths of the Po, on the Gulph of Venice, E.Long.
13. Lat. 44. 50.
Aulon, or Aulona, anciently a town of Elis, in
Peloponnefus, on the confines of Melfenia. Here flood
a temple of iEfculapius; hence the epithet Aulonius
given that divinity (Paufanias).
AULOS, a Grecian long meafure, the fame with
fladium.
AULPS, a town of Provence in France, in the
diocefe of Trejus, with,the title of a Vigueria. E.
Long. 6. 25. N. Lat. 43. 40.
AULUS gellius. See Gellius.
AUMBRY, a country word denoting a cupboard.
AUME, a Dutch meafure for Rhenifti wine, con¬
taining 40 Englifti gallons.
AUNCEL-weight, an ancient kind of balance now
out of ufe, being prohibited by feveral ftatutes, on ac¬
count of the many deceits praftifed by it. It confided
of fcales hanging on hooks, faftened at each end of a
beam, which a man lifted up on his hand. In many
parts of England, auncel-weight fignifies meat fold by
the hand, without fcales.
AUNE, along meafue ufed in France to meafure
cloths, fluffs, ribbons, &c. At Rouen, it is equal to
one Englifh ell; at Calais, to 1.52; at Lyons, to 1.061 ;
and at Paris, to 0.95.
AUNGERVYLE (Richard), commonly known by
the name of Richard de Bury, was born in 1281 at
St Edmond’s Bury in Suffolk, and educated at the
univerfity of Oxford: After which he entered into the
order of Benediftine monks, and became tutor to Ed¬
ward prince of Wales, afterwards king Edward III.
Upon the acceffion of his royal pupil to the throne he
was firft appointed cofferer, then treafurer of the ward¬
robe, archdeacon of Northampton, prebendary of Lin¬
coln, Sarum, and Litchfield, keeper of the privy feal,
dean of Wells, and laft of all was promoted to the bi-
fhopric of Durham. He likewife enjoyed the offices
of lord high chancellor and treafurer of England, and
difcharged two important embaffies at the court of
France. Learned himfelf, and a patron of the learn¬
ed; he maintained a correfpondenee with fome of the
greateft geniufes of the age, particularly with the ce¬
lebrated Italian poet Petrarch. He was alfo of a moft
humane and benevolent temper, and performed many
fignal afts of charity. Every week he made eight
quarters of wheat into bread, and gave it to the poor.
Whenever he travelled between Durham and Newcaille,
he diftributed eight pounds fterling in alms; between
Durham and Stockton five pounds, between Durham
and Aukland five marks, and between Durham and
Middlebam
A U R [ 691 ] A tr R
MiddleTiam five pounds. He founded a public library
at Oxford, for the ufe of the ftudents, which he fur-
niftred with the beft: colleflion of books then in England;
and appointed five keepers, to whom he granted yearly
falaries. At the diffblution of religious hioufes in the
reign of Henry VIII. Durham college, where he fixed
the library, being difiblved among the reft, fome of
the books were removed to the public library, fome
to Baliol college, and fome came into the hands of Dr
George Owen, a phyfician of Godftow, who bought
that college of king Edward VI. Bifhop Aungervyle
died at his manor of Aukland, April 24, 1345, and
was buried iu the fouth part of the crofs ifle of the ca¬
thedral church of Durham, to which he had been a be-
nefaftor. He wrote, 1. PhilobiMos, containing direc¬
tions for the management of his library at Oxford, and
a great deal in praife of learning, in bad Latin. 2. E-
pjjlohz fam'diarium; fome of which are written to the
famous Petrarch. 3. Qrationes adprincipes; mentioned
by Bale and Pitts.
AUNIS, the fmalleft province in France, bounded
on the north by Poiftou, on the weft by the ocean, on
the eaft and fouth by Saintogne, of which it was for¬
merly a part. It is watered by the rivers Seure and
Sarente, the former of which has its fource at Seure
in Poi&ou. The coaft of this fmall diftriA has the ad¬
vantage of feveral ports, the moft remarkable of which
are Rochefort, Rochelle, Brouge, St Martin de Re,
Tremblade, Tonnai, and Charente. The foil of this
country is dry, yet produces good corn and plenty of
wine. The marlhes feed a great number of cattle, and
the fait marfhes yield the beft fait in Europe.
AVOCADO, or Avigato, Pear. See Lav-
rus.
AVOCATORIA, a mandate of the emperor of
Germany, addrefled to fome prince, in order to flop
his unlawful proceedings in any caufe appealed to
him.
AVOIDANCE, in the canon law, is when a bene¬
fice becomes void of an incumbent; which happens ei¬
ther in faft, as by the death of the perfon; or in law,
as by ceflion, deprivation, refignation, &c. In the
firft of thefe cafes, the patron muft take notice of the
avoidance at his peril; but in avoidance by law, the
ordinary is obliged to give notice to the patron, in or¬
der to prevent a lapfe.
AVOIRDUPOIS. This is the weight for the
larger and coarfer commodities, fuch as groceries,
cheefe, wool, lead, &c. Bakers, who live not in cor¬
poration towns, are to make their bread by avoirdupois
weight, thofe in corporations by troy weight. Apo¬
thecaries buy by avoirdupois weight, but fell by troy.
The proportion of a pound avoirdupois to a pound troy
is as 17 to 14.
AVOSETTA, in ornithology. See Recurviro-
ETRA.
AVOWEE, one who has a right to prefent to a
benefice. He is thus called in contradiftin&ion to
thofe who only have the lands to which the advowfon
belongs for a term of years, or by virtue of intrufion
or diffeifin.
AVOWRY, in law, is where a perfon diftrained
fues out a replevin ; for then the diftrainer muft vow,
and juftify his plea, which is called b.\i avowry.
AURA, among phyfiologifts, an airy exhalation
or vapour. The word is Latin, derived from the Greek, Aurach
avpu, gentle wind, U .
AURACH, a town of Germany with a good caftle, , Aur^iu,\
in the fouth part of Suabia, in the duchy of Wirtem-
berg. It is the ufual refidence of the youngeftfons of
the houfe of Wirtemberg, and is feated at the foot of
a mountain on the rivulet Ermft. E. Long. 9. 20.
N. Lat. 48. 25.
AURA), in mythology, a name given by the Ro¬
mans to the nymphs of the air. They are moftly to
be found in the ancient paintings of ceilings ; where
they are reprefented as light and airy, generally with
long robes and flying veils of fome lively colour or
other, and fluttering about in the rare and pleafing
element afligned to them. They are charafterifed as
fportive and happy in themfelves, and wellwiihers to
mankind.
AURANCHES, the capital of a territory called
Auratuhin, about 30 miles in length, in Lower Nor¬
mandy in France. The city is mean; but its fituation
very fine, being on an eminence, near which the river
See runs, about a mile and a half from the ocean. The
cathedral Hands on a hill, which terminates abruptly ;
the front of the church extending to the extreme verge,
of it, and overhanging the precipice. It bears the
marks of high antiquity ; but the towers are decayed
in many places, though its original conftru&ion has
been wonderfully ftrong. Here, you are told, the
Englilh Henry II. received abfolution from the Papal
nuncio for the murder of St Tomas-a-Becket in 1172;
and the ftone on which he knelt during the perform¬
ance of that ceremony is fliown to ftrangers. Its length
is about 30 inches, and the breadth 12. It Hands before
the north portal, and on it is engraved a chalice in com¬
memoration of the event.—The ruins of the caftle of
Auranches are veryextenfive; and beneath lies a rich ex¬
tent of country, abounding in grain and covered with
orchards, from the fruit of which is made the beft cyder
in Normandy. W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 48. 51.
AURANTIUM, in botany. See Citrus.
AURAY, a fmall feaport town of Lower Brittany
in France, fituated in the gulph called Morbian. It
is nothing, properly fpeaking, but a large quay, and
a handfome ftreet, being chiefly known for its trade.
W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 47. 48.
AURELIA, in natural hiftory, the fame with what
is more ufually called chryfalis, and fometimes nymph.
See Chrysalis.
AURELIANUS (Lucius Domitius), emperor of
Rome, was one of the greateft generals of antiquity,
and commanded the armies of the emperor Claudius
with fuch glory, that after the death of that emperor
all the legions agreed to place him on the throne: this
happened in the year 270. He carried the war from
the eaft to the weft, with as much facility, fays a mo¬
dern writer, as a body of troops marches from Alface
into Flanders. He defeated the Goths, Sarmatians,
Marcomanni, the Perfians, Egyptians, and Vandals;
conquered Zenobia queen of the Palmyrenians, and
Tetricus general of the Gauls; both of whofti were
made to grace his triumph, in the year 274. He was
killed by one of his generals in Thrace in the year 2 yj,
when he was preparing to enter Perfia with a great
army. See Rome.
AURELIUS victor. See Victor.
4S 2
AUREN-
A U R L 692 ] A U R
Aorenga- AURENGABAD, a city in the Eaft Indiss, ca-
pital of the province of Balagate, in the dominions of
Aurillac. ^ Great Mogul. It is furnifhed with handfotne
iu—mofques and caravanferas. The buildings are chiefly
of free done, and pretty high, and the tlreets planted
on each fide with trees. They have large gardens well
docked with fruit trees and vines. The foil about it is
alfo very fertile, and the fheep fed in its neighbourhood
are remarkably large and lirong. E. Long. 75. 30.
N. Lat. 19. 10.
AURENG-ZEBE, the Great Mogul. See Indo-
STAN.
AUREOLA, in its original fignification, fignifies
a jewel, which is propofed as a reward of vidfory jn
fotne public difpute. Hence the Roman fchoolmen
applied it to denote the reward bellowed on martyrs,
virgins, and dodlors, on account of their works of fu-
pererogation ; and painters ufe it to fignify the crown
of glory with which they adorn the heads of faints,
conftfTors, &c.
AUREUS, a Roman gold coin, equal in value to
25 denarii. — According td Ainfwcrth, the aureus of
the higher empire weighed near five pennyweights;
and in the lower empire, little more than half that
weight. We learn from Suetonius, that it was cufto-
mary to give aurei to the vidbors in the chariot-races.
AUREUS mons (anc. geog.), a mountain in the
north-well of Corfica, whofe ridge runs out to the
north-eaft and fouth eaft, forming an elbow.—Another
mountain of Moeiia Superior, or Servia (Peutinger), td
the fouth of the Danube, with a cognominal town at
its foot on the fame river. The emperor Probus
planted this moutain with vines (Eutropins)..
AURICK, a city of Germany; in Eaft Friefland,
in the circle of Weftphalia; to which the king cf
Pruffia claims a right. It is iituated in a plain fur-
rounded with forefts full of game. E. Long. 6. 50.
N. Lat. 5?. 28.
AURICLE, in anatomy, that part of the ear which
is prominent from the 'head, called by many authors
auris externa.
Auricles, are likewife two mufcular bags fituated
at the balls of the heart, and intended as diverticula for
the blood during the diaflole.
AURICULA, in botany. Sec Primula.
AURIFLAMMA, in the French hiftory, properly
denotes a flag or flandard belonging to the abbey of St
Dennis, fufpended over the tomb of that faint, which
the religious, on occafion of any war in defence of their
lands or rights, took down, with great ceremony, and
gave it to their protedtor or advocate, to be borne at
the head of their forces.
Auriflamma is alfo fometimes ufed to denote the
chief flag or ftandard in any army.
AURIGA, the WAGGONF.g, in aftronomy, a con-
ftellation of the northern hemifphere, confifling of 23
ftars, according to Tycho; 40, according to Heve-
lius; and 68, in the Britannic catalogue.
AURILLAC, a town of France in the Lower Au¬
vergne, featcd on a fmall river called Jordane. It is
one of the moft confiderable towns of the province, has
fix gates, is very populous, and yet has but one parifli.
The caftle is very high, and commands the town. The
abbot is lord of Aurillac, and has epifcopal jurifdic-
tion ; he is alfo chief jufiice of the town. This place Auripiga,
is remarkable for having produced feveral great men. tnentulw
E. Long. 2. 33. N. Lat. 44. 55. . f
AURIPIGMENTUM, orpiment, in natural hi- Boreal™
ftory. See Orpiment. o—
AUR.ISCALPIUM, an inftrument to clean the
ears, and ferving alfo for other operations in diforders
of that part.
AURORA, the morning twilight, or that faint
light which appears in the morning when the fun is
within 18 degrees of the horizon.
Aurora, the goddefs of the morning, according to
the Pagan mythology. She was the daughter of Hy¬
perion and Theia, according to Hefiod; but of Titan
and Terra, according to others. It was under this name
that the ancients deified the light which foreruns the
riling of the fun above our hemifphere. The poets re-
prefent her as riling out of the ocean, in a chariot,
with rofy fingers dropping gentle dew. Virgil defcribes
her afcending in a flame-coloured chariot with four
horfes.
Aurora, one of the New Hebrides iflands in the
South Sea, in which Mr Forfter fupppofes the Peak
d’Etode mentioned by Mr Bouganville to be fituated.
The ifland is inhabited ; but none of its inhabitants . '
came off to vifit Captain Cook. The country is woody,
and the vegetation feemed to be exceffively luxuriant
It is about 12 leagues long, but not above five miles
broad in any part; lying nearly north and fouth. The
middle lies in S. Lat. 15. 6. E Long. 168. 24.
AURORA BOREALIS, northern twilicht,
or Streamers; a kind of meteor appearing in the nor¬
thern part of the heavens, moftly in the winter-time,
and in frolly weather. It is now fo generally known,
that no defcription is requifite of the appearance which
it ufually makes in this country. But it is in the arc¬
tic regions that it appears in perfedlion, particularly
during the folftice. In the Schetland iflands, the
merry, dancers, as they are there called, are the con-
ilant attendants of clear evenings, and prove great re¬
liefs amidfl the gloom of the long winter-nights. They
commonly appear at twilight near the horizon, of a
dun colour, approaching to yellow; fometimes conti¬
nuing in that ilate for feveral hours without any fen-
fible motion ; after which they break out into ftreams
of ftronger light, fpreading into columns, and altering
flowly into ten thoufand different fhapes, varying their
colours from all the tints of yellow to the obfcurefl ruf-
fet. They often cover the whole hemifphere, and |
then make the jnoft brilliant appearance. Their mo¬
tions at thefe times are moft amazingly quick ; and
they aftonilh the fpeftator with the rapid change of
their form. They break out in places where none
were feen before, fkimming brifkly along the heavens ;
are fuddenly extiaguifhed, and leave behind an uniform
dufky traft. This again is brilliantly illuminated in
the fame manner, and as fuddenly left a dull blank.
In certain nights they affume the appearance of vafl
columns, on one fide of the deepefl yellow, on the
other declining away till it becomes undiftinguiftied
from the fky. They have generally a flrong tremulous
motion from end to end, which continues till the whole
vanifhes. In a word, we, who only fee the extremi¬
ties of thefe northern phenomena, have but a faint \
idea
A U R [ 693 ] A U R
Atirora [Jea of their fplendor and their motions. According
Borealis. t0 ^ {];ate 0f the atmofphere, they differ in colours.
* The often put on the colour of blood, and make a
moft. dreadful appearance. The ruitic fages become
prophetic, and terrify the gazing fpe&ators with the
dread of war, peftilence, and famine. This fuperrti-
tron was not peculiar to the northern iflands ; nor are
thefe appearances of recent date. The ancients called
them Chafmata, and Trails, and Bolides, according to
their forms or colours.
In old times they were extremely rare, and on that
account were the more taken notice off. From the days
of Plutarch to thofe of our fage hiitorian Sir Richard
Baker, they were fuppofed to have been portentous
of great events, and timid imaginations fhaped them
into aeriafconflidts:
Fierce fiery warriors fight upon the clouds
t In ranks and fquadro.ns and right form of war.
is mete- Dr Halley tells us, that when he faw a great aurora
formerly borealis in 1716, he had begun to defpair of ever fee-
i/cry rare. jag- onc at a](; none having appeared, at leaft in any
coniiderable degree, from the time he was born till
then. NotwithHanding this long interval, however,
it feems that in fome periods the aurora borealis had
been feen much more frequently ; and perhaps this, as
well as other natural phenomena, may have fome Hated
a times of returning.
lift; ry by The only thing that referriblesa di ft in ft hiftory of
Dr Halley, this phenomenon, is what we have from the learned Dr
Halley, Phil. Tranf. n° 347. The fir It account he
gives, is of the appearance of what is called by the
author burning fyears, and was feen at London on Ja¬
nuary 30th 1 560. This account is taken from a book
intitled A Defcripiion of Meteors, by W. F. D. D. and
reprinted at London in 1654. The next appearance,
on the teftimuny of Stow, was on October 7th 1564.
In 1574 alfo, according to Camden, and Stow above-
mentioned, an aurora borealis was obferved two nights
fucceffively, wss. on the 14th and 15th of November,
with much the fame appearance as defcn'bed by Dr
Halley in 1716, .and which we now fo frequently ob-
ferve. Again, the fame was twice feen in Brabant, in
the year 1575 ; vi%. on the > 3th of February and 28th
of September. Its appearances at both thefe times were
defcribed by Cornelius Gemma, profeffor of medicine
in the univerfity of Lovain, who compares them to
fpears, fortified cities, and armies fighting in the air.
After this, Michael Mae film, tutor to the great Kepler,
allures us, that at Baknang, in the county of Wurtem-
berg in Germany, thefe phenomena, which he ftyles
chafrtiaia, were feen by himfelf no lefs than feven times
in 1580. In 1581, they again appeared in an extra¬
ordinary manner in April and September, and in a lefs
degree at fome other times of the fame year. In 1621,
September 2d, this phenomenon was obferved all over
France, and defcribed by Gaffendus, who gave it the
name of aurora borealis: yet neither this, nor any fi-
milar appearances pofterior to i574> are defcribed by
Englilh writers till the year 1707 ; which, as Dr Hal¬
ley obfcrves, Ihows the prodigious negltft of curious
matters which at that time prevailed. From 1621 to
1707, indeed, there is no mention made of an aurora
borealis being fcen by any body: and confidering the
number of aftronomers who during that period were in
a manner continually poring on the heavens, we may
very reafonably conclude that no fuch thing did make
its appearance till after an interval of 85 years. In Aurora.
1707, a fmall one was feen in November; and during gu‘eall\
that year and the next, the fame appearances were re-
peated five times. The next on record is that men¬
tioned by Dr Halley in March 1715-16, the brilliancy
of which attracted univerfal attention, and by the vul¬
gar was conlidered as marking the introduction of a
foreign race of princes. Since that time thofc meteors
have been fo common, that no accounts have been kept
of them. ,
It was for a long time a matter of doubt whether Mr For-
this meteor made its appearance only in the northern fter’s ac*.
hemifphere, or whether it was alfo to be obferved near^°1^“
the fouth pole. This is now afcertained by Mr For- pearances
fter ; who in his late voyage round the world along in the
with Captain Cook, affures us, that he obfcrved them fouthem
in the high fouthern latitudes, though with phenome-
na fomewhat different from thofe which are feen here. "
On Feb. 17. 1773, as they were in Lat. 580 fouth,
“ a beautiful phenomenon (fays he) was obferved du¬
ring the preceding night, which appeared again this
and fcveral following nights. It confided of long co¬
lumns of a clear white light, {hooting up from the ho¬
rizon to the eadward, almod to the zenith, and gra¬
dually fpreading on the whole fouthern part of the
fky. Thefe columns were fometimes bent fidewiie at
their upper extremities; and though in mod refpeds
fimilar to the northern lights (aurora borealis) of our
hemiiphere, yet differed from them in being always of
a whitifh colour, whereas ours affume various tints, e-
fpecially thofe of a fiery and purple hue. The fky was
generally clear when they appeared, and the air fharp
and cold, the thermometer Handing at the freezing
point.”
Dr Halley obferved that the aurora borealis defcri-R;fcs4vcr?
bed by him arofc to a prodigious height, it being fcen high,
from the wed of Ireland to the confines of Ruffia and
Poland on the ead; nor did he know hew much further
it might have been vifibie ; fo that it extended at lead
30 degrees in longitude, and from lat. 50° north it was
feen over all the northern part of Europe ; and what
was very furprifing, in all thofe places where it was vi¬
fibie, the fame appearances were exhibited which Dr
Halley obferved at London. He obferves, with feem-
ing regret, that he could by no means-determine its
height, for want of obfervations made at different pla¬
ces ; otherwifc he might as eafily have calculated the
height of this aurora borealis as he did of the fiery
globe in 1719*. To other philofophers, however, he t See
gives the following exhortation. “When frherefore^,„/ *
for the future any fueh thing fhall happen, all thofe ^
that are curious in allronomical matters are hereby
admonijhed and intreated to fet their clocks to the
apparent time at London, for example, by allowing fo
many minutes as is the difference of meridians; and
then to note, at the end of every half hour precifcly, the
exaft fituation of what at that time appears remarkable
in the iky; and particularly the azimuths of thofc very
tall pyramids fo eminent above the red, and there¬
fore likely to be fcen furthed : to the intent that, by
comparing thefe obfervations taken at the fame mo¬
ment in didant places, the difference of their azimuths
may fcrve to determine how far thefe pyramids are di¬
dant from us.” This advice of Dr Halley feems to
have been totally negletted by all the philofophical peo¬
ple in this country. In other countries, however, they
A U R [ <594 1 A U R
Aurora have been more induftrious. Father Bofcovich has
, Borealis, determined the height of an aurora borealis, obferved
on the 16th of December 1737 by the Marquis of Po-
leni, to have been 825 miles high ; the celebrated Mr
Bergman, from a mean of 30 computations, makes the
average height of the aurora borealis to be 70 Swedifh,
or upwards of 460 Englifh miles. Euler fuppofes
it to be feveral thoufands of miles high ; and Mai-
ran alfo affigns them a very elevated region. In the
74 th volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions, Dr
Blagden, when fpeaking of the height of fome fiery
meteors, tells us, that the “ aurora borealis appears to
occupy as high, if not a higher region above the fur-
face of the earth, as may be judged from the very
diftant countries to which it has been vifible at the
fame time.” The height of thefe meteors, however,
none of which appear to have exceeded or even ar¬
rived at the height of a hundred miles, muft appear
trifling in comparifon of the vaft elevations above
mentioned. But thefe enormous heights varying fo
exceedingly, fhow that the calculators have not had
proper data to proceed upon ; and indeed the im-
menfe extent of fpace occupied by the aurora bo¬
realis itfelf, with its conftant motion, muft make it
infinitely more difficult to determine the height of it
than of a fiery globe, which occupies but a fmall por¬
tion of the vifible heavens. The moft certain method
of making a comparifon betwixt the aurora borealis
and the meteors already mentioned, would be, if a ball
of fire fhould happen to pafs through the fame part of
the heavens where an aurora borealis Was ; when the
comparative height of both could eafily be afcertained.
One inftance of this only has come under our obferva-
tion, where one of the fmall meteors called falling Jlars
was evidently obfcured by an aurora borealis; and there¬
fore muft have been higher than the lower part of the
latter at leaft. A fingularity in this meteor was, that
it did not proceed in a ftraight line through the hea¬
vens, as is ufual with falling ftars, but defcribed a very
confiderable arch of a circle, rifing in the northweft,
and proceeding fouthward a confiderable way in the arch
of a circle, and difappearing in the north. Its edges
were ill defined, and five or fix corrufcations feemed to
iffue from it like the rays painted as iffuing from ftars.
The aurora borealis was not in motion, but had dege¬
nerated into a crepufculum in the northern part of the
hemifphere. Indeed in fome cafes this kind of crepufi
culum appears fo plainly to be conne&ed with the
clouds, that we can fcarcely avoid fuppofing it to pro¬
ceed from them. We cannot, however, argue from
this to the height of the aurora borealis when it moves
with great velocity, becaufe it then may, and very
probably does, afcend much higher. Dr Blagden, in¬
deed, informs us, that inftances are recorded, where the
northern lights have been feen to join, and form lu¬
minous balls, darting about with great velocity, and
even leaving a train like the common fire-balls. It
would feem therefore, that the higheft regions of the au¬
rora borealis are the fame with thofe in which fire-balls
s move.
Conjedtures With regard to the caufe of the aurora borealis,
concerning many conjeftures have been formed. The firft which
this meteor' natUra^^' occurre^ was> that it was occafioned by the
'afcent of inflammable fulphureous vapours from the
earth. To this fuppofition Dr Halley objects the im-
2
menfe extent of fuch phenomena, and that they are Auror#
conftantly obferved to proceed from north to fouth, Borealis,.
but never from fouth to north. This made him very v '
reafonably conclude, that there was fome connexion
between the poles of the earth and the aurora borealis;
but being unacquainted with the ele&ric power, he fup-
pofed that this earth was hollow, having within it a
magnetical fphere, which correfponded in virtue with
all the natural and artificial magnets on tke furface;
and the magnetic effluvia paffing through the earth,
from one pole of the central magnet to another, might
fometimes become vifible in their courfe, which he
thought was from north to fouth, and thus exhibit the
beautiful corrufcations of the aurora borealis. Had
Dr Halley, however, known, that a ftroke of ele&ri-
city would give polarity to a needle that had it not, or
reverfe the poles of one that had it before, he would
undoubtedly have concluded the eleftric and magnetic
effluvia to be the fame, and that the aurora borealis
was this fluid performing its circulation from one pole
of the earth to the other. In fail, this very hypothe-
fis is adopted by S. Beccaria; and by the fuppofed cir¬
culation of the ele&ric fluid he accounts for the pheno¬
mena of magnetifm and the aurora borealis in a manner
perfectly fimilar to that of Dr Halley, only changing
the phrafe magnetic effluvia for eledric fluid. The fol¬
lowing is the account given us by Dr Prieftley of Bec-
caria’s fentiments on this matter.
“ Since a fudden ftroke of lightning gives polarity
to magnets, he conje&ures, that a regular and conftant
circulation of the whole mafs of the fluid from north to
fouth may be the original caufe of magnetifm in gene¬
ral.
“ That this ethereal current is infenfible to us is no
proof of its non-exiftence, fince we ourfelves are invol¬
ved in it. He had feen birds fly fo near a thunder¬
cloud, as he was fure they would not have done had
they been affedted by its atmofphere.
“ This current he would not fuppofe to arife from
one fource, but from feveral, in the northern hemi-
fphefe of the earth ; and he thinks that the aurora
borealis may be this eledtric matter perfortning its
circulation in fuch a ftate of the atmofphere as renders
it vifible, or approaching the earth nearer than ufual.
Accordingly very vivid appearances of this kind have
been obferved to occafion a fludluation in the magnetic
needle.”
A diredt difproof of this circulation, however, is fur-
nilhed by the obfervation of Mr Forfter already men¬
tioned ; with which, though neither Dr Halley nor S.
Beccaria could be acquainted, they might have thought
of it as a final proof either of the truth or falfehood of
their hypothefis.—If the aurora borealis is no other
than the eledlric fluid performing the above-mentioned
circulation, it ought to dart from the horizon towards
the zenith in the northern hemifphere, and from the
zenith to the horizon in the fouthern one : but Mr
Forfter plainly tells us, that the columns fhot up from
the horizon towards the zenith as well in the fouthern
hemifphere as in the northern; fo that if the aurora
borealis is to be reckoned the flafhings of eledlric mat¬
ter, its courfe is plainly diredled from both poles to¬
wards the equator, and not from one pole to the other.
Concerning the caufe of this phenomenon, Mr Can¬
ton has the following query: “is not the aurora bo¬
realis
A U R
Aurora realis the flashing of eleftrical fire from pofitive towards
Boreata. negatjve clouds at a great diltanee, through the upper
* part of the atmofphere where the refiftance is leaft ?”
But to this we muft reply in the negative ; for in this
cafe it would flafh in every direction according to the
pofition erf the clouds, as well as from north to fouth.
Befides this query, he conjectures, that when the
needle is difturbed by the aurora borealis, that pheno¬
menon proceeds from the eleCtricity of the heated air;
and fuppofes the air to have the property of becoming
eleCtric by heat, like the tourmalin. But neither does
this hypothefis appear at all probable; becaufe, in fuch
a cafe, the aurora borealis ought to be moll frequent
in fummer when the air is moll heated, whereas it is
found to be the reverfe. Laftly, with thefe electri¬
cal hypothefes we {hall contrail that of Mr Mairan,
who imagined this phenomenon to proceed from the
atmolphere of the fun, particles of which were thrown
off by its centrifugal force acquired by his rotation on
his axis; and that thefe particles falling upon the at¬
mofphere of the earth near its equatorial parts, were
from thence propelled by the diurnal motion of the
earth towards the polar regions, where they formed
the aurora borealis. This hypothefis, befides its being
a mere fuppofition, unfupported by one fingle appear¬
ance in nature, is liable to the objeftion already men¬
tioned ; for in this cafe the light Ihould dart from the
equator to the poles, and not from the poles to the
equator: or if we {hould fuppofe this matter to be gra¬
dually accumulated at each of the poles, we muft then
make other fuppofitions, equally vague and ill founded,
concerning its getting back with fuch furprifing rapidity
in dire& oppofition to the power which once brought
it thither.
The firft perfon that feems to have endeavoured to
find any pofitive proof for the eledtrical quality of the
aurora borealis is Dr Hamilton of Dublin. He ob-
ferves, that though this phenomenon is commonly fup-
pofed to be eledtrical, yet he had not feen any attempt
to prove that it is fo : but the only proof he himfelf
brings is an experiment of Mr Hawldbee, by which
the eledtric fluid is ftiowm to put on appearances fome-
what like the aurora borealis, w'hen it pafles through a
vacuum. He obferved, that when the air was moft
perfedlly exhaufted, the ftreams of eledlric matter were
then quite white; but when a fmall quantity of air
was let in, the light aflumed more of a purple colour.
The flafiiing of this light therefore from the denfe regions
of the atmofphere into fuch as are more rare, and the
tranfitions through mediums of different denfity, he rec¬
kons the caufe of the aurora borealis, and of the diffe¬
rent colours it affumes.
Dr Hamilton’s proof, then, of the eledtricity of
the aurora borealis, confifts entirely in the refemblance
the two lights bear to one another; and if to this we
add, that during the time of an aurora borealis the
magnetic needle hath been difturbed, eledlric fire ob¬
tained from the atmofphere in plenty, and at fome
times different kinds of rumbling and hifiing founds
heard, we have the fum of all the pofitive evidence in
favour of the eledlric hypothefis.
Was the aurora borealis the firft natural phenome¬
non the folution of which had been attempted by elec¬
tricity, no doubt the proofs juft now adduced would
be very infufficient: but when it is confidered, that we
A U R
have indifputable evidence of the identity of the phe- Aurora
nomena of thunder and of eledlricity; when we alfo Boreall9‘,
confider, that the higher parts of our atmofphere are v
continually in a ftrongly eledlrified ftate ; the analogy
becomes fo ftrong,- that we can fcarce doubt of the au¬
rora borealis arifing from the fame caufe. The only
difficulty is, to give a good reafon why the eledlricity
of the atmofphere {hould be conftantly found to diredt
its courfe from the poles towards the equator, and not
from the equator to the poles; and this we think may
be done in the following manner.
1. It is found that all eledlric bodies, when confi-See
derably heated, become condudlors of eledlricity; thus o-'V/^paf-
hot air, hot glafs, melted rofin, fealing wax, &c. are ^un'
all condudtors till their heat is dilfipated, and then
they again become eledlrics.
2. As the converfe of every true propofition ought
alfo to be true, it follows from the above one, that if
eledlrics when heated become condudlors, then non-
eledlrics when fubjedled to violent degrees of cold
ought to become eledlric. In one inftance this has
been verified by experience; water, which is a conduc¬
tor when warm or not violently cooled, is found to be¬
come .eledlric when cooled to 20° below o of Fahren¬
heit’s thermometer. With regard to metallic fubftan-
ces, indeed, no experiments have as yet been made to
determine whether their condudling power is affedled
by cold or not. Very probably we might not be able
to produce fuch a degree of cold as fenfibly to leffen
their condudling power; but ftill the analogy will
hold ; and as we are by no means able to produce the
greateft degree of cold poflible, reafon will always fug-
geft to us, that if a certain degree of cold changes one
condudlor into an eledlric, a fufficient degree of it will
alfo change all others into eledlrics.
3. If cold is fufficient to change condudling fub-
ftances into eledlrics, it muft alfo increafe the eledlric
power of fuch fubllances as are already eledlric ; that
is to fay, very cold air, glafs, rofin, &c. provided
they are dry, will be more eledlric than when they are
warmer. With regard to air, which is moft to our
prefent purpofe, this is rendered extremely probable,
by confidering that clear frofty weather is of all others
the moft favourable, for eledlric experiments. They
may be made indeed to equal advantage almoft in any
ftate of the atmofphere, provided fufficient pains is
ufed; but in dry hard froft they will fucceed much
more eafily than at any other time.
Thefe three axioms being allowed, the caufe of the
aurora borealis is eafily deduced from them. The air
all round the globe, at a certain height above its fur-
face, is found to be exceedingly cold, and, as far as ex¬
periments have yet determined, exceedingly eledlrical
alfo. The inferior parts of the atmofphere between
the tropics are violently heated during the day-time
by the refledlion of the fun’s rays from the earth.
Such air will therefore be a kind of condudlor, and
much more readily part with its eledlricity to the
clouds and vapours floating in it, than the colder air
towards the north and fouth poles. Hence the pi odi-
gious appearances of eledlricity in thefe regions, fhow-
ing itfelf in thunder and other tempefts of the moft.
terrible kind, immenfe quantities of the eledlric fluid
aie thus communicated to the earth, and the inferior
warm atmofphere having once exhaulled itfelf, muft ue-
ceffarily
[ 695 3
A U R r 696 ] A u R
Aurora cefTanlj' be recruited from the upper and colder re-
grfa 1S'. gion. This becomes very probable from what the
French mathematicians obferved when on the top of
one of the Andes. They were often involved in
clouds, which, finking down into the warmer air, ap¬
peared there to be highly eleftrified, and difcharged
themfelves in violent tempefls of thunder and light¬
ning ; while in the mean time, on the top of the
mountain, they enjoyed a calm and ferene Iky. In the
temperate and frigid zones, the inferior parts of the
atmofphere never being fo ftrongly heated, do not part
with their eledlricity fo eafily as in the torrid zone,
and confequently do not require fuch recruits from the
upper regions ; but notwithftanding the difference of
heat obferved in different parts of the earth near the
furface, it is very probable that at confiderable heights
the degree of cold is nearly equal all round it. Were
there a like equality in the heat of the under part,
there could never be any confiderable lofs of equili-
brium in the ele&ricity of the atmofphere : but as the
hot air of the torrid zone is perpetually bringing down
vaft. quantities of ele&ric matter from the cold air that
lies direftly above it; and as the inferior parts of the
atmofphere lying towards the north and fouth poles do
not conduct in any great degree ; it thence follows,
that the upper parts of the atmofphere lying oyer the
torrid zone will continually require a fupply from the
northern and fouthern regions. This eafily fhows the
neceffity of an eledlric current in the upper parts of the
atmofphere from each pole towards the equator : and
thus we are ajfo furnilhed with a reafon why the au¬
rora borealis appears more frequently in winter than
in fummer ; namely, becaufe at that time the electric
power of the inferior atmofphere is greater on account
of the cold than in fummer; and confequently the
abundant ele&ricity of the upper regions muff go al-
moft wholly oft' to the equatorial parts, it being impof-
fible for it to get down to the earth : hence alfo the
aurora borealis appears very frequent and bright in the
frigid zones, the degree of cold in the u{)per and un¬
der regions of the atmofphere being much more nearly
equal in thefe parts than in any other. ' In feme parts
of Siberia particularly, this meteor appears conftantly
from October to Chriilmas, and its corrufcations are
faid to be very terrifying. Travellers agree, that here
the aurora borealis appears in greateft perfe&ion ; and
it is to be remarked, that Siberia is the coldelt coun¬
try on earth. In confirmation of this, it may alfo be
obferved, that, from the experiments hitherto made
with the ele&rical kite, the air appears confiderably
more eledlrical in winter than in fummer, though the
clouds are known to be often molt violently electrified
in the fummer time; a proof that the eledtricity na¬
turally belonging, to the air is in fummer much more
powerfully drawn off by the clouds than in the winter,
owing to the excefs of heat in fummer, as already ob-
krved.
A confiderable difficulty, however, {till remains, from
the upright pofition which the dreams of the aurora
borealis are generally fuppofed to have; whereas, ac¬
cording to the hypothelis above mentioned, they ought
rather to run diredtly from north to fouth. This dif¬
ficulty occurred to Dr Halley: but he anfvvers it by
fuppofing his magnetic effluvia to pafs from one pole
N° 38.
to another in arches of great circles, arifing to a vaft
height above the earth, and confequently darting from
the places whence they arofe almoft like the radii of a
circle; in which cafe, being fent off in a dirediion nearly
perpendicular to the furface of the earth, they mull
neceffai ily appear eredl to thofe who fee then* from any
part of the fnrface, as is demonftrated by mathemati¬
cians. It is alfo reafonable to think that they will take
this diredtion rather than any other, on account of their
meeting with lets refiltance in the very high regions of
the air than in fuch as are lower.
But the greateft difficulty Hill remains: for we have
fuppofed the equilibrium of the atmofphere to be broken
in the day-time, and reftored only in the night; where¬
as, confidering the immenfe velocity with which the
eledtric fluid moves, the equilibrium ought to be refto¬
red in all parts almoft inftantaneoufly ; yet the aurora
borealis never appears except in the night, although its
brightntfs is fuch as muft fometimes brake it vifible to
us did it really exift in the day-time.
In anfvver to this it muft be obferved, that though
the paffage of eledtricity through a good condudW is
inftantaneous, yet through a bad condudtor it is ob¬
ferved to take fome time in paffu.g. As our atmo¬
fphere therefore, unlefs very violently heated, is but a
bad condudor of eledricity; though the equilibrium in
it is broken, it can by no means be inftantaneoufiy re¬
ftored. Add to this, that as it is the adion of the fun
which breaks the equilibrium, fo the fame adion, ex¬
tending over half the globe, prevents almoft any attempt
to reftore it till night ; when iklhes arife from various
parts of the atmofphere, gradually extending themfclves
with a variety of undulations towards the equator.
It now remains to explain only one particularity of
the aurora borealis, namely, that its ftreams do not al¬
ways move with rapidity, fometimes appearing quite
ftationary for a confiderable time, and fometimes being
carried in different diredions with a flow motion. To
this indeed we can give no other reply, than that weak
eledric lights have been fometimes obferved to put on
the fame appearance at the furface of the earth ; and
much more may we fuppofe them capable of do¬
ing fo at great heights above it, where the conduc¬
tors are both fewer irr number and much more imper-
fed. When M. de Romas was making experiments
with an eledric kite in Italy, a cylinder of blue light
about four or five inches diameter was obferved fur¬
rounding the firing. This was in the day-time ; but
had it been night, he imagined it muft have been four
or five feet in diameter; mid as the firing was 780 feet
long, it would probably have feemed pyramidal, point¬
ing upwards like one of the ftreams of the aurora bo¬
realis. A ftill more remarkable appearance. Dr Prieft-
ley tells us, was obferved by Mr Hartman. He had
been making eledrical experiments for four or five
hours together in a very fmall room; and upon going
out of it, and returning with a light in his hand, walk¬
ing pretty quick, he perceived a fmall flame following
him at about three feet diftanee. Being alarmed at this
appearance, he flopped to examine it, upon which it
vanilhed. This laft inftance is very remarkable, and fin*
gular in its kind : from both, however, we are fuffici-
ently warranted to conclude, that fmall portions of our
atmofpheve may by various caufes be fo much eiedri-
5
A U R [ 697 ] A U R
Aurora fied as to ftiine, and likewife be moved from one place
Boreahr. tQ anot[ier without parting with the elettricity they
have received, for a confideiable time.
The corona, or circle, which is often formed near the
zenith by the aurora borealis, is eafily accounted for in
the fame manner. As this corona is commonly fta-
tionary for fome time, we imagine it would be a very
proper mark whereby to determine the diftanCe of the
meteor itfelf. If an aurora borealis, for inftance, was
obferved by two perfors, one at London, and the other
at Edinburgh ; by noting the liars among which the
corona was obferved at each place, its true altitude
from the furface of the earth could eafily be determi¬
ned by trigonometry.
Under the article Atmosphere it was fuggefted,
that no good proof had been as yet brought for the
extreme rarity of the air ufually fuppofed to take place
at no very great heights above the earth. The bright-
nefsof the meteor there mentioned at 70 miles perpen¬
dicular from the furface, as alfo its figure, feemed to
prove the air confiderably denfer at that diftance from
the earth. Though the height of the aurora borealis
has never been determined, we can fcarce imagine it to
be greater than that of this meteor, or indeed fo great:
but although its ftreams refemble the palfage of elec¬
tric light through a vacuum, it cannot be from thence
inferred, that the air is at all in a Hate fimilar to the va¬
cuum of an air-pump in thofe places where the aurora
borealis is produced ; feeing we have inftances of limi-
lar appearances being produced in very denfe air. The
plate of an ele&rophorus is often fo highly eleftrified,
as to throw out flalhes from different parts as foon as
it is lifted up, and by proper management it may be
always made to emit long and broad flafhes which lhall
fcarcely be felt by the finger, inftead of fmall, denfe,
and pungent fparks ; fo that, though long flalhes may
be produced in rarefied air, it by no means follows that
the fame may not alfo be produced in denfer air. As
little can we infer any thing from the colours; for we
obferve the ele&ric fpark fometimes white, fometimes
blue, and fometimes purple, in the very fame Hate of
the atmofphere, and from the fame fubltance.
The aurora borealis is faid to be attended with a pe¬
culiar hilling noife in fome very cold climates ; Gme-
lin fpeaks of it in the moft pointed terms, as frequent
and very loud in the north-eaftern parts of Siberia; and
other travellers have related fimilar fadts. Gmelin’s
account is very remarkable. “ Thefe northern lights
(fays he) begin with Angle bright pillars, riling in the
N. and almoft at the fame time in the N. E. which
gradually increafing comprehend a large fpace of the
heavens, rulh about from place to place with incredible
velocity, and finally almolt cover the whole Iky up to
the zenith. The 11 reams are then feen meeting toge¬
ther in the zenith, and produce an appearance as if a
vaft tent was expanded in the heavens, glittering with
gold, rubies, and fapphire. A more beautiful fpe&acle
cannot be painted; but whoever Ihould fee fuch a
northern light for the firlt time, copld not behold it
without terror For however fine the illumination may
be, it is attended, as I have learned from the relation
of many perlons, with fuch a hilling, cracking, and
rulhing noife throughout the air, as if the largell fire¬
works were playing off To deferibe what they then
hear, they make ufe of the exprelfion, Spolochi codjat,
Vol. II. Part II.
that is, the raging hoft is palling. The hunters who ^u-ora
purfue the white and blue foxes in the confines of the orea 18‘ ,
Icy Sea, are often overtaken in their courfe by thefe
northern lights. Their dogs are then fo much frighten¬
ed, that they will not move, but lie obftinately on the
ground till the noife has palled. Commonly clear and
calm weather follows this kind of northern lights. I.
have heard this account, not from one perfon only,
but confirmed by the uniform teftimony of many, who
have fpent part of feveral years in thefe very northern
regions, and inhabited different countries from the Ye-
nefei to the Lena ; fo that no doubt of its truth can
remain. This feems indeed to be the real birth-place
of the aurora borealis.
The hilling or rulhing noife above deferibed, Dr
Elagden is inclined to attribute to fmall ftreams of elec¬
tric matter running off to the earth from the maffes or
accumulations of eleftricity by which the northern
lights are fuppofed to be produced. 6
We lhall conclude this article with an account of a Aurora bo-
paper prefented to the Royal Society by Mr Winn, in realis fuc-
1772, wherein he fays that the appearance of an au-cee<led by
rora borealis is a certain fign of an hard gale of wind^^^6
from the fouth or fouth-weft. This he never found to
fail in 23 inftances; and even thinks, that from the
fplendor of the meteor, fome judgment maybe formed
concerning the enfuing tempeft. If the aurora is very
bright, the gale will come on within twenty-four hours,
but will be of no long duration ; if the light is faint
and dull, the gale will be lefs violent, and longer in
coming on, but wull alfo laft longer. His obfervations
were made in the Englilh channel, where fuch winds
are very dangerous; and by attending to the auroras,
he fays he often got eafily out of it, when others nar¬
rowly efcaped being wrecked. This is an exceeding
ufeful obfervation for failors: but it cannot be expefted
that the winds fucceeding thefe meteors Ihould in
all places blow from the fouth-weft ; though no doubt
a careful obfervation of what winds fucceed the aurora
borealis, and other meteors, in different parts of the
world, might contribute in fome meafure to leffen the
dangers of navigation. 7
That the aurora borealis ought to be fucceeded by Conjecture
winds, may be eafily deduced from the hypothefis r^afoi?
mentioned. If this phenomenon is occafioned by the
vaft quantity of eledtric matter conveyed to the equa¬
torial parts of the earth, it is certain that the earth
cannot receive any great quantity of this matter at one
place without emitting it at another. The eleftricity,
therefore, which is conftantly received at the equator,
mufl be emitted neater the poles, in order to perform
its courfe, otherwife there could not be a conftant fup-
ply of it for the common operations of nature. It is
obferved, that eledtrified bodies are always furrounded
by a blaft of air, which is fent forth from them in all
diredlions; hence, if the eledlric matter find a more,
ready paffage through one part of the earth than ano¬
ther, a wind will be found to blow from that quarter.
If therefore one of thefe 'places happens to be in the
Atlantic ocean near the coaft of France, or in the bay
of Bifcay, the eledlric matter which has been received
at the equator during an aurora borealis will be dif-
charged there fome time after, and confequently a
wind will blow from that quarter, which will be from
the fouth-weft to thofe fhips which are in the Euglifti
4 T channel.
A U S
t M ]
A U S
trical vents, winds may blow in different direftions; of t^his, but other people were intermixed. Concern-'
and thus the fame aurora borealis may produce a fouth- ing Aufona or its remains there is nothing particular
weft-wind in the Engliftt channel, and a north-weft one recorded.
in Scotland. AUSONIA, the ancient name of Italy, from its
AURUM. See Gold, Chemistry, and Metal- moft ancient inhabitants the Aufones, (Virgil, Ser-
lurgy. vius).
This metal was introduced into medicine by the AUSONEUM mare (anc. *. og.), a part of the
Arabians, who efteemed it one of the greateft cordials Ionian fea, extending fouthwards from the promonto-
and comforters of the nerves. From them Europe re- ry Japygium to Sicily, which it wafhes on the eaft, as
ceived it without any diminution of its charadter ; in it does the Brutii and Magna Gnecia on the fouth and
foreign pharmacopoeias it is ftill retained, and even eaft. It is feparated from the Tufcan fea by the ftrait
mixed with the ingredients from which fimple waters of Meflina.
are to be diftilled. But no one, it is prefumed, at this AUSONIUS (in Latin Deciits, or rather Decimus^
time expe&s 'any Angular virtues from it, ftnce it cer- Magnus Aufonius), one of the beft poets of the fourth;
tainly is not alterable in the human body. Mr Geof- century, was the fon of en eminent phyfician, and born-
froy, though unwilling to reje& it from the cordial at Bourdeaux. Great care was taken of his education,
preparations, honeftly acknowledges that he has no thewholefamilyintereftingthemfelves init,eitherbc-
other reafon for retaining it than complaifance to the caufe his genius was. very promifing, or that the fcheme
Arabian fchools. -The chemifts have endeavoured, by of his nativity, which had been call by his grandfather
many elaborate proceffes, to extradl what they call a on the mother’s fide, made them imagine that he would
fulphur or anima of gold : but no method is as yet rife to great honour. He mad® an uncommon pro-
known of feparating the component parts of this me- grefs in claffical learning, and at the age of 30 was
tal; all the tinftures of it, and aurum portabile, which chofen to teach grammar at Bourdeaux. He was.
have hitherto appeared, are real folutions of it in aqua- promoted fome time after to be profeffor of rhetoric ;
regia, diluted with fpirit of wine or other liquors, and in which office he acquired fo great a reputation, that
prove injurious to the body rather than beneficial. A he was fent for to court to be preceptor to Gratian the
place, however, is now given in fome of the fo- emperor Valentinian’s fon. The rewards and honours
reign pharmacopoeias to the aurum fulminans; and it conferred on him for the faithful difeharge of his of-
has of late been recommended as a remedy in fome fice prove the truth of Juvenal’s maxim, that when for-
convulfive difeafes, particularly in the chorea fan&i viti, tune pleafes fhe can raife a man from a rhetorician to
Aurum Fulminans. See Chemistry-//?^*:. the dignity of a conful. He was aftually appointed.
Aurum Mofaicum. See Chemistry-/«^. conful by the emperor Gratian, in the year 379, after
AURUNCI (anc. geog.) a people of Latium, to- having filled other confiderable pofts ; for befides the
wards Campania ; the fame with the Aufones, at leaft dignity of queftor, to which he had been nominated by
fo intermixed as not to be eafily diftinguifhable, though Valentinian, he was made prefeft of the Prastorium
Pliny feparates them. in Italy and Gaul after that prince’s death. His
AUSA, a town of Terraconenfis, in the middle fpeech returning thanks to Gratian on his promotion,
age called Aufona; now Vich de Ofona, a town of Ca- to the confulfhip is highly commended. The time of
talonia in Spain. E. Long. 2. N. Lat. 41. 50. his death is uncertain ; he was ftill Irving in 392, and,
AUSCH. SeeAucn. lived to a great age. The emperor Theodofius had a
AUSI, an ancient and very favage people of Li- great efteem for Aufonius, and preffed him to publiflv
bya. Herodotus tells us that they were unacquainted his poems. There is a great inequality in his works;
with marriage, and had all their women in common, and in his manners and his ftyle there is a harftinefs,
The children were brought up by their mothers till which was perhaps rather the defedl of the times he
they were able to walk: after which they were intro- lived in than of his genius. Had he lived in Au-
duced to an affembly of the men, who met every three guftus’s reign, his verfes, according to good judges,,
months; and the man to whom any child firft fpoke, would have equalled the moft finiihed of that age.
acknowledged himfelf its father. They celebrated He is generally fuppofed to have been a Chriftian;.
annually a feaft in honour of Minerva, in which the fome ingenious authors indeed think otherwife, but,
girls divided into two companies, fought with fticks according to Mr Bayle, without juft reafon. The
and ftones, and thofe who died of their wounds were beft edition of his poems is that of Amfterdam in
concluded not to have been virgins. 1671.
AUSIMUM, or Auximum, an ancient Roman co- AUSPEX, a name originally given to thofe who
lony in the Picenum; now OJimo or Ofmo, in the March were afterwards denominated augurs. In which fenfe
of Ancona in Italy. E. Long. 15. N. Lat. 43. 20. the word is fuppofed to be formed from avis, “ bird,”
AUSITiE, or AisiT/E, a tribe of ancient Arabs, and infpicere, “ to infpeft aufpices, q. d. avifpices.
fuppofed by Bochart to have inhabited the land of Uz Some will therefore have aufpices properly to denote
mentioned in feripture. thofe who foretold future events from the fight of
AUSONA (anc. geog.), a town of the Aufones, a birds,
people who anciently occupied all the Lower Italy, AUSPICIUM, Auspicy, the fame with augury. .
from the Promontorium Circseum down to the ftraits AUSTER, one of the four cardinal winds, as Ser-
2
A U S [ 699 ] A U S
Auftere vius calls them, blowing from the fouth (Pliny, Ovid,
II _ Manilius).
Auftna' AUSTERE, rough, aftringent. Thus an auftere
J“'~¥" ' tafte is fuch a one as conftringes the mouth and
tongue ; as that of unripe fruits, harflr wines, &c.
AUSTERITY, among moral writers, implies fe-
verity and rigour. Thus we fay, anjli-rity of manners,
anjlerit'ies of the monaftic life. See.
AUSTIN (St). See St Augustin.
AUSTRAL, Australis, the fame with fouthern.
The word is derived from aujler, “ fouth wind.”
Thus auftral figns are the fix laft figns of the zodiac ;
fo called becaufe they are on the fouth fide of the
equino&ial. .
AUSTRALIS PISCIS, the Southern Fish, is
a conilellation of the fouthern hemifphere, not vifible
in our latitude; whofe flars in Ptolemy’s catalogue
are 18, and in the Britannic catalogue 24.
AUSTRIA, one of the principal provinces of the
empire of Germany towards the eaff; from which fi-
tuation it takes its name, Oojl-ryck in the German lan¬
guage fignifying “ the eaft country.” It is bounded on
the north by Moravia, on the eaft by Hungary, on
the fouth by Stiria, and on the well by Bavaria. It
is divided into Upper and Lower. Upper Auftria is
fituated on the fouth, and Lower Auftria on the north
fide of the Danube. Vienna the capital is in the Up¬
per Auftria, which contains feveral other very confi-
derable towns. The country is very fertile, has a
great many mines, and produces vail quantities of
fulphur.
In the ninth and tenth centuries, Auftria was the
frontier of the empire againft the barbarians. In 928,
the emperor Henry the Fowler,- perceiving that it was
of great importance to fettle fome perfon in Auftria
who might oppofe thefe incurfions, invefted Leopold,
furnamed the Jllujlrious, with that country. Otho I.
erefted*Auftria into a marquifate in favour of his bro¬
ther-in-law Leopold, whofe defeendant Henry II. was
created Duke of Auftria by the emperor Frederic Bar-
barofla. His pofterity becoming extindl in 1240, the
ftates of the country, in order to defend themfelves from
the incut fions of the Bavarians and Hungarians, refolved
to put themfelves under the protection of Henry marquis
of Mifnia; but Othogar II. king of Bohemia, being
likewife invited by a party in the duchy, took pofleffion
-of it, alleging not only the invitation of the ftates,
but alfo the right of his wife, heirefs of Frederic the
laft duke. The emperor Rodolphus I. pretending a
right to this duchy, refufed to give Othogar the in-
veftiture of it; and afterwards killing him in a battle,
procured the right of it to his own family. From this
Rodolphus the prefent houfe of Auftria is defeended,
which for feveral centuries pall has rendered itfelf fo
famous and fo powerful, having given 14 emperors to
Germany and fix kings to Spain.
In 1477, Auftria was erefted into an archduchy by
the emperor Frederic the Pacific, for his fon Maximi¬
lian, with thefe privileges : That thefe fliall be judged
to have obtained the inveftiture of the ftates, if they
do not receive it after having demanded it three times;
that if they receive it from the emperor, or the impe¬
rial ambaffadors, they are to be on horfeback, clad in
a royal mantle, having in their hand a ftaff of command,
and upon their head a ducal crown of two points, and
furrounded with a crofs like that of the imperial crown. Auftria.
The archduke is born privy-counfellor to the emperor, “
and his ftates cannot be put to the ban of the empire.
All attempts againft his perfon are punifhed as crimes
of lefemajetly, in the fame manner as thofe againft the
king of the Romans or Eleftors. No one dared to
challenge him to fingle combat. It is in his choice to
affift at the afiemblies, or to be abfent; and he has the
privilege of being exempt from contributions and pu¬
blic taxes, excepting 12 foldiers which he is obliged
to maintain againft the Turk for one month. He has
rank immediately after the ele&ors; and exercifes juftice
in his ftates without appeal, by virtue of a privilege
granted by Charles V. His fubjedls cannot even be
fummoned out of his province upon account of law’*
fuits, to give witnefs, or to receive the inveftiture of
fiefs. Any of the lands of the empire may be alienated
in his favour, even thofe that are feudal; and he has a
right to create counts, barons, gentlemen, poets, and
notaries. In the fucceffion to his ftates, the right of
birth takes place ; and failing males, the females fuc-
ceed according to the lineal right; and if no heir be
found, they may difpofe of their lands as they pleafe.
Upper Auftria, properly fo called, has throughout
the appearance of a happy country : here are no figns
of the linking contrail betwixt poverty and riches
which offends fo much in Hungary. All the inhabi¬
tants, thofe of the capital only excepted, enjoy that
happy mediocrity which is the confequence of a gentle
and wife adminiftration. The farmer has property;
and the rights of the nobility, wLo enjoy a kind of
lower judicial power, are well defined. The fouth
and fouth-weft parts of the country are bounded by a
ridge of hills, the inhabitants of which enjoy a Ihare of
profperity unknown to thofe of the interior parts of
France. There are many villages and market towns,
the inhabitants of which have bought themfelves off
from vaffalage, are now their own governors, and be¬
long fome of them to the eftates of the country. The
cloifters, the prelates of which belong to the eftates
of the country, are the richeft in Germany, after the
immediate prelacies and abbacies of the empire. One
of the great convents of Benedi&ines is worth upwards
of 4000 millions of French livres, half of which goes
to the exchequer of the country. *
Lower Auftria yearly exports more than two mil¬
lions worth of guilders of wine to Moravia, Bohemia,
Upper Auftria, Bavaria, Saltzburg, and part of Sty-
ria and Corinthia. This wine is four, but has a great
deal of ftrength, and may be carried all over the world
without danger; w’hen it is ten or twenty years old it
is very good. This country is very well peopled. Mr
Schloffer, in his political journal, which contains an
account of the population of Auftria, eftimates that
of this country at 2,100,000 men. The revenue of
this country is about 14,000,000 of florins; of which
the city of Vienna contributes above five, as one man
in the capital earns as much as three in the country.
The fouthern parts of Auftria are covered with hills,
which rife gradually from the banks of the Danube to
the borders of Stiria, and are covered with woods.
They lofe themfelves in the mafs of mountains which
run to the fouth of Germany, and ftretch through all
Stiria, Carniola, Carinthia, and Tyrol, to the Swifs
Alps; and are probably, after Savoy and Switzerland,
4 T 2 the
Auterfolt*.
A U S [ 700 ] A U '
Auftria, the higheft part of the earth. The inhabitants of this AUTERFOITS acquit. ") a , -it,
Auftroman- exten{jvc ridge of moiintains are all very mueh alike ; AinERroirs Attaint. (See e articlen
■,. . they are a ftrong. large, and, the Goitres excepted, Autfrioits Conviti. j ■ ment’ Autograph.
a very handfome people. AUTHENTIC, fomething of acknowledged and '
The charafteriftic of the inhabitants of all this received authority. In law, it fignilies fomething clo-
country is linking bigotry, united with linking fen- thed in all its formalities, and attelled by perfons to
fuality. You need, only fee what is going forwards whom credit has been regularly given. Thus we fay,
here to be convinced that the religion taught by the authentic papers, authentic injlruments.
monks is as ruinous for the morals as it is repugnant AUTHOR, properly fignifies one who Created or
to Chriltianity. The Cicilbeos accompany the mar- produced any thing. Thus God, by way of emi-
ried women from their bed to church, and lead them nence, is called, the Author of nature., the Author of the
to the very confellional. The bigotry of the public univerfe.
in the interor parts of Aullria, which from the mix- Author, in matters of literature, a perfon who has
ture of gallantry with it, is Hill to be found even a- compofed fome book or writing.
mongft people of rank, degenerates amongft the com- AUTHORITY, in a general fenfe, fignifies a right
mon people into the groffeft and moil abominable buf- to command, and make one|s felf obeyed. In which
foonery. The Windes, who are mixed with the Ger- fenfe we fay, the royal authority, the epifcopal authority,
mans in thefe countries, diftinguilh themfelves by a the authority, of a father. See. It denotes alio the
fuperllitious cullom that does little honour to the hu- teilimony of an author, feme apophthegm or fentence
man underllanding, and would be incredible if we had of an eminent perfon quoted in a diieourfe by way of
not the moll unequivocal proofs of the fail before our proof.
eyes. Many years ago, they fet out in company with Authority is reprefented, in painting, like a grave
fome Hungarian enthufialls to Cologne on the Rhine, matron fitting in a chair of Hate, richly clothed in a
which is about wo German miles dillant, to cut off garment embroidered with gold, holding in her right
the beard of a crucifix there. Every feven years this hand a fword, and in her left a feeptre. By her fide
operation is repeated, as in this fpace of time the beard is a double trophy of books and arms,
grows again to its former length. The rich perfons AUTOCHTHONES, an appellation affumed by
of the affociation fend the poorer ones as their depu- fome nations, importing that they fprnng, or were
ties, and the magillrates of Cologne receive them as produced, from the fame foil which they Hill inhabi-
ambaffadors from a foreign prince. They are enter- ted. In this fenle amounts to the fame
tained at the expence of the ftate, and a counfellor with Aborigines. The Athenians valued themfelves
fhows them the moll remarkable things in the town, on their being Autochthones, felf-born, or
This farce brings in large fums of money at Hated earth-born; it being the prevailing opinion among the
times, and may therefore deferve political encourage ancients, that, in the beginning, the earth, by fome
ment; but Hill, however, it is the moll miferable and prolific power, produced men, as it ftill does plants,
meanell way of gain that can be imagined. Thefe The proper Autochthones were thofe primitive men
Windes have alone the right to lhave our Saviour, and who had no other parent befide the earth. But the
the beard grows only for them. They firmly believe, name was alfo affirmed by the defeendants of thefe men,
that if they did not do this fervice to the crucifix, the provided they never changed their ancient Hate, nor
earth would be fnut to them for the next feven years, fuffered other nations to mix with them. In this fenfe
and there would be no harvefts. For this reafon they it was that the Greeks,, and efpecially the Athenians,
are obliged to carry the hair home with them, as the pretended to be Autochthones; and, as a bage there-
proof of having fulfilled their commiffion, the returns of, wore a golden grafshopper woven in their hair, an
of which are diffributed amongfi the different com- infe& fuppofed to have the fame origin,
munities, and preferved as holy reliques. The Impe- AUTOCRATOR, a perfon veiled with an abfo-
rial court has for a long time endeavoured in vain to lute independent power, by which he is rendered un¬
prevent this emigration, which deprives agriculture of accountable to any other for his a&ions. The power
fo many ufeful hands. When the Windes could not of the Athenian generals,, or commanders, was ufually
go openly, they would go clandeHinely. At length limited ; fo that, at the expiration of their office, they
the court thought of the expedient of forbidding the were liable to render an account of tiieir adminiflra-
regency of Cologne to let them enter the town. This tion. But on fome extraordinary occafions they were
happened fix years ago, and the numerous embaffy exempted from this reffraint, and fent with a full and
was obliged to beg its way back again without the uncontroulable authorityin which fenfe they were
wonderful beard ; which without doubt the capuchins, ftyled The fame people alfo applied the
to whom the crucifix belonged,, ufed to put together name to fome of their ambaffadors, who were vefied
from their own. The trade which the monks carry with a full power of determining matters according to
on with holy falves, oils, &c. is Hill very confiderable ; their own diferetion. Thei'e were denominated
a prohibition of the court, lately publiffied, has rather A»hxpu1opH, and refembled our plenipotentiaries,
l^ffened it, but it cannot be entirely fuppreffed till next AUTO da fe, adl of faith. See Act of Faith.
generation. It is now carried on fecretly, but perhaps AUTOJDIDACTUS, a perfon felf-taught, or who
to nearly as great an amount as formerly. has had no maHer or affillant of his Hudies hefides
AUSTROMANCY, Au strom anti a, properly de- himfelf.
notes foothfaying, or a vain method of predicting fu- AUTOGRAPH, denotes a perfon’s hand-writing,
turity, from obfervationa of the winds. or the original manufenpt of any book, &c.
AUTCfc
A U T L 7°* 1 A U T
Autolitho- AUTOLITHOTOMUS, he who cuts hlmfelf for
tom us ftone. Of this we have a very extraordinary in-
J ^ • ftance given by Reifelius, in the Ephemerides of the
Academy Nature Curioforum, dec. I. an 3. obf. 192.
AUTOMATE, called alfo Hiera, one of the Cy¬
clades, an ifland to the north of Crete (Pliny), faid to
have emerged out of the fea, between the iflands The¬
ra and Theralia, in the fifth year of the emperor Clau¬
dius; in extent thirty ftadia (Orofius).
AUTOMATON (from }pje, and v-aopai, ex-
cltor), a felf-moving machine, or one lo conftiudted, by
means of weights, levers, pullies, &c. as to move for
a confiderable time, as though endowed with animal
life. According to this defcription, clocks, watches,
and all machines of that kind, are automata.
Under the article An~^oides, we obferved that the
higheft perfeftion to wincn automata could be carried
was to imitate exaftly the motions and a&ions of living
creatures, efpecially of mankind, which are more dif¬
ficultly imitated than thole of other animals. Very
furprifing imitations, however, have been made of other
creatures. So long ago as 400 years before Chrift,
Archytas of Tarentum is faid to have made a wooden
pigeon that could fly ; nor will this appear at all incre¬
dible, when we coniider the flute-player made by M.
Vaucanfon, and the chefs-player by M. Kempell. Dr
Hook is alfo laid to have made the model of a flying
chariot capable of fupporting itfelf in the air. But
M- Vaucanfoa abovementioned hath dillinguilhed him-
felf ftill more eminently. That gentleman, encou¬
raged by the favourable reception of his flute-player,
made a duck which was capable of eating, drinking,
and imitating exactly the voice of a natural one. Nay,
what is Hill more furprifing, the food it fwallowed was
evacuated in a digefted Hate; not that it was really
in a Hate of natural excrement, but only confiderably
altered from what it was when fwallowed j and this
digeftion was performed on the principles of folution,
I. not of trituration. The wings, vifcera, and bones, of
this artificial duck, were alfo formed fo as very ftrongly
to refemble thofe of a living animal. Even in the
adtions of eating and drinking this refemblance was
preferved: the artificial duck fwallowed with avidity
and vattly quick motions of the head and throat, and
likewife muddled the water with his bill, exadfly like a
natural one.
M. Le Droz of La Chaux de Fonds in the county
! of Neufchattel, hath alfo executed fome very curious
pieces of mechanifm, which well deferve to be ranked
with thofe already mentioned. One was a clock,, which
was prefented to his Spanifh majefty; and had, among
other curiofities, a fheep which imitated the bleating
of a natural one, and a dog w’atching a balket of fruit.
When any one attempted to purloin the fruit, the dog
gnalhed his teeth and barked; and if it was aftually
taken away, he never ceafed barking till it v as reftored.
Beiides this, he made a vaiiety ef human figures;,
which exhibited motions truly furprifing ; but all in-
! fieri, r to Mr KempelPs chefs-player, which may juftly
be looked upon as the greateft mafter-piece in mecha¬
nics that ever appeared. See Androides.
AUTONOM1A, a power of living or being go¬
verned by our own laws and magiftrates. The liberty,
oi the cities which lived under the faith and protec¬
tion of the Romans, confifted in their autonomia,
3
e. they were allowed to make their own laws and Autopyro*
ele& their own magiftrates; by whom juftice was to be II
adminiftered, and not by Roman prefidents or judges,, U“lnj j
as was done in other places which were not indulged
the autonomia.
AUTQPYROS, from «v7or, and 'wheat, in
the ancient diet, an epithet given to a fpecies of bread,
wherein the whole fubftance of the wheat was retained,
without retrenching any part of the bran. Galen de-
fcribes it otherwiie, vi%. as bread where only the coar-
fer bran was taken out. And thus it was a medium
between the fineft bread, called JimHagiiieus, and the
coarfeft, called furfuraceus. This was alfo called auto-
pyrites and fyncomijliis.
AUTRE egxise, a village of Brabant, in the
Auftrian Netherlands ; to which the left wing of the
French army extended, when the confederates obtained
the viftory at Rjjmillies in 1706. E. Long. 4.50.
N. Lat. 50. 40.
AUTRICUM, the capital of the Carnutas, a peo¬
ple of Gallia Ceitica; afterwards called Carnotena,
Carnotenus, and Civitas Carnotenum: Now Chartres, in
the Orleanois on the Eure. E. Long. r. 32. N. Lat,
48 47.
AUTUMN, the third feafon of the year, when the
harveit and fruits are gathered in. Autumn is repre-
fented, in painting, by a man at perfeft age, clothed
like the vernal, and likewife girded with a ftarry gir¬
dle ; holding in one hand a pair of fcales equally poi-
fed, with a globe in each ; in the other hand, a bunch
of divers fruits and grapes. His age denotes the per-
fedfion of this feafon ; and the balance, that fign of the
zodiac which the fun enters when cur autumn begins.
Autumn begins on the day when the fun’s meridian
diftance from the zenith, being on the decreafe, is a
mean between the greateft and the lead; which in thefe
countries is fuppoled to happen when the fun enters;
Libra. Its end coincides with the beginning of win¬
ter. Several nations have computed the years by
autumns; the Englifti Saxons by winters. Tacitus tells
v.s, the ancient Germans were acquainted with all the-
other feafons of the year, but had no notion of autumn.
Lidyat obferves at the beginning of the feveral feafons
of the year, that
Dat Clemens hyemem, dat Petrus ver cathedratusy
JEJluat Urbanus, autumnat Bartholonueus.
Autumn has always been reputed an unhealthy feafon..
Tertullian calls it tesitatcr valetudinum:'and the fatyrift
{peaks-of it in the fame light; Autumnus JLilltlnse quejlus
acerbte.
AUTUMNAL p.ointv is that part of the equinox
from which the i’un begins to defcend towards-the fouth
pole.
Autumnal Signs, in allronomy, arc the figns Libra,
Scorpio, Sagittarius, through which the fun pafles
during the autumn.
Autumnal Equinox, that time when the fun enters
the autumnal point.
AUTUN, an ancient city of France in the duchy
of Burgundy, the capital of the Autonois, with a bi-
Ihop’s fee. The length of this city is about three quar¬
ters of a mile, and its breadth nearly equal. The river
Arroux wafties its ancient walls, whofe ruins are fo firm,
and the ftones fo clofely. united, that they feem ahnoft to
be cut out of the folid rode. In this city are the ruins
A U X t 7°2 ] A X H
of three ancient temples, one of which was dedicated
to Janus, and another to Diana. Here are likewife a
j theatre and a pyramid, which laft is probably a tomb.
It (lands in a place called the Jisld of urns-, becaufe fe-
veral urns had been found there. Here are alfo two
antique gates of great beauty. The city lies at the foot
of three great mountains, in E. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat.
45. 50.
AUTURA, or Audura, a river of Gallia Celtica,
only mentioned in the lives of the faints. Now the
Eure, which falls into the Seine on the left hand or
fouth fide.
AUVERGNE, a province of France, about too
miles in length and 75 in breadth. It is bounded on
the north by the Bourbonnois; on the eaft by Torez
and Velay ; on the weft by Limofm, Qmercy, and La
Marche ; and on the fouth by Rovergne and the Ce-
vennes. It is divided into Upper and Lower; the latter,
otherwife called Limagne, is one of the fineft countries
in the world. The mountains of Higher Auvergne
render it lefs fruitful ; but they afford good pafture,
which feeds great numbers of cattle, which are the riches
of that country. Auvergne fupplies Lyons and Paris
with fat cattle, makes a large quantity of cheefe, and
has manufa&ures of feveral kinds. The capital of the
whole province is Clermont.
AUVERNAS, a very deep-coloured heady wine,
made of black raifins fo called, which comes from Or¬
leans. It is not fit to drink before it is above a year
old ; but if kept two or three years, it becomes ex¬
cellent.
AUXERRE, an ancient town of France in the
duchy of Burgundy, and capital of the Auxerrois, with
a bifhop’s fee. The epifcopal palace is one of the fineft
in France, and the churches are alfo very beautifuL
This town is advantageoufly fituated for trade with
Paris, on- the river Yone. E. Long. 3. 35. N. Lat.
47* 54-
AUXESIS, in mythology, a goddefs worftiipped
by the inhabitants of Egina, and mentioned by Hero¬
dotus and Paufanias.
Auxesis, in rhetoric, a figure whereby any thing
is magnified too much.
AUXILIARY, whatever is aiding or helping to
another.
Auxiliary Verbs, in grammar, are fuch as help to
form or conjugate others; that is, are prefixed to them,
to form or denote the moods or tenfes thereof: as, to
have and to be, in the Englifti; etre and avoir, in the
French; ho and fono, in the Italian; &c. In the Eng-
lifh language, the auxiliary verb am fupplies the want
of paffive verbs.
AUXO, in mythology, the name of one of two Graces
worftiipped by the Athenians. See.Hegemone.
AUXONNE, a fmall fortified town of France, in
the duchy of Burgundy ; feated on the river Saone,
over which there is a bridge of 23 arches, to facilitate
the running off of the waters after the overflowing of the
river. At the end of the bridge is a caufeway 2250
paces long. E. Long. 5. 22. N. Lat. 47. it.
AUXY. The French give the name of auxy wool
to that which is fpun in the neighbourhood of Abbe¬
ville by thofe workmen who are called houpiers. It is
a very fine and beautiful wool, which is commonly ufed
to make the fineft (lockings.
AWARD, in law, the judgment of an arbitrator,
or of one who is not appointed by the law a judge, but
chofen by the parties themfelves for terminating their
difference. See Arbiter and Arbitration.
AWL, among ftioemakers, an inftrument wherewith
holes are bored through the leather, to facilitate the
Hitching or fewing the fame. The blade of the awl is
ufually a little flat and bended, and the point ground
to an acute angle.
AWL AN, a fmall imperial town of Germany, in
the circle of Suabia, feated on the river Kochen. E.
Long. 11.15. N. Lat. 48. 52.
AWME, or Aume, a Dutch liquid meafure con¬
taining eight fteckans, or so verges or verteels, equal
to the tierce in England, or to one-fixth of a ton of
France.
AWN, in botany. See Arista.
AWNING, in the fea-language, is the hanging a
fail, tarpawling, or the like, over any part of the (hip,
to keep off the fun, rain, or wind.
AX, a carpenter’s inftrument, ferving to hew wood.
The ax differs from the joiner’s hatchet, in that it is
made larger and heavier, as ferving to hew large (tuff ;
and its edge tapering into the middle of its blade. It
is furniflied with a long handle or helve, as being to be
ufed with both hands.
Battle-Ax. See Celt.
AXAMENTA, in antiquity, a denomination given
to the verfes or fongs of the falii, which they fung in
honour of all men. The word is formed, according to
fome, from axare, q. d. nominare. Others will have the
carmina faliaria to have been denominated axamenta, on
account of their having been written in axibus, or on
wooden tables.
The axamenta were not compofed, as fome have af-
ferted, but only fung by the falii. The author of them
was Numa Pompilius; and as the ftyle might not be
altered, they grew in time fo obfcuie, that the falii
themfelves did not underftand them. Varro fays they
were 700 years old. Quint. Inft. Or. lib. i. c. »1.
Axamenta, or Affamenta, in ancient mufic, hymns
or fongs performed wholly with human voices.
AXAYACATL, the name of a fpecies of fly com¬
mon in Mexico about the Lake; the eggs of which
being depofited in immenfe quantities upon the ruflies
and corn-flags, form large maffes, which are taken up
by fifhermen and carried to market for fale. This ca¬
viare, called ahuauhtli, which has much the fame tafte
with the caviare of fi(h, ufed to be eat by the Mexicans,
and is now a common di(h among the Spaniards. The
Mexicans eat not only the eggs, but the flies them¬
felves, made up together into a mafs, and prepared
with faltpetre.
AXATI, a town of ancient Bastica, in the Boetis;
now Lora, a fmall city of Andalufia, in Spain, feated
on the Guadalquivir. W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 37. 20.
AXBRIDGE, a town of Somerfetfhire in England,
confiding of one long narrow ftreet. W. Long. 2. 20.
N. Lat. 51. 30.
AXEL, a fmall fortified town in Dutch Flanders.
E. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 51. 17.
AXHOLM, an ifland in the north-weft part of Lin-
colnfliire in England. It is formed by the rivers Trent,
Idel, and Dan ; and is about ten miles long and five
broad. The lower part is marftiy, but produces an
odoriferous
Award
Axholnu;,
A X I [ 703 j A X M
Axiace odoreferous fhrup called gall; the middle is rich and
Landman yielding flax in great abundance, as alfo ala
Cy ‘ barter which is ufed for making lime. The principal
[ - town is called Axey, and is now very thinly inhabited.
AXIACE, an ancient town of Sarmatia Europea ;
now Oxakoiu, the capital of. Budziac Tartary. E.
Long. 32. 30. N. Lat. 46. o.
AXILLA, in anatomy, the arm-pit, or the cavity
Tinder the upper part of the arm.
Axilla, in botany, is the fpace comprehended be¬
tween the ftems of plants and their leaves. Hence we
fay thofe flowers grow in the axillse of the leaves; i. e.
at the bafe of the leaves, or jufl, within the angle of
their pedicles.
AXILLARY, fomething belonging to or lying
near the axilla. Thus, axillary artery is that part of
the fubclavian branches of the afcending trunk of the
.aorta which pafleth under the. arm-pits; axillary
glands are fituated under the atm-pits, enveloped in
fat, and lie clofe by the axillary veflels ; and axillary
•vein is one of the fubclavians which pafles under the
arm-pit, dividing itfelf into feveral branches, which
are fpread over the arm.
AXIM, a fmall territory on the gold-coaft in Africa.
The climate here is fo exceffively moift, that it is pro¬
verbially faid to rain 11 months and 29 days of the
year. This exceffive moifture renders it very unheal¬
thy ; but it produces great quantities of rice, water
melons, lemons, oranges, &c. Here are alfo produced
vaft numbers of black cattle, goats, Iheep,"tame pi¬
geons, &c. The whole country is filled with beautiful
and populous villages, and the intermediate lands well
cultivated; befides which, the natives are very wealthy,
from the conftant traffic carried on with them by the
Europeans for their gold. The capital which is alfo
called Axim, by fome Achomhone, ftands under the can¬
non of the Dutch fort St. Anto:.io. Behind, it is fecu-
red by a thick wood that covers over the whole declivity
of a neighbouring hill. Between the town and the fea
runs an even and fpacious fliore of beautiful white fand.
All the houfes are feparated by groves of cocoa and
fl other fruit trees, planted in parallel lines, each of an
equal width, and forming an elegant villa. The little
river Axim croffes the'town ; and the coaft is defended
by a number of fmall pointed rocks, which projedt
from the fliore, and render all accefs to it dangerous.
The capital is fituated in W. Long. 24. a. N. Lat. 5. o.
This canton is a kind of republic, the government
being divided between the Caboceroes or chief men,
and Manaceroes or young men. It muft be obferved,
however, that in their courts there is not even a pre¬
tence of juftice: whoever makes the moft valuable pre-
fents to the judges is fure to gain his caufe, the judges
themfelves alleging the gratitude due for the bribes re¬
ceived as a reafon ; and if both parties happen to
make prefents of nearly equal value, they abfolutely
refufe to give the caufe a hearing.
AXINOMANCY, Axinomantia, from fi.
curis and ^avW, divinatio; an ancient fpecies of di-
f vination, or a method of foretelling future events by
means of an ax or hatchet.—This art was in confider-
able repute among the ancients; and was performed,
according to fome, by laying an agate-ftone on a red-
hot hatchet; and alfo by fixing a hatchet on a round
flake fo as to be exaftly poifed ; then the names Axiom
of thofe that were fufpedted were repeated, and AvnJJ>ft(>r
he at whofe name the hatchet moved was pronounced 1
guilty.
AXIOM,. Axioma (from «?<«>, I am worthy); a
felf-evident truth, or a propofition whofe truth every
perfon receives at firft fight. Thus, that the whole is
greater than a part; that a thing cannot be and not be
at the fame time ; and that from nothing, nothing can
arife ; afe axioms.
Axiom is alfo an eftabliflied principle in fome art or
fetence. Thus, it is an axiom in phyfies, that nature
does nothing in vain ; that effects are proportional to
their caufes, &c. So it is an axiom in geometry, that
things equal to the fame third are alfo equal to on£
another; that if to equal things you add equals, the
fums will be equal, &c. It is an axiom in optics, that
the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflec¬
tion, Sec.
AXIOPOLIS, a town of the Triballi in Miefia In¬
ferior; now Axiopoli, in Bulgaria. E. Long. 34. o.
N. Lat. 45. 40.
AXIS, in geometry, the ftraight line in a plain fi¬
gure, about which it revolves, to produce or generate
a folid. Thus, if a femicircle be moved round its dia¬
meter at reft, it will generate a fphere, the axis of
which is that diameter.
Axis, in aftronomy, is an imaginary right line fup-
pofed to pafs through the centre of the earth and the
heavenly bodies, about which they perform their diur¬
nal revolutions.
Axis, in conic fedlions, a right line dividing the flec¬
tion into two equal parts, and cutting all its ordinates
at right angles.
Axis, in mechanics. The axis of a balance is that
line about which it moves, or rather turns about. Axis
of of dilationis a right line parallel to the horizon,
palling through the centre about which a pendulum
vibrates.
Axis in Peritrochio, one of the fix mechanical powers,
confifting of a peritrochium or wheel concentric with
the bafe of a cylinder, and moveable together with it
about its axis.
Axis, in optics, is that particular ray of light co¬
ming from any object which falls perpendicularly on
the eye.
Axis, in architecture. Spiral axis, is the axis of
a twilled column drawn fpirally in order to trace the
circumvolutions without. Axis of the Ionic capital, is
a line palling perpendicularly through the middle of
the eye of the volute.
Axis of a Veffel, is an imaginary right line palling
through the middle of it perpendicularly to its bafe*
and equally dillant from its fides.
Axis, in botany, is a taper column placed in the
centre of fome flowers or catkins, about which the o-
ther parts are difpofed.
Axis, in anatomy, the name of the fecond verte¬
bra of the neck ; it hath a tooth which goes into the
firft vertebra, and this tooth is by fome called the axis.
AXMINSTER, a town of Devonlhire, fituated on
the river Ax, in the great road between London and
Exeter, in W. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 50. 40. It was
a place of fome note in the time of the Saxons, but now
contain*
A Y L _ r 704 ] ; A Z A
Axo’otif contains only about 200 houfes. Here is“a fmall manu- He died in the year X5’94, aged 73; and was buried in Ayry
I* faftory of broad and narrow cloths, and fome carpets St Paul’s. He was a learned man, a zealous father of
. Ay 'r>er‘, are alfo manufa&ured after the Turky manner. the church, and a bitter enemy to the Puritans. He . Za ‘
v AXOLOTLF. See Lacerta. publifhed a piece intitled ^4n barbroiue for faithful and
AXUMA, formerly a large city, and capital of the trewe fubjcffs agaiuji the late blowne blajle concerning the
whole kingdom of Abyffinia in Africa, but now redu- government of •wemen, &c. This was written whilft he
ced to a miferable village fcarce containing 100 inhabi- was abroad in anfwer to Knox, who publifhed a book
tants. E. Long. 36. 4. N. Lat. 14. 33. at Geneva under this title, Thefrjl blajlagainjl the mon-
AXUNGIA, in a general fenfe, denotes old lard, Jirous regiment and empire of women. He is by Strype
or the dridl and hardetl of any fat in the bodies of ani- fuppofed to have publifhed Lady Jane Gray’s letter to
jnals : but more properly it fignifies only hog’s lard. Harding. He alfo affifted Fox in tranflating his Hi-
Axusgia Vitri, Sandiver, or Salt of Glafs, a kind of ilory of Martyrs into Latin,
fait which feparates from the glafs while it is in fufion.
It is of an acrimonious and biting tafte. The farriers
ufe it for cleanfmg the eyes of horfes. It is alfo made
ufe of for cleanfing the teeth ; and it is fometimes ap¬
plied to running ulcers, the herpes; or the itch, by way
of deficeative.
AXYRIS: A genus of the triandria order, belong-
AYRY, or Aery, of Hawks, a neft or company of
hawks; fo called from the old French word aire, which
fignified the fame.
AYSCUE (Sir George), a gallant Englifh admiral,
defcended from a good family in Lincolnfhire. He ob¬
tained the honour of knighthood from King Charles L
which, however, did not withhold him from adhering to
ing to the moncecia clafs of plants; and in the natural the parliament in the civil war. He was by them con-
method ranking under the i2th order, Holoracea. The ftituted admiral of the Irifh feas, where he is faid to
calyx of the male is tripartite; it has no corolla. The have done great fervice to the Proteftant intereft, and
calyx of the female confifts of two leaves; it has two
ftyli and one feed. The fpecies are four, none of them
natives of Britain.
AY, a town of France in Champagne, 1
Mame, remarkable for its excellent wines.
2. 15. N. Lat. 49. 4.
AYAMONTE, a fea-port town of Andalufia in
have contributed much to the reduction of the whole
ifland. In r6j 1 he reduced Barbadoes and Virginia,
then held for the king, to the obedience of the parlia-
tr the river ment; and foon after the reftoration behaved with great
E. Long, honour in the war with the Dutch. In the famous
engagement in the beginning of June i6^>6, when Sir
George was admiral of the white fquadron, his fhip
Spain, with a flrong caftle built on a rock ; feated on the Royal Prince ran upon the Gallop-fand ; where
the mouth of the river Guadiana. It has a commo¬
dious harbour, fruitful vineyards, and excellent wine.
W. Long. 8. 5. N- Lat. 37. 9.
AYENIA, in botany : A genus of the pentandria
order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 37th order,
being furrounded with enemies, his men obliged him to
ftrike. He went no more to fea after this, but fpent
the reft of his days in retirement.
AYMOUTH. See Eymouth.
AYTONIA, in botany: A genus of the monodel-
phia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants;
Columnifera. The calyx has two leaves; the petals are the charadters of which are: The calyx is quinquepar-
in the form of a ftar, with long ungues; and the cap- tite ; the corolla confifts of four petals ; the berry is
fule has five cells. There are three fpecies, all natives dry, quadrangular, unilocular, and many-feeded. There
of the Weft Indies.
AYLESBURY. See Ailesbury.
gave title of Earl to the noble family of Bruce, now to
a branch of the Brudenals by fuccefiion.
AYLMER (John), biihopof London in the reign
is but one fpecies, the capenfis, a native of the Cape,
This place but of which we have found no particular defeription.
AZAB, in the Turkifh armies, a diftinft body of
foldiery, who are great rivals of the janizaries.
AZAI, a town of Tourain in France, feated on the
of Queen Elizabeth, was born in the year 1521, at river Indre. E. Long. 10. 35. N. Lat. 47. 18.
Aylmer-hall in the parifli of Tilney, in the county of
Norfolk. Whilft a boy, he was diftinguifhed for his
quick parts by the Marquis of Dorfet, afterwards Duke
of Suffolk; who fent him to Cambridge, made him his
chaplain, and tutor to his children. One of thefe
children was the unfortunate Lady Jane Gray, who
foon became perfectly acquainted with the Latin and
Greek languages. His firft preferment was to the
archdeaconry of Stow in the diocefe of Lincoln, which
gave him a feat in the convocation held in the firft
AZALEA, American Upright Honeysuckle :
A genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the
pentandria clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 18th order, Bicornes. The corolla
is bell-fhaped ; the ftamina are inferred into the recep¬
tacle ; and the capfule has five cells. Th^re are fix
fpecies, of which the moft remarkable are the following.
1. The vifeofa, with a white flower, is a low flrrub, ari-
fing with feveral ftems to the height of two or three
feet. The leaves come out in clutters without any or-
year of Queen Mary, where he refolutely oppofed the der at the end of the Ihoots, and their edges are fet with
return to Popery, to which the generality of the clergy very fhort teeth which are rough. The flowers come
; inclined. He was foon after obliged to fly his
country, and take fhelter among the Proteftants i
out in clutters between the leaves, have much the ap¬
pearance of honeyiuckle, and are as well feented. 2. The
Switzerland. On the acceflion of Queen Elizabeth, he nudiflora, or red American upright honeyfuckle, grows
returned to England. In 1562, he obtained the arch- taller than the firft; and in its native country will fome-
deaconry of Lincoln; and was a member of the famous times arrive at the height of 2 feet, but in Britain never
fynod of that year, which reformed and fettled the rifes to above half that height. It hath feveral ftems
dottrine and difeipline of the church of England. In
the year 1576, he was confecrated bifhop of London.
N° 38.
with oblong fmooth leaves. The flowep-ftalks arife
from the divifion of the branches, which are long and
naked,
A 2 I [ 705 J A Z I
Azamor naked, (upporting a cluiler of, red flowers : thefe are
Azimuth at t0P *nt0 ^ve equal Segments which fpread
,r _ ! open. Another fpecies with bright red flowers was
found by Mr Lightfoot upon the tops of many moun¬
tains in the Highlands of Scotland.—The firft two fpe¬
cies require a moift foil and a fandy fituation, and can
only be propagated from flips, as they never produce
good feeds in Britain. The Autumn is the beft time
to remove the plants, and their roots ought to be co¬
vered in winter. They are molt beautiful plants, and
well worth cultivating.
AZAMOR, a fmall fea-port town of the kingdom
of Morocco in Africa. It is fituated on the river
Morbeya, in the province of Duguella, atTome con-
fiderable diftance from its mouth. This town, though
formerly very confiderable, is not proper for maritime
commerce, becaufe the entrance of the river is danger¬
ous. It was unfuccefsfully befieged by the Portuguefe
in 1508 ; it was taken, however, in 1513 by the Duke
of Braganza, but abandoned about the end of the 16th
century. W. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 32. 50.
AZ ARAKITES, a feft of Mahometan Arabs. See
Arabia, n° 143, etfeq.
AZARIAH, or Uzziah, king of Judah, fucceeded
his father Amaziah, 810 years before Chrift. He af-
fembled an army of above 300,000 men, with which
he conquered the Philiftines, and demolilhed the walls
of Gath, Jabniel, and Afhdod ; built up the walls of
Jerufalem; furniflied the city with conduits; and planted
gardens and vineyards: but at lad, being elated with
his profperity, and refolving to ufurp the office of
high-prieft, he was ftruck with a leprofy, which obli¬
ged him to remain flint up in his palace for the reit of
his days. He died about 759 years before the Chriilian
sera, and was Succeeded by Jonathan his fon. There
are feveral dther perfons of this name mentioned in the
facred'Scriptures.
AZAZEL. The word relates to the authority of
the fcape-goat under the Jewifli religion. Some call
the goat itfelf by this name, as St Jerom and Theodo-
ret. Dr Spencer fays, the fcape-goat was to be fent
to Azazel; by which is meant the devil. Mr le Clerc
tranflates it precipitium, making it to be that deep and
inacceffible place to which the goat was fent, and where
it was fuppofed to perifh.
AZEKA (anc. geog.), a city of the Amorrhites,
in the lot of Judah ; fituated between Eleutheropolis
and Aelia (Jerome) ; wdiere the five kings of the A-
morrhites and their.army were dettroyed by haildones
from heaven (Jofliua).
AZEM, Asem, Assam, or Acham, a country
of Afia to the north of Ava, but which is very little
known to Europeans. It is faid to be very fertile, and
to contain mines of gold, filver, iron, and lead, all
which belong to the king, who, in confequence of
enjoying the produce, ^requires no taxes from his peo¬
ple. They have alfo great quantities of gum lac, and
coarfe filk. It is alfo thought that the inhabitants of
Azem were long ago the inventors of cannon and
gun-powder; and that from them the invention palled
to the inhabitants of Pegu, and from thence to the
Chinefe.
AZIMUTH, in aftronofriy, an arch of the horizon,
intercepted between the meridian of the place and the
azimuth, or vertical circle palling through the centre
Vol. II. Part XI.
of the object, which is equal to the angle of the ze- Azimuth,
nith, formed by the meridian and vertical circle : or ' *
it is found by this proportion, As the radius to the
tangent of the latitude of the place, fo is the tangent
of the fun’s or liar’s altitude, for inllance, to the co¬
fine of the azimuth from the fouth, at the time of the
equinox.
Magndical Azmvrn, an arch of the horizon inter¬
cepted between the azimuth, or vertical circle, palling
through the centre of any heavenly body, and the mag-
netical meridian. This is found by obferving the ob-
jedb with an azimuth-compafs.
AziMUTH-Compafs, an inftrument for finding either
the magnetical azimuth or amplitude of an heavenly
objedl.
The learned Dr Knight invented fome time fince a
very accurate and ufeful fea-compafs, which is at pre-
fent ufed in the navy, and will be deferibed under the
article Compass. This inftrument, with the follow¬
ing contrivance added by the ingenious Mr Smeaton,
anfwers the purpofes of an azimuth and amplitude
compafs.
The cover of the wooden box being taken off, the
compafs is in a condition to be made ufe of in the
binnacle, when the weather is moderate : but if the
fea runs high, as the inner box is hung very free up¬
on its centre (the better to anfwer its other pur¬
pofes), it will be neceflary to flacken the milled nut,
placed upon one of the axes that fupport the ring,
and to lighten the nut on the outfide that correfponds
to it. By this means, the inner box and ring will be
lifted up from the edges, upon which they reft, when
free; and the fridlion will be increafed, and that to any
degree neceflary, to prevent the too great vibrations
which otherwife would be occafioned by the motion of
the drip.
To make the compafs ufeful in taking the magnetic
azimuth or amplitude of the fun and liars, as alfo the
bearings of headlands, Ihips, and other objedls at a di¬
ftance, the brafs edge, defigned at full to fupport the
card, and throw the weight thereof as near the cir¬
cumference as poffible, is itfelf divided into degrees
and halves ; which may be ealily eftimated into Smal¬
ler parts, if neceflary. The divifions are determined
by means of a catgut line, ftretched perpendicularly
with the box, as near the brafs edge as may be, that the
parallax, arifing from a different pofition of the obfer-
ver, may be as little as poffible.
Underneath the card are two fmall weights, Hiding
on two wires, placed at right angles to each other j
which being moved nearer to, or farther from, the
centre, counterbalance the dipping of the card in dif¬
ferent latitudes, or reftore the equilibiium of it, where
it happens by any other means to be got too much out
of level.
There is alfo added an index at the top of the inner
box, which may be put on and taken olf at pleafure i
and ferves for all altitudes of the objedl. It confifts of
a bar, equal in length to the diameter of the inner box,
each end being furnilhed with a perpendicular HUe,
with a flit parallel to the fides thereof: one of the flits
is narrow, to which the eye is applied ; and the other
is wider, with a fmall catgut ftretched up the middle
of it, and from thence continued horizontally from the
top of one ftile to the top of the other. There is alfo
4U a
A Z I [ 706 1 A Z O
Azimuth, a line drawn along the upper furface of the bar. Thefe The card is a fingle varmfhed paper, reaching as far •
u"'-v—four, viz. the narrow flit, the horizontal cat-gut as the outer circle of figures, which is a circle of thin
thread, the perpendicular one, and the line on the brafs; the edge whererrf is turned down at right angles
bar, are in the fame plane, which difpofes itfelf per- to the plane of the card, to make it more ftiff. O is
pendicular to the horizon, when the inner box is at a catgut line, drawn down the infide of the box, for
reft, and hangs free. This index does not move round, determining the degree upon the brafs edge. PQRS
but is always placed on fo as to anfwer the fame fide of is the index bar, with its two ftiles and catgut threads;,
the box. which being taken off from the top of the box, is pla-
When the fun’s azimuth is defired, aftd his rays are ced in two pieces, T and V, notched properly to re-
ftrong enough to call a lhadow, turn about the wooden ceive it. W is a place cut out in the wood, ferving as.
box till the fhadow of the horizontal thread, or (if an handle.
the fun be too low) till that of the perpendicular Azimuth Circles, called alfo azimuths, or vertical
thread in one ftile, or the light through the flit on circles, are great circles of the fphere interfering each
the other, falls upon the line in the index bar, or vi- other in the zenith and nadir, and cutting the horizon
brates to an equal diftance on each fide of it, gently,, at right angles.—Thefe azimuths are reprefented by
touching the box if it vibrates too far: obferve, at the the rhumbs on common fea-charts, and on the globe
fame time, the degree marked upon the brafs edge by they are reprefented by the quadrant of altitude, when
the catgut line. In counting the degree for the azi- fcrewed in the zenith. On thefe azimuths is reckoned
math, or any other angle that is reckoned from the the height of the ftars and, of the fun when not in the
meridian, make ufe of the outward circle of figures meridian.
upon the brafs edge; and the fituation of the index AZMER, a town of the Eaft Itidies in the domi-
bar, with regard to the card and needle, will always nions of the. Great Mogul, capital of a province of the
direft upon what quarter of the compafs the object is fame name, with a very ilrong caftle. It is pretty
placed. large, and is fometimes vifited by the Mogul himfelf.
But if the fun does not fhine out fufficiently ftrong, It is about 62 leagues diftant from Agra. The prin-
place the eye behind the narrow flit in one of the eipal trade of this province is in faltpetre.
ftiles, and turn the wooden box about till fome part AZOGA ships, are thofe Spanifh fhips commonly
of the horizontal or perpendicular thread appears to called the quickjilver Jhips, from their carrying quick-
interfeft the centre, of the fun, or vibrate to an equal filver to the Spanifli Weft Indies, in order to extradi
diftance on each fide of it, ufing fmoked glafs next the filver out of the mines of Mexico and Peru. Thefe
the eye if the fun’s light is too ftrong. In this me- ftrips, ftrickly fpeaking,. are not to carry any goods un-
thod, another obferver will be generally neceffary to lefs for the king of Spain’s account,
note the degree cut by the nonius, at the fame time AZONI, in ancient mythology, a name applied by
that the firft gives notice that the thread appears to the Greeks to fuch of the gods as were deities at large,
fplit the objeft. not appropriated to the worlhip of any particular town
From what has been faid, the other obfervations will or country ; but acknowledged in general by all coun-
be eafily performed : only, in cafe of the fun’s ampli- tries, and worihipped by every nation. Thefe the La-
tude, take care to number the degree by the help of tins called dii communes. Of this fort were the Sun,,
the inner circle of figures on the card, which are the Mars, Luna, &c.
complements of the outer to 90"; and, confequently, AZORES, iflands in. the Atlantic Ocean, lying be-
fhow the diftance from eaft to weft. tween 25 and 33 degrees of weft, longitude, and be—
The azimuth of the ftars may alfo be obferved by tween 36 and 40 degrees of north latitude. They
night; a proper light ferving equally for one obferver belong to the Portuguefe, and are alfo called the
to fee the thread, and the other the degree upon the wejlern ijles on account of their fituation. They
card. were difcovered by the Flemings in the j 5th century.
It may not be amifs to remark farther, that, in cafe They are feven in number; viz. Tercera, St Michael’s,,
the inner box fhould lofe its equilibrium, and confe- St Mary’s, Graciofa, St George’s Ifland, Pico, and
quently the index be out of the plane of a vertical Fayal.
circle, an accurate obfervation may ftill be made, pro- AZOTH, in ancient chemiftry,, the firft; matter ofr
vided the fun’s ftiadow is diftinftfor by obferving metals, or the mercury of a metal; more particularly
firft with one end of the index towards the fun and that which they call the mercury of phihfophers, which,
then the other, a mean of the two obfervations will be they pretended to draw from all forts of. metallic bo-
the truth. dies.
Plate LXXVII. is a perfpeftive view of the com- AZOTUS, Azoth, or Ashdod, one of the five
pafs when in order for obfervation ; the point of view cities of the Philiftines, and a celebrated fea-port on
being the centre of the card, and the diftance of the the Mediterranean, iituated about 14 or 15 miles fouth
eye twa feet. A B is the wooden box. C and D are of Ekron, between that and Afcalon. It was in this
two milled nuts; by means whereof the axis of the in- city that the idol Dagon fell down before the ark ;
ner box and ring are taken from their edges, on which and fo ftrong a place it was, if we may believe He-
they move, and the fri&ion increafed, when neceffary. rodotus,. that it fuftained a fiege of 29 years by
E F is the ring that fupports the inner box. G H is Pfammiticus king of Egypt. It was, however, la¬
the inner box ;. and I is one of its axes, by which it ken by the Maccabees in a much fliorter time ; who
is fufpended on the ring EF. The magnet or needle burnt both city and temple, and with them about 8000
appears paffing through the centre, together with a men. The town is now called by the Arabs Hafa-
Imall brace of ivory, that confines the cap to its place, neyun. It is but thinly inhabited, though the fitua¬
tion
Azure.
A Z V [
tion is very pleafant: with regard to the houfes, thofe
that were built in the time of Chriftianity, and which
are now inhabited by Mahometans, ftill preferve fome
claim to admiration; but the modern buildings, tho’
generally of ftone, have nothing in them which can
attraft the notice of a traveller. The ftreets are pret¬
ty broad, the inhabitants moftly Mahometans, with a
few Chriltians of the Greek communion, who have a
church under the jurifdi&ion of the archbifhop of
Gaza. The town is about a mile and a half in circum¬
ference ; and has in it a mofque, a public bath, a mar¬
ket-place, and two inns. The number of the inhabi¬
tants is between two and three thoufand. The moft
remarkable things in this place is an old ftru&ure with
fine marble pillars, which the inhabitants fay was the
houfe that Sampfon pulled down; and to the fouch-
eaft, juft out of the town, the water in which the eu¬
nuch Candace was baptized by the Apoftle Philip: be-
fides thefe two, there are feveral ancient buildings, with
capitals and pillars ftanding.
AZURE, in a general fenfe, the blue colour of the
fky. See Sky and Blue.
Azure, among painters. This word, which at
prefent fignifies in general a fine blue colour, was for¬
merly appropriated to lapis la%uli, called azure Jlone,
and to the blue prepared from it. But fince a blue
has been extra&ed from cobalt, cuftom has applied to
it the name of azure, although it differs coniiderably
from the former, and is incapable of being ufed for the
fame purpofes, and particularly for painting in oil.
The former at prefent is called lapis lazuli, or only
lapis; and the blue prepared from it for painting in
oil is called ultramarine.—The name azure is gene¬
rally applied to the blue glafs made from the earth of
cobalt and vitrifiable matters. This ;glafs, which is
called fmalt when in maffes, is called azure only when
it is reduced to a fine powder. Several kinds ©f
azure are diftinguifhed, according to its degrees of
beauty, by the names of Jine azure, powdered azure,
7o7 1 A Z Y
and azure of four free. In general, the more in-
tenfe the colour, and the finer the powder, the more
beautiful and dear it is. Azure is employed to co¬
lour ftarch ; hence it has alfo been called Jlarch blue.
It is ufed for painting with colours, and for a blue
enamel.
Azure, In heraldry, the blue colour in the arms of
any perfon below the rank of a baron. In the efcut-
cheoa of a nobleman, it is called fapphire; and in that
of a fovereign prince, Jupiter. In engraving, this co¬
lour is expreffed by lines or ftrokes drawn horizontally.
—This colour may fignify Juftice, Perfeverance, and
Vigilance ; but according to G. Leigh, if it is com¬
pounded with
Or ^ f Cheerfulnefs.
Arg. j j Vigilance.
Gul. { 0? J Readinefs.
Ver. j 3^. j Enterprife.
Pur. J g ! Goodnefs.
Sab. ) LMournfulnefs.
French heralds, M. Upton, and his followers, rank
this colour before gules.
AZYGOS, in anatomy, a vein rifing within the
thorax, on the right fide, having no fellow on the left}
whence it is called azygos, or vena fine pari.
AZYMITES, in church-hiftory, Chriftians who
adminifter the eucharift with unleavened bread. The
word is formed from the Greek, « priv. and fer¬
ment.—This appellation is given to the Latin by the
Greek church, becaufe the members of the former ufe
fermented bread in the celebration of the eucharift.
They alfo call the Armenians and Maronites by the
fame name, and for the fame reafon.
AZYMOUS, fometimes unfermented, or made
without leaven; as unleavened bread. Sea-bilket is of
this kind ; and therefore, according to Galen, left
wholefome than bread that has been fermented.
4 •
B.
BTHE fecond letter of the Englilh and moft
j other alphabets. It is the firft confonant and
firft mute, and in its pronunciation is fuppofed to re-
femble the bleating of a iheep; upon which account
Pierius tells us in his hieroglyphics, that the Egyptians
reprefented the found of this letter by the figure of
that animal.
B is alfo one of thofe letters which the eaftern gram¬
marians called labial, becaufe the principal organs em¬
ployed in the pronunciation are the lips. It is pronoun¬
ced by preffing the whole length of them together,
and forcing them open with a ftrong breath. It has
a near affinity with the other labials P and V, and is
often ufed for P both by the Armenians and other
orientals; as in Betrus for Petrus, apfens for alfens, 8cc.:
and by the Romans for V, as in amabit for amavit,
berna for Verna, 8cc.; whence arofe that jeft of Aure-
lian on the emperor Bonofus, Non ut vivat natus ejl,fed
ut bibat.
Plutarch obferves, that the Macedonians chan¬
ged into B, and pronounced Bilip, Berenice, See.
for Philip, Pherenice, &c. ; and thofe of Delphos
ufed B inftead of n, as for 0<xp«» for
&c.—The Latins faid fuppono, oppono, for fubpono, ob-
pono; and pronounced optinuit, though they wrote
obtinuit, as Quintilian has obferved. They alfo ufed
B for F or PH: thus, in an ancient infeription men¬
tioned by Gruter, Obrendario is ufed for Ofren-
DARIO.
As a numeral, B was ufed by the Greeks and He¬
brews to denote 2 ; but among the Romans for 300,
and with a dafh over it (thus 5} for 3000.
4 U 2 B is
Baal.
BAA [ 707 ]
BAB
B is alfoufed as an abbreviation. Thus B. A. ftands
for bachelor of arts ; B. L. for bachelor of laws; and
B. D. for bachelor of divinity. B. F. in the preface
to the decrees or fenatus-confulta of the old Romans lig-
nified lonumfddum. In mufic,. B ftands for the tone
above A ; as Bb, or bB, does for B flat, or the femi-
tone major above A. B alfo. ftands for bafs.j and B. C.
for bciffo continuo, or thorough bafs.'
BAAL, the fame as Bel,,or Belus ; an icM of
the Chaldeans, and Phoenicians or Canaanites. The
former worftiipped Mars under this name, according to
* Antiquit. Jofephus * ; who, fpeaking of Thurus the fucceffor of
lib.viii.cap. N;nus> fays: To this Mars the Aflyrians erefted the
firft ftatue ; and worfliipped him as a god, calling him
Baal” It is probable the Phoenicians worftiipped the
fun under the name of Baal; for Jpfiah, willing to
make fome amends for the wickednefs of Manafleh, in
worftiipping Baal and all the hoft of heaven, put to death
the idolatrous priejls that burnt incenfe unto Baal, to the fun,
and to the moon, and to the planets, and to all the hojl of
heaven. He likewfe took away the horfes that the kings of
Judah had given to the fun, and burnt the chariots of the
f a Kings fun withf ref.
xxiii.j. 11. The temples confecrated to this god are called in
the Scripture Ghamanim, which fignities places inclofed
with walls, in which was kept a perpetual fire. Maund-
rell, in his journey from Aleppo to Jerufalem, obferved
fome traces of thefe inclofures in Syria. In moft of
them were no ftatuesj. in a few there were fome,. but
of no uniform figure.
The word baal (in the Punic language), fignifies
lord or mafler; and doubtlefs meant the fupreme Deity,
the Lord and Mailer of the univerfe. It is often joined
with the name of fome falfe god; as Baal-berith, Baal-
peor, Baal-'x.ephon, and the like. This deity pafied
from the Phoenicians to the Carthaginians, who were
a colony of the Phoenicians ; as appears from the Car¬
thaginian names Hannibal, Afdrubal, &c. according
to the cuftom of the call, where kings and great men
added to their own names thofe of their gods.
This falfe deity is frequently mentioned in Scripture,
in the plural number (Baalim) ; which may fignify ei¬
ther that the name Baal was given to feveral different
gods, or that there were many flatues bearing diflerent
appellations confecrated to this idol. Arnobius tells us,
that Baal was of an uncertain ftx ; and that his vota¬
ries, when they called upon him, invoked him thus::
Hear us, whether thou art a god or a goddefs.
Some learned men think, that the Baal of the Phoe¬
nicians is the Saturn of the Greeks; which is probable
enough from the conformity there is between the hu¬
man facrifices offered to Saturn and thofe which the
Scriptures tell us were offered to Baal. Others are of
opinion, that Baal was the Phoenician or Tyrian Her¬
cules, a god of great antiquity in Phoenicia.
Baal-beputh, the god of the Shechemites. Bo-
chart conjeftures, that Berith is the fame as Beroe,
the daughter of Venus and Adonis, who was given in
marriage to Bacchus; and that fire gave her name to
the city of Berith in Phoenicia, and became afterwards
the goddefs of it. Baal-berith fignifies Lord of the co¬
venant, OlwA may be taken for the god who prefides over
alliances and oaths, in like manner as the Greeks had
their Zewj and the Romans their Deus Fidius, or
Jupiter Pifltus. The idolatrous Ifraelites, we are told, Had'
made Baal-berith their god, Judg. viii. 33. B b 1 ^
Baal-peor, Baal-phegor, or Beel-phegor, an idol of  ,
the Moabites and Midianites. We are told, that If-
rael joined himfelf to Baal-peor; and that Solomon e-
re£ted an altar to this idol upon the mount of Olives.
Baal-peor has been fuppofed to be no other than a
Priapus, and that the worftrip of him confifted in the
moft obfcene praftices. Others have thought, that
as Baal is a general name fignifying lord, Peor may be
the name of fome great prince deified after his death.
Mede imagines, that Peer being the name of a moun- " i
tain in the country of Moab, on which the temple of -|
Baal was built, Baal-ptor may be only another name
of that deity, taken from the fituation of his temple;
in like manner as Jupiter is ftyled Olympius, becaufe he
was worftiipped in a temple built on mount Olympus.
Selden, who is of this latter opinion, conjeftures like-
wife that Baal-peor is the fame with Pluto ; which he
grounds upon thefe words of the Pfalmill *, They joined * pfa]mC(J
themfelves unto Baal-peor, and eat the offerings of the dead;
though by the facnfices or offerings of the dead, in this
paffage, may be meant no more than facrifices or of¬
ferings made to idols, or falfe gods, who are very pro¬
perly called the dead, in contradiftin6lion to the true \
God, who is ftyled in Scripture the living God.
Baal-zebub, BeH-zebub, or Belzelub; the idol, or
god, of the Ekronites. In Scripture he is called the
Prince of Devils. His name is rendered the Z-arff of ]
Flies, or the God-fly; which foine think was a mock ap¬
pellation beftowed on him by the Jews. He had a fa¬
mous temple and oracle at Ekron. Ahazia king of
Ifrael having fallen from the terrafs of his houfe into
a lower room, and being dangeroufly hurt, fent to con-
fult this deity, to know if he- fhould be cured of his
wounds. The worlhip of this falfe god muft have pre¬
vailed in our Saviour’s time, fince the Jews accufed him
of driving out devils in the name of Belzebub their
prince. Sealiger derives the name of this deity frota
Baalim-Kebahim, which fignifies the lord of facrifices.
BABBLING, among hunters, is when tbe hounds 1
are too bufy after they have found a.good Icent.
BABEL, a city and tower undertaken to be built
by the whole human race foon after the flood, and re- |
markable for the miraculous, fruftration of the attempt-
by the confufion of languages. As to the fituation of
ancient Babel, moft authors are of opinion that it was
exaftly in the place where the celebrated city of Baby- |
Ion afterwards flood. That it was in the fame country,
appears-indifputably from Scripture; but that it was J
exactly in the fame place is what cannot be proved, nor I
is it a matter of any confequence..
Authors have been much divided' about the motive
by which the whole race of mankind were induced to
jbin as one man in fuch an undertaking. Some have
imagined that it was out’ of fear of a fecond deluge : \\
others, that they knew beforehand that they, were to be
difperfed through all the different countries of the world,. |
and built this tower in order to defeat, the defign 1
of the Deity; becaufe having a tower of fuch vail
height as they propofed, thofe who were at a diftance
could eafily find their way back again. Had pither of
thefe been their defign, however, it is probable they '
would have chofen an eminence rather than a plain for §
the f
BAB
F 7°9 1
BAB
t'fie Fituation of their tower, or indeed that they would At the mouth of the ftrait is a fmall ifland called alfo Babenhau-
■'have chofen feme high mountain fuch as Ararat for Balel-Mandel, which is little elfe than a barren rock. ,f^n
Babingtonv
their mark, rather than any tower at all: for though E. Long. 44. 30. N. Lat. 12. 40.
it is’ faid that they deiigned the top of their tower to
reach to heaven, we can fcarce fuppofe them to have
been fo abfurd, as to imagine this poflilile in the fenfe
we underhand it; and muil therefore rather take it in
the limited fenfe in which it is often ufed by Mofes and
BABENHAUSENj a town of Germany in Suabia.
E. Long. 9. 16. N. Lat. 48. 39.
BABINA [Commonwealth of), a fociety ludicroufly
fo called, which was founded in Poland in the reign of
Sigifmund-Auguftus, in the 16th century. It took
his countrymen, w here they fpeak of cities walled up its rife from a fet of gentlemen, inhabitants of Lublin.
to heaven. Others there are who imagine that the top
of this tower was not to reach up to heaven, but to be
confecrated to the heavens, i. e. to the worfhip of the
fun, moon, and liars ; of the fire, air, &c. and other
natural powers as deities; and therefore that the true
Deity interpofed in order to prevent a total and irreco-
who had agreed to meet at a place called Babina,
merely for the purpofes of mirth and jollity. In time
their number increafed, and they formed themfelves
into a regular government, under the prefidency of a
king, fenate, and chief magiftrates. The magiftrates
eledled from fomething which appeared ridiculous
verable defe&ion. Certain it is, that the fpecies of in the chara&er or conduft of any of the members,
idolatry which takes for theobjedls of its worihip thofe For inftance, if any perfon was meddling or officious,,
natural agents, as it is the moll ancient, fo it is by far he was immediately created an archbifhop ; a blun-
the mod rational, and the moil difficult to be difproved. dering or difputatious member was promoted to the
It is much more difficult, for inftance, to prove that fpeaker’schair;aboa(lerofhi3owncourage,andvain-
the fun, which by his enlivening beams gives vigour to glorious T'^/o, was honoured with the commiffion
the whole creation, is not a deity, than that a log of of generaliffimo, which was prefented him with great
wood is not one ; and hence, if fuch a fyltem of reli- ceremony by the fubordinate heroes. Thofe who de-
gion became univerfally dtablifhed among mankind, it dined the office for which they were declared qualified,
would be impoffible ever afterwards to eradicate it. were perfecuted with hiffings, and abandoned by the
Indeed that the fcheme of Babel, whatever it was, fociety. Thus every vice and every foible was attack-
could have been put in execution by man, feems evi- ed with ridicule; and Babina became in a fhort time
dent from the interpofition of the Deity on the occa- the terror, the admiration, and the reformer, of the
lion ; for we cannot fuppofe that he would have Work¬
ed a miracle on purpofe to defeat that which would
have defeated itfelf if he had let it alone: and he ex-
prefsly fays, That now nothing could be reflrained from
them; which intimates very plainly, that, bad this
fcheme gone on; the plan which God had laid for the
government of the world would have been totally fru-
Polifh nation : genius flourifhed, wit was cultivated,
and the abufes which had crept into government and
fociety were corrected by the judicious application of
good-humoured fatire. Never did any inllitution of
this nature become fo general or fo ufeful ; but at
length it degenerated into a fet of buffoons, and ban-
terers of every thing facred or profane. For Lverai
ft rated: and. agreeable to this hypotheils Dr Tennifon years it was patronifed by the kings of Poland, and
fuppofes that the tower was of a pyramidal form, in Sigifmund himfdf became a member; the ftaroita of
imitation of the fpircs of flame ; and that it was erec- Babina telling him jocularly, That “ His majefty had
ted in honour of the fun, as being the moft probable certain qualities which intitled him to the fit ft dignity
caufe of drying up the flood. in the commonwealth.” Not the leaf! remnant of this
As to the materials made ufe of in the building of fociety now remains, though it was honoured with ex-
this tower, the feripture informs us that they were bricks traordinary privileges by kings and emperors.
BABINGTON (Gervafe), bifhop of Worcefter,.
was born, according to Fuller, in Nottinghamfhire ;
but in what year is uncertain. He was fent to Tri¬
nity College, Cambridge, of which he was-made fellow;.
and, in 1578, was incorporated mafter of arts at Ox-
and flime or bitumen. According to an eaftern tra¬
dition, three years-were taken up in making the bricks,
each of which was 13 cubits long, 10 broad, and five
thick. Oriental writers fay, that the city was 313 fa¬
thoms in length, and 151 in breadth; that the walls
were 5533 fathoms high, and 33 in breadth ; and that ford. He appears, hpwever, to have made Cambridge
the tower itfelf was no lefs than to,000 fathom, or
1 2 miles high. Even St Jerome affirms from the tef-
timony of eye-witneffes, who as he fays had examined
the remains of the tower, that it was four miles high ;
but Ado makes the height to have been no lefs than
5000 miles. The only account of its dimenfions which
can be at all depended upon (fuppofing it to have
been the fame which afterwards flood in the midft of Exeter, and thence to Worcefter in 1597
the city of Babylon, and round which Nebuchadnezzar this time, or-foon after, he was made queen:
the place of his refidence, wdrere he became an eminent
preacher ; and, being now doftor in divinity, was made
domeftic chaplain to Henry Earl of Pembroke. In this
ftation he is fuppofed to have affifted the countefs in
her tranflation of the Pfalms. In 1588 he was inftalled
prebend of Hereford, and in 1591 confecrated bifhop
of Landaff. In 1594 he was tranflated to the fee of
About,
counfel
built the temple of Belus), is that given under the ar- for the marfhes of Wales. He was a conftderable be¬
tide Babylon. nefaftor to the library belonging to the cathedral of
BABEL-MANDEL, the gate of mourning; a Worcefter, where he was buried in-May 1610 with-
femous ftrait in the Indian ocean, between the coaft of out a monument. The feveral hiftorians who have
Arabia Felix in Afia, and that of Adel and Zeila
Africa, at the entrance into the Red-Sea. By feme it
is alfo called the Straits of Moka. It is narrow, and
difficult to fail through, on account of the fand-banks.
mentioned this prelate agree in jjiving him the cha<-
radter of a learned and pious man. His writings, like
thofe of meft of his cotemporaries, abound with puns
and quaint expreffions, His works were printed both
i
BAB [ 710 1 BAB
Eaboon. infolioand quarto in 1615, and again in folio in 1637,
_ under this title : The works of the right reverend father
I, in God Gervafe Balington, late bi/hop of Wor after, con¬
taining comfortable notes upon the fve books of Mofes,
viz. Genefis, &c. As alfo an expofitivn upon the Creed,
the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer; with a con¬
ference betwixt man's frailtie and faith, and three Jer-
BABOON, in zoology. See Simia.
BABYLON, the capital of the ancient kingdom of
Babylonia or Chaldaea, and fuppofed to have ftood in
E. Long. 44. o. N. Lat. 32. o. Semiramus isfaid by
fome, and Belus by others, to have founded this city.
But, by whomfoever it was founded, Nebuchadnezzar
was the perfon who put the laft hand to it, and made
it one of the wonders of the world. The mod famous
works in and about it were the walls of the city, the
temple of Belus, Nebuchadnezzar’s palace, the hang-
ing-gardens, the banks of the river, the artificial lake,
1 and canals.
City de- The city was furrounded with walls, in thicknefsSy
fcrtbed. feet} in height 350 feet, and in compafs 480 furlongs
or 60 of our miles. Thus Herodotus, who was him-
felf at Babylon; and though fome difagree with him in
thefe dimeniions, yet moft writers give us the fame, or
near the fame, as he does. Diodorus Siculus dimi-
nilhes the circumference of thefe walls very confidera-
bly, and takes fomewhat from the height of them, as
in Herodotus; tho’ he feems to add to their breadth, by
faying, that fix chariots might drive abreaft thereon ;
while the former writes, that one chariot only might
turn upon them ; but then he places buildings on each
fide of the top of thefe walls, which, according to him,
were but one dory high; which may pretty well recon¬
cile them together in this refpeft. It is obferved, that
thofe who give the height of thefe walls but at 50 cu¬
bits, fpeak of them only as they were after the time
of Darius Hyftafpis, who had caufed them to be beaten
down to that level. Thefe walls formed an exaft fquare,
each fide of which was 120 furlongs, or 15 miles, in
length ; and were all built of large bricks cemented to¬
gether with bitumen, which in a fhort time grows harder
than the very brick and ftone which it cements. The
city was encompaffed without the walls, with a vafl.
ditch filled with water, and lined with bricks on both
fides; and, as the earth that was dug out of it ferved
to make the bricks, we may judge of the depth and
largenefs of the ditch from the height andthicknefs of
the walls. In the whole compafs of the wall there were
loo gates, that is 25 on each of the four fides, all
made of folid brafs. Between every two of thefe gates,
at proper diftances, were three towers, and four more
at the four corners of this great fquare, and three be¬
tween each of thefe coiners and the next gate on either
fide, and each of thefe towers was ten feet higher than
the walls. But this is to be underftood only of thofe
parts of the walls where towers were needful for de.
fence. For fome parts of them being upon a morafs,
and inaccefiible by an enemy, there the labour and coft
was fpared, which, tho’ it muft have fpoiled the fym-
metry of the whole, muft be allowed to have favoured
of good ceconomy; though that is what one would not
have expefted from a prince who had been fo deter¬
mined, as Nebuchadnezzar muft have been, to make
the city complete both for ftrength and beauty. The
whole number, then, of thefe towers amounted to no
more than 250; whereas a much greater number would —y“*,“
have been neceflary to have made the uniformity com¬
plete all round. From the 25 gates in each fide of this
fquare, there was a ftraight ftreet, extending to the cor-
refpondinggate in the oppofite wall; whence the whole
number of the ftreets mult have been but 50; but then
they were each about r 5 miles long, 25 of them crof-
fing the other 25 exaftly at right angles. Befides thefe
whole ftreets, we muft reckon four half-ftreets, which
were but rows of houfes facing the four inner fides of
the walls. Thefe four half-ftreets were properly the
four fides of the city within the walls, and were each
of them 200 feet broad, the whole ftreets being about
150 of the fame. By this interfeftion of the 50 ftreets,
the city was divided into 676 fquares, each of four
furlongs and an half on each fide, or two miles and a
quarter in compafs. Round thefe fquares on every fide
towards the ftreets ftood the houfes, all of three or four
ftories in height, and beautified with all manner of or¬
naments ; and the fpace within each of thefe iquares
was all void, and taken up by yards, or gardens, and
the like, either for pleafure or convenience.
A branch of the Euphrates divided the city into
two, running through the midft of it, from north to
fouth; over which, in the very middle of the city, was
a bridge, a furlong in length, or rather more, and in¬
deed much more, if we hearken to others, who fay it
was no lefs than five ftades or furlongs in length, tho*
but 30 feet broad, a difference we fhall never be able
to decide. This bridge, however, is faid to have been
built with wonderful art, to fupply a deleft in the bot¬
tom of the river, which was ?11 fandy. At each end
of this bridge were two palaces; the old palace on the
eaft fide, the new one on the weft fide of the river; the
former of which took up fdtir of the fquares above-
mentioned, and the latter nine. The temple of Belus,
which ftood next to the old palace, took up another of
the fame fquares.
The whole city ftood in a large flat or plain, in a
very fat and deep foil: that part or half of it on the
eaft fide of the river was the old city, and the other
on the weft was added by Nebuchadnezzar, both being
included within the vaft fquare bounded by the walls
aforefaid. The form of the whole was feemingly bor¬
rowed from Nineveh, which wras alfo 480 furlongs;
but though it was equal in dimenfions to this city, it
was lefs with refpeft to its form, which was a paralle¬
logram, whereas that of Babylon was an exaft fquare.
It is fuppofed, that Nebuchadnezzar, who had deftroyed
that old feat of the Affyrian empire, propofed that
this new one ftiould rather exceed it; and that it was in
order to fill it with inhabitants, that he tranfported
fuch numbers of the captives from other countries
hither ; though that is what may be difputed, feeing
he therein only followed the conftant praftice of the
kings of Affyria, who thought this the moft certain
means of affuring their conquefts either to themfelves
or their pofterity. 4
But it plainly appears, that it was never wholly in-Was never
habited; fo that, even in the meridian of its glory, it fully peo-
may be compared with the flower of the field, which P^*
flourifties to-day, and to-morrow is no more. It
never had time to grow up to what Nebuchadnezzar
vifibly intended to have made it; for, Cyrus removing
the
BAB [71
. the feat of the empire foon after to Shufhan, Baby-
J Ion fell by degrees to utter decay yet it mull be
owned, that no country was better able to fupport fo
vail and populous a city, had it been completed up
to its firft defign. But fo far was it from being finifh-
ed according to its original defign, that when Alex¬
ander came to Babylon, Q^Curtius tells us, “ no more
than 90 furlongs of it were then builtwhich can be
no otherwife underftood than of fo much in length; and
if we allow the breadth to be as much as the length
(which is the utmoft that can be allowed), it will fol¬
low that no more than 8100 fquare furlongs were then
built upon. But the whole fpace within the walls
contained 14,400 fquare furlongs; and therefore there
muft have been 6300 fquare furlongs remaining unbuilt,
which Curtius tells us were ploughed and fown. And,
befides this, the houfes were not contiguous, but all
built with a void fpace on each fide between houfe and
houfe.
f The next great work of Nebuchadnezzar was the
temple cf Belus. The wonderful tower, however, that
flood in the middle of it, was not his work, but was
built many ages before; that and the famous tower
of Babel being, as is commonly fuppofed, one and
the fame ftru&ure. This tower is faid to have been
compofed of eight pyramidal ones raifed above one
another, and by Herodotus faid to have been a furlong
in height; but as there is an ambiguity in his expref-
fion, it has been difputed whether each of the towers
was a furlong in length, or the whole of them taken
together. On the latter fuppofition, which is the moft
probable, this tower muft have exceeded the higheft
of the Egyptian pyramids by 179 feet, though it fell
Ihort of its breadth at the bafis by 33. The way to
go up was by flairs on the outfide round it; whence it
feems moft likely, that the whole afcent was, by the
benching in, drawn in a Hoping line from the bottom
to the top eight times round it, and that this made
the appearance of eight towers one above the other.
Till the times of Nebuchadnezzar, it is thought this
tower was all the temple of Belus : but as he did by
the other ancient buildings of the city, fo he did by
this ; making great additions thereto, by vaft edifices
ere&ed round it, in a fquare of two furlongs on every
fide, and juft a mile in circumference, which exceeded
the fquare at the temple of Jerufalem by 1800 feet,
©n the outfide of thefe buildings was a wall, which in-
elofed the whole ; and, in confideration of the regu¬
larity wherewith this city was to all appearance marked
out, it is fuppofed that this wall was equal to the
fquare of the city whereon it flood, and fo is concluded
to have been two miles and an half in circumference.
In this wall was feveral gates leading into the temple,
and all of lolid brafs; which it is thought may have
been made out of the brazen fea,. and brazen pillars,
and other vcflels and ornaments of the kind, which
Nebuchadnezzar had tranfported from Jerufalem ; for
in this temple he is faid to have dedicated his fpoils
from that ot Jerufalem.
In this temple were feveral images or idols of mafly
gold, and one of them, as we have feen, 40 feet in
height ; the fame, as fuppofed, with that which Ne¬
buchadnezzar confecrated in the plains of Dura. For
though this laft is faid to have been 60 cubits, or
90 feet high, thefe dimenfions appear fo incredible,
4,
1 ] BAB
that it has been attenapted to reconcile them into Babylon,
one, by fuppoling, that In the 90 feet the height of “—v—*J
the pedeftal is included, and that the 40 feet are for
the height of the ftatue without the pedeftal; and
being faid to have weighed 1000 talents of Babylon,
it is thence computed that it was worth three millions
and a half of our money. In a word, the whole weight
cf the ftatues and decorations, in Diodorus Siculus, a-
mounting to 5000 and odd talents in gold, the whole
is eftimated at above one and twenty millions of our
money ; and a fum about equal to the fame, in trea-
fure, utenfils, and ornaments, not mentioned, is allowed
for.
Next to this temple, on the eaft fide of the river,
flood the old palace of the kings of Babylon, being
four miles in circumference. Exaftly oppofite to it,
on the other fide of the river, was the new palace built
by Nebuchadnezzar, eight miles in circumference, and
confequently four times as big as the old one. 5
But nothing was more wonderful at Babylon than Hanging.'-
the hanging-gardens, which Nebuchadnezzar made inSardens*
complaifance to his wife Amyte; who, being a Mede,
and retaining a ftrong inclination for the mountains
and forefts of her own country, was defirous of having
fomething like them at Babylon. They are faid to
have contained a fquare of four plethra, or 400 feet,
on each fide ; and to have confifted of terraces one a-
bove another, carried up to the height of the wall of
the city, the afcent from terrace to terrace being by
fteps ten feet wide. The whole pile conlifted of fub-
ftantial arches upon arches, and was ftrengthened by
a wall furrounding it on every fide, 2 2 feet thick ; and
the floors on each of them were laid in this order
firft, on the tops of the arches was laid a bed or pave¬
ment of {tones id feet long, and four feet broad ; over
this was a layer of reed- mixed with a great quantity
of bitumen ; and over this two courfes of brick, clofely
cemented together with plafter; and over all thefe
were thick flieets of lead, and on thefe the earth or
mould of the garden. This floorage was defigned to
retain the moifture of the mould ; which was fo deep,
as to give root to tl>e greateft trees which were planted
upon every terrace, together with great variety of o-
ther vegetables pleafing to the eye. Upon the upper-
moft or thefe terraces was a refervoir, fupplied by a
certain engine with water from the river, from whence
the gardens on the other terraces were fupplied. 6
The other works attributed to Nebuchadnezzar byB3nksofthe
Berofus and Abydenus, were the banks of the river, nver>'a*
the artificial canals, and the great artificial lake faidnaSj &C*
to have been funk by Semiramis. The canals were cut
out on the eaft fide of the Euphrates, to convey the
waters of that river when it overflowed its banks, into
the Tigris, before they reached Babylon. The lake
was on the weft fide of Babylon; and, according to
the lowed computation, 40 miles fquare, 160 in com*
pafs, and in depth 35, feet, as we read in Herodo¬
tus, or 75, as Megafthenes will have it the former,
perhaps, meafured from the furface of the fides, and
the latter from the tops of the banks that were caft
up upon them. This lake was dug to receive the wa¬
ters of the river, while the banks were building on
each fide of it. But .both the lake and the canal
which led to it were preferved after that work was
completed, being found of great ufe, not only to pre¬
vent
•BAB [ 712 ] E. A B .
Babylon, vent all overflowings, but to keep water all the year, as could have been 318 feet high, and 81 in thicknefs, in
;n a common refervoir, to be let out on proper occa- a compafs of near 10 leagues?
lions by Unices for the improvement of the land. “ I lhall fay the fame of that fquare building known
The banks were built of brick and bitumen, on under the name of the temple of Belus. It was com-
both fides of the river, to keep it within its channel; pofed of eight towers placed one above another, di-
and extended on each fide throughout the whole length minilhing always as they went up. Herodotus does
of the city, and even farther, according to fome, who not tell us what was the height of this monument,
reckon they extended 160 furlongs, or twenty miles; Diodorus fays that it furpaffed all belief. Strabo
whence it is concluded they mud have begun two miles fixes it to one ftadium, a meafure which anfwers nearly
and an half above the city, and have been continued to 600 of our feet. For in the time of this geogra-
an equal diftance below it, the length of the city being pher the lladia were much more confiderable than in
no more than 15 miles. Within the city they were the firft ages. The entire mafs of this building ought
built from the bottom of the river, and of the fame to have been anfwerable tp its exceflive height; and this
thicknefs with the walls of the city itfelf. Oppolite is alfo the idea that the ancients deiigned to give us
to each ftreet, on either fide of the river, was a.brazen of it. We may judge by the following faft. Xerxes
gate in the faid wall, with flairs leading down from it has entirely demolifned this temple. Alexander under-
to the river: thefe.gates-were open by day and fhut by took to rebuild it. He defigned to begin by clearing
night. the place and removing the ruins. Ten thoufand \vork-
Berofus, ^Megallhenes, and Abydenus, attribute all men who were employed two months in this work,
thefe works to 'Nebuchadnezzar; but Herodotus tells were not, fay they, able to finifh it.
us, the bridge, the banks, and the lake, were the “ The riches inclofed in the temple of Belus were pro¬
work of a queen after him called M/omr, who may portioned to its immenfity. Without fpeaking of the
have finilhed what Nebuchadnezzar left imperfeft, and tables and cenfers, the cups, and other lacred vafes, of
ithence have had the honour this hiftorian gives her of malTy gold, there was a llatue 40 feet high, which
the whole. alone weighed 1000 Babylonifh talents. In (hort, ac-
The tower or temple Hood till the time of Xerxes, cording to the inventory that the ancients have given
But that prince, on his return from the Grecian expe- us of the riches contained in this temple, the total fum
dition, having firft plundered it of its immenfe wealth, would amount to two hundred and twenty millions and
demolilhed the whole, and laid it in ruins. Alexan- a half of French livres. Exaggerations like thefe de-
der, on his return to Babylon from his Indian expedi- ftroy themfelves.
tion, propofedto rebuild it, and accordingly fet 10,000 “ As to the hanging-gardens, according to all ap-
men on work to clear away the rubbilh. But his pearance they never exifted. The filence of Herodotus
death happening foon after, a Hop was put to all fur- on a work fo lingular and fo remarkable, determines
ther proceedings in that defign. After the death of me to place in the rank of fables all that the other
that conqueror, the city of Babylon began to decline writers have delivered upon this pretended wonder,
apace ; which was chiefly owing to the neighbourhood Herodotus had carefully vifited Babylon. He enters
of Seleucia, built by Seleucus Nicator, as is faid, out into fuch details as prove that he has omitted none of
of fpite to the Babylonians, and peopled with 500,000 the rarities of that city. Can we prefume that he
perfons drawn from Bab . Ion, which by that means con- would have pafled over in filence fuch a work as the
tinned declining till the very people of the country hanging-gardens? All the authors who have fpoken of
were at a lofs to tell where it had flood. it are of much later date than this great hiftorian.
S ich is the defeription we have by ancient hiftorians None of them except Berofus fpeaks on his own telli-
of the grandeur of this city ; which, if thefe accounts mony. It is always on the report of others. -Diodorus
are not exaggerated, mull have exceeded every piece of had extradled from Ctefias what he fays of thefe famous
human grandeur that hath yet appeared. Many of gardens. There is alfo great appearance that Strabo
the moderns, however, are of opinion that thefc mag- had drawn from the fame fource. In a word, the
nificent deferiptions are very far from being true; al- manner in which Quintus Curtius exprefles himfelf,
though it is certain that few other arguments can be fufficiently fhows how much the exiftence of thefe
brought againft the reality of them, than that we do gardens appeared to him fufpicious. He judged they
not fee things of a fimilar kind executed in our own owed the greateft part of it to the imagination of the
days. The following are the arguments ufed on this Greeks.
7 fubjeft by the prefident Goguet. “ Let us now fpeak of the bridge of Babylon, which
Goprnet’s “ Authors have greatly extolled the public works the ancients have placed in the number of the moft
arguments an3 edifices which once rendered Babylon one of the marvellous works of the call. It was near 100 fathoms
•tnuhof the won^ers °f ^ wor^* We may reduce all thefe ob- in length, and almoll four in breadth. We cannot
foregoing -jedls to five principal heads: 1. The height of its walls; deny but that a great deal of art and labour was ne
relation. 2. Thetemple of Belus; 3.The hanging gardens; 4. The ceffary to lay the foundations, which it could not be
bridge built over the river Euphrates, and the quays eafy to fettle in the bed of an extremely deep and ra-
which lined that river; 5. The lake and canals dug by pid river, which alfo rolls along a prodigious quantity
the hand of man to dilljibute the waters of the Eu- of mud, and whofe bottom is entirely fandy. They had
phrates. therefore taken many precautions to fecure the piers
“ All thefe works, fo marvellous in the judgment of of the bridge of Babylon. They were built of ftones
antic’uity, appear to me to have been extremely exag- joined and faftened together with cramps of iron, and
gerated by the authors who have fpoke of them. How their joints filled with melted lead. The front of the
.can we conceive, in effedl, that the walls of Babylon piers, turned towards the current of the Euphrates,
N°58. was
BAB
[ 7*3 1
BAB
, was defended by buttreffes extremely advanced, which Babylonian empire was of Aflyrian origin, we arc af- Babylonia.
i- diminifhed the weight and force of the water, l™ r—“A u”  1'“‘ Tr*:“1' *1'-   J- —
' cutting it at a great diftance.
Babylon.
by
fured by the prophet Ifaiah in the following words: ’
Such was the bridge of “ Behold the land of the Chaldeans. This people was
not till the Afiyrian founded it for them that dwelt in
While we do juftice to the {kill of the Babylonians . the vvildernefs : they fet up the towers thereof; they
in conducing thefe works, we cannot help remarking built the palace thereof.” As to the kingdom of Af-
the bad tafte which at all times reigned in the works of fyria, the Scripture mentions only fivikings, viz. Pul,
the eaftern nations. The bridge of Babylon furniflies Tiglath-Pilefer, Shalmanafer, Sennacharib, and Efar-
a ftriking inftance of it. This edifice was absolutely haddon; whofe hiilory, as related by the facred writers,
without grace, or any air of majelly. The breadth of it it is needlefs to mention particularly here. From the
was in no fort of proportion to its length. The dillance days of Nabonafler to Nabopolaffer, that is, from the
between the piers was alfo very ill contrived. They year before Chrift 747 to 626, the kings of Babylon
were diftant from each other only 1 1 feet and a half, made no figure, and were therefore probably in a date
Finally, this bridge was not arched. We may judge of dependence on the kings of .Affyria; but at that
time, in the reign of Qhyniladan, the Sardanapalus of
the Greeks, Nineveh was taken and deftroyed by the
Medes and Babylonians, and the feat of the empire
of its effeft on the view.
“ The; Babylonians, however, were not the only
people who were ignorant of the art of turning an
arch. This fecret, as far as I can find, was unknown transferred to Babylon. This Nabopolafler was the
to all the people of remote antiquity ; who, generally father of the famous Nebuchadnezzar, for whofe hiftory
fpeaking, do not appear to have been very flcilful in we muft refer to the facred writers: and from his time
Hone-cutting.
“As for the quays which lined the Euphrates, we
may believe that they were grand and magnificent :
but I {hall not eafily believe that they furpaffed thgfe Cyrus, which happened at this time,
which we have daily under our eyes. In this refpeft, lowing account.
I believe Paris may difpute it for magnificence, and
for the extent of the work, with all the cities of the
univerfe.”
Babylon, a town of E-gypt near the eaftmoft branch
to that of the Belfhazzar of Daniel, and Nabonadius
of other authors, the hiilory of Babylon is little better
than a mere blank. Of the reduction of Babylon by
n„— v. j .l:. — .... jlave the f0j_
War had been begun betwixt the Medes, Perfians,
and Babylonians, in the reign of Neriglififar the fathe:
of Nabonadius, which had been carried on with very
bad fuccefs on the fide of the Babylonians, Cyrus, who
of the river Nile, now fuppofed to be Grand Cairo, or commanded the Median and Perfian army, having fub-
E. Long. 31. 12. dued the feveral nations inhabiting the great continent
from the iEgean Sea to the Euphrates, bent his march
towards Babylon. Nabonadius, hearing of his march.
■this city to Hand near its ruins.
N. Lat. 30. 5.
BABYLONIA, or Chaldea, a kingdom of Afia, . 0  ,
and the moil ancient in the world, being founded by immediately advanced againfl: him with an army. In
Nimrod the grandfon of Ham, who alfo, according to the engagement which enfued, the Babylonians were
the margin of our bibles, founded Nineveh the capital defeated; and the king, retreating to his metropolis,
of the kingdom of Aflyria. Indeed, thefe two king- was blocked up and clofely befieged by Cyrus. The
doms feem to have always continued in fuch a ftate of reduction of this city was no eafy enterprife. The
friendfhip, that we can fcarce help thinking they muft walls were of a prodigious height, the number of men
have been the fame, or perhaps Babylonia was for fome to defend them very great, and the place ftored with
•time a province of Afiyria. Nothing certain is known all forts of provifions for 20 years. Cyrus, defpairing
concerning either of them, except what may be ga- of being able to take fuch a city by ftorm, caufed a line
thered from Scripture. From thence we learn, that in of circumvallation to be drawn quite round it, with a
the days of Abraham there was a king of Sbinar, called large and deep ditch ; reckoning, that if all communi-
Amraphel, who, under the king of Elam or Perfia, cation with the country were cut off, the befieged
made war upon the Canaanites. From this time we would be obliged to furrender through famine. That
have nothing that can be depended upon till the days bis troops might not be too much fatigued, he divided
of Nabonaffer, the firft king of Babylon mentioned in his army into twelve bodies, appointing each body its
Ptolemy’s canon. It is plain indeed, both from Scrip- month to guard the trenches j but the befieged, looking
ture and profane hiftory, that Babylonia fubfifted as a upon themfelves to be out of all danger by reafon of
diftinft kingdom from Affyria even when the latter their high walls and magazines, infulted him from the
was in all its glory. The moft probable account of ramparts, and looked upon all the trouble he gave him-
the matter is this : The empire of Affyria was founded felf as fo much unprofitable labour,
by Pul, on the ruins of that of Damafcus or Syria, After Cyrus had fpent two whole years before Baby-
in the days of Menahem king of Judah. This king Ion, without making any progrefs in the fiege, he at
left two fons, Tiglath-Pilefer and Nabonaffer. To laft thought of the following ftratagem, which put him
the former he bequeathed the empire of Affyria, and in poffeffion of it. He was informed, that a great an¬
te the latter that of Babylon. Tiglath-Pilefer refided nual folemnity was to be held at Babylon; and that the
at Nineveh, the original feat of the Affyrian empire ; inhabitants on that occafion '
e accuftomed to fpend
while Nabonaffer, who was the younger brother, held the whole night in drinking and debauchery. This he
his refidence at Babylon. As the two kingdoms were therefore thought a proper time for furprifing them ;
governed by princes of the fame family, we may well and accordingly fent a ftrong detachment to the head
fuppofe a perfeft harmony to have reigned between of the canal leading to the great lake, with orders, at
them, the younger branch at Babylon acknowledging a certain time, to break down the great bank which
a kind of fubjeftion to the elder at Nineveh. That the was between the lake and the canal, and to turn the
Vol. II. Part II. 4 X whole
BAB [71
Babylonia, whole current into the lake. At the fame time he ap-
* t--"1-' pointed one body of troops at the place where the river
entered the city, and another where it came out; or¬
dering them to march in by the bed of the river as foon
as they (hould find it fordable. Towards the evening
he opened the head of the trenches on both fides the
river above the 'city, that the water might difcharge
itfelf into them; by which means, and the breaking
down of the great dram, the river was foon drained.
Then the two abovementioned bodies of troops, ac¬
cording to their orders, entered the channel; the one
commanded by Gobryas and the other by Gadates:
and finding the gates all left open by reafon of the
dilorders of that riotous night, they penetrated into
the very heart of the city without oppofition ; and
meeting, according to agreement, at the palace, they
furprifed the guards, and cut them in pieces. Thofe
who were in the palace opening the gates to know the
caufe of this confufion, the Perfians rufhed in, took
the palace, and killed the king, who came out to
meet them fword in hand. Thus an end was put to
the Babylonian empire ; and Cyrus took poffefiion of
Babylon for one called in Scripture Darius the Mede>
mcft probably Cyaxares 11. uncle to Cyrus. From
this time Babylonia never was eredted into a dillinft
kingdom, but hath always followed the fortune of
thofe great conquerors who at different times have ap¬
peared in Afia. It is now frequently the object of
contention between the Turks and Perfians. See As¬
syria.
Concerning the nature of the country, manners, cu-
fioms, &c. of the ancient Babylonians, the following
account is colledted by M. Sabbathier.
“ As all the nations under the dominion of Cyrus,
befide the ordinary tributes, were obliged to maintain
him and his army, the monarch and his troops were
fupported by all Afia. The country of Babylon alone
was obliged to maintain him four months of the year;
its fertility, therefore, yielded a third of the produce
of Afia. The government of this country, which the
Perfians termed fatrapy, was richer and more exten-
five than any of the reft. It maintained for the king,
befides the war-horfes, a ftud of 800 ftallions and
16,000 mares. So great a number of Indian dogs
were likewife bred in this province for the king, that
four of its cities kept thofe animals; and in return,
they were exempted from all taxes and tributes.
“ It rained very feldom in this country, according
to Herodotus. The earth was watered by the river,
which was here diffufed by human induftry, as the
Fiile is over Egypt by nature: for all the country of
Babylon was divided by canals, the greateft of which
was navigable, and flowed from fouth to north, from
the Euphrates to the Tigris. In Ihort, it was one of
the fineft countries for corn in the world ; but for
producing trees, the fig-tree, the vine, and the olive, it
was not famous. It was fa luxuriant in grain, that it
commonly yislded a hundred times more than what
was fown; and in its good years it yielded three hundred
times more than it received. The leaves of its wheat
and barley were four inches broad. * Though I
know,’ fays Herodotus, ‘ that the millet and the fe-
fame of that country grow to the fize of trees, I will
not defcribe them particularly; left thofe who have not
been in Babylonia Ihould think my account fabulous.’
6
4 ] BAB
“ They had no oil but what they made from Indian Babylonia,
corn. The country abounded with palm-trees, which '*
grew fpontaneoufly; and molt of them bore fruit, of
which the inhabitants made bread, wine, and honey.
They cultivated thefe trees and their fig-trees in the
fame manner. S«me of them, as of other trees, the
Greeks called male ones. They tied the fruit of the
male to the trees which bore dates; that the mofquito,
leaving the male, might caufe the date to ripen, by pe¬
netrating it; for without that affiftance it came not to
maturity. Mofquitos bred in the male palms as in the
wild fig-trees.
“ But we muft not here omit to give an account of
the peculiar and furprifing conftrinftion of their boats
of fkins, in which they failed along the river to Baby¬
lon. Thefe boats were invented by the Armenians,
whofe country lay north from Babylonia. They made
them with poles of willow, which they bent and co¬
vered with Ikins. The bare fide of the Ikins they put
outwards; and they made them fo tight that they re-
fembled boards The boats had neither prow nor Item,
but were of a round form like a buckler. They put
ftraw on the bottom. Two men, each with an oar,
rowed them down the river, laden with different wares,
but chiefly with palm-wine. Of thefe boats fome
were very large and fome very fmall. The largeft car¬
ried the weight of 500 talents. There was room for
an afe in one of their fmall boats ; they put many into
a large one. When they had unloaded, after their
arrival at Babylon, they fold the poles of their boats
and the Itraw ; and loading their affes with the Ikins,
returned to Armenia: for they could not fail up the
river its current was fo rapid. For this reafon they
made their boats of Ikins inttead of wood; and on their
return to Armenia with their affes, they applied the
Ikins to their former ufe.
“ As to their drefs, they wore a linen Hurt, which
came down to their feet. Over it they wore a wool¬
len robe; their outer garment was a white veil. Their
ftioes refembled thofe of the Thebans. They let their
hair grow. On their heads they wore a turban. They
rubbed their bodies all over with fragrant liquors.
Each man had a ring on his finger, and an elegant cane
in his hand, with an apple at the top, or a rofe, a lily,
or an eagle, or fome other figure; for they were not
fuffered to ufe canes without devices.
“ With regard to their policy, Herodotus thinks
that their belt law was one which the Heneti, an IB
lyrian people, likewife obferved in every town and vil¬
lage. When the girls were marriageable, they were or¬
dered to meet in a certain place, where the young men
likewife affembled. They were then fold by the public
crier; but he firft fold the moft beautiful one. When
he had fold her at an immenfe price, he put up others
to fale, according to their degrees of beauty. The rich
Babylonians were emulous- to carry off the fineft wo¬
men, who were fold to the higheft bidders. But as the
young men who were poor could not afpire to have fine
women, they were content to take the uglieft with the
money which was given them : for when the crier had
fold the handfomeft, he ordered the uglieft of all the
women to be brought, and alked if any one was will¬
ing to take her with a fmall fum of money. Thus (he
became the wife of him wh» was moft eafily fatisfied;
and. thus the fineft women were fold; and from the
money
BAB [
na, money which they brought, fmall fortunes were given
lan• to the uglieft, and to thofe who had any bodily in¬
firmity. A father could not marry his daughter as
he pleafed; nor was he who bought her allowed to
take her home, without giving fecurity that he would
marry her. But, after the fale, if the parties were
not agreeable to each other, the law enjoined that the
purchafe-money (hould be rdlored. The inhabitants of
any of their towns were permitted to marry wives at
thefe au&ions. Such were the early cuftoms of the Ba¬
bylonians.
“ But they afterwards made a law, which prohi¬
bited the inhabitants of different towns to intermarry,
and by which hulbands were punifhed for treating their
wives ill. When they had become poor by the ruin of
their metropolis, fathers ufed to proftitute their daugh¬
ters for gain. There was a fenfible cuftom among the
Babylonians, worthy to be related. They brought
their fick into the forum, to confult thofe who pafled
on their difeafes ; for they had no phyficians. They
allied thofe who approached the fick, if they ever had
the fame diftemper ? if they knew any one who had
it ? and how he was cured ? Hence, in this country,
every one who faw a fick perfon was obliged to go to
him, and inquire into his diftemper.
“ They embalmed their dead with honey ; and their
mourning was like that of the Egyptians.
“ There were three Babylonian tribes, who lived
only upon filh, and who prepared them in the fol¬
lowing manner : they dried them in the fun, and
then beat them in a mortar to a kind of flour, which
after they had fifted through linen, they baked it in
rolls.
“ The Babylonians at firft worlhipped only the fun
and the moon ; but they foon multiplied their divini¬
ties. They deified Baal, Bel, or Belus, one of their
kings, and Merodach-Baladan. Theyalfo worlhipped
Venus, under the name of Mylitta. She and Belus
were the principal deities of the Babylonians. They
counted their day from fun-rife to fun-rife. They fo-
lemnized five days of the year with great magnifi¬
cence, and almoft the fame ceremonies with which the
Romans celebrated their Saturnalia.
“ The Babylonians were very much addi&ed to ju¬
dicial aftrology. Their priefts, who openly profeffed
that art, were obliged to commit to writing all the
events of the lives of their illuftrious men ; and on a
fencied connexion between thofe events and the mo¬
tions of the heavenly bodies, the principles of their
art were founded. They pretended that feme of their
books, in which their hiftorical tranfaCtions and re¬
volutions were accurately compared with the courfes
of the liars, were thoufands of years old. This af-
fertion of their judicial aftrclogers we may rtafon-
ably difpute; but that their aftronomers had made a
long feries of obfervations. is inconteftably true. It is
certain that fome of thofe obfervations were extant in
the days of Ariftotle, and that they were older than
the empire of the Babylonians. See Hlflory of Astro¬
nomy.
BABYLONIAN, Babylonius, is ufed in fome
ancient writers for an aftrologer, or any thing related
to aftrology. Hence Babylonia cur a, the art of calling
nativities; and numeri Babylonii, the computation of
afti ologers.
715 ] BAG
BABYLONICA texta, a rich fort of weavings, Bubylonica
or hangings, denominated from the city Babylon,
where the praflice of interweaving divers colours in ,
their hangings firft obtained. Hence alfo Babylonic
garments, Babylonic Ikins, Babylonic carpets, hou-
fings, &c. Balylonica folana, coverings laid over
couches, &c. painted with gold, purple, and other co¬
lours.
BABYLONICS, BABYLONICA, in natural hiftory,
a fragment of the ancient hiftory of the world, ending
at 267 years before Chrift; and compofed by Berofus,
or Beroffus, a prieft of Babylon, about the time of
Alexander. Babylonics are fometimes alfo cited in an¬
cient writers by the title of Caldaics. The babylonics
were very confonant with feripture, as Jofephus and
the ancient Chrillian chronologers allure ; whence the
author is ufually fuppofed to have confulted the Jewifti
writers. Berofus fpeaks of an univerfal deluge, an ark,
&c. He reckons ten generations between the firft
man and the deluge; and marks the duration of the
feveral generations by faroi, or periods of 223 lunar
months; which, reduced to years, differ not much
from the chronology of Mofes.—The babylonics con-
fifted of three books, including the hiftory of the an¬
cient Babylonians, Medes, &c. But only a few im-
perfedl extrafts are now jemaining of the work ; pre- •
ferved chiefly by Jofephus and Syncellus, where all
the paffages of citations of ancient outhors out of Be¬
rofus are colle&ed with great exa&nefs. Annius of Vi¬
terbo, to fupply the lofs, forged a complete Benofus
out of his own head. The world has not thanked him
for the impofture.
BABYROUSSA, in zoology, a fynonime of afpe-
cies of fus. See Sus.
BAG, in navigation, is ufed for a praam, or ferry¬
boat.
Bac, in brewing, a large flat kind of tub, or vef-
fel, wherein the wort is put to Hand and cool be¬
fore boiling. The ingredients of beer pafs through
three kinds of veffels. They are malked in one,
worked in another, and cooled in a third called lacs or
coolers.
Bac, in diftillery, veffels into which the liquor to
be fermented is pumped from the cooler, in order to
be worked with yell.
BAC-Maler, is one who makes liquor-bacs, under
bacs, coolers, malh-tuns, working-tuns, &c. for the
brewers. The workmanlhip is partly carpentry, in a
particular manner, for it muft be tight enough to hold
liquor; and partly cooperage, vi%. the malh-tun, or
vat, which is hooped. There are not many of this
trade; and it requires chiefly ftrength, with a little art.
A fmall ftock of fluff, bdides tools, will fet a man up
tolerably well; but, with 200I. or 3001. he will make
a good figure in bufinefs.
BACA, or Baza, a town of Spain in the king¬
dom of Granada. W. Long. 3. 6. N. Lat. 37. 18.
It is fituated in a valley called Hoya de Ba%a. It is
encompaffed with old walls, and has a caftle half
ruined. It contains about 4000- houfes, but has no¬
thing remarkable except the church dedicated to the
Virgin Mary. The land about it is well cultivated
for half a league round, and is fertile in wheat, wine,
honey, hemp, and flax, being watered by the little ri¬
ver Guadalantin.
4X z
BAC-
BAG [ Jit
BACACUM, a town of the Nervu in Gallia Bel¬
gian ; now Bavay, in Hainault. E. Long. 3. 30. N.
Lat. 50. 25.
BACAIM, a handfome fea-port town of the king¬
dom of Vifapour on the Malabar coaft in Afia. It is
fubjeft to the Portuguefe ; and ftands in E. Long. 73,
10. N. Lat. 19. o.
BACASERAY, a town in the peninfula of Crim
Tartary, and, as the khan ufually takes up his refi-
dence there, it may b‘e confidered as the capital of the
country. E. Long. 35. 10. N. Lat. 45. 30.
BACCA, berry, in botany, is ufed to fignify fuch
fruits as confift of a pericarpium full of juice and feeds,
without any valves.
BACANTIBI, in ecclefiaftical antiquity, wander¬
ing clerks, who ftrolled from church to church. 
The word feems formed by corruption from vacan-
tivi.
BACCALARIA, in middle-age writers, denotes
a kind of country-farms, confiding of feveral manfes.
Baccalaria dominicaria, or indominicata, was more
particularly ufed for a farm belonging to the lord, and
kept in his own hands.
BACCARACH, a town of Germany in the lower
Palatinate ; formerly imperial and free, but now fub-
je£t to the ele&or Palatine. It is famous for excellent
wine; and is frtuated on the Rhine, in E. Long. 7. 5.
N. Lat. 49. 57.
BACCH/E, in antiquity, thepriefteffes of Bacchus,
who celebrated the orgia, or mylteries of that god.—
The word was alfo ufed for the ivy crowns or garlands
worn by the priefts of Bacchus, in offering facrifices to
him.
BACCHANALIA, feafts celebrated in honour of
.Bacchus by the ancients. The two moll remarkable
were called the greater and lejfer. The latter, called
hruea, from a word fignifying a •wine-prefs, were held
in the open fields about autumn; the greater, called
Dionyjia, from one of the names of Bacchus, were ce¬
lebrated in the city, about the fpring-time. Both thefe
feafts were accompanied with games, fpe&acles, and
theatrical reprefentations, and it was at this time the
poets contended for the prize of poetry. Thofe who
were initiated into the celebration of thefe feafts, repre-
fented, fome Silenius ; others, Pan ; others, Satyrs ;
and in this manner appeared in public, night and day,
counterfeiting drunkennefs^ dancing, obfcenely, and
committing all kinds of licentioufnefs and debauchery.
See the article Bacchus.
BACCHARIS, ploughman’s spikenard: Age-
nus of the polygamia luperflua order, belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 49th order, Compofita difcoides. The
Charafters are: It has a naked receptacle, and hairy
pappus; with a cylindrical imbricated calyx, and femi¬
nine florets mixed with the hermaphrodite ones. There
are feven fpecies, all natives of warm climates; but none
of them merit notice except the two following, r. The
ivasfolia, or African tree-groundfel, is a native of the
Cape of Good Hope, as alfo of Peru and other warm
parts of America. It grows to the height of five or fix
feet; and though there is little beauty in the flower,
has been long admitted into the gardens of the curious.
It is pretty hardy, and will live abroad in moderate
winters in England, but is ufually kept in green-houfes
: ] BAG
and placed abroad only in fummer. It maybe propa¬
gated either by cuttings or by feeds, which ripen well
in this country. j>. The halimifolia, Or Virginia,
groundfel-tree, is a native of Virginia and other parts
of North America. It grows about feven or eight feet
high, with a crooked ftirubby ftem ; and flowers in
October: the flowers are white, and not very beauti¬
ful; but the leaves continuing green, has occafioned
this fhrub to be admitted into many curious gardens.
It may be propagated by cuttings; and will live very
well in the open air, though fevere froft will fometimes
deftroy it.
BACCHI, in mechanics, a kind of ancient ma¬
chines, in form of goats, ufed by Jupiter, in his wars
againft the giants. Rudbeck defcribes two kinds of
bacchi, one made like the battering-ram, wherewith
Jupiter demoliihed the enemy’s fortifications; the
other contrived to call fire out of, from whence the
Greeks are conjedlured to have framed their idea of
chimera.
BACCHIC, fomething relating to the ceremonies
of Bacchus. The celebrated intaglio^ called Michael
Angelo’s ring, is a reprefentation of a bacchic feaft.
Bacchic Jong, is fometimes ufed for a chanfon a lolret
or compofnion to infpire jollity. But in a more proper
fe'nfe, it is reftrained to a dithyrambic ode or hymn.
BACCHINI (Benedidl), a Benedi&ine monk, and
one of the moft learned men in his time, was born at
Borgo San Domino in 1651; and wrote a great num¬
ber of books in Latin and Italian, the moft confide-
rable of which is a Literary. Journal. He died at Bo¬
logna in 1721,aged 70.
BACCHIUS, a follower of Ariftoxenus, fuppofed
by Fabricius to have been tutor to the emperor Marcus
Antoninus, and confequently to have lived about A. C.
140. He wrote in Greek a very ftiort introdu&ion to
mufic in dialogue, which, with a Latin tranflation
thereof, Meibomius has publifhed. It feems it was
firft publiflied in the original by Merfennus, in his
Commentary on the firft fix chapters of Genefis ; and
that afterwards he publifhed a tranflation of it in French,,
which Meibomius, in the preface to his edition of the
ancient mufical authors, cenfures as being grofsly er¬
roneous.
Bacchius, in ancient poetry, a kind of foot com-
pofed of a fhort fyllable and too long ones; as
the word [avarIJ. It takes its name from the god
Bacchus, becaufe it frequently entered into the hymns
compofed in his honour. The Romans called it like-
wife anot rius, tripodius, fait arts.
BACCHUS, in Heathen mythology, the god of
wine, with whofe fabulous adventures every fchool-boy
is acquainted. This perfonage is feldom named in
modern times but as a fenfual encourager of feaft and
jollity; but he was regarded in a more refpeftable light
by the ancients, who worfhipped him in different coun¬
tries under the following appellations: in Egypt, lie
was called Ofiris; in Myfia, Fanaces ; in India, Di-
onyfius ; Liber, throughout the Roman dominions ; A-
doneas, in Arabia; and Pentheus, by the Lucanians.
Mythologifts fnrnifh reafons for all thefe different names
given to the fame god, which may be feen in the fe-
cond volume of Banier’s Mythology.
It is natural to fuppofe that the Greeks and Romans,,
as ufual, bellowed upon the one Bacchus which they
wor-
Bafcthi
II
Bacchus.
BAG L 717 3 BAG
Bacchus- worfhippecl, the feveral adlions and attributes ef the
many divinities known by that name, and by other e-
quivalent denominations in different countries. How¬
ever, antiquity chiefly diftinguiihed two gods under the
title of Bacchus : that of Egypt, the fon of Ammon,
and the fame as Ofiris; and that of Thebes in Boeotia,
the fon of Jupiter and Semele.
The Egyptian Bacchus was brought up at Nyfa, a
city of Arabia Felix, whence he acquired the name of
Dionyfius, or the God of Nyfa; and this was the con¬
queror of India. Though this Bacchus of the Egyp¬
tians was one of the elder gods of Egypt, yet the fon
of Semele was the youngell of the Grecian "deities.
Diodorus Siculus tells us, that Orpheus firft deified the
fon of Semele by the name of Bacchus, and appointed
his-ceremonies in Greece, in order to render the family
of Cadmus, the grandfather of the Grecian Bacchus,
illuftrious. ■
The great Bacchus, according to Sir Ifaac Newton,
flourifhed but one generation before the Argonautic
expedition. This Bacchus, fays Hermippus, was po¬
tent at fea, conquered ealtward as far as India, re¬
turned in triumph, brought his army over the Helle-
fpont, conquered Thrace, and left mufic, dancing, and
poetry there. And, according to Diodorus Siculus,
it was the fon of Semele who invented farces and
theatres, and who firft eftablifhed a mufic-fchool, ex¬
empting from all military functions fuch muficians as
difcovered great abilities in their art; on which ac¬
count, fays the fame author, muficians formed into
companies have fince frequently enjoyed great privi-
leges.
Hiftr.ry of Er Burney * obferves, that the dithyrambics which
ftuflc, gave birth to dramatic reprefentations, are as ancient
. 298. et as the worihip of Bacchus in Greece; and there is
?• little doubt but that the ceremonies of his myfteries
ave rife to the pomp and illufions of the theatre,
lany of the moft fplendid exhibitions upon the ftage
for the entertainment of the people of Athens and
Rome, being performed upon the feftivals of Bacchus,
gave occafion to the calling all thofe that were em¬
ployed in them, whether for finging, dancing, or re¬
citing, fervants of Bacchus.
Paufanias, in his Attics, fpeaks of a place at Athens
confecrated to Bacchus the finger; thus named, he
fay3^ for the fame reafon as Apollo is called the chief
and conductor of the mufes. Whence it fhould feem
that Bacchus was regarded by the Athenians not only
as the god of wine, but of fong; and it muft be owned,
that his followers, in their cups, have been much in¬
clined to finging ever fince Indeed we are certain,
that in none of the orgies, proceffions, triumphs, and
feftivals, inftituted by the ancients to the honour and
memory of this prince of Ions vivans, mufic was for¬
gotten, as may be ftill gathered from ancient fculpture,
where we find not only that muficians, male and female,
regaled him with the lyre, the flute, and with -fong;
but that he was accompanied by fawns and fatyrs play¬
ing upon timbrels, cymbals,- bagpipes, and horns:
thefe Suidas calls his minftrels; and btrabo gives
them the appellations of Baccki, Silent, Satyri, Bacchce,
Lence, Thya, Mamillones, Naiades, Nyrnpha, and Tityri.
Thefe reprefentations have furniihed lubjedls for the
fineft remains of ancient fculpture; and the moft vo¬
luptuous paffages of ancient poetry are defcriptions of Bacchy-
the orgies and feftivals of Bacchus. See Orgia. - “ es
BACCHYLIDES, a famous Greek poet, was the Bachelor,
nephew of Simonides, and the cotemporary and rival ——v—^
of Pindar. Both fung the vidlories of Hiero at the
public games. Befides odes to athletic viftors, he was
author of Love Verfes ; Profodies ; Dithyrambics;
Hymns; Psans ; Hyporchemes ; Parthenia, or fongs
to be fung by a chorus of virgins at feftivals. The
chronology of Eufebius places the birth of Bacchylides
in the 8 2d Olympiad, about 450 years B. C.
BACCIO, or Baccius, (Andrew), a celebrated
phyfician of the 46th century, born at St Elpideo.
He pra&ifed phyfic at Rome with great reputation,
and was firft phyfician to pope Sixtus V. The moft
fcarce and valuable of his works are, 1. De thermis.
2. De naturali vinorum hiftoria. 3. De venenis et anti-
dotis. 4. De gemmis ac lapidilus pretiofis.
Baccio (Fra. Bartolomeo), called Bartelemi di S.
Marco, a celebrated painter of hillory and portrait,
was born at Savignano near Florence in 1469, and
was a difciple of Cofumo Rofelli; but his principal
knowledge in the art of painting was derived from
Leonardo da Vinci. He underftood the true principles
of defign better than moft mafters of his time, and
was alfo a confiderable painter in perfpedlive ; which
induced Raphael to have recourfe to him after he had
quitted the fchool of Perugino ; and under his direc¬
tion likewife Raphael ftudied the art'of managing and
uniting colours, as well as the rules of perfpedlive.
Some years after the departure of Raphael from Flo¬
rence, Baccio vifited Rome; and by the obfervations
he made on the antiques, and the works of Raphael
which were then the admiration of the whole world,
he was extremely improved, and manifefted his ac¬
quired abilities by a pi&ure of S. Sebaftian, which he
finiihed at his return to Florence. It was fo well
defigned, fo naturally and beautifully coloured, and
had fo ftrong an expreffion of pain and agony, that
it was removed from the place where it was publicly
feen (in the chapel of a convent), as it had been ob-
ferved to have made too ftrong an imprefiion on the
imaginations of many women who beheld it. He was
very laborious, and made nature his perpetual ftudy;
he defigned the naked corre&ly 5 his figures had a ’.
great deal of grace, and his colouring was admirable.
He is accounted to have been the firft inventor of that,
machine called a layman by the artifts, and which to
this day is in general ufe. Upon that he placed his
draperies, to obferve with greater exaftnefs their na¬
tural and their more elegant folds. A capital picture
of the afeenfion by Baccio is in the Florentine collec¬
tion. He died in 1517.
BACHELOR, or Batchelor, a common term
for a man not married, or who is yet in a (late of celi¬
bacy.—The Roman cenfors frequently impofed fines on
old bachelors. Dion Halicarnaffeus mentions an old
conftitutioa, by which aft perfons of full age were ob¬
liged to marry. But the moft celebrated law of this
kind was that made under Auguftus, called the lex
Julia de tnaritandis ordinilus; by which bachelors
were made incapable of legacies or inheritances by will,
unlefs from their near relations. This brought many
to marry, according to Plutarch’s obfervation, not fo
much
BAG [71
Bachelor, rnucli for the fake of raifing heirs to their own eftates,
v "" ■' a® to make themfelves capable of inheriting thofe of
other men. The rabbins maintain, that, by the laws
of Mofes, every body, except fome few particulars, is
obliged in confcience to marry at 20 years of age: this
makes one of their 613 precepts. Hence thofe maxims
fo frequent among their cafuifts, thaf he who does not-
take the neceffary meafures to leave heirs behind him,
is not a man, but ought to be reputed a homicide.—
Lycurgus was not more favourable: by his laws,
bachelors are branded with infamy, excluded from all
offices civil and military, and even from the (hows and
public fports. At certain feafts they were forced to
appear, to be expofed to the public derifion, and led
round the market-place. At one of their fealls, the
women led them in this condition to the altars, where
they obliged them to make amende honourable to nature,
accompanied with a number of blows and lalhes with a
rod at difcretion. To complete the affront, they forced
them to ling certain fongs compofed in their own deri¬
fion.—The Chrillian religion is more indulgent to the
bachelor ftate: the ancient church recommended it as in
fome circum(lances preferable to, and more perfeft than,
the matrimonial. In the canon law, we find injunctions on
bachelors, when arrived at puberty, either to marry or to
turn monks and profefs chaftity in earned.—In England,
there was a tax on bachelors after 25 years of age,
12 1. 10s. for a duke, a common perfon i s. by 7 Wil,
HI. 1695. In Britain, at prefent, they are taxed by
an extra-duty on their fervants. Every man of the
age of 2 1 years and upwards, never having been mar¬
ried, who fhall keep one male fervant or more, fhall
pay i l. 5 s. for each, above or in addition to the ordi¬
nary duties leviable for servants. Every man of the
age of 21 years and upwards, never having been mar¬
ried, keeping one female fervant, fhall pay zs. 6d. in
addition to the former 2 s. 6d. ; 5 s. in addition for
each, if he has two female fervants; and 10s. in ad¬
dition for each for three or more female fervants.
Bachelor was anciently a denomination given to
thofe who had attained to knighthood, but had not a
number of vaffals fufficient to have their banner carried
before them-iu the field of battle-; or if they were not
of the order of bannerets, were not of age to difplay
their own banner, but obliged to march to battle un¬
der anotherVbanner. It was alfo a title given to young
cavaliers, w“ho, having made their firfl campaign, re¬
ceived die military girdle accordingly. And it ferved
to denominate him who had overcome another in a tour¬
nament the firft time he ever engaged- — The word
bachelor, in a military fenfe, is derived by Cujas from
buccellarius, a kind of cavalry, anciently in great efleem.
Hu Cange deduces it from baccalaria, a kind of fees
or farms, confining of feveral pieces of ground, each
whereof contained 12 acres, or as much as two oxen
would plough ; the poffeffors of which baccalaria were
called bachelors. Cafeneuve and Altaferra derive ba¬
chelor from bcculus or bacillus, “ a ilaff;” becaufe the
young cavaliers exercifed themfelves in fighting with
flaves. Martinius derives it from baccalaureus, i. e. bac-
ca laurea donatus, in allufion to the ancient cuftom of
crowning poets with laurel, baccis lauri, as was the
cafe with Petrarch at Rome in 1341. Alciat and
Vives are of the fame opinion : nor is this etymology
improbable.
8 ] BAG
Knights-Bachelors, the mod ancient, but the lowed Bachelor, !
order of knights in England ; known by the name of —-y—J
knights only. They are ityled knights bachelors, either
(according to fome) as denoting their degree, quafi bos
chevaliers; or, according to others, becaufe this title
does not defeend to their pofterity
The cuftom of tfte ancient Germans was to give
their young men a (hield and a lance in the great coun¬
cil : this was equivalent to the toga virilis of the Ro¬
mans. Before this, they were not permitted to bear '
arms, but were accounted as part of the father’s houfe-
hold ; after it, as part of the public. Hence fome de¬
rive the ufage of knighting, which has prevailed all
over the weftern world fince its redudlion by colonies,
from thofe northern heroes. Knights are called in La¬
tin equites, aurati: aurati, from the gilt fpurs they
wore ; and equites, becaufe they always ferved on horfe-
back : for it is obfervable, that almoft all nations call
their knights by fome appellation derived from an
horfe. They are alfo called in our law milites, becaufe
they formed a part, or indeed the whole, of the royal
army, in virtue of their feodal tenures; one condition
of which was, that every one who held a knight’s fee
(which in Henry II.’s time amounted to 20I. per an¬
num) was obliged to be knighted, and attend the king
in his wars, or pay a fine for his non-compliance. The
exertion of this prerogative as an expedient to raife
money in the reign of Charles I. gave great offence,
though warranted by law and the recent example of
Queen Elizabeth. At the Reftoration, it was, to¬
gether with all other military branches of the feodal
law, aboliihed : and it now only exifts as an honorary
title ; though, on account of its indiferiminate attain¬
ment, not very generally regarded. It is conferred in-
difcriminately upon gownfmen, burghers, and phyli-
cians, by the king’s lightly touching the perfon, who
is then kneeling, on the right Ihoulder with a drawn
fword, and faying, Rife Sir. dee the articles Knight
and Nobility.
Bachelors, in an univerfity fenfe, are perfons that
have attained to the baccalaureate, or who have taken
the firft degree in the liberal arts and fciences.
The degree of bachelor was firft introduced in the
13th century by Pope Gregory IX. but it remains (till
unknown in Italy. At Oxford, before a perfon is in-
titled to the degree of bachelor of arts, he muft have
ftudied there four years ; three years more to become
mafterof arts; and feven more to commence bachelor
of divinity.—At Cambridge, to commence bachelor
of arts, he muft have been admitted near four years;
and above three years more before he commence matter;
and feven more ftill to become bachelor of divinity.
He may commence bachelor of law after having ftudied
it fix years.—At Paris, to pafs bachelor in theology,
a perfon mult have ftudied two years in philofophy
and three years in theology, and held two a£ts of ex¬
amination in the Sorbonne.—Bachelors in the canon
law are admitted after two years ftudy in the fame, and
fuftaining an a£l according to the forms. A bachelor
of phyfic muft have ftudied two years in medicine after
having been four years matter of arts in the univerfity,
and have ftood an examination ; after which he is in-
vetted with the fur, in order to be licenfed.--In the
u iverfity of Paris, before the foundation of divinity-
profeflbrlhips, thofe who had ftudied divinity fix years
BAG [7
were admitted to go through their courfe, whence
they were called baccalarii curfores } and as there were
two courfes, the firft employed in explaining the Bible
during three fuccdlive years, the fecond for explain¬
ing the mailer of the fentences for one year, thofe who
were in their Bible-courfe were called baccalarii Biblici,
and thofe arrived at rhe fentences baccalarii fcntsntia-
rii. And laftly, thofe who had gone through both
were denominated baccalarii format!, or formed bache¬
lors.
At prefent, formed bachelor denotes a perfon who
has taken the degree regularly after the due courfe of
itudy and exercifes required by the ftatutes; by way of
oppolition to a current bachelor, who is admitted in
the way of grace, or by diploma.
We alfo find mention of bachelors of the church,
baccalarii ecclefia. The biihop with his canons and
baccalarii, cumconjilio et corfenfu, omnium canonicdrum fuorum
et baccalariorum.
Bachelors, in the livery companies of London,
are thofe not yet admitted to the livery. Thefe com¬
panies generally confift of a mailer, two wardens, the
livery, and the bachelors, who are yet but in expefta-
tion of dignity in the company, and have their func¬
tion only in attendance on the mailer and wardens.
They are alfo called yeomen.
Bachelor is alfo a name given in the fix companies
of merchants at Paris to the elders, and fuchas having
ferved the offices, have a right to be called by the ma¬
tters and wardens to be prefent with them, and affitt
them in fome of the funftions, particularly in what
relates to the chef-d’oeuvres or mailer pieces, of fuch as
are candidates for being admitted matters.
BACHERAC, a town of the Palatine of the Rhine,
fituated on the weftern (hore of that river, in E. Long.
70. and N. Lat 58°. It is remarkable for excellent
wine, from thence called Bacherac.
BACHI AN, one of the Molucca iflands, belong¬
ing to the Dutch; fituated under the equator, in E.
Long. 12 50.
BACHU, a city of Shirvan in Perfia, and the bell
haven in the Cafpian fea. It is defended by a double
wall, as alfo by a ditch and redoubts, made by the Ruf¬
fians when they were matters of the place. It had a
fumptuous cattle, but it is reduced to a ruinous Hate by
the Ruffians. Formerly many merchants refided here,
and carried on a confiderable traffic in raw filk; but
that commerce is now given up. All the country
round is much impregnated with fulphur, which ren¬
ders the water very unpleafant. The neighbourhood
of this city fupplies the countries adjacent with naph¬
tha, brimftone, and rock fait; and is the only place
thereabouts which produces faffron. Round Bachu are
feveral very fteep craggy mountains, on which are
ftrong watch-towers. E. Long, 49. 5. N. Lat- 40. o.
¥>AC¥L,Back-Bone, or Spin e. See Anatomy, n° 30.
Back, in the manege, and among farriers. A horfe’s
back Ihould be ftraight, not hollow, which is called
faddle-l'acked: llorfes of this kind are generally light,
and carry their heads high, but want in ffrength and
fervice. A horfe with a weak back is apt to ftumble.
19 ] BAG
In the French riding-fchools, to mount a horfe a dos,
is to mount him bare-backed without a faddle.
BACK-Gammon, an ingenious game played with dice,
upon a table, by two perfons.
Manner of playing the game. The table is divided
into two parts, upon which there are 24 black and
white fpaces called points. Each adverfary has 15
men, black and white, to diftinguiih them ; and they
are difpofed of ih the following manner : Suppofing
the game to be played into the right hand table, two
are placed upon the ace point in the adverfary’s table,
five upon the fix point in the oppofite table, three up¬
on the cinque point in the hithermoft table, and five
on the fix point in the right-hand table. The grand
objeft in this game is for each player to bring the men
round into his right-hand table, by throwing with a
pair of dice thofe throws that contribute towards it,
and at the ttime time prevent the adverfary doing the
like. The firft bell throw upon the dice is efteemed
aces, becaufe it Hops the fix point in the outer-table,
and fecures the cinque in the thrower’s table; whereby
the adverfary’s two men upon the thrower’s ace point
cannot get out with either quatre, cinque, or fix. This
throw is an advantage often given to the antagonift by
the fuperior player.
When he carries his men home in order to lofe na
point, he is to carry the moft diftant man to his ad¬
verfary’s bar point, that being the firft ftage he is to
place it on ; the next ftage is fix points farther, viz.
in the place where the adverfary’s five men are firft
placed out of his tables. He mutt go on in this me¬
thod till all his men are brought home, except two,
when by lofing a point, he may often fave the gam¬
mon, by throwing two fours or two fives.
When a hit is only played for, he (hould endeavour
to gain either his own or adverlary’s cinque point;
and if that fails by his being hit by the adverfary, and
he finds him forwarder than himfelf, in that cafe he
muft throw more men into the adveifary’s tables ;
which is done in this manner : He muft put a man
upon his cinque or bar point; and if the adverfary ne-
glefts to hit it, he may then gain a forward game in-
ftead of a back game but if the adverfary hits him,
he ftiould play for a back game ; and then the greater
number of men which are taken up makes his game
the better, becaufe by thefe means he will preferve his
game at home : and then he fhould endeavour to gain
both his adverfary’s ace and trois points, or his ace
and deuce points, and take care to keep three men
upon the adverfary’s ace point, that in cafe he hits
him from thence, that point may remain ftill fecure
to himftlf.
A back game {hould not be played for at the be¬
ginning of a fet, becaufe it would be a great difadvan-
tage, the player running the rifle of a gammon to win
a fingle hit.
Rules for playing at fetting out all the throws on the
dice, when the player is to play for a gammon or for a •
ftngle hit [a.) i. Two aces are to be played on the
cinque point and bar point, for a gammon or for a
hit. 2. Two fixes, to be played on the adverfary’s
bar -
(a) The rules maiked thus f are for a gammon only j thofe.marked thus * are for a hit only.
BAG [ 720 ] BAG
BatV- bar point and on the thrower’s bar point, for a gam*
gammon, or for a },jt> f Two trois, to be played on
' the cinque point, and the other two on the trois point
in his own tables for a gammon only. 4. f Two
deuces, to be played on the quatre point in his own
tables, and two to be brought over from the five men
placed in the adverfary’s tables for a gammon only.
5. f Two fours, to be brought over from the five men
placed in the adverfary’s tables, and to be put upon
the cinque point in his own tables, for a gammon only.
‘6. Two fives, to be brought over from the five men
placed in the adverfary’s tables, and to be put on the
-trois point in his own tables, for a gammon or for a
hie. 7. Size ace, he muft take his bar point for a
gammon or for a hit. 8. Size deuce, a man to be
brought from the five men placed in the adverfary’s
tables, and to be placed in the cinque point in his own
tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 9. Six and three,
a man to be brought from the adverfary’s ace point, as
far as he will go, for a gammon or for a hit. 10. Six
and four, a man to be brought from the adverfary’s
ace point, as far as he will go, for a gammon or for a
hit. 11. Six and five, a man to be carried from the
.adverfary’s ace point, as far as he can go, for a gam-
mop or for a hit. 12. Cinque and quatre, a man to
be carried from the adverfary’s ace point, as far as he
can go, for a gammon or for a hit. 13. Cinque trois,
to make the .trois point in his table, for a gammon or
for a hit. 14. Cinque deuce, to play two men from
the five placed in the adverfary’s tables, for a gammon
or for a hit. 15. f Cinque ace, to bring one man from
the five placed in the adverfary’s tables, for the cinque,
and to play one man down on the cinque point in his
own tables for the ace, for a gammon only. 16. Quatre
trois, two men to be brought from the five place in
the adverfary’s tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 17.
<^uatre deuce, to make the quatre point in his own
tables, for a gammon or for a hit. t8. f Quatre ace,
to play a man from the five placed in the adverfary’s
tables for the quatre; and for the ace, to play a man
down upon the cinque point in his own tables, for a
gammon only. 19. -}-Trois deuce, two men to be
brought from the five placed in the adverfary’s tables,
for a gammon only. 20. Trois ace, to make the cinque
point in his own tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 21.
•j- Deuce ace, to play one man from the five men placed
in the adverfary’s table for the deuce ; and for the aee
to play a man down upon the cinque point in his own
tables, for a gammon only. 22 * Two trois, two of
them to be played on the cinque point in his own
tables, and with the other two he is to take the quatre
point in the adverfary’s tables. 23. * Two deuces,
two of them are to be played on the quatre point in
his own tables, and with the other two he is to take
the trois point in the adverfary’s tables. By playing
thefe two cafes in this manner, the player avoids being
fhut up in the adverfary’s tables, and has the chance
of throwing out the tabels to win the hit.
24. * Two fours, two of them are to take the ad¬
verfary’s cinque point in the adverfary’s tables, and for
the other two, two men are to be brought from the
five placed in the adverfary’s tables. 25. * Cinque ace,
the cinque Ihould be played from the five men placed
38-
in the adverfary’s tables, and the ace from the adver¬
fary’s ace point. z6- * Quatre ace, the quatre to be
played from the five men placed in the adverfary’s ace
point. 27. * Deuce ace, the deuce to be played from
the five men placed in the adverfary’s tables, and the
ace from the adverfary’s ace point.
The three laft chances are played in this manner;
becaufe an ace being laid down in the adverfary’s tables,
there is a probability of throwing deuce ace, trois
deuce, quatre trois, or fize cinque, in two or three
throws; either of which throws fecures a point, and
gives the player the belt of the hit.
Cautions, The player mull underftand by the
direftions given to play for a gammon, that he is to
make fome blots on purpofe, the odds being in his fa¬
vour that they are not hit; but if it fliould happen that
any blot is hit, as in this cafe there will be three men
in the adverfary’s tables, he muft then endeavour to fe-
cure the adverfary’s cinque, quatre, or trois point, to
prevent a gammon, and muft be very cautious of his
fourth man’s not being taken up.
He muft not crowd his game at any time if he can
help it; that is to fay, he fhould not put many men
either upon the trois or deuce points in his own tables,
being the fame as lofing thofe men not having them
in play. Befides, by crowding the game, and attempt¬
ing to fave a gammon, the player is often gammoned.
His game being crowded in his own tables, the adver-
fary has room to play as he thinks proper.
The following calculations will (how the odds of en¬
tering a fingle man upon any certain number of points ;
and accordingly the game fhould be played.
It is neceffary to know that there are thirty-fix
chances upon two dice, and the points that are upon
thefe thirty-fix chances are as follow.
Viz.
2 Aces
2 Deuces
2 Trois
2 Fours
2 Fives
2 Sixes
6 And 5 twice
6 And 5 twice
6 And 3 twice
6 And 2 twice
6 And 1 twice
5 And 4 twice
5 And 3 twice
5 And 2 twice
5 And 1 twice
4 And 3 twice
4 And 2 twice
4 And I twice
3 And 2 twice
3 And i twice
2 And 1 twice
Points.
18
16
18
16
14
Divide by 36 ) 294(8
and it proves, that upon an ave- 288
rage the player has a right to  
8 points each throw. 6
Bi
g»m
The
BAG
Back- The chances upon two dice calculated for back¬
gammon. gammon are as follow.
' v r ' 2 Sixes
2 Fives
2 Fours
2 Trois
2 Deuces
f 2 Aces
6 And 5 twice
6 And 4 twice
6 And 3 twice
6 And 2 twice
f 6 And i twice
5 And 4 twice
5 And 3 twice
j A nd 2 twice
t 5 And t twice
4 And 3 twice
4 And 2 twice
f 4 And x twice
3 And 2 twice
f 3 And i twice
■j* 2 And i twice
S6.
As it may feem difficult to find out by this table of
thirty-fix chances what are the odds of being hit upon a
certain or flat die, let the following method be pur-
fued.
The player may obferve in the table that what are
thus f marked are,
f 2 Aces - x
f 6 And 1 twice - 2
•j- 5 And 1 twice - 2
f 4 And 1 twice - 2
•{■ 3 And 1 twice - 2
+ 2 And 1 twice. - 2
C 721 1
BAG
The odds of hitting with double dice are as follow.
Total 1
Which dedufted from
36
There remains 25
So thatok appears it is twenty-five to eleven againft
hitting an ace upon a certain or flat die.
The above method holds good with refpeft to any
other flat die. For example, what are the odds of en¬
tering a man upon 1, 2, 3, 4, or five points?
A nfwer.
To enter it upon for againft for ag.
1 point is 11 to 25 - Or about 4 to 9.
2 points 20-16 - 5 4
3- 27-9 - - 3 *
4- 32-4 - 81
5 * . 35 * 1 - 35 ,l.
The following table fhows the odds of hitting with
any chance, in the reach of a Angle die.
To hit upon
1 is
2
3
4
5
6
againft
11 to 25 Or about -
12-24
14- 22
15- 21
15-21
17-19
for ag.
4 to 9
1 - 2
2 - 3
5 - 7
5 - 7
8f - 9 s
To hit upon for againft
7 is - 6 to 30
6 30
5 31
3 33
34
36
Or about -
for ag.
1 to 5
1 5
1 6
1 11
1 17
35
How to find out the odds of being hit upon a fix,
by the table of thirty-fix chances.
2 Sixes 1
2 Trois - - 1
2 Deuces - - - _ 1
6 And 5 twice - - 2
6 And 4 twice - - - 2
6 And 3 twice ... 2
6 And 2 twice - - - 2
6 And 1 twice - - - 2
5 And 1 twice - 2
4 And 2 twice . - . 2
Which dedu&ed from
Vol. II. Part II.
17
^6
There remains - - - 19
By which it appears to be 19 to x 7 againfi: being
hit upon a fix.
The odds on the hits.
2 Love is about - - - 5 to 2
2 to 1 is - - - 21
1 Love is - - - 3 2
DireHlons for the player to hear his men. If a player
has taken up two of the adverfary’s men, and happens
to have two, three, or more points made in his own
tables, he fhould fpread his men, that he either may
take a new point in his tables, or be ready to hit the
man which the adverfary may happen to enter. If he
finds upon the adverfary’s entering, that the game is
upon a par, or that the advantage is on his own fide,
he fhould take the adverfary’s man up whenever he can,
it being 25 to 11 that he is not hit: except when he
is playing for a Angle hit only; then, if playing the
throw otherwife gives him a better chance for it, he
ought to do it.
It being five to one againft his being hit with double
dice, he fhould never be deterred from taking up any
one man of the adverfary’s.
If he has taken up one of the adverfary’s men, and
fhould happen to have five points in his own tables,
and forced to leave a blot out of his tables, he fhould
endeavour to leave it upon doublets preferable to any
other chance, becaufe in that cafe the odds are 35
to one that he is not hit; whereas it is only 17 to one
but he is hit upon any other chance.
When the adverfary is very forward, a player fhould
never move a man from his own quatre, trois, or deuce
points, thinking to bear that man from the point where
he put it, as nothing but high doublets can give him
any chance for the hit. Inftead of playing an ace or a
deuce from any of thofe points, he fhould play them
from his own fize or higheft points, fo that throwing
two fives, or two fours, his fize and cinque points be¬
ing eafed, would be a confiderable advantage to him ;
4 Y whereas
BAG [722
Bade- whereas had they been loaded, he mud have been ob-
. Sfammon. ligecj to p]ay otherwife.
It is the intereft of the adverfary to take up the
player as foon as he enters. The blot ihould be left
upon the adverfary’s lowed point; that is to fay, upon
his deuce point rather than upon his trois point, or
upon his trois point rather than his quatre point, or
upon his quatre point preferable to his cinque point,
for a reafon before mentioned. All the men the ad¬
verfary plays upon his trois or his deuce points are
deemed loll, being greatly out of-play ; fo that thofe
men not having it in their power to make his cinque
point, and his game being crowded in one place and
open in another, the adverfary mud be greatly annoyed
by the player.
If the player has two of the adverfary’s men in his
tables, he has a better chaflce for a hit than if he had
more, provided his game is forwarder than that of his
antagonid’s; for if he had three or more of the adver¬
fary’s men in his tables, he would dand a worfe chance
to be hit.
When a player is running to fave the gammon, if
he ihould have two men upon his ace point and feveral
men abroad, although he (hould lofe one point or two
in putting his men into his tables, it is his intered to
leave a man upon the adverfary’s ace point, becaufe it
• will prevent his adverfary from bearing his men to the
greated advantage, and at the fame time the player
will have a chance of the adverfary’s making a blot,
vVhich he may chance to hit. However, if a player
finds upon a throw that he has a probability of faving
his gammon, he Ihould never wait for a blot, as the
odds are greatly againd his hitting it, but Ihould em¬
brace that opportunity.
How to calculate the odds of faving or winning the
gammon. Suppofe the adverfary has fo many men
abroad as require three throws to put them into his
tables, and at the fame time that the player’s tables
are made up, and that he has taken up one of the ad¬
verfary’s men ; in this cafe, it is about an equal wager
that the adverfary is gammoned. For in all probability
the player has bore t*o men before he opens his tables;
and when he bears the third man, he will be obliged
to open his fize or cinque point. It is then probable,
that the adverfary is obliged to throw twice before he
enters his men in the player’s tables, twice more be¬
fore he puts that man into his own tables, and three
throws more to put the men which are abroad into his
own tables; in all feven throws. Now the player ha¬
ving 12 men to bear, he may be forced to make an ace
or a deuce twice before he can bear all his men, and
confequently will require feven throws in bearing them;
fo that, upon the whole, it is about equal whether the
adverfary is gammoned or not.
Suppofe a player has three men upon his adverfary’s
ace point and five points in his own tables, and that
the adverfary has all his men in his tables, three upon
each of his five highed points, Has the player a pro¬
bability of gammoning his adverfary or not?
Points
For bearing three men from his 6th
point is - - - ! 8
.From his 5 th point - - 15
] BAG
Carried forward -
From his 4th point
From his 3d point
From his 2d point
Bringing his three men from the adverfary’s
ace point to his fize point in his own ta¬
bles, being 18 points each, and making
. together - - - - 54
There mud remain - - 6
It is plain from this calculation, that the player has
much the bed of the probability of the gammon, ex-
clufive of one or more blots which the adverfary is liable
to make in bearing his men, fuppofing at the fame time
the throws to be upon an equality.
Suppofe two blots are left, either of which cannot
be hit but by double dice, one mud be hit by throwing
eight and the other by throwing nine ; fo that the ad¬
verfary has only one die to hit either of them. What
are the odds of hitting either of them? The chances of
two dice being in all 36
The chances to hit 8 are 6 and 2 twice - 2
5 and 3 twice - 2
2 Deuces - . . 1
2 Fours ... !
The chances to hit 9 are 6 and 3 twice - 2
5 and 4 twice - - - 2
2 Trois .... j
For hitting, in all - - - 11
Chances for not hitting, remain - 25
So that the odds are 25 to r 1 againd hitting
either of thefe blots.
This method may be taken to find out the odds of
hitting three, four, or five blots upon double dice ; or
blots made upon double and fingle dice at the fame time.
After knowing how many chances there are to hit any
of thofe blots, they mud be added all together, and then
fubtrafted from the number 36, which are the chances
of the two dice, and the quedion is folved.
H critical cafe for a Back-game. Suppofe the fore¬
game to be played by A, and that all his men are
placed as ufual; B has fpurteen of his men placed
upon his adverfary’s ace point and one man upon his
adverfary’s deuce point, and B is to throw. Who has
the bed of the hit i—Anfwer: A has the bed of it,
gold to filver : becaufe if B does not throw an ace to
take his adverfary’s deuce point, which is 25 to 11
againd him, A will take up B’s men in his tables either
fingly or to make points ; and then if B fecures either
A’s deuce or trois point, A will put as many men
down as poflible, in order to hit, and thereby get a
back-game. It is evident that the back-game is very
powerful; confequently, whoever praffifes it mud be¬
come a greater proficient at the game than he could by
any other means.
Another critical cafe. Suppofe A to have five men
placed upon his fize point, as many upon his quatre
point, and the fame number upon his deuce point., all
in his own tables. At the fame time, let us fuppofe
B to have three men placed upon A’s ace point,
as many upon A’s trois point, and the fame number
upon
BAG l 723 ] BAG
Back- upon A’s cinque point in iiis own tables, and three
gammon. men placed as ufual out of his tables. Who has the
1 v  belt of the hit?—Anfiver: The game is equal, till B
has gained his cinque and quatre points in his own ta-
; which if he can effect, and by playing two men
from A’e cinque point, in order to force his adverfary
to blot by throwing an ace, which fliould B hit, he will
have the belt of the hit.
A cafe of curiofity and infruSlon; in which is fhown
the probability of making the hit lalt by one of the
players for many hours, although they fnall both play
as fall as ufual.—Suppofe B to have bore 13 men, and
that A has his fifteen men in B’s tables, w's. three
men upon his fize point, as many upon his cinque point,
three upon his quatre point, the fame number upon his
trois point, two upon his deuce point, and one upon
his ace point. A in this fituation can prolong it, as
aforefaid, by bringing his 15 men home, always fecu-
ring fix clofe points till B has entered his two men,
and (.brought them upon any certain point; as foon as
B has gained that point, A will open an ace, deuce,
or trois point, or all pf them; which done, B hits one
of them, and A taking care to have two or three men
in b’s tables, is ready to hit that man ; and alfo he
being certain of taking up the other man, has it in his
power to prolong the hit almolt to any length, pro¬
vided he takes care not to open fuch points as two fours,
two fives, or two fixes, but always to open the ace,
deuce, or trois points, for B to hit him.
A critical game to play.—Suppofe A and B place
their men for a hit in the following manner: A to have
three men upon the fize point in his own tables, three
men out of his tables upon the ufual point, and nine
men upon his adverfary’s ace, deuce, and trois points;
that is, three upon each : and fuppofe B’s men to be
placed in his own and his adverfary’s tables in the
lame order. So fituated, the belt player fhould win
the hit. The game being fo equal, that in this cafe
the dice Ihould be thrown for. Now if A throws firft,
be Ihould endeavour to gain his adverfary’s cinque
point: this being done, he fnould lay as many blots as
polfible, to tempt B to hit him, as it puts him back¬
ward, and A thereby gains an advantage. A fhould
always endeavour to have three men upon each of his
adverfary’s ace and deuce points; becaufe when B
makes a blot, thefe points will remain fecure, and when
A has bore five, fix, or more men, A yet may fecure
fix clofe points out of his tables, in cider to prevent B
from getting his man home, at which time he Ihould
I • calculate who has the belt of the hit. If he finds that
B is foremolt, he Ihould then try to lay fuch blots as
may be taken up by his adverfary, that he may have a
I : chance of taking up another man, in cafe B Ihould hap-
Ipen to have a blot at home.
Laivs of Backgammon. 1. If a man is taken from
any point, it mult be played ; if two men are taken
from it, they alfo mull be played. 2. A man is not
fuppofed to be played till it is placed upon a point and
quitted. 3. If a plajer has only fourteen men in play,
there is no penalty inflidted, becaufe by his playing,
with a leffer number than he is intitled to, he plays to
a difadvantage for w'ant of the deficient man to make
up his tables. 4. If he bears any number of men be¬
fore he has entered a man taken up, and which of
courfe he was obliged to enter, fuch men.fo borne muft
be entered again in the adverfary’s tables as well as the Back-
man taken up. 5. If he has nailtaken his throw and
played it, and his adverfary has thrown, it is not in Staff>
the choice of either of the players to alter it, unlefs —y—
they both agree fo to do.
Back-Painting, the method of painting mezzotinto
prints, palled on glafs, with oil-colours. See Mezzo¬
tinto.
The art condfts chiefly in laying the print upon a
piece of crown-glafs, of fuch a fize as fits the print.
In order to do this, take your print and lay it in
clean water for two days and two nights, if the print
be on very flrong, clofe, and hard gummed paper; but
if upon an open, foft, fpongy paper, two hours will
fometimes fuffice, or more, according as the paper is.
The paper or picture having been fufficiently foaked,
take it out and lay it upon two Iheets of paper, and
cover it w'ith twm more; and let it lie there a little to
fuck out the moilture.
In the mean time, take the glafs the picture is to be
put upon, and fet it near the fire to warm; take Straf-
burg turpentine, warm it over the fire till it is grown
fluid, then with a hog’s-hair brulh fpread the turpen¬
tine very fmoothly and evenly on the glafs.
When this has been done, take the mezzotinto print
from between the papers and lay it upon the glafs ;
beginning firlt at one end, rubbing it down gently as
you go on, till it lie clofe, and there be no wind blad¬
ders between.
Then, with your fingers, rubb or roll off the paper
from the back-fide of the print, till it looks black, i. e.
till you can fee nothing but the print, like a thin film,
left upon the glafs, and fet if by to dry.
When it is dry, varnifh it over with fome white tranff
parent varnifh, that the print may be feen through it;
and then it is fit for painting.
The utmoft care will be neceffaiy in rubbing or roll¬
ing the paper off the print, fo as not to tear it, efpe-
cially in the light parts.
You may, inftead of foaking your prints two days
and two nights,, roll them up and boil them for about
two hours, more or lefs, according to the quality of
the paper, in water; and that will tender it as fit for
rubbing, rolling, or peeling, as the other way.
This being done, and your oil colours prepared,
ground very fine, and tempered up very lliff, lay on the
back-fide of the tranfparent piints fuch colours as. each
particular part requires ; letting the mailer-lines of the
print Hill guide your pencil, and fo each particular co¬
lour will lie fair to the eye on the other fide of the glafs,
and look almoft as well as a painted piece, if it be done
neatly.
The fhadows of the print are-generally fufficient for
the lhadow of every colour ; but if you have a mind to
give a lhadow by your pencil, then let the lhadows be
laid on firlt, and the other colours afterward.
In laying on colours in this kind of back-painting,
you need not be curious as to the laying them on
fmooth. This is not at all requifite here, where the
chief aim is only to have the colours appear well on the
fore fide of the print ; and therefore the only care to
be ufed in this work, is to lay the colours on thick
enough, that its body may Itrike the colour of it plainly
through the glafs.
BdCK-Stajf, a name formerly given, to a fea-qua-
4 Y % drant
B A C [?H] BAG
Jia;:fc- tlraut invented by Captain Davis: becaufe the back of two great artifts painted in competition, and both
Stays t}ie js turned towards the fun at the time of ob- were praifed for their merit in their different ways j
Backereel.'^'ervat*on’ ^ee Quadrant. but the fuperiority was never determined in favour
u—1 BACK-Stays, of a ihip, are ropes belonging to the either of the one or the other. He had likewife
main-maft and fore-mall, and the malts belonging to good tafte for poetry; but by exercifrng that talc-,»”t'
them ; ferving to keep them from pitching forwards or too freely in writing fatircs againd tire Jefuits, thefe
overboard. ecclefialtics purfued him with unremitted revenge,
2?.4CA'-2"bfi, in Scots law: When a wadfetter, inftead till they compelled him to fly from Antwerp, and by
of poflefling the wadfet-lands, grants a tack thereof to that means deprived his own country of fuch paint-
the reverfer for payment of a certain fum in name of . ings as would have contributed to its perpetual ho-
tack-duty, that tack is called a back-tack. nour. Sandrart takes notice, that in his time there
BACK-Worm. See Filanders. were feven or eight painters, who were very emi-
B ACKER, or Barker, (Jaques), a painter of hi- neut, of the name of Backereel, in Italy and the Low
ftory, was born at Antwerp in 1530; and learned the Countries.
principles of painting from his father, who was an ar- BACKHUYSEN (Ludolph), an eminent painter,
tiff very Jknowing in his profefiion, though his works was born at Embden in 1631, and received his earlieil
were in no great ellimation. After the death of his inliruttion from Albert Van Everdingen; but acquired
father, he lived in the houfe of Jacopo Palermo, a his principal knowledge by frequenting the painting
dealer in pi&ures, who avaricioufly took cafe to keep rooms of different great mailers, and obferving their
him inceflantly employed, and fent his paintings to various methods of touching and colouring. One of
Paris to be difpofed of, where they happened to be ex- thofe mailers was Henry Dubbels, whole underltand-
ceedingly admired. The judicious were very eager to ing in his art was very extenlive ; and he was as re-
purchafe them: and though the tranfa&or fold them markably communicative of his knowledge to others,
at a great price, yet the poor artifl. was not propor- From him Backhuyfen obtained more real benefit than
tionably rewarded, but continued in the fame obfcure from all the painters of his time, either by lludying
and depreffed condition. His merit, indeed, was uni- their works, or perfonaily converling with them. His
verfally allowed ; but his name, and the narrownefs of fubjedts were fea-pieces, (hips, and fea-ports. He had
his circumftances, were as univerfally unknown. He not pradtifed very long when he became the object of
had a clean light manner of penciling, and a tint of general admiration ; io that even his drawings were
colour that was extremely agreeable. He died in fought after, and feveral of them were bought up at
1560. _ «oo florins a-piece. It was obferved of him, that
BACKER, or Barker, (Jacob), painter of portrait while he was painting he would not fuffer even his
and hiftory, was born at Plarlingen in 1609, but fpenc moll intimate friends to have accefs to him, lell his
the greatell part of his life at Amllerdam ; and by all fancy might be dillurbed, and the ideas he had formed
the writers on this fubjedt he is mentioned as an ex- in his mind be interrupted. He lludied nature atten-
traordinary painter, particularly of portraits, which he lively in all her forms; in gales,, calms, fturms, clouds
executed with llrength, fpirit, and a graceful refem- rocks, Ikies, lights, and fhadows ; and he expreffed
blance. He was remarkable for an uncommon readi- every fubjedt with fo fweet a pencil, and fuch tranfpa-
nefs of hand and freedom of pencil; and his incredible rence and luftre, as placed him above all the artifts of
expedition in his manner of painting appeared even his time in that ffyle, except the younger Vandervelde,
in one portrait of a lady from Haerlem, that he paint- who is defervedly eileemed the firit in that manner of
ed at half length, which was begun and finiflied in one painting. It was a frequent cuffom with Backhuyfen,
day, though he,adorned the figure with rich drapery whenever he could procure refolute mariners to go to
and feveral ornamental jewels. He alfo painted hillo- fea in a florm, in order to ftore his mind with grand
rical fubjedts with good fuccefs; and in that llyle there images, diredtly copied from nature, of fuch fcenes as
is a fine pidture of Cimoh and iphigenia, which is ac- would have filled any other head and heart with terror
counted by the connoifleurs an excellent performance, and difmay ; and the moment he landed he always im-
In defigning academy-figures his expreflron was fo jull, patiently ran to his palette to fecure thofe incidents, of
and his outline fo corredt, that he obtained the prize which the traces might by delay be obliterated. He
from all his competitors; and his works are Hill bought perfedtly underilood the management of the Chiaro-
up at very high prices in the Low Countries. In the Scuro, and by his Ikill in that part of his art, he gave
colleftion of the Eledlor Palatine there is an excellent uncommon force and beauty to his objedls. He ob-
head of Brouwer, painted by this mailer; and in the ferved llridlly the tr uth of perfpedlive, in the diflances
Carmelites church at Antwerp is prefetved a capital of his veffels, the receding of the grounds on the fltores,
pidlure of the Laft Judgment, which is well defigned and the different buildings which he deferibed in the
and well coloured. He died in 1651. ft a ports ; whether they were the refulc of his own
BACKEREEL, called Baccjuerelli, (William), imagination, or Iketched, as he ufually did, after na-
a painter of hillory, was born at Antwerp, and was a ture. His works may eaiily be diltinguilhed by an ob-
difciple of Rubens, at the fame time that Vandyck was fervant eye, from the freedom and neatneis of his
educated in that fchool. When each of them quit- touch; from the clearnefs and natural agitation or
ted that mafter, and commenced painters, Backe- quiefcence of the water; from a peculiar tint in his
reel was very little inferior to Vandyck, if not near- clouds and Ikies; and alfo from the exact proportions
ly his equal. And this may be manifeftly feen in of his fliips, and the gracefulnefs of their pofition. For
the works of the former, which are in the church the Burgomafters of Amlterdam he painted a lar^e
of the Auguftin monks at Antwerp; where thofe pidlure, with a multitude of veffels, and a view of the
5 city
BacV-.uy-
B A C
I Backing city at a diftance, for which they gave him thirteen
li hundred guilders, and a coniiderable prefent; which
a Bacon. p;fture tjjey afterwards prel’ented to the King of France,
| v who placed it in the Kouvre. No painter was ever
more'' honoured by the vilits of kings and princes than
Backhuyfen ; the King of Prufiia was one of the num¬
ber ; and the Czar Peter the Great took delight to fee
him paint, and often endeavoured to draw after veffels
which he had defigned. He was remarkably affiduous;
and yet it feems aftonilhing to confider the number of
piddures which he finifhed, and the exquifite manner in
which they are painted. He died in 1709.
BACKING, inhorfemanlhip. SeeHoasEMANSHip.
Backing the Sails, in navigation ; to arrange them
in a fituation that will force the (hip to retreat or
move backwards. This is, however, only done in nar¬
row channels, when a (hip is carried along fidewife by
the tide or current, and wants to avoid any thing that
may interrupt her progrefs, as (hoals, veffels at anchor,
&c. or in the line of battle, when a (hip wants to be
immediately oppofite to another with which (he is en¬
gaged.
BACKS, among dealers in leather, denote the
thickeft and beft tanned hides, ufed chiefly for foies
of (hoes.
Backs, in brewing and diddling. See Bac.
BACULARIUS, in writers of the middle age, an
ecclefladical apparitor, or verger; who carries a Aaff,
laculus, in his hand, as an enlign of his office.
BACON, fwines fleflr faked and dried in the chim¬
ney.—Old hiflorians and law-writers fpeak of the fer-
vice of the bacon, a cuflom in the manor of Whichen-
acre in Staffordflu’re, and priory of Dunmore in Efiex;
in the former of which places, by an ancient grant of
the lord, a flitch of bacon, with half a quarter of
wheat, was to be given to every married couple who
could fwear, that, having been married a year and a
day, they would never within that time have once ex¬
changed their mate for any other perfon on earth,
however richer, fairer, or the like. But they were to
bring two of their neighbours to fwear with them that
they believed they fwore the truth. On this the lord of
another neighbouring manor, of Rudlow, was to find
a horfe faddled, and a fade to carry the bounty in,
with drums and trumpets, as far as a day’s journey out
of the manor: all the tenants of the manor being fum-
moned to attend, and pay fervice to the bacon. The
bacon of Dunmore, fird eredled under Henry III. was
on much the fame footing ; only the tenor of the oath
| was, that the parties had never once repented, or wi(h-
ed themfelves unmarried again.
Bacon (Roger), a Francifcan friar of amazing
genius and learning, was born near Ilchefter in Somer-
fetfhire in the year 1214. He began his Audies at
Oxford, but in what fchool or college is uncertain.
Thence he removed to the univerfity of Paris, which
!| in thofe times was eAeemed the centre of literature.
Here, we are told, he made fo rapid a progrefs in the
fciences, that he was eAeemed the glory of that uni¬
verfity, and was much careffed by feveral of his coun¬
trymen, particularly by Robert Grouthead, afterwards
bifliop of Lincoln, his Angular friend and patron.
About the year 1240, he returned to Oxford'; and
afluming the Francifcan habit, profecuted his favourite
ftudy of experimental philofophy with unremitting
BAC
ardor and affidulty. In this purfuit, in experiments, Tacen,
inArumcnts, and in fcarce books, he tells us, he fpent, '■““■v—"
in the fpace of 20 years, no lefs than L.2000; which,
it feems, was given him by fome of the heads of the
univerfity, to enable him to profecute his noble in¬
quiries. By fuch extraordinary talents, and aAonilhing
progrefs in fciences, which, in that ignorant age, were
totally unknown to the reA of mankind, whilA they
raifed the admiration of the more intelligent few, could
not fail to excite the envy and malice of his illiterate
fraternity; who found no difficulty of poffeffing the vul¬
gar with the notion of Bacon’s dealing with the devil.
Under this pretence, he was reftrained from reading
lectures; his writings were confined to his convent; and
finally, in 1278, he himfelf was imprifoned in his cell.
At this time he was 64 years of age. Neverthelefs,
bei;ig permitted the ufe of his books, he went on in
the rational purfuit of knowledge, corrected his former
labours, and wrote feveral curious pieces. When he
had been 10 years in confinement, Jerom de Afcoli
being eledled pope, Bacon folicited his holinefs to be
releafed ; in which, it feems, he did not immediately
fucceed. However, towards the latter end of that
pope's reign, he obtained his liberty, and fpent the
remainder of his life in the college of his order, where
he died in the year 1294, in the 80th year of his age,
and was buried in the Francifcan church. Such arc
the few particulars which the mofi diligent refearches
have been able to difeover concerning this very great
man ; who, like a Angle bright Aar in a dark hemi-
fphere, (hone forth the glory of his country, and the
pride of human nature. His works are, 1. Epiflola
fratris Rogeri Baconis de fecretis operibus artis et natura,
et de nullitate magia. Paris, 1542, 410. Bafil, 159^5,
8v<&. 2. Opus majus. Lon. 1733, fol. publifhed by
Dr Jtbb. 3. Thefaurus chemicus. Francf. 1603,
i 620. This was probably»the editor’s title ; but it
contains feveral of our author’s treatifes on this fub-
jeft. Thefe printed works of Bacon contain a con-
fiderable number of effays, which, in the catalogue
of his writings by Bale, Pits, &c. have been con-
fidered as diAinft books; but there remain in differ¬
ent liberaries feveral manuferipts not yet publiffied. By
an attentive perufal of his works, the reader will be
aAcnilhed to find, that this great luminary of the 13th
century was a great linguiA and a (kilful grammarian ;
that he was well verfed in the theory and praftice of
perfpedtive ; that he underAood the ufe of convex and
concave glaffes, and the art of making them ; that the
camera obfeura, burning-glaffes, and the power of the
tekfeope, w ere known to him ; that he was well verfed
in geography and aAronomy ; that he knew the great
error in the kalendar, affigned the caufe, and propofed
the remedy ; that he underAood chronology well; that
he was an adept in chemiAry, and was really the inven¬
tor of gun-powder ; that he poffeffcd great knowledge
in the medical art; that he was an able mathematician,
logician, metaphyfician, and theologiA.
Bacon (Sir Nicholas), lord keeper of the great feal
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was born at Chifle-
hurA in Kent in 1510, and educated at the univerfi¬
ty of Cambridge; after v'hich he travelled into France,
and made fome (lay at Paris On his return, he fettled
in Gray’s-inn, and applied bimfelf with fuch affiduity
to the Audy of the law, that he quickly diAinguifhed
him-
l 725 1
i,
B A C C 726 ] B A C
himfelf fo, that on the diffolution of the monaftery of
St Edmond’s Bury in Suffolk, he had a grant fronv
King Henry VII1. in the 36th year of his reign, of
feveral manors. In the 38th of the fame king, he was
promoted to the office of attorney in the court of
Wards, which was a place both of honour and profit.
In this office he was continued by King Edward VI.;
and in 15^2 he waseledied treafurerof Gray’s-inn. His
great moderation and confummate prudence preferved
him through the dangerous reign of Queen Mary. In
the very dawn of that of Elizabeth he was knighted ;
and on the 22d of December 1558, the great feal of
England being taken from Nicholas Heath archbifhop
of York, was delivered to him with the title of lord
keeper, and he was alfo made one of the Queen’s privy
pouncil. tie had a confiderable (hare in the fettling
of religion. As a flatefman, he was remarkable for a
clear head and deep counfels: but his great parts and
high preferment were far from raifing him in his own
opinion, as appears from the modell anfwer he gave
Queen Elizabeth, when fhe told him his houfe at Red¬
grave was too little for him : “ Not fo, madam, (re¬
turned he); but your majefty has made me too great for
my houfe.” After having had the great feal more
than 20 years, this able ftatefman and faithful counfel-
lor was fuddenly removed from this life, as Mr Mallet
informs us, by the following accident: he was under
the hand,s of the barber* and thinking the weather
warm, had ordered a window before him to be thrown
open ; but fell afieep as the current of ftefli air was
blowing in upon him, and awakened.fome time after di-
llempered all over. He was immediately removed into
his bed-chamber, where he died a few days after, on
the 26th of February 1578-9, equally lamented by the
Queen and her fubje&s. He was buried in St Paul’s,
where a monument was ereited to him, which was de-
ftroyed by the fire of London in 1666. Mr Granger
obferves, that he was the firfl. lord keeper that ranked
as lord chancellor ; and that he had much of that pe¬
netrating genius, folidity, and judgment,, perfwafive
eloquence, and comprehenfive knowledge of law and
equity, which afterwards fhone forth with fo great a
luftre in his fon, who was as much inferior to his fa¬
ther in point of prudence and integrity as his father
was to him in literary accomplilhsnents.
Bacon (Francis), lord high chancellor of England
under King James I. was fon of Sir Nicholas Bacon
lord keeper of the great feal in the reign of Queen Eli¬
zabeth, by Anne daughter of Sir Anthony Cook,
eminent for her Ikill in the Latin and Greek tongues.
He was born in 1560; and fhowed fuch marks of genius,
that he was particularly taken notice of by Queen Eli
zabeth when very young. He was educated at Trini¬
ty-college, Cambridge; and made fuch incredible pro-
grefs in his {Indies, that before he was 16 he had not
only run through the whole circle of the liberal arts as
they were then taught, but began to perceive thofe im-
perfe&ions in the reigning philofophy, which he after¬
wards fo effeftually ex poled, and thereby not only over¬
turned that tyranny which prevented the progrefs of
true knowledge, but laid the foundation of that free
and ufeful philofophy which has fince opened a way
to fo many glorious difeoveries. On hia leaving the
univerfity, his father fent him to France; where, be¬
fore he was 19 years of age, he wrote a general view
of the ftate of Europe: but Sir Nicholas dying, he
was obliged fuddenly to return to England; when
he applied himfelf to the'ftudy of the common law at
Gray’s-inn. At this period the famous Earl of Efl'ex,
who could dillinguifli merit, aiad who paflionately lo¬
ved it, entered into an intimate friendftip with him;
zealoufly attempted, though without fuccefs, to pro¬
cure him the oifice of Queen’s folicitor ; and, in order
to comfort his friend under the difappointment, con¬
ferred on him a prefent of land to the value of 1 800L
Bacon, notwith(landing the friendfliip of fo great a
perfon ; notwithftanding the number and power of his
own relations; and, above all, notwithstanding the early
prepofTefiion of her majedy in his favour; met with
many obftacles to his’preferment during her reign. In
particular, his enemies reprefen ted him as a fpeculative
man, whofe head was filled with philofophical notions,
and therefore more likely to perplex than forward pub¬
lic bufinels. It was not without great difficulty that
lord treafurer Burleigh obtained for him the reverfion
of regiller to the liar-chamber, worth about 1600I.
a-year, which place fell to him about twenty years
after. Neither did he obtain any other preferment all
this reign; though if obedience to a fovereign in what
muft be the moft difagreeable of all offices, Tiz. the
catting refledtions on a deceafed friend, intitled him,
he might have claimed it. The people were fo cla¬
morous even againfl the Queen herfelf on the death of
EflVx, that it was thought neceflary to vindicate the
condudl of the adminiflration. This was affigned to
Bacon, which brought on him univerfal cenfure, nay his
very life was threatened. Upon the acceffion of King
James, he was foon raifed to confiderable honours; and
wrote in favour of the union of the two kingdoms of
Scotland and England, which the King fo paffionately
defired. In 1616, he was fvvorn of the privy-council.
He then applied himfelf to the reducing and recom-
pofing the laws of England. He diftinguifhed him¬
felf when attorney-general by his endeavours to reflrain
the cuftom of duels, then very frequent. In 1617, he
was appointed lord keeper of the great feal. In 1618,
he was made lord chancellor of England, and created
Lord Verulam. In the midfl of thefe honours and ap-
plaufes, and multiplicity of bufinefs, he forgot not his
philofophy, but in 1620 publifhed his great work in-
titled Novum Organuin. We find, by feveral letters
of his, that he thought convening of parliaments was
the befl expedient for the king and people. In 1621,
he was advanced to the dignity of Vifcount St Albans,
and appeared with the greateft fplendour at the open¬
ing of the feffion of parliament. But he was foon after
furprifed with a melancholy reverfe of fortune. For,
about the 12th of March, a committee of the houfe of
commons was appointed to infpeft the abufes of the
courts of juflice. The firft thing they fell upon was.
bribery and corruption, of which the lord chancellor
was accufed. For that very year complaints being made
to the houfe of commons of his lordfhipV having re¬
ceived bribes, thofe complaints were fent up to the
houfe of lords; and new ones being daily made of a
like nature, things foon grew too high to be got over.
The King found it was impoffible to fave both his chan¬
cellor, who was openly accufed of corruption, and.
Buckingham his favourite, who was fecretly and there¬
fore more dangeroufly attacked as the encourager of
whatever
Bacon.
BAG [ 727 ] BAG
! Bacon, whatever was deemed mofl. illegal and oppreffive: he
p”—y——. therefore forced the former to abandon his defence,
giving him pofitive advice to fubmit himfelf to his peers,
and promifing upon his princely word to fcreen him in
the laft determination, or, if that could not be, to re¬
ward him afterwards with ample retribution of favour.
The chancellor, though he forefaw his approaching
ruin if he did not plead for himfelf, refolved to obey ;
and the houfe of peers, on the 3d of May 1621, gave
judgment againll him, “ That he fhould be fined
40,0001. and remain prifoner in the tower during the
King’s pleafurej that he ftiould forever be incapable of
any office, place, or employment, in the ftate or com¬
monwealth; and that he ffiould never fit in parliament,
or come within the verge of the court.” The fault
which, next to his ingratitude to Effex, thus tarniffied
the glory of this illuftrious man, is faid to have prin¬
cipally proceeded from his indulgence to his fervants,
who made a corrupt ufe of it. One day, during his
trial, palling through a room where feveral of his do-
mellics were fitting, upon their riling up to falute him,
he faid, “ Sit down, my mailers; your rife hath been
my fall.” Stephens, p. 54. And we are told by Rulh-
worth in his hillorical colleclions, “ That he treafured
up nothing for himfelf or family, but was over-indul-
I gent to his fervants, and connived at their takings,
and their ways betrayed him to that error; they were
profufeand expenfive, and had at their command what¬
ever he was mailer of. The gifts taken were for the
I moll part for interlocutory orders; his decrees were ge¬
nerally made with fo much equity, that though gifts
I 3 rendered him fufpe&ed for injuftice, yet never any de¬
cree made by him was reverfed as unjull.” It was pe¬
culiar to this great man (fays the authors of the Biogr.
Brit.) to have nothing narrow and felfilh in his compo-
fition: he gave away without concern whatever he pof-
felfed ; and believing other men of the fame mould, he
received with as little ccnfideration. He retired, afi-
1 ter a Ihort imprifonment, from the engagements of an
aftive life, to which he had been called much againll
his genius, to the fhade of a contemplative one, which
I he had always loved. The King remitted his fine, and
he was fummoned to parliament in the firft year of King
Charles I. It appears from the works compofed du-
.1 ring his retirement, that his thoughts were Hill free,
vigorous, and noble. The lall five years of his life he
devoted wholly to his itudies. In his recefs he com¬
pofed the greatell part of his Englilh and Latin works.
He expired on theyth of April, 1626; and was buried
in St Michael’s church at St Albans, according to the
diredlion of his lall will, where a monument of white
marble v'as eredled to him by Sir Thomas Meautys
formerly his fecretary, and afterward clerk of the privy-
council under two kings. A complete edition of this
great man’s works was publilhcd at London in the
year 1740.—Addifon has faid of him, That he had
the found, diftindl, comprehenfive knowledge of Ari-
ilotle, with all the beautiful light graces and embel-
lilhments of Cicero. The honourable Mr Walpole calls
1. him the Prophet of Arts which Newton wras afterwards
|: to reveal; and adds, that his genius and his works will
be univerfally admired as long as fcience exills. “ As
long as ingratitude and adulation are defpicable, fo
long lhall we lament the depravity of this great man’s
! heart. Alas! that he who could command immortal
fame, ffiould have {looped to the little ambition of
power.”
Bacon (Sir Nathaniel), knight of the bath, and an
excellent painter, was a younger fon of the lord keeper,
and half brother to the great Sir Francis. He travelled
into Italy, and ftudied painting there; but his manner
and colouring approaches nearer to the ftyle of the
Flemiffi fchool. Mr Walpole obferves, that at Cul-
ford, where he lived, are preferved fome of his works ;
and at Gorhambury, his father’s feat, is a large pic¬
ture by him in oil, of a cook-maid with a dead fowl,
admirably painted, with great nature, neatnefs, and
luilre of colouring. In the fame houfe is a whole
length of him, by himfelf, drawing on a paper, his
fword and pallet hung up, and a half length of his mo¬
ther by him.
Bacon
II
Bacftria.
BACONTHORP (John), called the refolute dodor,
a learned monk, was born towards the end of the 13th
century, at Baconthorp a village in Norfolk He fpent
the early part of his life in the convent of Blackney,
near Walfingham in the fame county; whence he re¬
moved to Oxford, and from thence to Paris; where
being diftinguiffied for his learning, he obtained degrees
in divinity and laws, and was efteemed the principal
of Averroifts*. In 1329 he returned to England, ' See
and was immediately chofen twelfth provincial of the ro"’
Engliffi Carmelites. In 1333 he was fent for to Rome;
where, we are told, he firit maintained the pope’s fo-
vereign authority in cafes of divorce, but that he after¬
ward retracted his opinion. He died in Loudon in
the year 1346. Leland, Bale, and Pits, unanimoully
gave him the charadler of a monk of genius and
learning. He wrote, J. Commentaria feu quafliones
fuper quatuor lilros fententiarwn; and 2. Compendium
Icgis Chr'ijli, et quodlibeta: both which underwent fe¬
veral editions at Paris, Milan, and Cremona. Leland,
Bale, and Pits, mention a number of his works never
publifhed.
BACTRIA, orBACTRiANA, now Choraffan or Kho-
rafan, an ancient kingdom of Afia, bounded on the
weft by Margiana, on the north by the river Oxus, on
the fouth by mount Paropifmus, and on the eaft by
the Afiatic Scythia and the country of the Maffagetse.
It was a large, fruitful, and well-peopled country,
containing according to Ammianus Marcellinus 1000
cities, though of thefe only a few are particularly
montioned by hiftorians, of wffiich that formerly call¬
ed Maracunda, now Samarcatid, is the moft confider-
able.
Of the hiftory of this country we know but little.
Authors agree that it was fubdued firft by the Affy-
rians, afterwards by Cyrus, and then by Alexander the
Great. Afterwards it remained fubjeft to Seleucus
Nicator and his fuceeffors till the time of Antiochus
Theos; when Theodotus, from governor of that pro
vince, became king, and ftrengthened himfelf fo effec
tually in his kingdom, while Antiochus was engaged
in a war with Ptolemy Philadelphus king of Egypt,
that he could never afterwards difpofies him of his ac-
quifitions. His pofterity continued to enjoy the king¬
dom for fome time, till they were driven out by the
Scythians', who reigned in Ba&ria at the time of A-
drian, Antoninus Pius, &c. The Scythians were in
their turn driven out by the Huns or Turks, and thefe
often conquered by the Saracens and Tartars; never-
2 thelefis
BAD [ 728 1 BAD
Ba&rope- thelefsthey continued in poffeflion of tliis country in the in 1661, by Don John of Auftria. W. Long. 7.3. I
ra*a time of Ladiflaus IV. king of Hungary. N. Lat. 38. 35.
Batlijoz In early times the Badlrians differed little in their BADELONA, a town of Catalonia in Spain, feated
t _ ^ ■ manner from the Nomades ; and being near neigh- on the Mediterranean. Lord Peterborough landed here
hours of the Scythians, who were a very warlike people, in 1704, when, with Charles then king of Spain, he
the Badtrian foldiers were reckoned the bed in the laid liege to Barcelona, from which it is ten miles di¬
world. Their appearance was very favage; being of ftant. E. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 41. 12.
an enormous ftature, having a terrible afpedl, rough BADEN (the dillrid: of), in Swifferland, has three
beards, and long hair hanging down their fhoulders. cities, Baden, Keifers-Stoul, and Klingnaw, beiidea a
Some authors affert that they kept dogs on purpofe to town that paffes for a city, namely Zun&ach. It is
devour fuch as arrived at extreme old age, or who were one of the fineft countries in Swifferlandj and is watered
exhaufted by long frcknefs. They add, that for all with three navigable rivers, the Limmet, Rufs, and
their fiercenefs, the Baftrian hulbands were fuch dupes Are. The land is fertile in corn and fruit, and there
to their wives, that they durfi. not complain of them even are places on the fide* of the Limmet which produce
for conjugal infidelity, to which it feems the latter were wine. It maintains a communication between the can-
very much addicted. tons of Zurich and Bern, being feated between their
BACTROPERATA, an ancient appellation given north extremities. It extends on one fide to the Are,
to philofophers by way of contempt, denoting a man as far as the place where it falls into the Rhine, and
with a llaff and a budget. on the other fide beyond the Rhine, where there are
We fuppofe it is of the fame people that Pauchafias fome villages which depend thereon. Moft of the in-
Radbertus fpeaks under the corrupt name of Baccope- habitants are Papifts. By the treaty of peace at the
ritx, or Bacchionita, whom he defcribes as philofo- conclufion of the war which broke out in 1712 between
phers who had fo great a contempt for all earthly things, the Proteftant and Popifh cantons, this country was
that they kept nothing but a difh to drink out of; and yielded to the Proteftant cantons of Zurich and Bern,
that one of this order feeing a peafant fcooping up the Before, it was the property of the eight old cantons ;
water in his hand, threw away his cup as a fuperfluity: however, as the canton of Claris had taken no part in
which is nothing but the old ftory of Diogenes the this war, by the confent of both parties its right waa
Cynic. ftill continued.
BACULE, in fortification, a kind of portcullis, Baden, the capital of the above diftridh, is an agree-
or gate, made like a pit-fall with a counterpoife, and able city, moderately large, feated on the fide of the
fupported by two great ftakes. It is ufually made be- Limmet, in a plain flanked by two high hills, between
fore the corpade-guard, not far from the gate of a which the river runs. This city owes its rife to its
place. baths, which were famous before the Chriftian sera.
BACULOMETRY, the art of meafuring acceffible Several monuments of antiquity have been found here
or inaccefiible heights, by the help of one or more ba- from time to time, particularly in 1420. When they
culi, ftaves, or rods. See Geometry. were opening the large fpring of the baths, they found
BACURIUS, or Baturius, king of the Iberians, ftatues of feveral heathen gods, made of alabafter; Ro-
a people on the fide of the Cafpian lea. One day being man coins, made of bronze, of Auguftus, Vel'pafian,
a-hunting, he loft light of his company, through a Decius, &c.; and feveral medals of the Roman empe-
great ftorm and hidden darknefs; upon which he vowed rois, ofgold, filver, copper, and bronze. There are
to the God.of his Chriftian flave, that if he were de- two churches in Baden ; one of which is collegiate,
livered lie would worlhip him alone: the day breaking and makes a good appearance ; the other is a mona-
up immediately, he made good his promife, and be- ftery of the Capuchins, near the town-houfe. This
came the apoltle of his country. laft building ferves not only for the affemblies of their
BADAGSHAN, a very ancient city of Great own council, but alfo for thofe of the cantons. The
Bukharia, in the province of Balkh, lituated at the foot diet affembles there in a handfome room made for that
of thofe high mountains which feparate Indoftan from purpofe ; the deputies of Zurich fit at the bottom be-
Great Tartary. The city is exceedingly ftrong by its hind a table, as the moft honourable place ; the am-
fituation ; and belongs to the khan of proper Bukha- baffadors of foreign powers are feated on one fide to
ria, who ufes it as a kind of flate-prifon to fecure thofe the right, and the deputies of the other cantons are
he is jealous of. The town is not very big, but well ranged on each fide the room. The bailiff of Baden
built and very populous. It Hands on the north fide refides in a caftle at the end of a handfome wooden
of the river Amu, about 100 miles from its fource, and bridge, which is covered in. Before this caftle there
is a great thoroughfare for the caravans defigned for is a ftone pillar, ere&ed in honour of the emperor Tra-
Little Bukharia. The inhabitants are enriched by jan, who paved a road in this country 85 Italian miles
mines of gold, filver, and rubies, which are in the in length. The inhabitants are rigid Roman catholics,
neighbourhood ; and thofe who live at the foot of the and formerly behaved in a moft. infolent manner to the
mountains gather a great quantity of gold and filver Proteftants, but they are now obliged by their matters
dull brought down in the fpring by torrents occafioned to be more fubmifiive. The baths which are on each
by the melting of the fnow on the top. fide the river are a quarter of a league from the city.
BADAJOZ, a large and ftrong town, capital of Joining to the fmall baths there is a village, and to the
Eftremadura in Spain. It is feated on the river Gua- large a town which may pafs for a fecond Baden. It
diana, over which there is a fine bridge built by the is feated on a hill, of which the afeent is fteep. There
Romans. On this bridge the Portuguefe were defeated the baths are brought into inns and private houfes, by
N° 39. means
Bfcden
BAD [ 729 1 BAD
means of pipn3,-which are about 60 in all. There are
alfo public baths in the middle of the town, from a
fpring which rifes in the ftreet, where the poor bathe
gratis, but they are expofed quite naked to all that
pals by. All the baths are hot, and one to fo great a
degree as to fcald the hand ; and they arc impregnated
with a great deal of lulphur, with fame alum and nitre.
They are ufeful for drinking as well as bathing ; and
are faid to cure all difeafes from a cold caufe, head-
achs, vertigos, &c. They ftrengthen the fenfes, cure
difeafes of the breaft and bowels, afthmas, and obftruc-
tions. They are peculiarly excellent for womens dif¬
eafes. E. Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. 47. 27.
Baden (the Margravate of), in the circle of Swa¬
bia in Germany, is bounded by the Palatinate of the
Rhine on the narth; by the Black Foreft on the
call; by Switzerland on thefouth; and by the Rhine,
which divides it from Alface, on the call: and is about
90 miles in length from north to fouth, but not above
20 in breadth where it is wideft. It is a very popu¬
lous and fruitful country, abounding in Corn and wine.
Venifon and wild flowl are fo plentiful, that they are
the common diet of the peafants. The rivers that wa¬
ter this territory are the Rhine, Ens, Wirmbs, and
Phints, which yield plenty of fifh. They feed their
hogs with chefnuts, which make the bacon excellent.
They have free-ftone for building, and marble of all
colours. They have fome agate, and great quantities
of hemp and flax for exportation. The chief towns
are Baden, Durlach, Stolhafen, Raftadt, Gerfbach,
Pforflieim, and Hochberg.
BantN, the chief city of the above Margravate, has
a caftle that Hands on the top of a hill, which is the
refldence of a prince. The town is feated among hills,
on rocky and uneven ground, which renders the ftreets
inconvenient and crooked. It is famous for its baths,
the fprings of which are faid to be above 300. Some
of them are hot, and accounted to be very good in ner¬
vous cafes. They partake of fait, alum, and fulphur.
E. Long. 9. 24. N. Lat. 48. 50.
Baden, a town of Germany, in the arch-duchy of
Auftria, feated on the Little Suechat, is a neat little
walled town, Handing in a plain not far from a ridge
of hills which run out from the mountain Cetius. It
is much frequented by the people of Vienna, and the
neighbouring parts, on account of its baths. The
fprings fupply two convenient baths wdthin the town,
five without the walls, and one beyond the river. They
are good for diflempers of the head, the gout* dropfy,
and moH chronic difeafes. E. Long. 17..to. N. Lat.
48. o.
BADENOCH, the mofl eaflerly part of Invernefs-
fhire in Scotland, extending about 33 miles in length
•from eafl- to wcfl, and .27 from north-eafl to fouth-
wefl where broadeft. It has no confiderable town,
and is very barren and hilly, but abounds with deer,
and other kinds of game.
BADEN wkiller, a towm of Germany, belonging
to the lower Margravate of Baden. E. Long. 7. 50.
N. Lat. 47- 55-
BA DENS (Francis), hiflorical and portrait paint¬
er, was born at Antwerp in 1571, and the firfl rudi¬
ments of the art were communicated to him by his fa¬
ther, who was but an ordinary artifl. However, he
viflted Rome and fevcral parts of Italy, and then
Vol. II. Part II,
formed a good tafle of defign, and a manner exceed-
ingly pleafing. When he returned to his own country
his merit procured for him great employment, and Hill
greater reputation, and he was ufually diflinguiflred by
the name of the Italian painter. His touch was light
and fpirited, and his colouring warm ; and he had the
honour of being the firfl who introduced a good tafle
of colouring among his countrymen. While his ac¬
knowledged merit was rewarded with every public te-
Himony of efteem and applaufe, unhappily he received
an account of the death of his brother, who had been
gfiaffinated on a journey ; and. the intelligence affefted
him fo violently, that it occafioned his own death, to
the inexpreffibie regret of every lover of the art, in
1603.
BADGE, in naval architefture, fignifies a fort of
ornament placed on the outfide of fmall (hips, very
near the Hern, containing either a window for the con¬
venience of the cabin, or a reprefentation of it. It is
commonly decorated with marine figures, martial in-
flruments, or fuch like emblems. »
BADGER, in zoology,.the Englifh name of a fpe-
ciesof urfus. See Ursus.
Badger, in old law-books, one that was licenfed to
buy corn in one place and carry it to another to fell,
without incurring the punifhment of an engrofler.
BADIA, an ancient town of Btetica on the Anas {
now fuppofed to be Badajoz qn the Guadiana.
BADIAGA, in the materia medica, the name of a
fort of fpongy plant, common in the (hops in Mofcow,
and fome other northern kingdoms. The ufe of it is
the taking away of livid marks from blows and bruifes,
which the powder of this plant is faid to do in a night’s
time.
BADIANE, or Bandian, the feed- of a tree which
grows in China, and fmells like anife-feed. The Chi-
nefe, and the Dutch in imitation of them, fometimes
ufe the bddiane to give their tea an aromatic tafte.
BADIGEON, a mixture of plafter and free-ftone,
well ground together, and lifted ; ufed'by ftatuaries to
fill up the little holes, and repair the defefts in Hones,
whereof they make their ftatues and other work.
The fame term is alfo ufed by joiners for faw-duft
mixed with ftrong glue, wherewith they fill up the
chaps and other defetts in wood, after it is wrought.
BADILE (Antonio), hiftory and portrait painter,
was born at Verona in 1480, and by great ftudy and
application acquired a more extenfive knowledge of
the true principles of painting than any of his prede-
ceffors. He was confeffedly a moft eminent artifl;
but he derived greater honour from having two fuch
difcigles as Paolo Veronefe and Baptifta Zelotti, than
he did even from the excellence of his own compofi-
tions. He died in 1560. His colouring was admi¬
rably good; his carnations beautiful; and his portraits
preferved the perfect refemblance of fleth and real
life ; nor had he any caufe to envy the acknowledged
merit of Titian, Giorgione, or the beft of his cotem-
porarigs.
BADIS, a fortrefs of Livonia, fubjeft to Rufiia.
E. Long. 23. 10. N. Lat. 59. 15.
BADIUS (Conrad), and (Stephen Robert), his
brother; French refugees;, celebrated as printers at
Geneva, and Conrade as an author. The latter died
in 1 j 66.
4Z
BiECKEA,
B iE T [ 730 ] BAG
BiECKEA, in botany: Agenuaoftheoiftandriaor- Phrygia, faid to have fallen from heaven. The Ro-
der, belonging to the monogynia clafa of plants. The. mans fent for it and the priefts belonging to it with
^ calyx is a permanent perianthium, confiding of a fingle   ^     p
funnel-fhaped leaf, cut into five fegments at the brim ;.
the corolla confilts of five roundifh fpreading petal^ in-  , _ ... 7  ... _r ,    
ferted into the calyx ; the pericarpium is a gldbofe high hill three miles from the Guadalquivir; it is the
Batza
—......   r   —6...B     rj
much ceremony, Scipio Nafika being at the head of a ’
the embafly.
BiEZA, a city of Andalufia in Spain, feated on a
capfule, made up of four valves, and containing four
cells, in which are a few roundifli angular feeds.
fee of a biftiop, and has a kind of univerfity founded
by John d’Avila. It was taken from the Moors about
BiETERRiE, an ancient town of the Tertofages in the end of the 15th century. E. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat.
Gallia Narbonenfis; now Betters, on the eaft bank of the 37. 45.
Obris, now Orbis, oy Orbe, in Lower Languedoc. BAFFETAS, or Bastas, a cloth made of coarfe
B'aETICA, a province of ancient Spain, fo called white cotton-thread, which comes from the Eaft Indies..
from the famed river iBsetis, afterwards Tartejfus, now That of Surat is the beft.
Guadalquivir, or the great river. It was bounded on BAFFIN’S bay, a gulph of North America, run-
the weft by Lufitania ; on the fouth by the Mediterra- ning north eaft from Cape Farewell in Weft Greenland,
nean and Sinus Guaditanus; on the north by the Can- from 6o° to 80° of north latitude,
tabric fea, now the Bay of Bifcay. On the eaft and BAFEO, a confiderable town in the ifland of Cyprus,
north-eaft, its limits cannot be fo well afcertained, as with a fort built near ancient Paphos, of which fome
they are very reafonably thought to have been in a confiderable ruins yet remain, particularly fome broken-
continual ftate of flu&uation, as each petty monarch columns, which probably belonged to the temple of
had an opportunity of encroaching upon his neighbour. Venus. E. Long. 32. 20, N. Lat. 34. 50.
The province was divided in two by the river Bsetus al- BAG, in commerce, a term fignifying a certain
ready mentioned. On the one fide of which,, towards quantity of fome particular commodity : a bag of al-
the Anas, were fituated the Turdetani, from whence monds, for inftance, is about 300 weight; of anife-
the kingdom was called Turdetania, though more feeds, from 30Q to 400, &c.
generally known by the name of Baturia. On the Bags are ufed in moft countries to put feveral forts-■
other fide were fituated the Baftuli, Baftetani, and of coin in, either of gold, filver, brafs, or copper.
Conteftani, along the Mediterranean coalls. The Ba- Bankers, and others who deal much in current caflr,.
ftuli were fuppofed to be of Phoenician extract, and label their bags of money, by tying a ticket or note at
dwelt along the coafts of the Mediterranean, till, driven the mouth of the bag, fignifying the coin therein con-
from thence by the Moors, they fled into the moun- tained, the fum total, its weight, and of whom it was
tainous parts of Galicia, which they then called from
their own name Bajlulia. The Baftetani were feated
higher up, on the fame coafts. The territories of both
thefe made part of what has fince become the kindom
received. Tare is allowed for the bag.
Bag, among farriers, is when, in order to retrieve
a horfe’s loft appetite, they put in an ounce of afafce-
tida, and as much powder of faviri, into a bag, to be
of Granada; in which there is a ridge of very high tied to the bit,.keeping him bridled for two hours fe-
mountains, called from the above-mentioned people the veral times a day ; as foon as the bag is taken off, he
Bajletanean mountains. Mention is alfo made of their will fall to eating. The fame bag will ferve a long
capital Bajietana; a place of fuch ftrength, that King time.
Ferdinand was fix months befieging it before he could BAGAMADER, or Bagamedri, a province of
take it from the Moors.—The whole province of Bas^ the kingdom of Abyffinia in Africa. It is faid to re-
tica, according to the moft probable account, con- ceive its name from the great number of (beep bred in
tained what is now called Andalufta, part of the king- it; meder dignifying land ar earth,, and bag a ftieep.
dom of Grenada, and the outward boundaries of E-
llremadura.
BiETIS. See B^tica.
BiETULO, a town of ancient Spain, in the Ter-
raconenfis ; now Badelona in Catalonia.
BuETYLIA, anointed ftones worfhipped by the
Phoenicians, by the Greeks before the time of Cecrops,
and by other barbarous nations. They were commonly
Its length is eftimated about 60 leagues, and its breadth
20 : but formerly it was much more extenfive; feveral
of its provinces having been difmembered from it, and
joined to that of Tigre. A great part of it, efpecially
towards the eaft, is inhabited by wandering Gallas
and Caffres.
BAGAUTLE, or Bacaudjet, an ancient faftion of
peafants, or malecontents, who ravaged Gaul. The
of a black colour, and confecrated to fome god, as Gauls being oppreffed with taxes, rofe about the year
Saturn, Jupiter, the Sun, &c. — Some are of opinion of Chrift 290, under the. command of Amand and
that the true original of thefe idols is to be derived Elian; and affumed the name bagauda, which, accord-
from the pillar of {lone which Jacob ere&ed at Bethel, ing" to fome authors, fignified in the Gallic language
and which was afterwards worfhipped by the Jews.; forced rebels, according to others tribute, according to
Thefe batylia were much the objett of the veneration others robbeK; which laft -fignification others allow the
of the ancient heathens. . Many of their idols'were no word had, hut then it was only after the time of the
other. In reality, no fort of idol was more common lagauda, and doubtlefs took its rife from them.
xu the eaftern countries than that of oblong ftones t-
reeled, and hence termed by the Greeks pillars.
In fome parts of Egypt they were, planted on both
fides of the highways. In the tetnple of Helioga-
bulus, in Syria, there was one pretended to have fallen
from heaven. There was alfo a famous black ftone in
BAGDAD, a celebrated city of Afia in Irak A-
rabi, feated on the eaftern. banks of the Tigris, in
E. Long. 43. 40.. N. Lat. 33. 15. By many authors
this city is very improperly called Babylon. The latter
flood on the Euphrates at a confiderable diftance.
This city, for many years the capital of the Saracen
empire,
BAG l 72> 1 BAG
empire, was founded by the khalif A1 Manfur, the in the 149th year of the Hegira, or four years after Bagdad>,
fecond of the houfe of A1 Abbas, after an attempt the city was begun. _ v
by the Rawandians to aflaflinate him, as already men- From the building the city of Bagdad to the death
tioned. See Arabia, n° 184. ®f A1 Manfur nothing very remarkable happened, ex-
The reafons affigned by the Arabian hiftorians for cepting lone irruptions made into the territories of
building the city of Bagdad are, That the abovemen- the Greeks, and by the Arabs into fome of the kha-
tioned attempt to aflaffinate the khalif had difgufted lif’s othei territories. In the 157th year of the He-
him at his Arabian fubjcdls in general, and that the gira alfo, a grievous famine was felt in Mefopoiamia,
fpot where Bagdad ftood was at a confiderable diftance which was quickly after followed by a plague that de-
from the city of Cufa particularly ; the inhabitants of ftroyed great numbers. This year likewife, the CHri-
which were remarkable for their treachery and incon- Ilians, who had been all along very feverely dealt with
Itancy, A1 Manfur himfelf having felt feveral inftanccs by A1 Manfnr, were treated with the utmoll rigour by
of it. Be Tides, the people of Irak, who had always Mufa Ebn Mofaab the khalif’s governor; every one
continued faithful to him, reprefented, that by build- who was unable to pay the enormous tribute exa&ed
ing his capital near the confluence of the Euphrates and of them being thrown into prifon without dillinftion. 3
Tigris, it would be in a great meafure fecured from the The next year, being the 158th of the Hegira, the®63*^^
infults and attacks of thofe who flrouldhave an inclina- khalif fet out from Bagdad, in order to perform theManur*
tion to difpute the khalifat with him; and that by be- pilgrimage to Mecca : but being taken ill on the road,
ing fituated as it were in the middle of the tradl com- he expired at Bir Maimun, whence his body was carried
prehending the diftridls of Bafrah, Cufa, Wafet, Maw- to Mecca; where, after 100 graves had been dug, that
fel, and Swada, at no great diflance from thofe cities, his fcpulchre might be concealed, he was interred, ba¬
it would be plentifully fupplied with provifions by means ving lived, according to fome 63, according to others
of the aforefaid rivers. 68 years, and reigned 22. He is faid to have been
Concerning the origin of the name Bagdad, there extremely covetous, and to have left in his treafury
are various accounts, which, being equally uncertain 600,000,000 dirhems, and 24,000,060 dinars. He
and trifling, merit no attention. The firfl: city that is reported to have paid his cook by afligning him the
went by this name was fituated on the vveilern bank of Leads and legs of the animals drefled in his kitchen,
the Tigris; from whence A1 Manfur difpatched his and to liave obliged him to procure at his own expence
fon A1 Mohdi with a body of Moilem troops, to the all the fuel and veflels he had occafion for. 4
oppofite bank. Here the young prince took poft, and When A1 Manfur expired at Bir Maimun, he had Succeeded
fortified the place on which he had encamped with a only his domeftics and Rabi his freedman with him.
wall, in order to cover his troops, as well as the work- The latter of thefe, for fome time, kept his death con- °
men employed by his father on the other fide of the cealed, and pretended to have a conference with him;
xiver, from the incurfions of the Perfians, who feemed in which, as he gave out, the khalif commanded him
to have taken umbrage at the ereftionof a new metro- to exact an oath of allegiance to A1 Mohdi his fon,
polls fo near the frontiers of their dominions. Hence as his immediate fucceflbr, and to Ifa Ebn Mufa his
that part of the city foon afterwards built on the ea- coufin-german, as the next apparent heir to the crown,
ftern banks of the Tigris received the name of the He then difpatched a courier to Bagdad with the news
Camp, or Fortrefs, of Al Mohdi. The khalif had a fu- of A1 Manfur’s death; upon which A1 Mohdi was
perb and magnificent palace both in the eaitern and unanimoufly proclaimed khalif. Ifa Ebn Muia, how-
weftern part of the town. The eaitern palace was fur- ever, no fooner heard this news, than he began to en-
rounded on the land-fide by a femicircular wall that tertain thoughts of fetting up for himfelf at Cufa,
had fix gates; the principal of which feems to have where he then re Tided; and in order to facilitate the
been called the gate of prefers, whofe entrance was execution of his fcheme, fortified himfelf in that city,
generally killed by the princes and ambaffadors that But A1 Moluda being apprized of his defe&ion, fent
came to the khalif’s court. The weliern part of the a detachment of 1000 horfe to bring him to Bag-
city was entirely round, with the khalit’s palace in the dad ; which being done, A1 Mohdi not only prevail-
centre, and having the great mofque annexed to it. ed upon him to own his allegiance to him, but alfo to
The eaftern part confifted of an interior and exterior give up bis right to the tucceflion for 10,000 accord-
town, each of which was furrounded by a wail. For ing to fome, or according to others for 10,000,000,
fome time the building of the city went but flowSy on, dinars.
owing to a fcarcity of materials for building; for which From the accelfion of A1 Mohdi to the 164th year Rebellion
reafon the khalif was fometimes inclined to remove the of the Hegira, the moft remarkable event was the re- M**1
materials of A1 Madayen the ancient metropolis of the hellion of A1 Mokanna. This impious impoftor, whofe kanna‘
Perfian empire. But, upon trial, he found the ftones true name was Hakem Ebn Hejham, came originally
to be of fuch an immenfe fize, that the removal of from Khorafan, and had been an under fecretary to
them to Bagdad would be attended with great diffi- Abu Moflem governor of that province. He after-
cultyand expence ; befides, heconfidered that it would wards turned foldier, and pafled thence into Mawaral-
be a refleftion upon himfelf to have it faid that he nahr, where he gave himfelf out for a prophet. The
could not finifh his metropolis without deftroying fuch name of A1 Mokanna, as alfo that of A1 Borkai, that
a pile of building as perhaps could not be paralleled in is, the veiled, he took from his cuftom of covering his
the whole wot Id ; for which reafons he at length gave face with a veil or girdle mafic, to conceal his defor-
over his defign, and erefted the city of Bagdad, moft mity; he having loft ar. eye in the wars, and being
probably, out of the ruins of the ancient cities of Se- otherwife of a deipicable appearance ; though his fol-
kucia and Ctefiphon, putting an end to his undertaking lowers pretended he did this for the fame reafon that
4 Z 2 Mofe#
BAG [ 732 1 BAG
left the fplendor of his countenance poifoned, though undefignedly, by one of his concu- Bagdad.’
le eyes of his beholders. In fome bines named Hafanah. She had defigned to deftroy v-”"*
places he made a great many profelytes, deluding the one of her rivals whom ihe imagined to have too ^ ^ (
people with a number of juggling tricks which they great an afcendant over the khalif, by giving her a p,jf ne<j. ^
miracles, and particularly by caufing the poifoned pear. This the latter, not fufpe&ing any '
Bagdad. Mofes did,
— ihould dazzle the eyes of his beholders.
fwallowed a
appearance of a moon to rife out of a well for many thing, gave to the khalif; who had no fooner eaten it
nights together; whence he was alfo called in the Per- than he felt himfelf  r— r
fian tongue, Sazendeb rr.ak, or the moon-maker. This expired,
wretch, not content with being reckoned a prophet, ~
exquifite torture, and foon after.
10
On the death of A1 Mohdi, he was fucceeded by As likew
arrogated to himfelf divine honours ; pretending that his. eldeft fon A1 Hadi; who having formed a defign !'h
the Deity refided in his perfon, having proceeded to to deprive his younger brother Hanm Alrafhid Of his A
Kim from Abu Modem, in whom he had taken up his right of fucceffion, and. even to aifaffinate' him, was
refidence before. At laft this impoftor raifed an open poifoned by his vizier in the 1 70th year of the Hegira;
rebellion againft the khalif, and made himfelf mailer and on his death the celebrated khalif Harun Alraihid
of feveral fortified places in Khorafan, fo that A1 Moh- afcended the, throne. t,
di was obliged to fend one of his generals with an This was one of the beft and wifell princes that H^run Al-
army againft him. Upon the approach of the khaliPs ever fat on the throne of Bagdad. He was alfo ' ^ 1'K*
troops, A1 Mokanna retired into one of his ftrong for-
treffes which he had well provided for a fiege ; and
fent his emilfaries abroad to perfuade the people that
he raifed the dead to life, and foretold future events.
But being clofely befieged by the khalif’s forces, and
cataftrophe feeing no pofiibility of efcaping, he gave poifon in
of him andw;ne to h;s whole family and all that were with him
in the caftle; when they were dead, he burnt their
bodies, together with all their furniture, provifions,
and cattle; and laftly, he threw himftlf into the flames,
all his fa¬
mily.
or, as others fay, into a tub of aquafortis, or fome Tabreftan, Jorjan, Zableftan or Sablejlm, Mawar-
other preparation, which confumed every part of him alnahr or Great Bukharia, Egypt, Libya, Mauri-
except the hair. When the befiegers therefore entered tania, &c.; fo that his empire was by far the moil
the place, they found no living creature in it, except powerful of any in the world, and extended, farther
tremely fortunate in all his undertakings, tho* he did
not much extend his dominions by conqueft. In his
time the Moflem, empire may be faid to have been in
its moil flouriihing ftate, though, by the independency
of the Moflems in Spain, who had formerly fet up a
khalif of the houfe of Ommiyah, his territories were
not quite fo extenfive as thofe of fome of his predecef-
fors. He poffeffed the provinces of Syria, Paleftine, Extent 0f
Arabia, Perfia, Armenia, Natolia, Media or Jlder- bi* empire
Babylonia, Aflyria, Sindia, Sijiftan, Khorafan,.
one of A1 Mokanna’s concubines, who, fufpe&ing his
defign, had hid herfelf, and now difcovered the whole
matter. This terrible contrivance, however, failed not
to produce the defired effeft. He had promifed his
followers, that his foul ihould tranfmigrate into the
form of an old man riding on a greyifti coloured
beaft, and that after fo many years he would return
and give them the earth for their pofieffion; which ri¬
diculous expe&ation kept the feft in being for feveral
years.
All this time war had been carried on with the culty.
than the Roman empire ever had. done.
The firft inftance of Harun’s good fortune, and ^ J
which was taken fora prefage of a profperous and JL,, J
happy reign, was his finding a valuable ring which he the Tigri ™
had thrown into the Tigris to avoid being deprived of
it by his brother A1 Hadi. He was able to give the
divers no other dircftion than by throwing a ftone
from the bridge of Bagdad, about the fame place erf
the river in which he had thrown the ring; notwith-
ftanding which, they found it without any great diffi-
raflud'sfuc-Qreej[S) w|thout any remarkable fuccefs on either
the Greeks1^6* I*1 t^e t^qth year of the Hegira, however, A1
Mohdi ordered his fon Harun Alrafchid to penetrate
into the Greek territories with an army of 95,000 men.
Harun, then, having entered the dominions of the em-
prefs Irene, defeated one of her commanders that ad-
■vanced againft him ; after which he laid wafte feveral
©f the imperial provinces with fire and fword, and
even threatened the city of Conftantinople itfelf. By
this the emprefs was fo tetrified, that (he purchafed a
peace with the khalif by paying him an annual tribute
of 70,000 pieces of gold; which, for the prefent at
leaft, delivered her from the depredations of thefe bar-
® barians. After the figning of the treaty, Harun returned
able'dark-1" h°me w*t^1 ^P0^8 an(^ g'ory- This year, accord-
uefs. ing to fome ^ oriental hiftorians, the fun one day,
a little after his rifing, totally loft his light in a moment
without being eclipfed, when neither any fog nor any
cloud of duft appeared to obfeure him. This fright¬
ful darknefs continued till noon, to the great aftonifli-
ment of the people fettled in the countries where it
• See 4/?rc-happened*.
nt7r.y,xfi si In the 169th year of the Hegira, A1 Mohdi was
In the 186th year of the Hegira, beginning Janu-Divides thffl
ary noth, 802, the khalif divided the government of emP're
his extenfive dominions among his three fons *n J
following manner: To A1 Amin the eldeft, heiafiigned the«
the provinces of Syria, Lack, the three Arabias, fuccefli
Mefopotamia, AfTyria, Media, Paleftine, Egypt, and
all that part of Africa extending from the confines of
Egypt and. Ethiopia to the ftraits of Gibraltar, with
the dignity of khalif; to A1 Mamun the fecond, he
affigned Perfia, Kerman, the Indies, Khorafan, Ta-
breltan, Cableftan and Zableftan, together with the
vail province of Mawaralnahar; and to his third fon
A1 Kafem, he gave Armenia, Natolia,- Jorjan, Geor¬
gia, Circaffia, and all the Moflem territories bordering
upon the Euxine fea. As to the order of fucceffion,
A1 Amin was to afeend the throne immediately after
his father’s deceafe; after him, A1 Mamun ; and then
A1 Kafem, whom he had furnamed sll Mutaman.
The moft confiderable exploits performed by this H;s
khalif were againft the Greeks, who by their perfidy ful wars
provoked him to make war upon them, and whom he with the ■
always overcame. In the i-fiyth year of the Hegira,GreekAjM
the khalif received a letter from the Greek emperor
Nicephorus
BAG l 733 I BAG
JSagdad. Nicephoros foon after he had been advanced to the im¬
perial dignity, commanding him to return all the money
he had extorted from the Emprefs Irene, though that
had been fecured to him by the lalbtreaty concluded
with that princefs, or expeib foon to fee an imperial
army in the heart of his territories. This infolent letter
fo exafperated Harun, that he immediately affembled
his forces and advanced to Heraclea, laying the coun¬
try through wind' he paffed walte with fire and fword.
For fome time alfo he kept that city Unfitly befieged ;
which fo terrified the Greek emperor, that he fubmit-
ted to pay an annual tribute. Upon this Harun granted
him a peace, and returned with his army. But a hard
froil foon after happening in thefe parts, Nicephotus
took for granted that A1 Raihid would not pay him
another vifit, and therefore broke the treaty he had
concluded. Of this the khalif receiving advice, he in-
ftantly put himfelfin motion; and, notwithftanding the
inclemency of the weather, forced the emperor to ac¬
cept of the terms propofed. According to a-Perfian
hiftorian, before the hoiiilities at this time commenced,
Nicephorus made the khalif a prefent of feveral fine
fwords, giving him thereby plainly to underftand that
he was more inclinable to come to blows than to make
peace with him. All thefe fwords Harun cut afunder
with bis famous fword Samfciviah, as if'they had been
fo many radifhes, after which fevere proof there did
not appear the leaft flaw in the blade; a dear proof of
the goodnefs of the fword, as the cutting the others
with it was of the ftrength of Harun’s armr This
fword had fallen rntoAl Rafhid’s hands among thefpoils
of Ebn Dakikan, one of the laft Hamyaritic princes
of Yaman ; but is faid to have belonged originally to
a valiant Arab named Amru Ein Maadi Cart, by whofe
name it generally went among the Moflems. This man
is faid to have performed- very extraordinary feats with
his fword,- which induced a certain prince to borrow it
from him ; but he not being able to perform any thing
remarkable with it, complained to Amru that it had
not theidefired effed: upon which that brave man took
the liberty to tell him, that he had not fent him his
arm along with his fword.
In the 188th year of the Hegira, war was renewed
with the Greeks, and Nicephorus with a great army
attacked the khalif’s forces with the utmoft fury. He
was, however, defeated with the lofs of 40,000 men,
and received three wounds in the aftion; after which the
Moflems committed terrible ravines in his territories,
and returned home laden with fpoils. The next year
Harun invaded Phrygia; defeated an imperial army
fent to oppofediim ; and, having ravaged the country,
returned without any confiderable-lofs. In the 190th
year of the Hegira, commencing November 27 th 805,
the khalif marched into the imperial territories with an
army of 135,000 men* befides a great number of vo¬
lunteers and others who were not inrolled among his
troops. He firft took the city of Heraclea. from
whence he is faid to have carried 16,coo prrfoners*;
after which he made himfelf mafter of feveral other
places; and, in the conclufion of the expedition, he made
a defcent on the ifland of Cyprus, which he plundered
in a terrible manner This fuccefs fo intimidated Ni¬
cephorus, that he immediately fent the tribute due to
Harum, the withholding of which had been the caufe
cfthe war; and concluded a peace upon the khaliPs
own terms ; one of which was, that the. city of Hera- Bagdad,
clea fhould never be rebuilt. This perhaps Harun —-v——*
would not have fo readily granted, had not one Rafe '6
Ebn A1 Leith revolted againll him at Samarcand,
affeinbled a coufiderable force to fupporthim in his de-
fedtion.
The next year, being the 191ft of the Hegira, the
khalif removed the governor of Khorafan from his em¬
ployment, becaufe he had not been fufficiently attentive '
to the motions of the rebel Rafe Ebn A1 Leith. As
this governor had alfo tyrannized over his fubjefts in
the moll cruel manner, his fitcceffor no fooner arrived
than he fent him in chains to the khalif': but notwith-
llanding all Harun’s care, the rebels made this year a
great progrefs in the conqucft of Khorafan.
Next year, the khalif found it neceftary to-march in ■
perfon againft the rebels, who were daily becoming
more formidable. The general rendezvous of his troops
was in the plains of Rakka, from whence he advanced
at the head of them to Bagdad. Having at that place
fupplied the troops with every thing neceffary, he con¬
tinued his march to the frontiers of Jorjan, where he
was feized with an illnefs which grew more violent after
he had entered that province. Finding himfelf there¬
fore unable to purfue his journey, he refigned the com¬
mand of the army to his fon A1 Mamun, retiring him- ^
felf to T.us in Khorafan. We are told by Khontlemir, Thgkhfiifs
that, before the khalif departed from Rakka, he had a death pre¬
dream wherein he faw a hand over his head full of red d:fledby a
earth, and at the fame time heard a perfon pronouncing®ara*
thefe words, “See the earth where Haran is to be
buried.’' Upon this he demanded.white he was to be
buried; and was infiantly anfwered “ At Tus.” This
dream greatly difeompofing him, he communicated it
to his chief phyfician, who endeavoured to divert him,
telling the kbalif that the dream had been occafioned
by the thoughts of his expedition againft the rebels.
He therefore advifed him to purfue fome favourite dir
verfion that might draw his attention another way.
The khalif accordingly, by his phyiician’s advice, pre¬
pared a magnificent regale for his courtiers, which lafted
feveral days. After this, he put himfelf at the head
of his forces, and advanced to the confines of Jorjan, -
where he was attacked by the diilemper that' proved
fatal to him. As his diforder inereafedj he found him¬
felf obliged to retire to Tus; where being arrived, he
fent for his phyfician, and laid to him, “ Gabriel, do
you remember my dream at Rakka ? we are now ar¬
rived at Tus, the place, according to what was pre¬
dicted in that dream, of my interment. Send one of
my eunuchs Co fetch" me a handful of earth in the neigh¬
bourhood of this city.” Upon this Mafrur, one of
his favourite eunuchs, was difpatched to bring a little
of the foil of the place to the khalif. He foon ret urned,
and brought a handful of red earth, which he prefented
to the khalif with his arm half bare. At the fight of
this, Harun inftantly cried" out," “In truth this is the
earth, and-this the very arm, that I faw in my dream.”
His fpirits immediately failing, and f is malady being ^
greatly increafed by the perturbation of mind enfunig c0'(l;J1g ^
upon this fight, he died-three days after, and was bu-the predic-
ried in the fame place; According to Abul Faraj, Ba-tion.
Ihir Ebn A1 Leith the arch-rebel’s brother was brought
in chains to the khalif, who was then at the print of
death. At the fight of wham Harun declared, thtt
if ■
BAG
I 734 1
BAG
23 years. The diftemper that put an end to his days
is faid to have been the bloody flux.
Bagdad; if he could i"peak_only two words he would fay kill him; of all the vail territory of Khorafan. Here he go- Bagdad.
1 ‘ and immediately ordered him to be cut to pieces in his verned with an abfolute fway, officiated in the mofque 
prefence. This being done, the khalif Coon after ex- as Imam, and from the pulpit conflantly harangued the
pired, in the yea.r of the Hegira 193, having reigned people.
The following year, being the 195th year of the
Hegira, beginning OSober 4th 810, the khalif A1
Amin, finding that his brother fet him at defiance, de¬
clared war againft him, and fent his general Ali Ebn
Ifa with an army of 60,000 men to invade Khorafan. 2S
A1 Mamun, being informed that Ali was advancing Al Amm!
againft him with fuch a powerful army, put on foot forces da*
all the troops he could raife, and gave the command to ^eatej**
Thaher Ebn Hofein, one of the greateft generals of his
age. Thaher being a man of undaunted refolution,
chofe only 4000 men, whom he led againft Al Amin’s L
army. Ali, feeing fo fmall a number of troops advan¬
cing againft him, was tranfported with joy, and pro-
mifed himfelf an eafy vi&ory. Defpifing his enemies.
Succeeded Upon the arrival of a courier from Tus, with the
by h;s fon news 0f Ad Ralhid’s death, his fon Al Amin was im-
A1 Amin. mediately proclaimed khaiif; and was no fooner feated
on the throne, than he formed a defign of excluding his
brother Al Mamun from the i'ucceffion. Accordingly
he deprived him of the furniture of the imperial palace
of Khorafan; and in open violation of his father’s will,
who had bellowed on Al Mamun the perpetual govern¬
ment of Khorafan, and of all the troops in that pro¬
vince, he ordered thefe forces to march diredtly to
Bagdad. Upon the arrival of this order, Al Mamun
expoftulated with the general Al Fadl Ebn Rabi who
commanded his troops, and endeavoured to prevent his therefore, he behaved in a fecure and carekfs manner;
marching to Bagdad ; but without effcdl, for he punc¬
tually obeyed the orders fent by the khalif. Al Ma¬
mun, however, took care not to be wanting in fidelity
to his brother. He obliged the people of Khorafan to
take an oath of fidelity to Ai Amin, and reduced fome
who had a&ually excited a confide rable body of the
people to revolt, while the general Al Fadl having in¬
gratiated himfelf with the khalif by his ready compli¬
ance with his orders, was chofen prime vizir, and go-
behavrour v€rnecj an abfolute fway ; Al Amin abandoning
thalif.neW himfelf entirely to drunkennefs.
the confequence of which was, that his army was en¬
tirely defeated, and himlelf killed, his head being af¬
terwards fent as a prefent to Al Mamun, who amply
rewarded Thaher and Harthema for their fervices.
After this vidlory, Al Mamun affumed the title of
khalij, ordered Al Amin’s name to be omitted in the
public prayers, and made all neceffary preparations for
carrying the war into the very heart of his brother’s
dominions. For this purpofe he divided his forces into
two bodies, and commanded them to march into Irak
by different routes. One of them obeyed the orders of
Al Fadl was a very able minifter; though fearing AI Thaher and the other of Harthema. The firft dire&ed
Mamun’s refeniment if ever he fhould afeend the thi
he gave Al Amin fuch advice as proved in the end the
his march towards Ahwas, and the other towards Hol-
wan, both of them propofing to meet in the neighbour-
ruiiT of them both. He told him that his brother had hood of Bagdad, and after their junAion to befiege
gained the affe&ion of the people of Khorafan by the that city.
In the 196th year of the Hegira, Thaher Ebn Ho- ^
fein made a moft rapid progrefs with the troops under mup>srj
his command. Having advanced towards Ahwas, he conquel
there defeated a body of the khalif’s forc.es; and though
the vi&ory was by no means deerfive, it fo intimidated
the commander of Ahwas, that he thought fit to fur-
render that fortrefs to him. This opened him a way to
Wafet upon the Tigris, and facilitated the conqueft of
that place. After this he marched with his army to
Al Madayen; the inhabitants of which immediately
opened their gates to him. The rapidity of thefe con-
quefts, and the infamous conducl of Al Amin, excited
the people of Egypt, Syria, Hejez, and Yaman, un-
animoufly to declare for Al Mamun ; who was accord-
good order and police he had eitablifhed among the:
lhat his unwearied application to the adminiftration of
juftice had fo attrafted their efteem, that the whole pro¬
vince was entirely at his devotion; that his own conduA
was by no means reliflred by his fubjeAs, whole minds
were almoft totally alienated from him; and therefore
that he had but one part to aA, which was to deprive
Al Mamun of the right of fucctffion that had been
given him by his father, and transfer it to his own fon
Mufa, though then but an infant. Agreeable to this
pernicious advice, the khalif fentfor his brother Al Ka-
fem from, Mefopotamia, and recalled Al Mamun from
Khorafan, pretending he had occafion for him as an af-
vji fiftant in his councils.
Al Mamun By this treatment Al Mamun was fo much provoked, ingly proclaimed khalif in all thefe provinces,
takes up t}jat he refolved to come to an open rupture with his The next year, Al Mamun’s forces under Thaher g. 34 ^
SrottrN0^’ in order if poffible to fruftrate his wicked de- and Harthema laid fiege to Bagdad. As the khalif
is ro er*£gnSt Jnftead, therefore, of going to Bagdad as he was fhut up in that place, and it had a numerous gar-
had been commanded, he cut off' all communication be- rifon, the befieged made a vigorous defence, and de¬
tween his own province and that capital; pretending, ftroyed a gnat number of their enemies. The befiegers,
that as his father Haran had affigned him the lieute- however, inceffantly played upon the town with their
nancy of Khorafan, he was refponfible for all the dif- catapults and other engines, though they were in their
torders that might happen there during his abience. turn not a little annoyed by the garrifon with the fame
He alfo coined money, and would not fufferAl Amin’s fort of military machines. The latter like wife made
name to be impreffed upon any of the dirhems or di- continual fallies, and fought like men in defpair, the(Ugh
■anars ftruck in that province. Not content with this, they were aHays at laft beaten back into the town
he prevailed upon Rafe’ Ebn Al Leith, who had been with confiderable lofs. In fhort, the iiege continued
for fome time in rebellion, to join him with a body during the whole of this year, in which the greateft
of troops; whofe example was foon after followed by part of the eaftern city, called the Camp of Al Mohdi,
jHarthema Ebn Aafan ; which put him in poffeiflon was demoliffied or reduced to allies. 1 he citizens, as
3 well
BAG
[ 735 1
BAG
;t)gi4g<fa(f. well as the garrifon, were reduced to the lafl extremity have differed from all others then known in Afia, He Bagdad.
J by the length and violence of the fiege.
In the beginning of the 198th year of the Hegira,
A1 Amin finding himfelf deferred by his troops, as
well as by the principal men of Bagdad, who had kept
a private correfpondence with Thaher, was obliged to
retire to the old town on the weft bank of the Tigris.
He did not, however, take this ftep^ before the inhabi¬
tants of the new town had formally depofed him, and
proclaimed his brother A1 Mamun khalif. Thaher, re*
ceiving advice of this, caufed the old town to be im¬
mediately inverted, planted his engines againft it, and
at laft ftarved it to a furrender. A1 Amin being thus
reduced to the neceffity of putting himfelf into the
hands of one of the generals, chofe to implore the pro¬
tection of Harthema, whom he judged to be of a more
humane difpofition than Thaher. Having obtained this,
he embarked in a fmall veffel in order to arrive at that
part of the camp where Harthema was ported; but
Thaher being informed of his defign, which, if put
gained a great number of profelytes in Aderbijan and "
the Perfian Irak, w here he foon grew powerful enough
to wage war with the khalif Ai Mamun, whofe troops
he often beat, fo that he was now become extremely
formidable. The general fent by Al Motafem to re¬
duce him was Haider Ebn Kaus, furnamed Ajjhin, a
Turk by nation, who had been brought a (lave to the
khalif’s court, and having been employed in difcipli-
ning the Turkiih militia there, had acquired the repu-
tation of a great captain. By him Babec was defeated Babec
with prodigious daughter, no fewer than 60,000 menfeatsdt,
being killed in the firft engagement. The next year,
being the 220th of the Hegira, he received a ftill
greater overthrow, lofing 100,000 men either killed-
or taken prifoners. By this defeat he was obliged-
to retire into the Gordysean mountains; where he
fortified himfelf in fuch a manner, that Aflhin found
it impoffible to reduce him till the year of the Hegira
This commander having reduced with invincible
execution, he thought would eclipfe the glory he had patience all Babec’s caftles one after another, the
acquired, laid an ambufli for him, which he had not the
good fortune to efcape. Upon his arrival in the neigh¬
bourhood of Harthema’s tent, Thaher’s foldiers rufhed
poftor was obliged to (hut himfelf up in a ftrong for
trefs called Cajbabaci, which was now his laft refource
Here he defended himfelf with great bravery for feve
upon him, drowned all his attendants, and put himfelf ral months ; but at laft finding he fhould be obliged
1 in prifon. Here he was foon after maffacred by Tha-
‘f her’s fervants, who carried his head in triumph to their
mafter, by whofe order it was afterwards expofed to
public view in the ftreets of Bagdad. Thaher after¬
wards fent it to Al Mamun in Khorafan, together with
the ring or feal of the khalifat, the feeptre, and the im¬
perial robe. At the fight of thefe, Al Mamun fell
I :«cde,t
I Ai Ma-
j 27^
28
th of
rlamun.
to furrender, he made his efcape into a neighbouring
wood, from whence he foon after came to Affhin, upon
that general’s promifing him pardon. But Afihin no'j'ajc|1[prj_
fooner had him in his power, than he firft caufed hisfoner and
hands and feet, and afterwards his head, to be cut off. put to death.
Babec had fupported himielf againft the power of the
khalifs for upwards of 20 years, during which time ^
down on his knees, and returned thanks to God for his he had cruelly maffacred 250,000 people;.it being his He deflroy-
fuccefs ; making the courier who brought them a pre- cuftom to fpare neither man, woman, nor child, of the ed vaft
Mahometans or their allies. Amongft the prifoners ?'JnjJ5ers
taken at Calbabad there was one Nud, who had been ° emS*
one of Babec’s executioners, and who owned that in
obedience to his mafter’s commands he had deftroyed
20,000 Moflems with his own hands ; to which he ad¬
ded, that vaft numbers had alfo been executed by his
companions, but that of thefe he could give no precife
account.
fent of a million of dirhems, in value about L. 100,000
Sterling.
The fame day that Al Amin was affaffmated, his
brother Al Mamtin was proclaimed khalif at Bagdad.
He had not been long feated on the throne when he
was alarmed by rebellions breaking out in different
parts of the empire. Thefe, however, were at laft hap¬
pily extinguilhed; after which, Thaher Ebn Hofein
had the government of Khorafan conferred upon him
and his defeendants with almoft abfolute and unlimited
power. This happened in the 205 th year of the He¬
gira, from which time we may date the difmemberment
of that province from the empire of the khalifs.
During the reign of this khalif nothing remarkable
happened; only the African Moflems invaded the iftand
of Sicily, where they made tbemfelves mafters of feveral
places. He died of a forfeit in the 21 8th year of the
Hegira, having reigned 20, and'lived 48 or 49 years.
Gn the death of Al Mamun, his brother Al Mota¬
fem, by fome of the oriental biftorians furnamed Biilah,
was faluted khalif. He fucceeded by virtue of Al
Mamun’s exprefs nomination of him to the exclufion of
his own fon Al Abbas and his other brother AI Kafem,
who had been appointed by Ha ran Al Rafhid. In
the beginning of his reign he was obliged to employ
the whole forces of his empire againft one Babec, who
had been for a confiderable time in rebellion in Perfia
and Perfian Irak. This Babec firft appeared in the
year of the Hegira 201, when he began to take upon
him the title of a prophet. What his particular doc¬
trine was, is now unknown; but his religion is laid to
In the 223d year of the Hegira, the Greek emperor
Theophilus invaded the khalif’s territories, where he
behaved with the greateft cruelty, and by deftroying
Sozopetra the place of Al Motafem’s nativity, notwith-
ftanding his earneft intreaties to the contrary, occafioned
the terrible dcftru&ion of Amorium mentioned under
that article. The reft of this khalif’s reign is remark¬
able for nothing but the execution of Affhin, who was
accufed of holding correfpondence with, the khalif’s
enemies. After his death a great number of idols were
found in his houfe, which were immediately burned, as
alfo feveral books faid to contain impious and deteftable ;
opinions.
In the 227th year of the Hegira died the khalif Al 0eaqf 0f
Motafem, in the 48th or 49th year of his age. He Al Mota-
reigned eight years eight months and eight days, wasfem*
born in the eigth month of the year, fought eight battles,
had 8000 flaves, and had 8,000,000 dinars and 80,000
dirhems in his treafury at his death, whence the oriental
hiftorians gave him the name of Al Moth amen, or the
OSonary. He is faid to have been fo robuft, that he
once carried a burden of J 000 pounds weight feveral'
paces. As the people of Bagdad difturbed him with
frequent
BAG [ 736 ] BAG
Bagdad, frequent revolts and commotions, he took the refolution
l" ' r0 abandon that city, and build another for his own re-
Hebuilt the ^enCe' r^^le new c't7 huilt was iirft called Satmrra,
cityofSarraaITd afterwards Sarra Manray, and ftood in the Ara-
Manray. bian Irak. He was attached to the opinion of the
Motazalites, who maintain the creation of the Koran;
arid both1 he and his predeceflor cruelly perfecuted tKofe
35 who believed it to bt eternal.
His fnc- A1 M >tafem was fucceeded by A1 Wathek Bilah,
. ceffors Al- wh0 tj,e following year, being the 228th of the Hegira,
and^nvio-and conquered Sicily. Nothing remarkable
tawakkel. .happened during the reft of his reign; he died in the
•zgzd year of.the Hegira, and was hicceeded by his
36 brother Al Mota\»akkel.
•Monhro.ns The new khalif began his reign with an aft of the
■ crueltv of greateft cruelty. TheTate! khaIif’s vizir having treated
tewakkel Motawakkel ill in his brother’s1 lifetime, and op-
pofed his eleftion to the khalifat, was on that account
1 now fetit to prifon. Here the khalif ordered him to
s be kept awake for feveral days and nights'together:
after this, being1 foffered to fall afleep, he'flept a whole
day and a night; and after he awoke was thrown into
an iron furnace lined with fpikes or nails5 heated red
hot, where he was mtferably burnt to death. During
this reign nothing remarkable happened, except wars
with the Greeks, which were carried on with various
fuccefs. In the year 8yg too, being the 145th of the
Hegira, violent earthquakes happened in manyprovin-
. ces of the Modem dominions; and the springs at Mecca
failed to fuch a degree, that the celebrated well Zem-
zem was almoft dried up, and the water fold for loo
37 dirhems a bottle.
sHe is affaf- In the 247th year of the Hegira, the khalif was af-
iinated. faffinated at the inftance of hisfon Al Montafer; who
fucceeded1 him, and died in fix months after. He was
fucceeded by Al Moftain, who in the year of the He¬
gira 252 wasdbrced-to abdicate the tiirone by his bro-
v ther Al Motazz, who afterwards caufed him to be pri¬
vately murdered. ’ He did not long enjoy the dignity
. of which he had- fo iniquitoufly poffelfed himfelf; be-
, ing depofed by the Tuikifh militia (who now began to
fet up and depofe khalife as they pleafed) in the 255th
year of the Hegira. After his depofition, he was fent
under an efcorte from Sarra Manray to Bagdad, where
he died of thirll or hunger, after a reign of four years
■Hard fate an^ about feven months. The fate of this khalif was
of Al Mo- peculiarly hard : the Turkifh troops had mutinied for
tazz a fuc- their pay; and Al Motazz, not having money to fatisfy
; ceeding their demands, applied to his mother named Kab'iha
■ khahf* for £0,000 dinars. This (lie refuted, telling him that
{he had no money at all, although it afterwards appear¬
ed that ihe was pofTeffed of immenfe treafures. After
his depofition, however, the was obliged to difcover
them, and even depofite them in the hands of the new
khalif Al Jdokhtadi. They confided of t,ooo 000 di¬
nars, a bufhel of emeralds, and another of pearls, and
three pounds and three quatters of rubies of the colour
of fire.
Al Mokhtadi, the new khalif, was the fon of one of
Al Wathek’s concubines named Kor!>, or Karb, who is
by fome fuppofed to have been a Chriitian. The be-
3? .ginning of his reign is remarkable for the irruption of
ctaZenjianstke Zenjians, a people of Nubia, Ethiopia, and the
in the reign country of CafFres, into Arabia, where they penetra-
ef a! ted into the neighbourhood of Bafra and Cufa. The
Mukhudi, ^ ^
chief of this gang of robbers, who, according to fome Bagda£
of the Arab hiftorians, differed but little from wild “*
beaftq was Ali Ebn Mohammed Ebn Abdalrahman,
who falfely gave him elf out to be of the family of Ali
Ebn Abu Taleb. This made fuch an impreffion upon
the Shiites in thofe parts, that they flocked to him in
great numbers; which enabled him to feize upon the
cities of Bafra and Ramla, and even to pafs the Tigris at
thedread of a formidable army. He then took the title
of Prince of the Zenjians, in order to ingratiate himfelf
with thofe barbarians, of whom his army was principally
compofed.
In the 256th year of the Hegira, Al Mokhtadi was
barbaroufly murdtred by the Turks who had raifed
him to the throne, and was fucceeded by Al Montamed 40 J
the fon of Al Motawakkel. This year the prince of Al Habit!
the Zenjians, Ah', or as he is alio called j41 Habib, f-ccefs. i
made incurfions to the very gates of Bagdad, doing
prodigious mifchief wherever he palled. The khalif
therefore fent againll him one Jolan with a confiderable
army; he-was overthrown, however, with very great
flaughter by tbe'Zenjian, who made himfeif matter of t
24 of the khalif’a:lat geft thips in the bay of Bafra, put
a vaft number of the inhabitant' of Obolla to the fword,
and feized upon the town. Not content with this, he
fet fire to it, and foon reduced it to afhes, the houfes
moftly confifting of the woocl of a certain plane-tree
called by the Arabians Saj. From thence he marched
to Abadan, which likewile furrer.dered to him. Here
he found an immenfe treafure, which enabled him to
poffefs himfelf of the whole diilrift of Ahwaz In
fhort, his forces'being now bicreafed to 8o,oco ftrong, ■ ]
mod of the adjacent territories, and even the khalif’a
cobrt itfelf, were {truck with terror.
In the 2:57th'year of the Hegira, Al Habib conti¬
nued viftorious, defeated ftveral armies fentagainft him
by the khalif, reduced the city of Bafrah, and put
2 0,000 of the inhabitants to-the fword. The follow¬
ing year, the khalif, fupported by his brother Al Mo-
waffek, had formed a defign of cireumfctibing the
power of the Turkifh foldiery, who had for fome time
given law to the khalifs themfelves. But this yearthe
Zeojians made fo rapid a progrefs in Perfia, Arabia,
and Irak, that he was obliged to fufpend the execution
of his defign, and even to employ the Turkifh troops to
aiTift his brother Al Mowafftk inoppofing thefe robbers
The firft of the khaliPs geqerals who encountered Al
Habib this year, was defeated in feveral engagements,
and had his army at laft entirely deftroyed. After this
Al Mowaffek and another general named Mcjlth ad- |
vanced againft. him. In the firft engagement Mofleh - j
being killed by an arrow, the khalif’s troops retired;
but Al Mowaffek put them afterwards in fuch a pofture
of defence, that the enemy durft not renew the attack.
Several other fharp encounters happened this year, in
which neither party gained great advantage ; but, at
laft, fome contagious diftempers breaking out in Al
Mowaffek’s army, he was obliged to conclude a truce,
and retire to Wafet to refrefh his troops.
, In the 259th year of the Hegira, commencing Nov. |
7th, 872, the war between the khalif and Al Habib ftill
continued. ’Al Mowaffek, upon his arrival at Bag- . •
dad, fent Mahammed furnamed 4/ Mow ailed with a
powerful army to aft againft the Zenjians: but he could
not HinCjer them from ravaging the province of Ahwaz,
cut-
BAG f 737 1 BAG
Sagdad. cutting off about 50,000 of the khalif’s fubjects, and his power, than he caufed him to be beheaded ; after Bagdad
   difmantling the city of Ahwaz ; and notwithdanding which he advanced to Aleppo, the gates of which were w-—v—
the utmoft efforts of all the khalif’s generals, no con-
fiderable advantages could be gained either this or the
following year.
immediately opened unto him. Soon after, he reduced
Damafcus, Hems, Harnath, Kinnifrin, and Al Rakka,
fuuated upon the ealtern bank of the Euphrates. This
In the 261ft year of the Hegira, beginning O&ober rebellion fo exafperated A1 Motamed, that he duffed
'tnvaz and 16th 874, Mohammed Ebn Wafel, who had killed the Ahmed to be publicly curfed in all the mofques belong-
khalif’s governor of Ears, and afterwards made himfelf ing to Bagdad and Irak; and Ahmed on his part or-
mafter of that province, had feveral engagements with
A1 Habib, but with what fuccefs is not known The
khalif, having been apprized of the ftate of affairs
that fide, annexed the government of Ears, Ahwaz.
dered the fame maledidtion to be thundered out againft
the khalif in all the mofques within his jurifdi&ion.
This yearalfo a detachment of A1 Habib’s troops pe¬
netrated into Irak, and made themfelves mailers of
and Bafra, to the prefefture he had given to Mufa Ebn four of the khalif’s fhips laden with corn ; then they
Boga, whom he looked upon as one of the bell gene¬
rals he had. Mufa, foon after his nomination to that
advanced to A1 Nomanic, laid the greateft part of it
in alhes, and carried off with them feveral of the inha*
poll, fent Abdalrahman Ebn Mofleh as his deputy to bitants prifdners. After this theypoffeffed themfelves
a 1.   * ’„1..*. j „rr,fi„..*- rr: ^r t ,^^
Ahwaz, giving him as a colleague and affiftant one Ti-
fam,^a Turk. Mohammed Ebn Wafel, however, refu-
fing to obey the orders of Abdalrahman and Tifam, a
fierce conflift enfued, in which the latter were defeated,
and Abdalrahman taken prifoner. After this vidlory,
Mohammed advanced againft Mufa Ebn Boga himfelf;
of Jarjaraya, where they found many prifoners more,
and deftroyed all the adjacent territory with fire and 45
fword. This year there were four independent powers Four iude-
in the Moflem dominions, befides the houfe of Om- Penf,‘em.
miyah in Spain ; viz. The African Modems, or Agla- thekhalif's
bites, who had for a long time a&ed independently; nominaldo-
A c—*  J 17... 4. . ait *4. * iri r 
but that general, finding he could not take poffeffion of Ahmed in Syria and Egypt; A1 Leit in Khorafan ; mini0118*
his new government without a vaft effufion of blood,
recalled the deputies from their provinces, and made
the bell of his way to Sarra Manray. After this, Ye
and A1 Habib in Arabia and Irak.
In the 266th year of the Hegira, beginning Auguft
23d 879, A1 Habib reduced Ramhormoz, burnt the
kub Ebn A1 Leit, having taken Khorafan from the ftately mofque there to the ground, put a vaft num-
defcendants of Thaher, attacked and defeated Moham¬
med Ebn Wafel, feizing on his palace, where he found
a fum of money amounting to 40,000,000 dirhems,
ebels de- The next year Yakub Ebn Leit being grown formi-
ated, but dable by the acquifition of Ahwaz and a confiderable
portion of Ears, or at leaft the Perfian Irak, declared and a few infantry, notwithftanding the vaft difparity
war againft the khalif. Againft him A1 Motamed dif- of numbers (A1 Habib’s army amounting to rco,ooo
patched A1 Mowaffek ; who having defeated him with men), defeated him in feveral battles, recovered moll of
prodigious fiaughter, plundered his camp, and purfued the towns he had taken, together with an immenfe
ber of the inhabitants to the fword, and carried away
great numbers, as well as a vaft quantity of fpoil.— 4g
This was his Isft fuccefsful campaign; for the year fol- A1 Habib'-*
lowing, A1 Mowaffek, attended by his fon Abul Ab-had fuccefs
bas, having attacked him with a body of 10,000 horfeani* ^eath’
iduced.
him into Khorafan; where meeting with no oppofitii
he entered Nifabur, and releafed Mahomet the Tha-
herian, whom Yakub had detained in prifon three
quantity of fpoil, and releafed 5000 women that had
been thrown into prifon by thefe barbarians. After thefe
victories, Al Mowaffek took poll before the city of A1
Mahiva’ built hv Al Habib, and tbe rdar-f* nf
years. As for Yakub himfelf, he made his efcape with Mabiya’ built by Al Habib, and the place of his refi-
great difficulty, tho’ he and his family continued feve- dence; burnt all the Ihips in the harbour; thoroughly
ral years in poffeffion of many of the conquefts he had
made. This war with Yakub proved a feafonable di-
pillaged the town; and then entirely difmantled it. Af¬
ter the reduction of this place, in which he found im-
verlion in favour of Al Habib, who this year defeated menfe treafures, Al Mowaffek purfued the flying Zen-
all the forces fent againft him, and ravaged the diflridl jians, put feveral of their chiefs to the fword, and ad-
ofWafet. ’ vanced to Al Mokhtara, a city built by Al Habib. As
Habib The following year, being the 263d of the Hegira, the place was ftrongly fortified, and Al Habib was polled
• beginning September 24th 876, the khalif’s forces, un¬
der the command of Ahmed Ebn Lebuna, gained two
ighbourbood with an army, according to Abu
Jaafer Al Tabari, of 300,000 men, Al Mowaffek per-
confiderable advantages over Al Habib; but being at ceived that the redudlion of it would be a matter of
laft drawn into an ambufeade, they were almoft totally fome difficulty. He therefore built a fortrefs oppofite
ddlroyed, their general himfelf making his efcape with to it, where he erefted a mofque, and coined money,
the utmoft difficulty ; nor were the khalif’s forces able, The new city, from its founder, was called by the Arabs
44
Ejrypt
if iich ren-
t be fup-
| dial.
during the courfe of the next year, to make the leaft
impreffion upon thefe rebels.
In the 265th year of the Hegira, beginning Septem¬
ber 3d-8,78, Ahmed Ebn Tolun rebelled againlt the
khalif, and fet up for himfelf in Egypt. Having af-
s// Mowajfekkia, and foon rendered confiderable by the
fettlement of feveral wealthy merchants there. The
city of Al Mokhtara being reduced’to great ftraits was
at laft taken by ftorm, and given up to be plundered
by the khalif’s troops; after which Al Mowaffek de-
fcmbled a confiderable force, he marched to Antioch, feated the numerous forces of Al Habib in fuch a man-
and befieged Sima the governor of Aleppo, and all the ner, that they could no more be rallied during that
provinces known among the Arabs by the name of sll campaign.
Aivafem in that city. As the befieged found that he ^ "
. was refolved to carry the place by affault, they thought
fit, after a (hort defence, to fubmit, and to put Sima
The following year, being the 268th of the Hegira,
Al Mowaffek penetrated again into Al Mabiya, and
demolilhed the fortifications which had been raifed
into his hands. Ahmed no fooner had that officer in fince its former redudlion, though the rebels difputed
Vol. II. Part II. 5 A every
Bagdad.
BAG
C
BAG
7j8 1
every inch of ground. Next year he again attacked A1 Mahomet; and this way of life he continued till he had
Habib with great bravery; and would have entirely de- made a very great party, out of whom he chofe twelve '
feated him, had henotbeenwoundedinthebreaftwithan as his apoftles to govern the reft, and to propagate his
arrow, which obliged him to found a retreat. However, doftrines. He alfo aflumed the title of princey and
as foon as he was cured of his wound, A1 Mowaffek ad- obliged every one of his earlier followers to pay him a
vanced a third time to A1 Mabiyah’, made himfelf ma- dinar a-year. But A1 Haidam, the governor of that
fter of that metropolis, threw down the walls that had
been raifed, put many of the inhabitants to the fword,
and carried a vaft number of them into captivity.
The 27 th year of the Hegira, commencing July 1 ith
883, proved fatal to the rebel A1 Habib. A1 Mowaf¬
fek made himfelf a fourth time mailer of A1 Mabiya’,
burnt all Habib’s palace, feized upon his family, and
fent them to Sana Manray. As for the ufurper him-
province, finding men negledled their work, and their
hufbandry in particular, to fay thofe 50 prayers a-day,
feized the fellow, and having put him in prifon, fwore
that he fhould die. This being overheard by a girl
belonging to the governor, (he, out of compafiion, took
the key of the dungeon at night from under her ma¬
iler’s head, releafed the man, and rellored the key to
its place while her mafter llept. The next morning
felf, he had the good fortune to efcape at this time; but the governor found his prifoner gone; and the accident
being clofely purfued by A1 Mowaffek into the province being publicly known, raifed great admiration ; Kar-
of Ahwaz, where the Ihattered remains of his forces mata’s adherents giving out that God had taken him
were entirely defeated, he at laft fell into the hands of into heaven. After this he appeared in another pro-
the vi&or, who ordered his head to be cut off, and car¬
ried through a great part of that region which he had
fo long dilturbed. By this complete vidlory A1 Mowaf¬
fek obtained the title of Al Najir LAdmilbah, that is,
“ the protestor -of Mahometanifm.” This year alfo
died Ahmed Ebn Tolun, who had feized upon Egypt
and Syria, as we have already obferved; and was fuc-
^ ceeded by his fon Khamarawiyah.
Succeh of The next year, a bloody engagement happened be-
thefui tan of tween the khalif’s forces commanded by Al Mowaffek’s
fon, and thofe of Kamarawiyah, wftio had made an
irruption into the khalif’s territories. The battle was
fought between Al Ramla and Damafcus. In the be-
Egypt.
ginning, Khamarawiyah found himfelf fo hard preffed, confiderable principality.
vince, and declared to a great number of people he
got about him, that it was not in the power of any
perfon to do him hurt; notwithftanding which, his cou¬
rage failing him, he retired into Syria, and was never
heard of any more. After his difappearance, the fedf
continued and increafed ; his difciples pretending that
their mafter had manifefteyl himfelf to be a true pro¬
phet, and had left them a new law, wherein he had
changed the ceremonies and form of prayer ufed by the
Moflems, &c. From this year, 278, thefe fedtaries
gave almoft continual difturbance to the khalifs and
their fubjedls, committing great diforders in Chaldea,
Arabia, and Mefopotamia, and at length eftablifhed a
that his men were obliged to give way; upon which,
taking for granted that all was loft, he fled with great
precipitation, even to the borders of Egypt; but, in
the mean time, his troops being ignorant of the flight
of their general, returned to the charge, and gained a
complete victory. After this, Khamarawiyah, by his
In the 279th year of the Hegira died the khalif Al Sultan 1
Motamed ; and was fucceeded by Al Motaded, fon to EgyP1’8
Al Mowaffek. The firft year of his reign, Al Motaded banned "to;
demanded in marriage the daughter of Khamarawiyah, thr khalji
fultan, or khalif, in Egypt; which was agreed to by Al Mou
him with the utmoft joy, and their nuptials were fo- e<h .
juft and mild adminiftration, fo-gained the affediions of lemnized with great pomp in the zSzd year of the
his fubjefts, that the khalif found it impofiible to gain Hegira. He carried on a war with the Karmatians;
the lead advantage over him. In the 276th year of but very unfuccefsfully, his forces being defeated with
the Hegira, he overthrew one of the khalif’s generals great (laughter, and his general Al Abbas taken pri-
named Abul Saj, at Al Bathnia near the city of Da¬
mafcus ; after which he advanced to Al Rakka on the
Euphrates, and made himfelf mafter of that place.
Having annexed feveral large provinces to his former
dominions, and left fome of his friends in whom he
foner. This khalif alfo granted to Harun, fon to-
Khamarawiyah, the perpetual prefedlure of Awafdm
and Kinnifrin, which he annexed to that of Egyt and
Syria, upon condition that he paid him an annual tri¬
bute ofr 45,000 dinars. He died in the year of the
could confide to govern them, he then returned into Hegira'289, and was fucceeded by his fon Al Moc-
Egypt, the principal part of his empire, which now tafi-
48
Al Mowaf¬
fek dies.
extended from the Euphrates to the borders of Nubia
and Ethiopia.
The following year, being the 278th of the Hegira,
was remarkable for the death of Al Mowaffek. He
died of the elephantiafis or leprofy; and while in his
laft ilkiefs, could not help obferving, that of 100,000
whom he commanded, there was not one fo mifer-
This khalif proved a warlike and fuccefsful prince. Egy|t)
He gained feveral advantages over the Karmatians, butrecoven
was notable to reduce them. The Turks, however, j^y
having invaded the province of Mawarnalnahr, were de- °*
feated with great daughter ; after which, Al Modlali
carried on a fuccefsful war againft the Greeks, from
whom he took Seleucia. After this he invaded Syria
able as himfelf. This year is alfo remarkable for the firft and Egypt, which provinces he recovered from the
difturbances raifed in the Modem empire by the Kar- houfe of Ahmed Ebn Tolun.
matians. The origin of this fedl is not certainly known
Origin ef but t^e mo^ common opinion is, that a poor fellow,
the Karma- by fome called Karmatay came from Khuzeftan to the
tians. villages near Cufa, and there pretended great fan&ity
and ftri&nefs of life, and that God had enjoined him of about fix years and a half. He
to pray 50 times a-day; pretending alfo to invite peo- khalifs who made any figure by t'
pie to-the obedience of a certain Imam of the family of His fucceffors Al Moktader, Al Kaher, and Al Radi.
werr
The reduction of Egypt happened in the 293d year Dirtreflefl J:
of the Hegira, after which the war was renewed with ftate of the-
fuccefs againfi. the Greeks and Karmatians. The kha-khaiifsafttf-
lif died in the 295th year of the Hegira, after a reign5116 death.
the laft of the
warlike exploits.
BAG
C 739 3
BAG
I Divifion of
poffeffed himfelf of the city of Bagdad. There he re-
:he 32?th The cities of Wafet, Bafra, and Cufa, with the reft mained till the year of the Hegira 803, when the city
j^ar.of t^ie of the Arabian Irak, were confidered as the property of was taken a fecond time by Tamerlane; who nevcrthe-
g * the Emir A1 Omra, though they had been in the be- lefs reftored it to him, and he continued fovereign of
ginning of the year feized upon by a rebel called Al the place till driven from thence by Miram Shaw. Still,
Hi Bagdad, were fo diftrefled by the Karmathians and numberlefs putting the reigning khalifat Al Moftafem Billah to a Bagdad
v— ufurpers who were every day ftarting up, that by the moft cruel death. Thefe diabolical conquerors, after
325th year cf the Hegira they had nothing left but ’ "*
^office tl16 city Bagdad. In the 324th year of the Hegira,
.rEmir Al commencing November 30th, 935, the khalif Al Radi, . .
3mra infti- finding himfelf diftreffed on all fides by ufurpers, and from thence was prodigioufly great, Bagdad being then
juted by Alkavjng a viz;,. 0f no capacity, inftituted a new office looked upon as the firft city in the world.
u fuperior to that of vizir, which he intitled  .---j .u. u.-j- _r
Omra, or Commandant of commandants. This great
officer was trufted with the management of all military
affairs, and had the entire management of the finances
in a much more abfolute and unlimited manner than
any of the khalif’s vizirs ever had. Nay, he officiated
they had taken the city, maffacred, according to cuf-
tom, a vaft number of the inhabitants; and after they
had plundered it, fet it on fire. The fpoil they took
Bagdad remained in the hands of the Tartars or Hiftory of
Moguls to the year of the Hegira 795, of Chrift 1392,
when it was taken by Tamerlane from Sultan Ahmed time>
Ebn Weis; who being incapable of making head a-
gainft Tamerlane’s numerous forces, found himfelf ob¬
liged to fend all his baggage over the Tigris, and
for the khalif in the great mofque at Bagdad, and had abandon his capital to the conqueror. He was, how-
his name mentioned in the public prayers throughout ever, hotly purfued by his enemy’s detachments to the
the kingdom. In ffiort, the khalif was fo much under plain of Karbella, where feveral fkirmifhes happened,
’ ” 1 and a confiderable number of men were loft on both
fides. Notwithftanding this difafter, he found means
to efcape the fury of his purfuers, took refuge in the
the power of this officer, that he could not apply a
fmgle dinar to his own ufe without the leave of the E-
mil Al Omra. In the year 325, the Moflem empire,
^ once fo great and
lowing ufurpers.
Baridi, who could not be driven out of them.
The country of Ears, Farfeftan, or Perfa, properly
fo called, was poffeffed by Amado’ddawla Ali Ebn
Buiya, who refided in the city of Shiraz.
however, hefound means to return; butinthe 815thyear
of the Hegira was finally expelled by Kara Yufef the
Turkman. The defcendants of Kara Yufef continued
mafters of Bagdad till the year of the Hegira 875, of
Part of the traft denominated Al Jelal, together Chrift 1470, when they were driven out by Ufun Caf-
with Perfian Irak, which is the mountainous part of fun. The family of this prince continued till the year
Perfia, and the country of the ancient Parthians, obey- of the Hegira 914, of our Lord f5o8, when Shah
ed Rucno’ddawla, the brother of Amado’ddawla, who Iftimael, furnamed Sufi or Sofi, the firft prince of the
, refided at Ifpahan. The other part of that country royal family reigning in Iran or Perfia, till the dethro-
was poffeffed by Wafhmakin the Deylamite.
ning of the late Shah Hofein, made himfelf mafter of
Diyar Rabia, Diyar Beer, Diyar Modar, and the it. From that time to this Bagdad has continued to
city of Al Mawfel, or Moful, acknowledged for their be a bone of contention between the Turks and Per-
fovereign a race of princes called Hamdanites..
fians. It was taken by Soliman furnamed the magni-
Egypt and Syria no longer obeyed the khalifs, but ficent, and retaken by Shah Abbas the great, king of
Mahomet Ebn Taj, who had formerly been appointed Perfia: but being at length befiegedby Amruth or Mo-
governor of thefe provinces.
Africa and Spain had long been independent.
rad IV. with a formidable army, it was finally obliged
„ „ , to furrender to him in the year 1638; fince which
Cicily and Crete were governed by princes of their time the Perfians have never been able to make them-
own. felves mafters of it for any length of time. „
The provinces of Khorafan and Mawaralnahr were The city is large and populous; and the advantage Us prefene-
under the dominion of Al Nafr Ebn Ahmed, of the of the Tigris is fo confiderable, with regard tocom-ftate.
dynafty of the Sammarians.
The provinces of Tabreftan, Jorjan, or Georgiana,
merce, that although the climate is exceffive hot, and
other refpefts far from being agreeable, yet the num-
and Mazanderan, had kings of the firft dynafty of the ber of its inhabitants is computed at 300,000; but
Deylamites.
before the plague broke out there, they were fuppofed
The province of Kerman was occupied by Abu Ali to be four times that number. It is governed by a
Mahomet Ebn Eylia Al Sammani, who had made him- bafhaw, whofe authority extends as far as Courdiftan.
felf mafter of it a Ihort time before. And,
Laftly, the provinces of Yamama and Bahrein, in.
eluding the diftrift of Hajr, w ' ’ “
Abu Thaher the Karmatian. .
The revenues would be immenfe was the government
mild ; but inftead thereof, oppreffion rules here with
the poffcffion of the moft defpotic fway. The bafhaw is continually ex¬
torting money from the poor inhabitants, and none
bg Bagdad
is :aken by
V ,Jie Tartars.
Thus the khalifs were deprived of all their dominions, fuffer more than the unfortunate Jews and Chriftians,
and reduced to the rank of fovereign pontiffs; in which many of whom are put to the moft cruel tortures in
light, though they continued for fome time to be re- order to force their property from them. This feries
garded by the neighbouring princes, yet their power of tyranny and oppreffion has almoft entirely drove
never arrived to any height. In this low ftate the them out of the city, in confcquence of which the
khalifs continued till the year of the Hegira 656, com- trade muft fuffer very confiderably, they being gene-
mencing January 8th, 1258. This year was rendered rally the principal merchants in the place. In the
remarkable by the taking of Bagdad by Hulaku the months of June, July, and Auguft, the weather is fo
Mogul or Tartar ; who likewife abolilhed the khalifat, extremely hot, as to oblige the inhabitants to live for
5 A 2 thefe
Bagdad.
BAG [ 740 ] BAG
thefe months in fubterraneous apartments, which are
arched over, tt> admit the freer circulation of the air.
The houfes are generally large, built of brick and ce¬
ment, and are arched over ; many of the windows are
made of elegant Venetian glafs; the ceilings are moft-
ly ornamented with a kind of chequered work, which
has generally a noble appearance; moll of the houfes
have a court-yard before them, in the middle of which
is a little plantation of orange trees, &c. that has a very
pleafing effeft. The foil, which would produce not
only every conveniency in life, but almoft every luxury,
is through the natural indolence of the Turks, and the
many faults in the government of the country, in a
great meafure uncultivated and neglehitd. The re¬
venues are computed at 1^5 lacks of piaftres, or
1,562,500!. fterling ; but a quarter part of this is not
collefted, owing to the flothfulnefs of the Turks, who
fuffer the Arabs to plunder them of the remainder.
This in fome meafure accounts for the cruelties and
extortions that are continually pra&ifed here. As the
balhaw lives in all the fplendor of a fovereign prince,
and maintains a very large army, he could not be able
to defray his expences, was he not to have recourfe to
oppreffion and injuftice; and he, by his [extenfive
power, afting almoft independent of the Porte, only
acknowledging it to bring in a balance from thence
yearly in his favour.
The bazars or markets here are large and extenfive ;
being covered over with arches built of mafonry, and
divided into different ftreets, filled with (hops of all
kinds of merchandize, to the number of 12,000. E-
very thing a perfon can have occafion for may be had
there. The number of houfes in the city is computed
at near 80,000; and each houfe and (hop pay an an¬
nual tribute to the bafttaw, which is calculated to pro¬
duce the fum of 300,000!. fterling. Befides thefe
immenfe revenues that are colle&ed, the bafhavv pre¬
tends, that by repairs on the fortifications 30,0001. or
40,000!. are annually expended, when not fo many
hundreds are taken out of his coffers for that purpofe.
Likewife clearing the river and mending the bridge
become a charge greater than their income, and pro¬
bably not the value of an Engliih {hilling is expended.
—To fupport the expence of theferaglio, their clothes,
caparifons of their horfes, and every outward pomp,
the amount is confiderable.
On the north fide of the town Hands the citadel,
which commands the river; and confifts of curtains
and baftions, on which fome very long cannon are
mounted, with two mortars in each ballion, placed
on no other beds than the ground, and in very bad
condition. The carriages of the guns are likewife
fo unwieldy, and in fuch a ihattered condition, that
from their appearances they would not fupport one
firing, but would be ftsaken in pieces. Their ele¬
vations were from 30 to 40 degrees, but they had no
quoins to level them. There are, befides, a number of
fmall towers, and loop-holes for mufketry, placed at
certain diftances, all well encompaffed by a ditch of 25
feet deep, which can be filled at any time by the wa¬
ters of the Tigris. The citadel is fo clofe to the
houfes, that it might be eafily taken if poffeffion was once
gained of the town; but an attack made towards the
land would not probably be fuccefsful, as fluices might
with the greateft facility be cut into the ditch, and £0
overflow the country for miles round; but it is
faid an advantageous attack might be made from the
water.
The city, which is fortified by lofty thick walls of
brick covered with earth, and llrengthened by great
towers much refembling cavalier baftions, the whole
being furrounded by a deep ditch, is in the form
of an irregular fquare ; but the walls in many places
are broken down, occafioned by the difputes which
happened on the death of Abdulla Bafha a few years'
ago, when two competitors arofe in Bagdad for the
B'aftiawic, who fought feveral times in the town and
citadel, and laid great part of it in ruins. In the in¬
terim, the governor of Muffool and Nineveh being ap¬
pointed Bafliaw by the Porte, came hither with a con¬
fiderable army, and took poffeffion of the fovereignty,
vanquiffiing his two opponents. Oppofite to the city,
on the other fide of the river, are very extenfive mb-
urbs, from whence {hells might be thrown into the
town, which would have a dreadful effeft on a place fo
clofely built. There is a communication between the
city and fuburbs by a bridge of boats ; the only kind
of bridge which that river_ will admit of, as it is broad
and deep, and in its ordinary courfe very rapid. At
certain feafons it fwelis to a prodigious height, and
overflowing the country occafions many moraffes on
that fide oppofite to the city. Among thefe are feve¬
ral towns and villages, whofe inhabitants are faid to be
the ancient Chaldeans: they are of a particular reli¬
gion, which they pretend is that of Seth. The inha¬
bitants of this city are compofed chiefly of Perfians,'
Armenians, Turks, Arabs, and Jews, which laft adi
in the capacity of fchroffs, or bankers, to the merchants.'
The Jews, notwithftanding the fevere treatment they*
meet with from the government, are induced to live
here from a reverence to the prophet Ezekiel, whofe
maufoleum they pretend is a day’s journey from the
city. Befides the Jews who refide here, there are
many that come every year out of devotion to viiit the
prophet’s tomb. There are alfo two European gen¬
tlemen, a Venetian and a Frenchman, with five Romiffi:
prielts, who are Frenchmen and Italians. Two cha¬
pels are permitted for thofe of the Romifli and Greek
perfuafions; at the former the five prieils officiate. la*
the city are feveral large beautiful mofques, but into
which Chriftians are never fuffered to enter if known'
to be fuch, for fear it ftiould defile them. The Ma¬
hometan women are very richly dreffed, wearing brace¬
lets on their arms and jewels in their ears : the Ara¬
bian women have the partition between their noftriis
bored, wherein they wear rings.
There are alfo a number of antique buildings. At
the diftance of about ten miles Hand the ruins oF
an ancient tower called the ’Tower of Nimrod. Whe¬
ther this tower^ was at firft of a fquare or round form-
is now difficult to determine; though the former is moft-
probable, becaufe all the remaining bricks are placed
fquare, and not in the leaft circular. The bricks are*
all twelve inches fquare and four and an half thick.
The cement is of mud or flime, mixed with broken,
reed, as we mix hair with- mortar; which flime might'
either have been had from one of the great rivers, or
taken out of one of the fwamps in the plain, with
which the country hereabout very much abounds. The
height of the ruin is 126 feet; the diameter of the
largeft
BAG [ 74i ] BAG
Baggage- largeft and middle part about 100 feet. It would ap*
1 1 pear to be i<;lid to the centre ; yet near the top there
is a regular opening of an oval form. The circumfe¬
rence of that part of the tower which remains, and is
above the rubbifh, is about 300 feet; but probably,
could the foundation be come at, it would be found of
far greater extent. The prefent Turks, Jews, and A-
rabians, are fond of believing this to be the identical
ruin of the ancient tower of Babel, for which they af-
iign a variety of reafons; but all fo void of the appear¬
ance of truth, that to fet about confuting them would
be loiing time in trifles. It appears to have been a
beacon or watch-tower, to give notice of the approach
of an enemy : or perhaps was ufed as an obfervatory
to infpeft the various motions of the heavenly bodies;
which fcience was i'o much cultivated among the an¬
cient inhabitants of this country, that even the Gre¬
cians, though delirous of being efteemed the inventors
of all arts and fciences, could never deny the Babylo¬
nians the honour of having laid the foundations of
aftronomy.
BAGGAGE, in military affairs, denotes the clothes,
tents, utenflls of divers forts, provilions, and other ne~
ceffaries belonging to the army.
Before a march, the waggons with the baggage are
marfhalled according to the rank which the feveral re¬
giments bear in the army; being fometimes ordered to
follow the refpeftive columns of the army, fometimes
to follow the artillery, and fometimes to form a column
by themfelves. The general’s baggage marches firft ;
and each waggon has a flag, fhowing the regiment to
which it belongs.
Packing up the Baggage, vafa collig.ere, was a term
among the Romans for preparing to go to war, or to
be ready for an expedition.
The Romans diftinguifhed two forts of baggage ; a
greater and lefs. The lefler was carried by the foldier on
his back, and called farcina; confifling of the things
moft neceflary to life, and w hich he could not do with¬
out. Hence colligere farcinas-, packing up the bag¬
gage, is ufed for decamping, cajlra movere. The greater
and heavier was carried on horfes and vehicles, and
called oner a. Hence onera vehiculorum, farcina homi-
num. The baggage-horfes were denominated fagmen-
tarii equi.
The Roman foldiers in their marches were heavy
leaden; infomuch that they were called by way of jeft
tnuli mariani, and arumna. They had four forts of
luggage, which they never went without, vide, corn, or
utenfils, valli, and arms. Cicero obferves,
that they ufed to carry with them above half a month’s
provifions; and we have inftances in Livy, where they,
carried provifions for a whole month. Their utenfils
comprehended thofe proper for gathering fuel, drefling
their meat, and even for fortification or intrenchment;
and what is more, a chain fer binding captives. For,
arms, the foot carried a fpear, Ihield, faw, balket, ru-
trum, hatchet, lorum, falx, &c. Alfo flakes or pales,
valli, for the fudden fortifying a camp ; fometimes fe-
ven or even twelve of thefe pales were carried by each
man, though generally, as Polybius tells us, only three
or four. On the Trajan column we fee foldiers repre-
fented with this fardle of corn, utenfils, pales, &c. ga¬
thered into a bundle and lain on their fhoulders. Thus
inured to labour, they grew ftrong, and able to under¬
go any fatigue in battle ; the greateft heat of which Baglana
never tired them, or put them out of breath. In after- H .
times, when difeipline grew flack, this luggage was _
thrown on carriages and porters flioulders.
The Macedonians were not Ids inured to hardfliip
than the Romans : when Philip firft formed an army,.
he forbid all ufe of carriages ; yet, with all their load,
they would march, in a fummer’s day, 20 miles in mi¬
litary rank.
BAGLANA, or Buglaka, a province of the
kingdom of Dekkan in the Mogul’s empire. It is
bounded on the north and eaft by Guzerat and Balla-
gat; and on the-ffeuth and weft by that part of Vizia-
pur called Konban, belonging to the Marattas. It ends
in a point at the fea-coaft between Daman and Balfora,
and is the lead province in the kingdom. The Portu-
guefe territories begin in this provice at the port Da¬
man, 2 1 leagues fouth of Surat; and run along the
coaft by Baffaim, Bombay, and Ghawl, to Dabul, al-
moft 50 leagues to the north of Goa.
BAGLIVI (George), a moft illuftrious phyfician
of Italy, was a native of Apulia, and born about the
year 1668. Pie ftudied at Padua, where he became
do&or; and then went to Rome, where he was chofen
profefibr of anatomy. He was a man of moft uncom¬
mon force of underftanding, of which he gave ample -
proofs in many curious and accurate productions, phi-
lofophical as well as medicinal. He died at Rome
1-706, in the flower of his age, and when he was no
more than 38. A collection of his works were printed'
firft in 1710, quarto; and have fince been reprinted,
in the fame fize, at various places. His Praxis Medi-
ca, and Do Fibra Matricis, are the principal pieces.
He wrote a Differtation upon the Anatomy, Bite, and
Effects, of the Tarantula, which is the production of
his country ; and gave a particular account of the
earthquake at Rome and the adjacent cities in 1703.
His works are all in Latin.
BAGNAGAR, a tovyn of Afia, in the dominions •
of the great Mogul, and capital of tire kingdom of
Golconda in the peninfula on this fide the Ganges..
The inhabitants within the town are the better fort;
the merchants aud meaner people inhabiting the fub-
urbs, which is three miles long. It is chiefly re¬
markable for a magnificent refervoir of water, fur-
rounded with a colonnade fupported by arches. It is
feated on the river Newa, in E. Long. 96. o. N. Lat.
15. 30;
BAGNARA, a fea-port town of ltaly in the king¬
dom of Naples, in the farther Calabria, with the title
of a duchy. E. Long. 16- 8. N. Rat. 38. '5.
BAGNAREA, a town of Italy in St Peter’s patri¬
mony, and in the territory of Orvieta, with a bifhop’s fee-
E. Long. 12. 10 N. Lat. 4c.. 36.
BAGNERES, a town of France in Gafcony, and.
in the county of Bigorre, fo called from its mineral
waters. It is feated on the river Adour, in E. Long,
O. 12. N. Lat. 43. 3.
BAGNIALAClt, a large town of Turky in Eu¬
rope, in the province of Bofnia. E. Long. <8. ic.-
N. Lat. 44. o.
BAGNIO, an Italian word fignifying a lath. We.
ufe it for a houfe with conveniences for bathing, cup¬
ping, fweating, and otherwife cleanfing the body ;
and fometimes for worfe purpofes. In Tuiky it is be*
come.
BAG
t 742 1
BAG
Bagn61 as come^general name for the piIfons where the flavea are how Highland pipers can continue to play for hours Bag-pipe,
s , ■ inclofed, it being ufual in theie prifons to have baths,
1 ‘ BAGNOLAS, a town of Lower Languedoc ii
a very handfome fquare, and twi
fountains which rife in the middle of the town; the
waters of which, being received in a bafon, are con¬
veyed by a canal out of town, and from thence to the
lands about it. E. Long. 4. 43. N. Lat. 44. io.
BAGNOLIANS, or Bagnolanses, in church-
hiftory, a feft of heretics, who in reality were Mani-
chees, though they fomewhat difgnifed their errors.
They rejefted the Old Teftament and part of the
together, as they are often known to do. For the
„ fame reafon, thofe who ufe the inftrument are obliged
France. It has a very handfome fquare, and two either to ftand on their feet or walk when they play.
    - This inftrument hath but nine notes; its fcale, however,
hath not yet been reduced to a regular ftandard by com¬
paring it with that of other inftruments, fo that we can
fay nothing about its compafs. Thofe who are belt
acquainted with it, however, affirm that it plays only
the natural notes, without being capable of variation
by flats or fharps.
3* The Scots Lowland Pipe. This is likewife a very
New; held the world to be eternal; and affirmed that loud inftrument, though lefs fo than the'former. It L
■God did not create the foul when he xnfufed it into blown with bellows, and hath a bafs like the Irifh
the body. _ pipe. This fpecies is different from all the reft, as it
BAGOI, among the ancient Perfians, were the cannot play the natural notes, but hath F and C
fame with thofe called by the Latins fpadones, viz. a ffiarp. The loweft note of a good bag-pipe of this
fpecies of eunuchs, in whom the canal of the penis kind is unifon with C lharp on the tenor of a violin
was fo contorted by a tight vinculum, that they could tuned concert-pitch; and as it hath but nine notes, the
not emit the femen. _ higheft is D in alt. From this peculiar conftruaion,
BAG-PIPE, a mufical inftrument, of the wind the Highland and Lowland bag-pipes play two fpecies
kind, chiefly ufed in Scotland and Ireland. The pe- of mufic effentially different from one another, as each
culiarity of the bag-pipe, and from which it takes its of them alfo is from every other fpecies of mufic in the
name, is, that the air which blows it is collefted in- world. Hence thefe two fpecies of bag-pipes deferve
to a leathern bag, from whence it is preffed out by notice as curiofities; for the mufic which they play is
the arm into the pipes. Thefe pipes confift of a bafs, accompanied with fuch peculiar ornaments, or what
and tenor or rather treble ; and are different according
to the fpecies of the pipe. The bafs part is called the
drone, and the tenor or treble part the chanter. In all
the fpecies, the bafs never varies from its uniform note,
and therefore very defervedly gets the name of drone;
and the compafs of the chanter is likewife very limi-
holes like the Englifh flute, and is played on by open¬
ing and fhutting the holes as occafion requires; the
bafs confifts of two fhort drones and a long one. The
loweft note of the chanter is D on the German flute,
being the open note on the counter-ftring of a vio-
4. The Small Pipe. This is remarkable for its fmallnefs,
the chanter not exceeding eight inches in length; for
which reafon, the holes are fo near each other, that it
is with difficulty they can be clofed. This hath only
eight notes, the lower end of the chanter being com-
lin; the fmall drone (one of them commonly being monly flopped. The reafon of this is, to prevent the
flopped up) is tuned in unifon with the note above
this, and the large one to an o£tave below; fo that a
great length is required in order to produce fuch a
low note, on which account the drone hath fometimes
two or three turns. The inftrument is tuned by
lengthening or Ihortening the drone till it founds the
note defired.
2. The Highland Bag-pipe. This confifts of a chan.
flurring of all the notes, which is unavoidable in the
other Ipecies; fo that in the hands of a bad player they
become the moft ffiocking and unintelligible inftruments
imaginable: but this, by having the lower hole clofed,
and alfo by the peculiar way in which the notes are ex-
preffed, plays all its tunes in the way called by the Ita¬
liansJlaccato, and cannot fiur at all. It hath no fpecies
of mufic peculiar to itfelf; and can play nothing which
ter and two ftiort drones, which found in unifon the cannot be much better done upon other inftruments;
loweft note of the chanter except one. This is ex- though it is furprifing what volubility fome performers
ceedingly loud, and almoft deafening if played in a on this inftrument will difplay, and how much they will
room ; and h therefore moftly ufed in the fields, for overcome the natural difadvantages of it. Some of this
marches, &c. It requires a prodigious blaft to found fpecies, inftead of having drones like the others, have
it; fo that thofe unaccuftomed to it cannot imagine their bafs parts confifting of a winding cavity in a kind
1 of
n organ.
are intended as fuch, as neither violin, nor e ..
can imitate, but in a very imperfeft manner.
This kind of bag-pipe was formerly very much
ufed in Scotland at weddings and other feftivals ; be¬
ing indeed extremely well calculated for playing that
peculiar fpecies of Scots mufic called reels. It has
ted. Theie is a confiderable difference between the t>een often a matter of furprife how this was poffible, a..
Highland and Lowland bag-pipe of Scotland ; the the inftrument has only a compafs of nine or ten notes
former being blown with the mouth, and the latter at the utmoft, and which cannot be varied as in other
with a fmall bellows: though this difference is not ef- inftruments. In this refpedt, however, it has a very
fential, every fpecies of bag-pipe being capable, by a great compafs, and will play an inconceivable variety
proper conftrmftion of the reeds, of producing mufic °f tunes. As its notes are naturally fo high, there is
either with the mouth or bellows. The following are fcarce anyone tune but what is naturally tranfpofed by
the fpecies of bag-pipes moft commonly known in this ft> lb that what would be a flat note on the key pro¬
country. .... per for the violin, may be a fliarp one on the bag-pipe;
1. The Irifh Pipe. This is the fofteft, and in fome and though the latter cannot play any flat note, it may
refpe&s the mod melodious of any, fo that mufic- neverthelefs in this manner play tunes which on other
books have been publifhed with directions how to play inftruments would be flat, to as great perfection as
on it. The chanter, like that of all the reft, has eight thefe inftruments themfelves.
BAG t 743 ] BAH
rof fhort cafe, and are turned by opening tbefe to a cer¬
tain degree by means of Aiding covers; from which
contrivance they are called Jhuttle-pipes.—Befides thefe,
there are a variety of others, called Italian, German,
Organ, &c. bag-pipes, which have nothing dilferent in
their conftruftion from thofe above deferibed, nor any
good quality to recommend them.
As to the origin of bag-pipe mufic, fome are of opi¬
nion that it is to be derived from the Danes ; but Mr
Pennant thinks differently, and gives the following rea-
fons for deriving it from Italy.
i yoMcsretothe “ Neither of thefe inftruments (the Highland and
(V Hebrides, Lowland bag-pipes above deferibed) were the iaven-
.p. 3oz. tion of the Danes, or, as is commonly fuppofed, of any
of the northern nations; for their ancient writers prove
them to have been animated by the clangor tubarum.
Notwithftanding they have had their foeck-pipe long
amonglt them, as their old fongs prove, yet we cannot
allow them the honour of inventing this melodious in-
ftrument; but muft affert, that they borrowed it from
the invaded Caledonians. We muft ftill go farther, and
deprive even that ancient race of the credit; and de¬
rive its origin from the mild climate of Italy, perhaps
from Greece.
“ There is now in Rome a moft beautiful bas relievo,
a Grecian fculpture of the higheft antiquity, of a bag¬
piper playing on his inftrument, exadlly like a modern
Highlander. The Greeks had their Aaxxvxwf, or inftru¬
ment, compofed of a pipe and blown-up fkin: the Ro¬
mans in all probability borrowed it from them, and in¬
troduced it among their fwains, who ftill ufe it under
the names of piva and cornu-mufa.
“ That mafter of mufic, Nero, ufed one ; and had
not the empire been fo fuddenly deprived of that great
artift, he would (as he gracioufty declared his inten¬
tion) have treated the people with a concert, and, a-
mong other curious inftruments, would have introduced
the utricularius or bag-pipe. Nero periftied ; but the
figure of the inftrument is preferved on one of his coins,
but highly improved by that great mafter: it has the
bag and two of the vulgar pipes; but was blown with
a bellows like an organ, and had on one fide a row of
nine unequal pipes refembling the fyrinx of the god
Pan. The bag-pipe, in the unimproved ftate, is alfo
reprefented in an ancient fculpture; and appears to have
had two long pipes or drones, and a Angle ftiort pipe
for the fingers. Tradition fays, that the kind played
on by the mouth was introduced by the Danes: as
theirs was wind-mufic, we will admit that they might
have made improvement; but more we cannot allow:
they were drilled in the ufe of the trumpet; the High¬
landers in the piohb, or bag-pipe.
Non tuba in ufu illis, conjeBa at tibia in utrum
Dat bellifignum, et marlem vocat horrida in arma*
The bag-pipe appears to have been an inftrument of
great antiquity in Ireland, though it is uncertain
whence they derived it. Mr Pennant, by means o£
an antique found at Richborough in Kent, has deteiv
mined that the bag-pipe was introduced at a very early
period into Britain ; whence it is probable that both
Irifh and Danes might borrow the inftrument from the.
Caledonians, with whom they had fuch frequent inter-
courfe. Ariftides Quintilianus informs us, that it
prevailed in the Highlands in very early ages; and in¬
deed the genius of the people feems to render the opi¬
nion highly probable. The attachment of that people
to their mufic called pibrachs is almoft incredible, and
on fome occafions is faid to have produced effedls little
lefs marvellous than thofe aferibed to the ancient mu¬
fic. At the battle of (Quebec in t76o, while the Bri-
tifh troops were retreating in great diforder, the gene¬
ral complained to a field-officer in Frafer’s regiment of
the bad behaviour of his corps. “ Sir (faid he with
fome warmth), you did very wrong in forbidding the
pipers to play this morning: nothing encourages the
Highlanders fo much in the day of aftion. Nay, even
now they would be of ufe.”—“ Let them blow like
the devil, then (replies the general), if it will bring
back the men.” The pipers were then ordered to play
a favourite martial air; and the Highlanders, the mo¬
ment they heard the mufic, returned and formed with
alacrity in the rear. In the late war in India, Sir Eyre
Coote, aw'are of the attachment of the Highlanders to
their favourite inftrument, gave them L. 50 to buy a
pair of bag-pipes after the battle of Porto Nuovo.
Formerly there was a kind of college in the ifiand
of Skie where the Highland bag-pipe was taught; the
teachers making ufe of pins ftuck into the ground in-
ftead of mufical notes. This college, however, has been
for fome time entirely dilfolved, and the ufe of the High¬
land pipe became much lefs general than before. At
laft a fociety of gentlemen, thinking it perhaps impo¬
litic to allow the ancient martial mufic of the country
to decline, refolved to revive it by giving an annual
prize to the beft performers on the inftrument. Thefe
competitions were firft held at Falkirk, but for a good
number of years at Edinburgh; where the only fur-
viving member of the ancient college of Skie is now
profejfor of bag-pipe mufic.
The Lowland pipe, as has been already obferved,
is an inftrument effentially different from the Highland
pipe ; it was reformed and the mufic improved by
George Mackie, who is faid to have attended the col¬
lege of Skie feven years- He had before been the
beft performer on that inftrument in that part of the
country where he lived ; but, while attending the col¬
lege at Skie, he adapted the graces of the Highland
mufic to the Lowland pipe. Upon his return, he was
heard with aftoniftiment and admiration; but unluckily,
not being able to commit his improvements to writing,
and indeed the nature of the inftrument fcarce admit¬
ting of it, the knowledge of this kind of mufic hath
continued to decay ever fince, and will probably foon
wear out altogether. What contributes much to this
is, that bag-pipers, not content with the natural nine
notes which their inftrument can play eafily, force it
to play tunes requiring higher notes, which diforders
the whole inftrument in fuch a manner as to produce
the moft horrid difeords; and this pradfice brings,
though undefervedly, the inftrument itfelf into con¬
tempt.
BAGUETTE, in architecture, a fmall-round mould¬
ing, lefs than an aftragal, and fo called from the refem-
blance it bears to a ring.
BAHAMA, or Lucaya, Islands, are the eafter-
moft of the Antilles, lying in the Atlantic Ocean. They
are fituated to the fouth of Carolina, between 22 and
27 degrees N. Lat. and 73 and 81 degrees W. Long.
They extend along the coaft of Florida quite down tc
the
Bahama
I!
Baharen.
BAH [ 744 1 B A J
the ifle of Cuba, and are faid to be 500 In number,
fome of them only mere rocks; but twelve of them
are large, fertile, and in nothing different from the foil
of Carolina: all are, however, uninhabited except
Providence, which is 200 miles call of the Floridas;
though fome others are larger and more fertile, on
which the Englifh have plantations. Between them
and the continent of Florida is the gulf of Bahama,
or Florida, through which the Spanifh galeons fail in
their pafiage to Europe.
Thefe iflands were the firff fruits of Columbus’s dif-
coveries ; but they were not known to the Englifh till
1667, when Captain Seyle, being driven among them
in his palfage to Carolina, gave his name to one of
them; and being a fecond time driven upon it, gave
it the name of Providence. The Englifh, obferving
the advantageous fituation of tbefe iflands for being a
check on the French and Spaniards, attempted to fet
tie them in the reign of Charles II. Some unlucky
accidents prevented this fettlement from being of any
advantage ; and the ifle of Providence became an har¬
bour for the buccaneers or pirates, who for a long
time infefled the American navigation. This obliged
the government in 1718 to fend out Captain Woodes
.Rogers with a fleet to diflodge the pirates, and for
making a fettlement. This the captain effe&ed; a
fort was erefted, and an independent company was
ftationed in the ifland. Ever fince this laft fettlement
thefe iflands have been improving, though they advance
but flowly. In time of war, people gain confiderably
by the prizes condemned there ; and at all times by
;the wrecks, which are frequent in this labyrinth of
rocks and fhelves. The Spaniards and Americans
captured thefe iflands during the laft war; but they
were retaken by a detachment from St Auguftine A-
pril 7, 1783.
BAHAR, or Barri, in commerce, weights ufed
.in feveral places in the Eaft Indies.
There are two of thefe weights; one the great ba-
har, with which they weigh pepper, cloves, nutmegs,
ginger, &c. and contains 550 pounds of Portugal, or
about 5241b. 9 oz. avoirdupois weight. With the
little bahar, they weigh quickfilver, vermilion, ivory,
filk, &c. It contains about 437 lb. 9 oz. avoirdupois
weight.
BAHAREN, an ifland in the Perfian Gulf, fituated
in E. Long. 5©. o. N. Lat. 26. o. This ifland is
chiefly remarkable for its pearl-fifhery, and has often
changed its mafters. It fell with Ormus under the
dominion of the Portuguefe, was again reflored to
.Perfia by Thamas Kouli Kan ; and after his death
the confufion into which his empire was thrown gave
an opportunity to an enterprifmg and ambitious Arab
of taking poffeflion of the ifland, where he Hill main¬
tains his authority. Baharen was famous for its pearl-
fifhery even at the time when pearls were found at
Ormus, Karek, Kafhy, and other places in the Per¬
fian Gulf: but it is now become of much greater con-
fequence ; all the other banks having been exhaufted,
while this has fuffered no fenfible diminution. The
time of fithing begins in April, and ends in October.
It is confined to a tract four or five leagues in breadth.
The pearls t ken at Baharen, though not fo white as
thofe of Ceylon or Japan, are much larger than thofe
■of the former place, and more regular*)’ ftraped than
N° 39.
thofe of the latter. They have a yellowifh colour; but
have alfo this good quality, that they preferve their
golden hue, whereas the whiter kind lofe much of their
luftre by keeping, efpecially in hot countries. The
annual revenue from the Baharen pearl-fifhcry is com¬
puted at about L. 157,500. The greateft part of the
pearls that are uneven are carried to Conftantinople
and other ports of Turky, where the larger go to com-
pofe ornaments for head-drefles, and the fmaller are
ufed in embroideries The perfedt pearls muft be re-
ferved for Surat, whence they are diftributed through
all Indoftan.
BAHI, a province of Lucon or Manila, one of the
Philippine iflands in the Eaft Indies, belonging to the
Spaniards. It is remarkable for producing excellent
betel, which the inhabitants, Spaniards as well as na¬
tives, perpetually chew from morning till night. It is
alfo the place where moft of the fhips are built. But
the natives fuffer much from this work ; feveral hun¬
dreds of them being conftantly employed in it, on the
mountains, or at the port of Cavite. The king allows
thefe labourers a piece-of-eight per month, with a fuf-
ficient quantity of rice. The whole province contains
about 6000 tributary natives.
BAHIA, t>e todos nos sanctos, a province of
Brafil in South America, belonging to the Portuguefe,
and the richeft in the whole country ; but unhappily
the air and climate do not correfpond with other natu¬
ral advantages: yet fo fertile is the province in fugar
and other commercial articles, that the Portuguefe
flock hither not only as it is the feat of affluence, but
alfo of pleafure and grandeur. The capital, called
St Salvador, or Cividad de Bachia, is populous, mag¬
nificent, and beyond comparifon the moft gay and opu¬
lent city in Brafil. It (lands on a bay in S. Lat. 1 2.
11. is ftrong by nature, well fortified, and always de¬
fended by a numerous garrifon. It contains 12,000
or 14,coo Portuguefe, and about three times as many
negroes, befides people of different nations who chool'e
to refide in that city,
BA FUR, a Hebrew term fignifying/a/ncw or //•
luflrious; but particularly ufed for a book of the Jews,
treating of the profound myfteries of the cabbala, be¬
ing the moft ancient of the rabbinical w-orks.
BAHUS, a ftrong town of Sweden, and capital of a
government of the fame name, feated on a rock in a
fmall ifland, in E. Long. 11. 10. N. Lat. 57. 52.
BAJA, Bayjah, or Begia, a town of the king¬
dom of Tunis in Africa, fuppofed to be the ancient
Vacca of Salluft, and Oppidum Vaggcnfe of Pliny. It
was formerly, and ftill continues to be, a place of great
trade, and the chief market of the kingdom for corn; of
which the adjacent territories produce fuch abundance,
that they can fupply more than the whole kingdom
with it; and the Tunefians fay, that if there was in the
kingdom fuch another town as this for plenty of corn,
it would become as cheap as fand. Plere is alfo a great
annual fair, to which the moft diftant Arabian tribes
refort with their families and floeks. Notwithftanding
all this, however, the inhabitants are very poor, and
great part of the land about the town remains uncul¬
tivated, through the cruel exatlions of the government,
and the frequent incurfions of the Arabs, who are very
powerful in thefe parts. The town Hands on the de¬
clivity of a hill on the toad to Conftantina, about 1 o
4 leagues
B A I [ 745 1 B A J
leagues from the northern coaft, and $6 fouth-weft from
Tunis; and bath the convenience of being well watered.
On the higheft part is a citadel that commands the
whole place, but is now of no great ftrength. The
walls were raifed out of the ruins of the ancient Vacca,
; and have fome ancient inscriptions.
Baja, a populous town of Hungary, Seated on the
Danube, in E. Long. 19. 50. N. Lat. 46. 40.
BAI^E, an ancient village of Campania in Italy,
between the promontory of Mifenum and Puteoli, on
the Sinus Baianus-; famous for its natural hot baths,
which ferved the wealthier Romans for the purpofes
both of medicine and pleafure.—The variety of thofe
baths, the foftnefs of its climate, and the beauty of its
landfcape, captivated the minds of opulent nobles,
whofe paffion for bathing knew no bounds. Abun¬
dance of linen, and difufe of ointments, render the
pra&ice lefs neceffary in modern life ; but the ancients
performed no exercife, engaged in no ftudy, without
previous ablutions, which at Rome required an enor-
mousexpence inaquedu<fts,ftoves,andattendants: aplace
therefore, where waters naturally heated to everydegree
of warmth bubbled fpontaneoufly out of the ground,
in the pleafanteft of all fituations, was fuch a treafure
as could not be overlooked. Bake was this place in
the higheft perfeftion ; its eafy communication with
Rome was alfo a point of great weight. Hither at
firft retired for a temporary relaxation the mighty ru¬
lers of the world, to ftring anew their nerves and re¬
vive their fpirits, fatigued with bloody campaigns and
civil contefts. Their habitations were fmall and modeft:
but foon increafing luxury added palace to palace with
fuch expedition and fumptuofity, that ground was
wanting for the vaft demand : enterprifing architects,
fupported by infinite wealth, carried their foundations
into the fea, and drove that element back from its
'f ancient limits: it has fince taken ample revenge, and
recovered much more than it ever loft. From being a
place of refort for a feafon, Baise now grew up to a
permanent city : whoever found himfelf difqualified by
age, or infirmity, for fuftaining any longer an aCtive
part on the political theatre ; whoever, from an indo¬
lent difpofition, fought a place where the pleafures of
a town were combined with the fweets of a rural life ;
whoever wiihed to withdraw from the dangerous neigh¬
bourhood of a court, and the baneful eye of inform¬
ers, flocked hither, to enjoy life untainted with fear
and trouble. Such affluence of wealthy inhabitants
rendered Baiae as much a miracle of art as it was be¬
fore of nature ; its fplendor may be inferred from its
innumerable ruins, heaps of marbles, mofaics, ftucco,
and other precious fragments of tafte.—It flourifhed
in full glory down to the days of Theodoric the Goth ;
but the deftruftion of thefe enchanted palaces follow¬
ed quickly upon the irruption of the northern conque¬
rors, who overturned the Roman fyftem, facked and
burnt all before them, and deftroyed or difperfed the
whole race of nobility. Lofs of fortune left the Ro¬
mans neither the means, nor indeed the thought, of fup-
porting fuch expenfive eilabliftiments, which can only
be enjoyed in perfection during peace and profperity.
No fooner had opulence withdrawn her hand, than the
unbridled fea ruflied back upon its old domain ; moles
and buttrefles were torn afunder and wafhed away;
whole promontories, with the proud towers that once
. Von. II. Part II.
crowned their brows, were undermined and tumbled Bitjador
headlong into the deep, where, many feet below the „
furface, pavements of ftreets, foundations of houfes, and ,
mafles of walls, may ftill be defcried. Internal commo¬
tions of the earth contributed alfo largely to this gene¬
ral devaftation ; mephitic vapours and ftagnated waters
have converted this favourite feat of health into the deu
of pertilence, atleaft during theeftival heats: yet Baise
in its ruined ftate, and ftripped of all its ornaments,
ftill prefents many beautiful and ftriking fubjefts for
the pencil. E. Long. 14. 45. N. Lat. 41. 6.
BAJADOR, a cape on the weft coaft of Africa,
fouth of the Canary iflands. W. Long. 15. 20. N.
Lat. 27. o.
BAIANU3 SINUS, a bay fo called from Baue,
(Suetonius) ; Portus Baiarum, (Pliny) ; which was
enlarged by Auguftus, by' giving entrance to the fea
into the Lacus Lucrinus, and Averni, ordering it to
be called Partus "Julius apud Baias, (Suetonius). We
alfo read Baianus Lacus in Tacitus, w'hich fome inter¬
pret the Lucrinus. The modern name is Golfo di Po*-
zuolo. From the higheft point that forms the bay, a
large caftle commands the road, where foreign ihips of
war ufually ride at anchor, the harbour of Naples not
being fpacious enough for the reception of a fleet:
here they enjoy good flrelter, watering, and vic¬
tualling ; but in fummer rilk the health of their crews,
on account of the unwholfomenefs of the air.
BAJAZET I. fultan of the Turks, a renowned
warrior but a tyrant, was conquered by Tamerlane,
and expofed by him in an iron cage ; the fate he had
deftined (it is faid) for his adverfary if he had been
the vidor.
The iron cage, however, fo long and fo often re¬
peated as a moral leffon, has been reje&ed as a fable
by modern writers, who fmile at the vulgar credulity.
They appeal to the Periian hiftory of Sherefeddiu Ali,
of which a French verfion has been given, and from
which Mr Gibbon has colle&ed the following more
fpecious narrative of this memorable tranfa&ion. “ No
fooner was Timour informed that the captive Ottoman
was at the door of his tent, than he gracioufly ftepped
forwards to receive him, feated him by his fide, and
mingled with juft reproaches a Toothing pity for his
rank and misfortune. ‘ Alas!’ faid the Emperor,
‘ the decree of fate is now accompliflred by your own
fault: it is the web which you have woven, the thorns
of the tree which yourfelf have planted. I wilhed to
fpare, and even to affift, the champion of the Mof-
lems: you braved our threats, you defpifed our friend-
ihip; you forced us to enter your kingdom with our
invincible armies. Behold the event. Had you van-
quiihed, 1 am not ignorant of the fate which you re-
ferved for myfelf and my troops. But I difdain to
retaliate : your life and honour are fecure ; and I (hall
exprefs my gratitude to God by my clemency to man.*
The royal captive flrowed fome figns of repentance,
accepted the humiliation of a robe of honour, and em¬
braced with tears his fon Moufa, who, at his requeft,
was fought and found among the captives of the field.
The Ottoman princes were lodged in a fplendid pavi¬
lion ; and the refpeft of the guards could be furpafled
only by their vigilance. On the arrival of the haram
from Bourfa, Timour reftored the queen Defpina and
her daughter to their father and hulband; but he pi-
5 B oufly
B A I [ 746 ] B A I
Bsjazet, oufiy required, that the Servian princefs, who had
Baikal. ^ }jithert0 be€n indulged in the profeflion of Chriftianity,
ihould embrace without delay the religion of the
prophet. In the feaft of vidiory, to which Baja-
zet was invited, the Mogul Emperor placed a crown
on his head and a fceptre in his hand, with a folemn
afl'urance of reitoring him witfi an increafe of glory to
the throne of his anceftors. But the effe£t of this
promife was difappointed by the fultan’s untimely
death : amidft. the care of the mod ikilful phyficians,
he expired of an apoplexy at Akihehr, the Antioch
of fifidia, about nine months after his defeat. The
vidtor dropped a tear over his grave ; his body, with
royal pomp, was conveyed to the maufoleum which he
had eredted at Bourfa; and his fon Moufa, after re¬
ceiving a rich prefent of gold and jewels, of horfes and
arms, was invefted by a patent in red ink with the
kingdom of Anatolia.
Such is the portrait of a generous conqueror, which
has been extra&ed from his own memorials, and dedi¬
cated to his fon and grandfon, 19 years after his de-
ceafe ; and, at a time when the truth was remember¬
ed by thoufands, a manifeft falfehood would have im¬
plied a fatire on his real condudt. Oh the other hand,
of the harfli and ignominious treatment of Bajazet
there is alfo a-variety of evidence. The Turkiih an¬
nals in particular, which have been confulted or tran-
fcribed by Leunelavius, Pocock, and Cantemir, tm-
animoufly deplore the captivity of the iron cage; and
fome credit may be allowed to national hillorians, who
cannot ftigmatize the Tartar without uncovering the
fhame of their king and country.”—From thefe op-
pofite premifes, Mr Gibbon thinks a fair and mode¬
rate conclufion may be deduced. He is fatisfied that
Sherefeddin Ali has faithfully defcribed the firft often-
tatious interview, in which the conqueror,, whofe fpi-
rits were harmonifed by fuccefs, affe&ed the charadter
of generofity. But his mind was infenfibly alienated!
by the unfeafonable arrogance of Bajazet; the com¬
plaints of his enemies, the Anatolian princes, were juft
and vehement; and Timour betrayed a defign of lead¬
ing his royal captive in triumph to Samarcand. An
attempt to facilitate his efcape by digging a mine un¬
der the tent, provoked the Mogul Emperor to impofe.
a harftier reftraint; and in his perpetual marches,, an
iron cage on a waggon might he invented, not as a
wanton infult, but as a rigorous precaution. Timour
had read in fome fabulous hillory a fimilar treatment
of one of his predeceffois, a king of Periia ; and Ba¬
jazet was condemned to reprefent the perfon and ex¬
piate the guilt of the Roman Casfar. But the ftrength
of his mind and body fainted under the trial, and his
premature death might without injuftice be aferibed to
the feverity of Timour. Hfe warred not, however, with
the dead; a tear and a fepulchre were all that he could
beftow on a captive who was delivered from his power ;
and if Moufa, the fon of Bajazet, was permitted to
reign over the ruins of Bourfa, the greateft part of the
province of Anatolia had been reftored by the con¬
queror to their lawful fovereigns.
BAIKAL, a great lake in Siberia, lying between
and 5.5 degrees of north latitude. It is reckoned
to be 500 werlls in length; but only 20 or 30 broad,
and in fome places not above 15. It is environed on
all fides by high mountains. In one part of it, which
lies near the river.Bargufin, it throws up an inilam-
mable fulphureous liquid called Maltha, which the
people of the adjacent country burn in their lamps.
There are likewife feveral fulphureous fprings near
this lake. Its water at a diftance appears of a fea-
green colour; it is frefh; and fo clear, that ob¬
jects may be feen in it feveral fathoms deep. It does
not begin to freeze till near the latter end of Decem¬
ber, and thaws again about the beginning of May :
from which time till September, a ftiip is feldom
known to be wrecked on it; but by the high winds
which then blow, many fhipwrecks happen. This
lake is called by the neighbouring, people Swiatoie
More, or the Holy Lake; and they imagine, that when
ftorms happen on it, they will be preferved from all
danger by complimenting it with the title of Sea.
When it is frozen over, people travel upon it in the
road to China; but they muft be very lharp food,
otherwife they cannot ftand upon the ice, which is ex¬
ceedingly fmooth. Notwithilanding that the ice on this
lake is fometimes two ells thick, there are fome open
places in it to which tempeftuous winds will often drive
thofe who are crofting it, in which cafe they are irre¬
coverably loft. The camels that pafs along have a
particular kind of fhoes foarp at bottom, and the oxen
have lharp irons driven thro’ their hoofs, without which
it would be impoflible for them to pafs. Here are
plenty of large fturgeon and pike ; with many feals of
the black, but none of the fpotted, kind. It contains
feveral iflands; and the borders are frequented by
black fables and civet-cats.
BAIL, B.ALLIUM, (from the French lailler, which
comes of the Greek.and fignifies to deliver in¬
to hands), is ufed in our common law for the freeing
or fetting at liberty of one arrefted or imprifoned upon
any aftion, either civil or criminal, on furety taken for
his appearance at a day and place, certain.
The reafon why it is called bail, is becaufe by this-
means the party reftrained is delivered into the hands
of thofe that bind themfelves for his forthcoming, in
order to a fafe keeping or prote&ion from prifon ; and
the end of bail is to fatisfy the condemnation and cofts,
or render the defendant to prifon.
With refpedt to bail in civil cafes, it is to be ob-
ferved, that there is both common and fpecial bail.
Common bail is in actions of fmall concernment, be¬
ing called common, becaufe any fureties in that cafe
are taken; whereas in caufes of greater weight, aa
adlions upon bonds, or fpeciality, &c. where the debt
amounts to 101. fpecial bail or furety mull be taken,
fuch as fubfidy men at leaft, and they according to the
value..
The commitment of a perfon being only for fafe
cuftody, wherever bail will anfwer the fame intention,
it ought to be taken; as in moft of the inferior crimes:
but in felonies and other offences of a capital nature,
no bail can be a fecurity equivalent to the aftual cu—
ftody of the perfon. For what is there that a man
may not be induced to forfeit to fave his own life?
and what fatisfa&ion or indemnity is it to the public,
to feize the effefts of them who have bailed a murderer,
if the murderer himfelf be fufferedto efcape with impu¬
nity? Upon a principle fimilar to which, the Athenian
magiftrates, wfoen they took a folemn oath never to
keep a citizen in bonds that could give three fureties
B A I [ 747 1 B A I
of the fame quality with himfelf, did it with'an ex¬
ception to fuch as had embezzled the public money, or
been guilty of treafonable pra&ices.
Bail may be taken either in court, or, in fome par¬
ticular cafes, by the fheriff or other magiftrate ; but
moft ufually by the juftices of the peace. To refufe
or delay to bail any perfon bailable, is an offence a-
gainfl the liberty of the fubjedf, in any magiftrate, by
the common law'; as well as by the ftatute Weftm. I.
3 Edw. I. c. 15. and the habeas corpus aft, 31 Car. II.
c. 2. And, left the intention of the law fhould be
fruftrated by the juftices requiring bail to a greater
amount than the nature of the cafe demands, it is ex-
prefsly declared by ftatute t W. & M. ft. 2. c. j. that
exeeffive bail ought not to be required ; though what
bail fhall be called excejjive, muft be left to the courts,
on confidering the circumftances of the cafe to deter¬
mine. And on the other hand, if the magiftrate takes
infufftcient bail he is liable to be fined, if the criminal
doth not appear.
In civil cafes, every defendant is bailable. But it is
otherwife in
Criminal matters. Regularly, all offences, either a-
gainft the common law or aft of parliament, that are
below felony, the offender ought to be admitted to
bail, unlefs it be prohibited by fome fpecial aft of par¬
liament.—By the ancient common law, before and
fince the conqueft, all felonies were bailable, till mur¬
der was excepted by ftatute: fo that perfons might be
admitted to bail almoft in every cafe. But the fta¬
tute Weft. 1. 3 Ed. I. c. 15. takes away the power
of bailing in treafon, and in divers inftances of felony.
The flatutes 23 Hen. VI. c. 9. and 1 and 2 Ph. &
Mar. c. 13. gave farther regulations in this matter:
and upon the whole we may colleft, that no juftices of
the peace can bail, 1. Upon an accufation of treafon:
nor, 2. Of murder: nor 3. In cafe of manflaughter,
if the prifoner be clearly the flayer, and not barely fu-
fpefted to be fo ; or if any indiftment be found againft
him ; nor 4. Such as, being committed for felony,
have broken prifon ; becaufe it not only carries a pre-
fumption of guilt, but is alfo fuperadding one felony to
another: 5. Perfons outlawed: 6. Such as have ab¬
jured the realm : 7. Perfons taken with the mainour,
or in the faft of felony : 8. Perfons charged with Ar-
fon : 9. Excommunicated perfons, taken by writ de
excommunicato capiendo; all which are clearly net ad-
miflible to bail by the jufticts. Others are of a du¬
bious nature, as, 10. Thieves openly defamed and
known : it. Perfons charged with other felonies, or
manifeft and enormous offences, not being of good
fame.: and, 12. Acceffories to felony, that labour un¬
der the fame want of reputation. Thefe feem to be
in the diferetion of the juftices, whether bailable or
not. The laft clafs are fuch as mujl be bailed upon of¬
fering fufficient furety ; as, 13. Perfons of good fame,
char ged wuth a bare fufpicion of manflaughter, or o-
ther infamous homicide; 14. Such perfons being
charged with petit larceny or any felony, not before
fpecifted : or, 16. With being acctffory to any felony.
JLaftly, it is agreed, that the court of king’s bench
(or any judge thereof in time of vacation) may bail
for any crime whatfeever, be it treafon, murder, or
any other offence, according to the circumftances of
the cafe. And herein the wifdom of the law is very
manifeft. To allow bail to be taken commonly for
fuch enormous crimes, would greatly tend to elude the
public juftice: and yet there are cafes, though they
rarely happen, in which it would be hard and unjuft
to confine a man in prifon, though accufed even of the
greateft offence. The law has therefore provided one
court, and only one, which has a diferetionary power
of bailing in any cafe: except only, even to this high
jurifdiftion, and of courfe to all inferior ones, fuch
perfons as are committed by either houfe of parlia¬
ment, fo long as the feflion lafts ; or fuch as are com¬
mitted for contempts by any of the kings fuperior
courts of juftice. See Law, Part III. N0 xxxvi. 42.
Clerk of the Bails, is an officer belonging to the
court of the King’s Bench : he files the bail-pieces ta¬
ken in that court, and attends fer thatpurpofe.
Bail, or Bale, in the fea-language. The feamen
call throwing the W'ater by hand out of the fhips or
boats hold, lailing. They alfo call thofe hoops that
bear up the tilt of a boat, its bails.
BAILIE, in Scots law, a judge anciently ap¬
pointed by the king‘over fuch lands not erefted into
a regality as happened to fall to the crown by for¬
feiture or otherwife, now aboliftied. It is alfo the
name of a magiftrate in royal boroughs, and of the
judge appointed by a baron over lands erefted into a
barony. See Law, Part III. N° cxviii. 6, 7.
BAILIFF (ballivus), from the French word bay-
l'ijf, that is, prafeBus provincie; and as the names, fo
the office itfelf was anfw'erable to that of France;
where there are eight parliaments, which are high
courts from whence there lies no appeal, and within
the precinfts of the feveral parts of that kingdom
which belong to each parliament there are feveral pro¬
vinces to which juftice is adminiftered by certain offi¬
cers called balltjfs; and in England there are feveral
counties in which juftice hath been adminiftered fo the
inhabitants by the officer who is now called Jherijf or
vifeount (one of which names defeends from the Saxons,
the other from the Normans); and though the ftieriff
is not called bailiff, yet it is probable that was one of
his names alfo, becaufe the county is often called bdU
liva. And in the ftatute of Magna Charta, cap. 28.
and 14 Ed. 3. c. 9. the word bailiff feems to comprife
-as well flieriffs as bailiffs of hundreds. As the realm
is divided into counties, fo every county is divided in¬
to hundreds ; within which in ancient times the people
had juftice miniftered to them by the officers of every
hundred. But now the hundred courts, except certain
franchifes, are fwallowed in the county-courts; and the
bailiff’s name and office is grown into contempt, they
being generally officers to ferve Writs, &c. within their
liberties. Though, in other refpefts, the name is ftill
in good efteem: for the chief magiftrates in divers
towns are called bailffs or bailies; and fometimes the
perfons to whom the king’s ctftles are committed are
termed bailiffs, as the bailiff of Dover Cajlle, &c.
Of the ordinary bailiffs there are feveral forts, <w'z.
ftieriff’s bailiffs, bailiffs of liberties, &c.
Sheriff’s bailiffs, or flieriffs officers, are either bailiff's
of hundreds, or fpecial bailiffs. Bailiffs of hundreds
are officers appointed over thofe refpeftive diftrifts by
the Iheriffs, to coHeft fines therein ; to fummon juries;
to attend the judges and juftices at the affifes, and quar-
ter-feffions; and alfo to to execute writs and procefs in
5 B 2 the
B A I [ 74& j BA I
EaiHff the feveral hundred*. But as thefe are generally plain
Ballet men» an^ not thoroughly Ikilful in this latter part of
their office, that of ferving writs, and making arreils
and executions, it is now ufual to join fpecial bailiffs
with them ; who are generally mean perfons employed
by the fheriffs on account only of their adroitnefs and
dexterity in hunting and feizing of their prey.
Bailiffs of liberties are thofe bailiffs who are ap¬
pointed by every lord within his liberty to execute
procefs, and do fuch offices therein as the bailiff errant
doth at large in the county; but bailiffs errant or iti¬
nerant, to go up and down the county to ferve procefs,
are out of ufe.
There are alfo bailiffs of forefts, and bailiffs of ma¬
nors, who dire& huffiandry, fell trees, gather rents,
pay quit-rents, &c...
Water Bailiff, an officer appointed in all port-
towns, for the fearching of fhips, gathering the toll for
anchorage, &c. and arrefling perfons for debt, &c. on
the water
BAILII (David), painter of perfpeftive views and
portraits, was the fon of Peter B^ilii, an artift of fome
note; and was born at Leyden in 1584. From his
father he learned to. draw and defign : but he was af¬
terwards placed under the care of Adrian Verburg, and
continued with him for fome time; and when he
quitted that mafter, he fludied to much greater advan-
tege with Cornejius Vandervoort, an excellent portrait
painter, and with him he fpent above fix years. As
Vandervoort pofleffed many capital paintings of fome
great mailers, Bailii, for his own improvement, copied
them with critical care and obfervatjon ; and particu¬
larly copied one petipe&ive view of the infide of a
church, originally painted by Stenwyck, which he fi-
nifhed with fuch accuracy, that even Stenwyck him-
felf could fcarce determine which was the original, or
which the copy,, when both were placed before him.
He travelled through feveral parts of Italy, to fee the
works of the celebrated mailers of that country, and for
a few years refided at Rome ; and abroad, as well as
in his own country, .the correfitnefs of his drawing, and
the delicate handling and finifhing of his piftures, pro¬
cured him employment, admirers, and friends. In the
latter part of his life he difcontinued painting, and on¬
ly drew portraits on vellum with a pen, which he
heightened with black lead,, and gave them wonderful
force and roundnefs. He died in 1638.
BAILIWICK, that liberty which is exempted from
the ffieriff of the county ; over which liberty the lord
thereof appoints his own bailiff, with the like power
within his precindl as an under fheriff exercifes under
the fheriff of the county : Or it fignifies the precinfl
of a bailiff, or the place within which his jurifdidlion is
terminated.
BAILLET (Adrian), a very learned French wri¬
ter and critic, born in 1649, at the village of Neuville
near Beauvais in Picardy. His parents were too-poor
to give him a proper education, which however he ob¬
tained by the favour of the bifhop of Beauvais, who
afterwards ptefented him with a fmall vicarage. In
1680, he was appointed librarian to M. de Lamoignon,
advocate general to the parliament of Paris; of whofe
library he made a copious index in 35 vols folio, all
written with his own hand. He died in 1706, after
writing many works; the principal of which are, dHl-
Jlory of Holland from 1609, to the peace of Nimegven in Bail!
1679, 4 vols izmo; Lives of the Saints, 3 vols folio, «
which he profeffed to have purged from fables ; Juge-
mens de Savans, which he extended to 9 vols 12 mo ;
and The life of , Des Cartes, 2 xoh 410, which he a-
bridged, and reduced to 1 vol. izmo.
BAILLEUL, a town of France, in the earldom of
Flanders, formerly very ftrong, but now without any
fortifications. . It has been feveral times burnt by ac¬
cident, and contains now only about 500 houfes. E.
Long. 2. 55. N. Lat. 40. 35.
BAILMENT, in law, is a delivery of goods in
truft, upon a contraft, expreffed or implied, that the
truft {hall be faithfully executed on the part of the
bailee. As if cloth be delivered, or (in our legal dia- -
left) bailed, to a taylor to make a fuit of clothes, he
has it upon an implied contraft to render it again when
made, and that in a workmanly manner. If money or
goods be delivered to a common carrier, to convey
from Oxford to London, or from Glafgow to Edin¬
burgh, &c. he is under a contraft in law to pay, or
carry them to. the perfon appointed. If a horfe or o-
ther goods be delivered to an inn-keeper or his fer-
vants, he is bound to keep them fafely, and reftore
them when his gueft leaves the houfe. If a man takes
in a horfe, or other cattle, to graze and depafture in
his grounds, which the law calls agiflment, he takes
them upon an implied contraft to return them on de¬
mand to the owner. If a pawnbroker receives plate or
jewels as a pledge or fecurity for the repayment of
money lent thereon at a day certain, he has them upon
an exprefs contraft or condition to reftore them if the
pledger perform? his part by redeeming them in due
time ; for the due execution of which contraft, many
ufeful regulations are made by ftatute 30 Geo. II. c. 24.
And fo, if a landlord dtftrains goods for rent, or a pa-
rifh officer for taxes, thefe for a time are only a pledge
in the hands of the diftrainers; and they are bound by
an implied contraft in law to reftore them on payment
of the debt, duty, and expences, before the time of fale;
or when fold, to render back the overplus. If a friend
delivers any thing to his friend to keep for him, the re¬
ceiver is bound to reftore it on demand ; and it was for¬
merly held, that in the mean time he was anfwerable.
for any damage or lofs if might fuftain, whether by ac¬
cident or otherwife ; unlefs he exprefsly undertook to
keep it only with the fame care as his own goods, and
then he fnould not be anfwerable for theft or other ac¬
cidents. But now the law feems to be fettled on a much
more rational footing ; that fuch a gtneral bailment
will not charge the bailee with any lofs, unlefs it hap¬
pens by grofs negleft, which is conftrued to be an evi¬
dence of fraud: but if the bailee undertakes fpecially
to keep the goods fafely and fecurely, he is bound to
anfwer all perils and damages that may befal them for
want of the fame care with which a prudent man would
keep his own.
BAILO ; thus they ftyle at Conftantinople the am-
baffador of the republic of Venice, who refides at the
Porte. This minifter, befides his political charge, afts
there the part of a conful of Venice.
BAINBRIDGE (Dr John), an eminent phyfician
and aftronomer, born at Afhby de la Zouche in Lei-
- ceflerftiire, in 15.82. He taught a grammar fchoo! for
fome years, and praftifed phyfic, employing his leifure
hours -
B A I [ 749 ] B A K.
iclBalocao hours in aftronomy, which was his favourite fl.udy : at
B .1! length he removed to London, was admitted a fellow
of the college of phyficiana, and raifed his charafter by
H his defcription of the comet in 8. The next year
;» Sir Henry Savile appointed him his firft profelfor of
allronomy at Oxford ; and the mailers and fellows of
Merton-college made him firft junior, and then fupe-
rior, reader of Linacre’s ledture. ne died in 1643.
| having wiitten many works, fome of which have never
been publiihed:. but the MS a. are preferved in the li¬
brary of Trinity-college, Dublin.
BA IOC AO, a copper-coin, current at Rome, and
throughout the whole ftate of the church, ten of which
make a julio, and an hundred a Roman crown.
BAIRAM, or Beiram, a Turkiih word which
fignifies a folemn 'Taft. The Mahometans have two
H *: Bairams, the Great and the Little. The Little Bairam
is properly that held at the clofe of the fail Ramazan,
beginning with the ftrft full moon in the following
month Shawal. This is Called in Arabic Id al Fetx,
or The Feajl of breaking the Fajl; by European writers,
The Turkijh Eajler, becaufe it fucceeds Ramazan,
which is their Lent, more ufually the Great Bainam,
becaufe obferved with great; ceremony and rejoicing at
Conftantinriffle, and through Turky, for three days,
flj and in Perfia for five or fix days, at leaft by the com-
H ' mon people, to make thenifelves amends for the mor¬
tification of the preceding month. The feaft com¬
mencing with the new moon, the Mahometans are very
fcrupulous in obferving the time when the new moon
H commences ; to which purpofe, obfervers are fent to
the tops of the higheft-mountains, who the moment
I they fpy the appearance of a new moon, run to the
city, and proclaim Muzhdaluk, ‘‘ welcome news;” as it
is the fignal for beginning the feftivity.—The Great
Bairam is properly that held by the pilgrims at Mecca,
commencing on the tenth of Dhu lhajia, when the
victims are ilain, and lafting three days. This is called
by the Arabs Id al Adha, that is, The Feajl of Sacrifice,
1 as being celebrated in memory of the iacrifice of A-
bram, whofe fon God redeemed with a great vidftim.
1 By European writers it is called the Lejfer Bairam, as
1 , being lefs taken notice of by the generality of the
people, who are not {truck with it, becaufe the cere¬
monies it is obferved withal are performed at Mecca,
the only fcene of the folemnity.— On the feaft of
Bairam, after throwing little ftones, one after another,
. into the valley of Mina, they ufualiy kill one or more
fheep, fome a goat, bullock, or even a camel; and af¬
ter giving a part thereof to the poor, eat the reft with
their friends. After this, they {have themfelves. The
fecond is a day of reft. On the third, they fet out on
their return home.
BA 1 ROUT. See Bef.root.
BAIT, among fifhermen, implies a fubftance pro¬
per to be faftened to a hook, in order to catch the
different forts of fifiu See Fishing.
BAITING, the adl of fmaller or weaker beads
attacking and harafling greater and ftronger. In this
fenfe we hear of the baiting of bulls or bears by ma¬
ll ftiffs, or bull-dogs with ftiort nofes, that they may take
® the better hold.
Utility is pled in juftification of bull-baiting. This
animal is rarely killed without being firft baited ; the
9 chaffing and exercife whereof makes his fleftt tenderer
<5
and more digeftible. In reality, it difpofes it for pu- Bajulus
trefa&ion ; fo that, unlefs taken in time, baited flelh Ba^er
is foon loft. But a fpirit of barbarifm had the great- '
eft Share in fupporting the fport: bulls are kept on pur-
pole, and exhibited as {landing fpeftacles for the public
entertainment. The poor beads have not fair play:
they are not only tied down to a {lake, with a collar
about their necks, and a ftiort rope, which gives them
not above four or five yards play; but they are difarm-
ed too, and the tips of their horns cut off, or covered
with leather, to prevent their hurting the dogs. In
this fport, the chief aim of the dog is to catch the
bull by the nofe, and hold him down; to which end,
he will even creep on his belly : the bull’s aim, on the
contraiy, is, with equal induftry, to defend his nofe;
in order to which, he thrufts it clofe to the ground,
where his horns are alfo in readinefs to tofs the dog.—
Bull-baiting was firft introduced into England as an
amuiement in the reign of King John, about iroy.
BAJULUS, an ancient officer in the court of the
Greek emperors. There were feveral degrees of bajuli;
as, the grand bajulus, who was preceptor to the em¬
peror; and the Ample bajuli, who were fub-preceptors.
The word is derived from the Latin verb bajulare,
“ to carry or bear a thing on the arms or on the ftioul-
ders ;” and the origin of the office is thus traced by
antiquaries. Children, and efpecially thofe of condi¬
tion, had anciently, befide their nurfe, a woman called
gerula, as appears from feveral paffages of Tertullian ;
w hen weaned, or ready to be w'eaned, they had men
to carry them about and take care of them, who wTre
called geruli and bajuli, a gerendo et bajulando. f lencc
it is, that governors of princes and great lords were ftill
denominated bajuli, and their charge or government
bajulatio, even after their pupils were grown too big to
be carried about. The wmrd paffed in the fame fenfe
into Greece.
Bajulus is alfo ufed by Latin writers in the feveral
other fenfes wherein bailiff is ufed among us.
Bajulus was alfo the name of a conventual officer
in the ancient monafteries, to whom belonged the charge
of gathering and dillributing the money and legacies
left for maffes and obits; whence he was alfo denomi¬
nated bajulus obituum novorum.
BAKAN, a large and handfome town of Afia in
the Eaft Indies, in the kingdom of Ava. E. Long.
98. o. N. Lat. 19. 35.
BAKER (Sir Richard), author of the Chronicle of
the Kings of England, was born at Seffingherft in
Kent about the year 1568. After going through
the ufual courfe of academical learning at Hart-hall,
in Oxford, he travelled into foreign parts ; and upon
his return home was created matter of arts, and foon
after, in 1603, received from King James I. the ho¬
nour of knighthood. In 1620, he was high ftieriff of
Oxfordihire; but engaging to pay fome of the debts
of his wife’s family, he was reduced to poverty, and
obliged to betake himfelf for {belter to the Fleet prifon, .
where he compofed feveral books; among which are,
x. Meditations and Difquifitions on the Lord’s Prayer.
2. Meditations, &c. on feveral of the Pfalms of David.
3. Meditations and Prayers upon the feven Days of the
Week. 4. Cato Variegatus, or Cato’s Moral Diftichs
varied, &c.—Mr Granger obferves, that his Chro¬
nicle of the Kings of England was ever more efteemed
byy
B A K L 750 ] BA R
by readers of a lower clafs than by fuch as had a cri¬
tical knowledge of hiftory. The language of it was,
in this reign, called polite ; and it long maintained its
reputation, efpecially among country gentlemen. The
author feems to have been fometimes more ftudious to
pleafe than to inform, and with that view to have fa-
crificed even chronology itfelf to method. In 1658,
Edward Philips, nephew to Milton, publifhed a third
edition of this work, with the addition of the reign of
Charles I. It has been feveral times reprinted iince,
and is now carried as low as the reign of George I.
Sir Richard alfo tranflated feveral works from the French
and Italian ; and died very poor,, in the Fleet prifon,
-on the 18th February 1645.
Baker (Thomas), an eminent mathematician, was
rborn at Ikon in Somerfetlhire about the year 1625,
and entered at Magdalen-hall, Oxen, in 1640 ; after
which he was vicar of Bifhop’s-Nymmet, in Devon¬
shire, where ;he wrote The Geometrical Key, or the
Gate of Equations unlocked ; by which he gained a
confiderable reputation. A little before his death, the
members of the Royal .Society fent him fome mathe¬
matical queries, to which he returned fo fatisfa&ory an
anfwer, that they presented him a medal, with an in-
fcription full of honour and refped. He died at Bi-
Ihop’s-Nymmet on the 5 th of June 1690.
Baker (Thomas), a very ingenious and learned an¬
tiquary, defcended from a family ancient and well
eiteemed, diftinguifhed by its loyalty and affeftion for
the crown, was born at Crook in 1656. He was edu¬
cated at the free fchool at Durham, and thence remo¬
ved to St JohnN-college Cambridge in *674. He pro¬
ceeded B. A. 1677; M. A. 1681 ; was eledled fellow
March 1679-80 ; ordained deacon by Bifhop Compton
of London December 20. 1685 ; prieft by Bifhop Bar-
low of Lincoln December 19. 1686. Dr Watfon, tu¬
tor of tl^e college, who was nominated, but not yet
confecrated, b{fhop of St David’s, offered ;to take him
for his chaplain, which he declined, probably on the
profpeft of a like offer from Lord Crew Bifhop-of Dur¬
ham, which he foon after accepted. His Lordfhip
.collated him to the reftory of Long-Newton in his
diocefe, and the fame county, June 1687 ; and, as
Dr Grey was informed by fome of the Bifhop’s family,
intended to have given him that of Sedgfield, worth
L.6ooor L. 700 a-year, with a golden prebend, had
he not incurred his difpkafure and left his family for
refufing to read King James 11.’s declaration for liber¬
ty of confcience. The bifhop who difgraced him for
this refiifal, and was excepted out of King William’s
pardon, took the oaths to that king, and kept his bi-
Ihopric till his death. Mr Baker refigned Long-New¬
ton Auguft 1. 1690, refufing to take the oaths; and
retired to his fellowfhip at St John’s, in which he was
protefted till January 20. 1716-17, when, with one-
and-twenty others, he was difpoffefled of it. After
the paffing the Regiftering A£t 1723, he was defired
,to regifter his annuity of T.40, which the laft a<ff re¬
quired before it was amended and explained. Though
this annuity, left him by his father for his fortune,
with L. 20 jf>er annum out of his collieries by his elder
brother from the day of his death Auguft 1699, for
■the remaining part of the leafe, which determined at
Whitfuntide 1723, was now his whole fubfiftence, he
could not be prevailed on to fecure himfelf againft the
aft. He retained a lively refentment of his depriva¬
tions ; and wrote himfelf in all his books, as well as
in thofe which he gave to the college library, foetus e-
jettus, and in fome ejeSus reSlor. He continued to re-
fide in the college as commoner-mafter till his death,
which happened July 2. 1740, of a paralytic ftroke.
being found on the floor of his chamber. In the af¬
ternoon of June 29, being alone in his chamber, he
was ftruck with a flight npopleftic fit; which abating
a little, he recovered his fenfes, and knew all about
him, who were his nephew Burton, Drs .Bedford .and
Heberden. He feemed perfeftly fatisfied and refigned;
and when Dr Bedford defired him to take fome medi¬
cine then ordered, he declined it, Faying, he would
only take his ufual fuftenance, which his bed-maker
knew the times and quantities of giving: he was thank¬
ful for the affection and care his friends ft.owed him ;
but hoping the time of his diffolution was at hand,
would by no means endeavour to retard it. His dif-
order increafed, and the third day from this feizure he
departed. Being appointed one of the executors of
his elder brother’s will, by which a large fum was be¬
queathed to pious ufes, he prevailed on the other two
executors, .who were his other brother Francis and the
Hon. Charles Montague, to lay out L. 13 to of the mo¬
ney upon an eftate to be fettled upon St John’s college
For fix exhibitioners. He likewife gave the college
L. ico for the confideration of L. 6 a-year (then only
legal intereft) for his life; and to the library feveral
choice books, both printed and MS. medals, and coins;
befides what he left to it by his will; which were, “ all
fuch books, printed and MS. as he had, and were
wanting there.” All that Mr Baker printed was,
r. “ Refleftious on Learning, fhowing the infufficiency
thereof in its feveral particulars, in order to evince the
ufefulnefs and neceffity of Revelation, Lond 1709-10”
(which went through eight editions; and Mr Bofwell,
in his “ Method of Study,” ranks it among the Eng-
lifh daffies for purity of ftyle); and, 2. “ The Pre¬
face to Biftiop Filher’s F’uneral Sermon for Margaret
Countefs of Richmond and Derby, 1708;” both with¬
out his name. Dr Grey had the original MS. of both
in his owm hands. The latter piece is a fufficient fpe-
cimen of the editor’s Drill in antiquities to make us
regret that he did not live to publifh his “ Hiftory of
St John’s College, from the foundation of old St John’s
houfe to the prefent time; with fome occafional and inci¬
dental account of the affairs of the univerfity, and of fuch
private colleges as held communication or intercourfe
with the old houfe or college: collefted principally from
MSS. and carried on through a i'ucceffion of matters to
the end of Biftiop Gunning’s mafterlhip, 1670.” The
original, fit for the prefs, is among the Harleian MSS.
N° 7028. His MS. colleftions relative to the hiftory
and antiquities of the univerfity of Cambridge, amount¬
ing to 49 volumes in folio and three in quarto, are di¬
vided between the Britifti Mufeum and the public libra¬
ry at Cambridge; the former poffeffes 23 volumes, which
he bequeathed to the Earl of Oxford, his friend and
patron ; the latter 16 in folio and three in quarto,
which he bequeathed to the univerfity. Dr Knight
ftyles him “ the greateft matter of the antiquities of
this our univerfity ;” and Hearne fays, Optandum eft
ut fua quoque collectanea de antiqvitatilus Cantalrigien-
ftlus juris faciat pullid CL Bakerus, quippe qui erudi-
tione
B A K [ 751 1 B A K
tione fumma judicioque acri et fuba.80 polleat. Mr Ba¬
ker intended fomething like an Athena Cantabrigienfes,
on the plan of the Athena Oxonienfes.
Baiclr (Henry), an ingenious and diligent natu-
ralift, was born in Fleei-ftreet London, either near
the end of the laft, or very early in the beginning of
the prefent, century. Hisi father’s profeffion is not
known ; but his mother was, in her time, a midwife
of great praAice. He was brought up under an emi¬
nent bookfeller who preceded the elder Dodfley to the
feufmcfs of a bookfeller ; in which, however, he ap¬
pears not to have engaged at all after his apprentice-
fhip ; or, if he did, it was foon relinquifhed by him :
for though it was in his power to have drawn away all
his mafter’s belt cuftomers, he would not fet up againft
him. Mr Baker being of a philofophical turn of
mind, and having diligently attended to the methods
which might be practicable and ufeful in the cure of
Hammering, and efpecially in teaching deaf and dumb
perfons to fpeak, he made this the employment of his
life. In the profecution of fo valuable and difficult an
undertaking, he was very fuccefsful: and feveral of
his pupils, who are ftill living, bear teftimony to the
ability and good effeft of his inftruCtions. He mar¬
ried Sophia, youngeft daughter of the famous Daniel
Defoe, who brought him two fons, both of whom he
furvived- On the 29th of January 1740 Mr Baker
was eleCted a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries;
and, on the 12th of March following, the fame ho¬
nour was conferred upon him by the Royal Society.
In 1744, Sir Godfrey Copley’s gold medal wasbeftow-
ed upon him, for having, by his microl'copical experi¬
ments on the cryllallizations and configurations of fa-
line particles, produced the moft extraordinary difeo-
very during that year. Having led a very ufeful and
honourable life, he died at his apartments in the Strand
on the 25th of November »774, being then above 70
years of age- His wife had been dead fome time
before ; and he only left one grandfon, William Baker,
who was born February 17, 1763, and to whom, on
his living to the age of 2 1, he bequeathed the bulk of
his fortune,, which he had acquired by his profeffion
of teaching deaf and dumb perfons to fpeak. Flis
furniture, printed books (but not MSS.), curiofities,
and collections of every' fort, he direCted ffiould be
fold, which was accordingly done. His fine collection
of native and foreign foffils, petrifactions, (hells, corals,
vegetables, ores, &c. with fome antiquities and other
curiofities, were fold by auCtion March 13. 1775, and
the nine following days. He was buried, as he defined,
in an unexpenfive manner, in the church yard of St
Mary-le-rtrand ; with in which church, on the fouth
wall, he ordered a fmall tablet to be ereCted to his
memory. “ An infeription for it (he faid) would
probably be found among his papers ; if not, he hoped
fome learnedfriend would write one agreeably to truth.”
This friendly office, however, remains as yet to be
perforfried. Mr Baker was a conftant and ufiefufi at¬
tendant at the meetings of the Royal and Antiquarian
Societies, and in both was frequently chofen one of
the council, tie was peculiarly attentive to all the
new improvements which were made in natural fciencc,
and very folieitous for the profecution of them. Se¬
veral of his communications are printed in the Flrilo-
fophical Tranfa&ions ; and, befides the papers written Baker,
by himfielf, he was the means, by his extenfive corre-
fpondence, of conveying to the Society the intelli¬
gence and obfervations of other inquiikive and philo¬
fophical men, both at home and abroad. The Socie¬
ty for the encouragement of arts, manufa&ures, and
commerce, is under fingular obligations to our worthy
naturalift. As he was one of the earliefl. members of
it, fo he contributed in no fmall degree to its rife and
eftabliffiment. At its firft inititutioiV he officiated for
fome time gratis as fecretary. He was many years
chairman of the committee of accounts; and he took
an adtive part in the general deliberations of the So¬
ciety. He drew up a (hort account of the original of
this fociety, and of the concern he himfelf had in
forming it; which was read before the fociety of anti¬
quaries, and would be a pleafing prefent to the public.
Mr Baker was a poetical writer in the early part of
his life. Flis Invocation of Health got abroad with¬
out his knowledge ; but was reprinted by himfielf iu
Original Poems, ferious and humourous. Part I; 8vo,
1725. Part II. came out in 1726. Among thefie
poems are fome tales as witty and as loofe as Prior’s.
He was the author likewife of The Univerfg, a poem
intended to reftrain the pride of man ; which has been
feveral times reprinted. His account of the water po¬
lype, which was originally publilhed in the Philofophi¬
cal Tranfactions, was afterwards enlarged into a fiepa-
rate treatife, and hath gone through feveral editions.
But his principal publications are, The Microfcope made
Eafy, and Employment for the Microfcope. The liril
of thefe, which was originally publilhed in 1742, or
1743, hath gone through fix editions. The fecond
edition of the other, which to fay the lead of it, is e-
qually pleafing and inftruflive, appeared in 1764..
Thefe treatifies, and efpecially the latter, contain the
moft curious and important of the obfervations and
experiments which Mr Baker either laid before the
Royal Society or publiffied feparately. It has been
faid of Mr Baker, that he was a philofopher in little
things. If it was intended by this language to leffen
his reputation, there is no propriety in the ftridure.
He was an intelligent, upright, and benevolent man,
much refpe&ed by thofe who knew him heft. His
friends were the friends of faience and virtue : and it
will always be remembered by his contemporaries,
that no one was more ready than himfelf to affift
thofe with whom he was converfaht in their various re-
fearches and endeavours for the advancement of know¬
ledge and the benefit of fociety.
Baker (David-Erikine), fon to the former, was
a young man of genius and learning. Having been
adopted by an uncle, who was a filk-throwfter in Spiral-
fields, he fucceeded him in the bufinefs; but wanted
the prudence and attention which are neceffary to fe-
cure profperity in trade. He married the daughter of
Mr Clendon, a reverend empiric. Like his father, he
was both a philofopher and a poet; and wrote feveral
occafional poems in the periodical colledlions, fome of
which were much admired at the time p but fo violent
was his turn for dramatic performance, thath? repeat¬
edly engaged with the ioweft drolling companies, in
fpite of every effort of his father to reclaim him. The
public was indebted to him for “ The. Compauion to
the.
4
B A K [ 752 ] B A K
the P!ay-houfe,” in two volumes, 1764, !2mo; a
work which, though imperfect, had conliderable me¬
rit, and fhowed that he pofleffed a very extenfive know¬
ledge'of our dramatic authors; and which has iince
(under the title of “ Biographia Dramatica”) been
conliderably improved by the attention of a gentleman
in every refpedt well qualified for the undertaking.
Baker, a perfon whofe occupation or bufinefs is.
to bake bread. See the articles Baking and Bread.
The learned'are in great doubt about the time when
baking fir ft became a particular profeffion and bakers
were introduced. It is however generally agreed, that
they had their rife in the eaft, and paffed from Greece
to Italy after the war with Pyrrhus, about the year of
Rome 583. Till which time every houfewife was her
own baker ; for the vi or & ptjlor, which we find in Ro¬
man authors before that time, fignified a perfon who
ground or pounded the grain in a mill or mortar to
prepare it for baking, as Varro obferves. According
to Athenteus, the Cappadocians were the mod ap¬
plauded bakers, after them the Lydians, then the
Phoenicians.—To the foreign bakers brought into
Rome, were added a number of freed-men, who were
incorporated into a body, or, as they called it, a college :
from which neither they nor their children were allowed
to withdraw. They held their effe&s in common, and
could not difpofe of any part ©f them. Each bake-
houfe had a patronus, who had the fuperintendency
thereof; and thefe patroni ele&ed one out of their
number each year, who had fuperintendence over all
the reft, and the care of the college. Out of the body
-of the bakers were every now and then one admitted
among the fenators.—To preferve honour and honefty
in the college of bakers, they were exprefsly prohibited
all alliance with comedians and gladiators; each had
his ftiop or bake-houfe, and they were diftributed into
fourteen regions of the city. They were excufed from
guardianlhips and other offices, which might divert
them from their employment.— By our own ftatutes
bakers are declared not to be handicrafts. No man for
ufing the myfteries or fciences of baking, brewing,
furgery, or writing, fhall be interpreted a handicraft.
The bakers were a brotherhood in England before the
year r 135, in the reign of king Henry II. though the
white bakers were not incorporated till 1407, by king
Edward III. and the brown bakers not till 1621,
in king James I.’s time. Their hall is in Harp-
lane, Thames-ftreet; and their court-day on the firft
Monday of the month.—They make the 19th company;
and confift of a warden, 4 mafters, 30 affiftants, and
140 men on the livery, befides the commonalty.—
The French had formerly a great baker, grandpanetier
de France, who had the fupei intendency of all the ba¬
kers of Paris. But, linee the beginning of this cen¬
tury, they have been put under the jurifdiftion of the
lieutenant-general de police. In fome provinces of
France, the lord is the only baker in his feigneury ;
keeping a public oven, to which all the tenants aie
obliged to bring ther bread. This right is called jur-
naglum, or furnaticum, and makes part of the lannalite.
BA LvEWELL, a pretty large town of Derbyftiire,
in England, feated on the river Wye, on the North-
fide of the Peak. It has a confiderable trade in lead.
W. Lonrr. 2. 30. N. Lat. 55. 15.
BAKING, the art of preparing bread, or reducing
N3 39-
meals of any kind, whether Ample or compound, irito Balter,
bread. See the article Bread. w
The various forms of baking among us may be re¬
duced into two, the one for unleavened, the other for
leavened bread. For the firft, the chief is manchet-
baking ; the procefs whereof is as follows. The meal,
ground and boulted, is put into a trough; and to every
bufhel are poured in about three pints of warm ale,
with barm and fait to feafon it. This is kneaded well
together, with the hands through the brake; or, for
want thereof, with the feet, through a cloth : after
which, having lain an hour to fweh, it is moulded into
manchets; which, fcorched in the middle, and pricked up
at top, to give room to rife', are baked in the oven by
a gentle fire.— For the fecond, fometimes called cheat-
bread baking, it is thus: Some leaven (faved from a
former batch) filled with fait, laid up to four, and at
length diflblved in water, is ftrained through a cloth
into a hole made in the middle of the heap of meal in
the trough; then it is worked with fome of the flour #
into a moderate confiftence: this is covered up with
meal, where it lies all night; and in the morning the
whole heap is ftirred up, and mixed with a little warm
water, barm, and fait, by which it is feafoned, foft-
ened, and brought to an even leaven : it is then knead¬
ed, moulded, and baked, as before.
Method of raifing a bujhel of flour, 'with a teafpoonful
of barm; by James Stone, of Amport, in HUmpfhire.
— Suppofe you want to bake a buftiel of flour, and
have but one tea-fpoonful of barm. Put your flour
into your kneading-trough or trendle.; then take a-
bout three quarters of a pint of warm water, and take
the tea-fpoonful of thick fteady barm and put it into the
water, ftir it until it is thoroughly mixed with the wa¬
ter: then make a hole in the middle of the flour large
enough to contain two gallons of water, pour in your
fmall quantity; then take a flick about two feet long,
(which you may keep for that purpofe), and ftir in fome
of the flour, until it is as thick as you would make batter
for a pudding ; then ftrew fome of the dry flour over it,
and go about your ufual bufinefs for about an hour: then
take about a quart of warm water more, andpour in; for
inonehouryouwill findthatfmall quantity raifed fo, that
it will break through the dry .flour which you ftiook
over it; and when you have poured in the quart of
warm water, take your flick as before, and ftir in fome
more flour, until it is as thick as before; then fhake
fome more dry flour over it, and leave it for two hours
more, and then you will find it rife and break through
the dry flour again ; then you may add three quarts or
a gallon of water more, and ftir in the flour and make
it as thick as at firft, and edver it with dry flour again ;
in about three or four hours more you may mix up
your dough, and then cover it up warm ; and in four
or five hours more you m4y put it into the oven, and
you will have as light bread as though you had put a
pint of barm. It does not take above a quarter of an
hour more time than the ufual way of baking, for there
is no time loft but that of adding water three or four
times.
The author of this method affures us that he con-
.ftantly bakes this way in the morning about fix or feven
o’clock, puts tl\e flour out, and puts this imall quan¬
tity of barm into the before-mentioned quantity of
water, in an hour’s time fome more, in two hours more
a
B A K [ 753 1 B A L
a greater quantity, about noon makes up tbe dough,
and about fix in the evening it is put into the oven, and
he has always g6od bread, never heavy nor bitter.
When you find, he fays, your body of flour fpunged
large enough, before you put in the reft, of your water,
you ftiould, with both your hands, mix that which is
fpunged and the dry flour all together, and then add
the remainder of warm water, and your dough will rife
the better and eafier.
The reason he afligns why people make heavy bread
is, not becaufe they have not barm enough, but be-
caufe they do not know that barm is the fame to flour
as fire is to fuel; that, as aipark of fire will kindle a
large body by only blowing of it up, fo will a thimble-
full of barm, by adding of warm water, raife or fpunge
any body of flour; for warm water gives frefh life to
■that which is before at work ; fo that the realon of
making bread heavy is, becaufe the body fpunged is
not large enough, but was made up and put into the
oven before it was ripe.
In regard to the difference of feafons, he prefcribes,
that in the fummer you fhould put your water blood-
warm ; and in winter, in cold frofty weather, as warm
as you can bear your hand in it without making it
fmart; being fure you cover up your dough very warm
-jn the winter, and your covering of it with dry flour
every time you add warm water, will keep in the heat;
when you have added fix or eight quarts of warm wa¬
ter, as before mentioned, in fuch a gradual way, you
will find all that body of flour which is mixed with the
warm water, by virtue of that one tea-fpoonful of barm,
brought into great agitation, waxing or fermenting;
for it is to the flour what the fpirit is to the body, it
foon fills it with motion.
BAKOU, or Baku, a town of Perfia, in the pro¬
vince of Shirivan, fituated at the extremity of the Gulf
of Ghilan on the Cafpian Sea. It is efteemed the moft
commodious haven in this fea, as veffels may there ride
fecurely at anchor in feven fathom water; but the
number of ftioals, iflands, and fand-banks, render the
entrance in fome places extremely difficult and danger¬
ous, particularly to the Ruffians, who are not very ex¬
pert failors. Baku is a fortrefs furrounded with high
brick walls; its inhabitants, like thofe of Dei bent, are
Perfians, Tartars, and a few Armenian merchants.
The principal articles of exportation which fupport the
trade of this place are naphta, and the fineft rock fait,
of both which there are mines on the eaft fide of the
bay. The inhabitants cultivate faffron and the cotton
tree, but not to any confiderable advantage. The trade
of Baku, though more valuable than that of Derbent,
is ftill inconfiderable, and chiefly carried on with Sha-
makee, from whence it draws raw filk and filken fluffs,
A Ruffian conful is refident at this place. In 1777
Baku belonged to Melik-Mehmed, who was tributary
to Feth Ali, khan of Kuba : the latter poffeffed the
whole province of Shirvan, and was the moft powerful
prince, next to the khan of Ghilan, upon the coaft of
the Cafpian. Before we quit the province of Shirvan,
it may not be Improper to mention its capital, the in¬
land town of Shamakee, which is only 66 miles from
Baku, and fupplies that port with raw filk and filken
fluffs. It owed its former commercial importance to
the filk which is cultivated in the neighbouring di-
ilrift; this rich production ftill preferves the town from
Vol. II. Part II.
ruin ; though its traffic is greatly reduced by the ex¬
orbitant exadions of the khan of Kuba. Formerly the
Ruffians had a faCtory at this place, and it was alfo
crowded with Turkifh and Greek merchants; but at
prefent there are only a few Armenian and Indian
traders. The inhabitants manufacture filk and cotton
fluffs, but far inferior to thofe made at this place in the
beginning of the prefent century. The filk of this
province is exported into the interior part of Perfia,
Turky, Georgia, and Ruffia. E. Long. 51. 30. N.
Lat. 40. 20.
BALAAM, a prophet and diviner of the city of
Pethor upon the Euphrates, whofe practices with Ba-
lak king of the Moabites are recorded in the book of
Numbers, chap. xxii. It is a queftion much debated
among divines, whether Balaam was a true prophet of
God, or no more than a magician or fortune-teller.
The Jew’s indeed are generally of opinion, that he
was a bufy and pretending aftrologer, who, obfer-
ving when men were under a bad afpeCt of the flars,
pronounced a curfe upon them ; which fometimes co¬
ming to pafs, gained him in fome neighbouring nation
a reputation in his way. Several of the ancient fathers
fuppofe him to be no more than a common foothfayer,
who undertook to tell future events, and difeover fe-
crets, and by no very juftifiable arts. Origen will
needs have it, that he was no prophet, but only one of
the devil’s forcerers, and that of him he went to in¬
quire ; but that God was pleafed to prevent him and
put what anfwers he pleafed into his mouth. It can¬
not be denied, however, that the feripture exprefsly
calls him a prophet (Pet. ii. 5.); and therefore fome
later writers have imagined that he had once been a
good man and true prophet, till loving the wages of
iniquity, and proftituting the honour of his office to
covetoufnefs, he apoftatized from God, and betaking
himfelf to idolatrous praClices, fell under the delufion
of the devil, of whom he learnt all his magical en¬
chantments, though at this juncture, when the prefer-
vation of his people was concerned, it might be confift-
ent with God’s wifdom to appear to him, and vouch-
fafe his revelations. As to what paffed between him
and his afs, when that animal was miraculoufly enabled
to fpeak to its matter; commentators are divided in
their opinions concerning this faCt, whether it really
and literally happened as Mofes relates it; or whether
it be an allegory only, or the mere imagination or vi~
fion of Balaam. This indeed is fo wonderful an in-
ftance, that feveral of the Jewiih doftors, who upon
other occafions are fond enough of miracles, feem as if
they would hardly be induced to affent to this. Philo,
in his Life of Mofes, paffes it over in filence; and Mai-
monides pretends that it happened to Balaam in a
prophetic vifion only. But St Peter (2 Pet. ii. 16.)
fpeaks of this faCl as literal and certain, and fo all in¬
terpreters explain it. St Auftin, who underftands it
exaftly according to the letter, finds nothing in the
whole account more fuprifing than the ftupidity of
Balaam, who heard his pfs fpeak to him, and anfwered
it as if he talked with a reafonable perfon. He is of
opinion, that this diviner was accuftomed to prodigies
like this, or that he was ftrangely blinded by his ava<-
rice, not to be flopped by an event of fo extraordinary
a nature. Le Clerc thinks, that Balaam might pro¬
bably have imbibed the dodlrine of tranfmigration of
5 C fouls,
B A L [ 754 1 B A L
Balaam fouls, which was certainly very common in the eaft ;
(I and from thence he might be the lefs aftoniftied at hear-
^Da‘ ing a brute fpeak. And Dr Patrick thinks, that Ba¬
laam was in 1'uch a rage and fury at the fuppofed per-
verfenefs of his beaft crufhing his foot, that for the
prefent he could think of nothing elfe : though the
concifenefs of Mofes’s relation, who mull be pieiumed
to have omitted many circumftanees, which if rightly
known would difpel this and many more difficulties
that may be imagined in this tranfadlion, does certain¬
ly furnilh us with a better and more fatisfadlory an-
fwer. St Auftin is of opinion, that God had not gi¬
ven the afs a reafonable foul; but permitted it to pro¬
nounce certain words, in order to reprove the pro¬
phet’s covetoufnefs. Gregory of Nyfia feems to think
that the afs did not utter any word articulately or di-
ftindtly; but that, having brayed as ufual, the diviner,
whofe practice it had been to draw prefages from the
cries of beafts and finging of birds, comprehended ea-
iily the afs’s meaning by its noife ; Mofes, defigning to
ridicule this fuperllitious art of augurs and foothfayers,
as if the afs really fpoke in words articulate.
. We mull own, fays Calmet, that this is a miraculous
fatt related by an infpired writer, whofe authority we
are not allowed to call in queftion in the leall particu¬
lar : but we ffiovdd lludy fuch ways of explaining it as
are moll conformable to reafon, and moll proper to folve
the difficulties of it, without attacking the truth of the
hillory. Now it is very poffible for God to make an afs
fpeak articulately ; it is indeed miraculous, and- above
the ordinary faculty of this animal, but not againlt the
laws of nature.
BAL ADAN^the fcripture name for a king of Ba¬
bylon (dfa. xxxix. t. 2 Kings xx. 12.), called by pro-
phane authors Belefus or JBelefis, Nalonajfar or Nany*
brus. Baladan at firlt was no more than governor of
Babylon; but entering into a confederacy with Ar-
baces governor of Media, and rebelling againll Sardan-
apalus king of Affyria, thefe two generals marched a-
gainll him with an army of 400,000 men, and were
beat in three different battles. But the Ba&rians de¬
ferring the king, and coming over to Baladan and Ar-
baces, the rebels attacked the enemy in the night, and
made themfelves mailers of his camp. After this mis¬
fortune, Sardanapulus retreated to Nineveh, and left
the command of his army to his brother-in-law Sala-
menes. The confpirators attacked Salamenes, and
defeated him in two great battles; after which they
laid fiege to Nineveh. Sardanapulus fullained the
fiege for three years; but the Tigris, in the third year,
overflowing its banks, beat down twenty, furlongs of
the walls; whereupon the confpirators entered the city
and took poffeffion of it, after Sardanapalus had burnt
himfelf and alibis moft valuable effects upon.a= funeral
pile eredted for that purpofe in his palace. Baladan
was acknowledged king of Babylon, as Arbaces was of
Medea. Berodach-baladan, who fent ambaffadors to
Hezekiah (2 Kings xx.), was the fon of Baladan.
BALA, a town of Merionithlhire in Wales. W.
Long. 3. 37. N. Lat. 52. 54.
BALuENA, or whale, in zoology, a genus of the
mammalia clafs, belonging to the order of cete. The
cbara&erS of this genus are thefe: The balana, in place
of teeth, has a horny plate on the upper jaw, and a
double fiftula or pipe for throwing out water. The Bil-ent
fpecies are four, ‘viz..
1. The myfticetus, or common whale, which has Commolj
many turnings and windings in its noilrils, and has no whale, j
fin on the back. This is the large!! of all animals; it
is even at-prefent fometimes found in the northern feas_
90 feet in length ; but formerly they were taken of a
much greater fize, when the captures were lefs fre¬
quent, and the fifh had time to grow. Such is their
bulk within the ardlic circle; but in thofe <sf the torrid
zone, where they are unmolelled, whales are ft ill feen a s
160 feet long. The head is very much difproportioned Defcrlp-l
to the fize of the body, being one third the fize of the :K,n, &c*l
fifh : the under lip. is much broader than the upper.
The tongue is cornpofed of a- foft fpongy fat, capable
of yielding five or fix barrels of oil. The gullet is very
final 1 foi fo vaft a fiffi, not exceeding four inches in
width. In the middle of the head are two orifices,
through which it fpouts water to a vaft height, and
with a great noife, efpecially when diflurbed or wound¬
ed. The eyes are not larger than thofe of an ox, and
when the cryftalline humour is dried, it does not appear
larger than a pea. They are placed towards the back
of the head, being the moft convenient fituation for
enabling them to fee both before and behind; as alfo
to fee over them, where their food is principally found:
They are guarded by eye-lids and eye-lafhes, as in qua¬
drupeds; and they feem to be very fharp-fighted.
Nor is their fenfe of hearing in lefs perfedlion; for
they are warned at great diftances of any danger pre¬
paring againft them. It would feem as if nature had
defignedly given them thefe advantages, as they mul¬
tiply little, in order to continue their kind. It is true;
indeed, that the external organ of hearing is not per¬
ceptible, for this might only embarrafs them in their
natural element; but as foon as the thin fcarf-ikin af¬
ter mentioned is removed, a black fpot is difcovered
behind the eye, and under that is the auditory cnnal;
that leads to a regular apparatus for hearing,. In ffiort,
the animal hears the fmalleft founds at very great di¬
ftances, and at all times, except when it is fpouting
water; which is- the time that the fifhers approach to
ftrike it. What is called whalebone, adheres to the up¬
per jaw t and is formed of thin parallel laminse, feme
of the longeft four yards in length: of thefe there are
commonly jyo on each fide, but in very old fiffi more;.
about 500 of them are ofa length fit for ufe, the others
being too ffiort. They are furrounded with long ftrong
hair, notonly that they may not hurt the tongue, but
as ilrainers to prevent the return- of their food when
they difeharge the water out of their mouths.—The
real bones of the whale are hard, porous, and full of
marrow. Two great ftrong bones fuftain the upper
lip, lying againit each other in the lhape of an half-
moon.
'1'he tail is broad and femilunar; and when the fifti>
lies, on one fide, its'blow is tremendous. The tail alone
it makes ufe of to advance itfelf forward in the water ;
and it is furprifing. to fee with what force and celerity
its enormous bulk cuts through the ocean. The fins
are only made ufe of for turning in the water, and gi¬
ving a dire&ion to the velocity impreffed by the tail-
The female alfo makes ufe of them, when purfued, to
bear off her young, clapping them on her back, and
fupporting
B A L [ 755 ] B A L
Balsua fnpporting them by the fins on each fide from falling,
u—y.*” 1 The whale varies in colour; the back of fome being
red, the belly generally white. Others are black, fome
mottled, others quite white ; according to the obferva-
tion of Martin, who fays, that their colours in the wa¬
ter are extremely beautiful, and that their fkin is very
;*fmooth and llippery. The outward or fcarf-lkin of the
whale is no thicker than parchment; but this removed,
the real Ikin appears, of about an inch thick, and co¬
vering the fat or blubber that lies beneath: this is from
eight to twelve inches in thicknefs ; and is, when the
fifii is in health, of a beautiful yellow. The mufcles
lie beneath; and thefe, like the flelh of quadrupeds,
are very red and tough. The penis is eight feet in
length, inclofed in a ftrong (heath. The teats in the
- female are placed in the lower part of the belly,
tfutual fi- In copulation, the female joins with the male, as is
fclity oft'-.e a(ferte(l7 more humano; and once in two years feels the
“^and ft:'aceefles of defire. Their fidelity to each other exceeds
411 e* whatever we are told of, even the conftancy of birds.
Some filhers, as Anderfon informs us, having (truck one
of two whales, a male and a female, that were in com¬
pany together, the wounded fi(h made a long and ter¬
rible refiftance : it (truck down a boat with three men
in it, with a (ingle blow of its tail, by which all went
to the bottom. The other (till attended its companion,
and lent it every afiillance; till, at laft, the fi(h that was
(truck funk under the number of its wounds; while its
faithful affociate, difdaining to furvive the lofs, with
4 great bellowing, (tretched itfelf upon the dead fifh,
Offspring; and (hared his fate. - The whale goes with young nine
parental af- 0r ten months, and is then fatter than ufual, particu-
e<3km, &c. jarjy when near the time of bringing forth. It is faid
that the embryo, when firft perceptible, is about 17
inches long, and white ; but the cub, when excluded,
is black, and about 10 feet long. She generally pro¬
duces one young one, and never above two. When (he
fuckles her young, (he throws herfelf on one fide on
the furface of the fea, and the young one attaches itfelf
to the teat.
Nothing can exceed the tendernefs of the female for
her offspring; (he carries it with her wherever (he goes,
and, when hardeft purfued, keeps it fupported be¬
tween her fins. Even when wounded, (he ftill clafps
her young one; and when (lie plunges to avoid danger,
takes it to the bottom ; but rifes fooner than ufual, to
give it breath again. The young ones continue at the
bread for a year, during which time they are called
by the failors Jhort-heads. They are then extremely
fat, and yield above 50 barrels of blubber. The mo¬
ther at the fame time is equally lean and emaciated. At
the age of two years they are called Jlunts, as they do
not thrive much immediately after quitting the bread :
they then yield fcarce above 20 or 24 barrels of blub¬
ber ; from that time forward they are called Jkull-jiJh,
and their age is wholly unknown.
Every fpecies of whale propagates only with thofe
of its own kind, and does not at all mingle with the
red: however, they are generally feen in (hoals, of dif-
f s ferent kinds together, and make their migrations in
ftAre gre- large companies from one ocean to another. They are
itjarious. gregarious animals; which implies their want of mu¬
tual defence againd the invafions of fmaller, but more
powerful, fiflres. It feems adonilhing, therefore, how
a (hoal of thefe enormous animals find fubfidence to¬
gether, when it would feem that the fupplying even Bdana.
one with food would require greater plenty than the v J
ocean could furnifti. To increafe our wonder, we not
only fee them herding together, but ufually find them
fatter than any other animals of whatfoever element.
We likewife know that they cannot fwallow large filhes,
as their throat is fo narrow that an animal larger than
an herring could not enter. How then do they fubfid .6
and grow fo fat ? A certain fort of fmall fnail, or (as^'*ie‘r ^00^'
, Linnseus fays) the medufa* or fea-blubber, is fufficient * ®ee
for this fupply. Content with this limple food, it pur-
fues no other animal, leads an inoffenfive life in its ele- inoffenfive-
ment, and is harmlefs in proportion to its drength to nef».
do mifehief.
As the whale is an inoffenfive animal, it is not to be
wondered that it has many enemies, willing to take ad¬
vantage of its difpofition, and inaptitude for combat. g
There is a fmall animal, of the (hell-fifh kind, called Enemies,
the vuhale-loufe, that dicks to its body, as we fee (hells
(ticking to the foul bottom of a (hip. This infmuates
itfelf chiefly under the fins ; and whatever efforts the
great animal makes, it dill keeps its hold, and lives upoa
the fat, which it is provided with indruments to arrive
The fword-filhf, however, is the whale’s mod terri-f See Xi-
ble enemy. “ At the fight of this little animal,” faysf^'"*
Anderfon, “ the whale feems agitated in an extraor¬
dinary manner ; leaping from the water as if with af¬
fright : wherever it appears, the whale perceives it at a
didance, and flies from it in the oppofite diredtion. I
have been myfelf,” continues he, “ a fpedlator of their 6
terrible encounter. The whale has no indrument of de- Confli<ft
fence except the tail: with that it endeavours to drike 'v,th
the enemy ; and a Angle blow taking place, would ef- W01
fedlually dedroy its adverfary : but the fword-filh is as
adtive as the other is drong, and ealily avoids the droke;
then bounding into the air, it falls upon its great fub-
jacent enemy, and endeavours not to pierce it with its
pointed beak, but to cut with.its toothed edges. The
iea all about it is feen dyed with blood, proceeding
from the wounds of the whale ; while the enormous a-
nimal vainly endeavours to reach its invader, and drikes .
with its tail againd the furface of the water, making
a report at each blow louder than the noife of a can¬
non.” In calm weather, the fiftiermen lie upon tHeir oars
as fpedtators of this combat, until they perceive the
whale at the lad gafp then they row towards him;
and his enemy retiring at their approach, they enjoy the
fruits of the victory. This accbunt, however, is differ¬
ent in feveral refpedts From that commonly given by
feamen ; who report, that a fi(h called the Threjhcr
(a fpecies of Squalus), is in league with the fiuord-
jijh; and that the former keeps on the back of the whale
while the latter wounds it underneath in the belly,
which occafions him to rife to the furface of the water,
and to give the threlher an opportunity of afliding in
the combat. This he does by throwing himfelf into
an ere ft podure; and like a boy tumbling neck over
heels, falls down with adonilhing force on the back of
his prey: And thus they go on till the poor whale is
dedroyed'. The grampus, and other large lilhes of the
cetaceous order, are attacked and dedroyed by the
fame enemies in a fimilar manner.—The whale has ano¬
ther defperate enemy, a kind of (hark, of different
fwes from one to three fathoms j fo voracious, that it
J C 2 tears
B A L [ 755 ] B A L
Balxna. tears large pieces of flefh from the whale, as if they had
v been dug with (hovels.
To view thefe animals in a commercial light, we
mull obferve, that the Englifh were late before they en¬
gaged in the whale filhery: it appears by a fet of queries
propofed by an honelt merchant the year *575, in
order to get information in the bufinefs, that we were
at that time totally ignorant of it, being obliged to
fend to Blfkale for men Jhilful in the catching of the whale,
and ordering of the oil, and one cooper Jhilful to fet up the
Jlaved ccjh. This feems very ftrange; for by the account
Haclluyfs Ofther gives of his travels to King Alfred, near 700
1 '414 years before that period, it is evident that he made that
monarch acquainted with the Norwegians pra&ifmg the
whale-fifhery; but it feems all memory of that gainful
employ, as well as of that able voyager O&her, and all
his important difcoveries in the north, were loll for near
feven centuries.
It was carried on by the Bifcayeners long before we
attempted the trade;.and that for the fake not only of
the oil but alfo of the whalebone, which they feem to
have long trafficked in. The earlieft notice we find of
that article in our trade is by Hackluyt, who fays it
was brought from the Bay of St Laurence by an Eng-
liffi (hip that went there for the larbes anti fynnes of
whales and train oil. A. D. 1594, and who found there
700 or 800 whale fynnes, part of the cargo of two great
Bijhaine (hips that had been wrecked there three years
before. Previous to that, the ladies (lays muft have
been made of fplit cane, or fome tough wood, as Mr
Anderfon obferves in his Didlionary of Commerce ; it
being certain that the whale-filhery was carried on for
the (ake of the oil long before the difcovery of the ufe
of whalebone.
The great refort of thefe animals was found to be on
the inhofpitable (hores of Spitzbergen, and the Euro¬
pean (hips made that place their principal fiffiery, and
for numbers of years were very fuccefsful: the Engliffi
commenced that bufinefs about the year 1598, and the
Tennant's town of Hull had the honour of firft attempting that
Brit. Zool. profitable branch of trade. At prefent it feems to be
wo, HI-53; on the decline, the quantity of fi(h being greatly redu¬
ced by the conftant capture for fuch a vaft length of
time : fome recent accounts inform us, that the fiffiers,
from a defeft of whales, apply themfelves to feal fiffiery,
from which animals they extraft an oil. This we fear
will not be of very long continuance ; for thefe (hy and
timid creatures will foon be induced to quit thofe ffiores
by being perpetually harafled, as the morfe or walrus
has already in a great meafure done. We are alfo told,
that the poor natives of Greenland begin even now to
fuffer from the decreafe of the feal in their feas, it be¬
ing their principal fubfifience; fo that, fhould it totally
defert the coaft, the whole nation would be in danger
of perifhing through want.
In old times the whale feems^never to have been ta¬
ken on our coafts, but when it was accidentally flung
affiore : it was then deemed a royal fi(h, and the king
and queen divided the fpoil; the king aflTerting his right
to the head, her majefty to the tail.—For the manner
it of taking whales, fee Whak-Fisumr.
Other fpe- 2. The phyfalus, or fin-fifh, is diftinguiffied from the
eies* common whale by a fin on the back, placed very low
and near the tail. The length is equal to that of the
common kind, but much more (lender. It is furniffied
10
Anecdotes
of the
whale-
trade.
with whalebone in the upper jaw, mixed with hairs, Ba'arns,
hut (hort and knotty, and of little value. The blubber Balagace,
alfo on the body of this kind is very inconfiderable.  v—~
Thefe circumftances, added to its extreme fiercentfs and
agility, which renders the capture very dangerous, caufe
the fiffiers to neglefl it. The natives of Greenland,
however, hold it in great efteem, as it affords a quan-*r
tity of fleffi which to their palate is very agreeable.
The lips are brown, and like a twifted rope: the
fpout-hole is as it were fplit in the top of its head,
through which it blows water with much more violence,
and to a greater height, than the common whale. The
fiffiers are not very fond of feeing it, for on its appear¬
ance the others retire out of thofe feas. Some writers
conjedure this fpecies to have been the d’uo-ax®-, and
phyfeter, or blowing whale of Oppian, Julian, and Pli¬
ny : but fince thofe writers have not left the lead de-
feription of it, it is impoffible to judge which kind
they meant; for in refped to the faculty of fpouting
out water, or blowing, it is not peculiar to any one
fpecies, but common to all the whale kind. The phy¬
falus inhabits the European and American oceans. It
feeds upon herrings and other fmall fiffi.
3. The boops, or pike-headed whale, has a double
pipe in its fnout, three fins like the former, and a hard
horny ridge on its back. The belly is full of longitu¬
dinal folds or rugas. It frequents the northern ocean.
The length of that taken on the coaft of Scotland, as
remarked by Sir Robert Sibbald, was 46 feet, and its
greateft circumference 20. This fpecies takes its name
from the ffiape of its nofe, which is narrower and
(harper-pointed than that of other whales.
4. The mufculus has a double pipe in its front, and
three fins; the under jaw is much wider than the upper
one. It frequents the Scottiffi coafts, and feeds upon
herrings.
Linnaeus makes the phyfeter and delphinus, which
are ranked among the whales by fome writers, two di-
ftin£t genera. See Physeter and Delphinus.
BALAGATE, a province of the Mogul empire,
and the largelt of the three that compofe the kingdom
of Dekkan. It has Kandiffi and Barar to the north,
Tellinga to the eaft, Baglana with part of Guzerat.
to the weft, and Vifiapur to the fouth. It is a fruit¬
ful and pleafant country, abounding with cotton and
-fugar. Here they have ffieep without horns; but fo
Hrong, that when bridled and faddled they will carry
boys of ten years of age. Its prefent capital is Au-
rengabad, but formerly was Dowlet Abad ; and from:
the latter the whole province is fometimes called Dow¬
let Alad-
Balagate Mountains, a chain of mountains which
divides the coaft of Malabar from that of Coromandel,-
running almoft the whole length of the peninfula on
this fide the Ganges. Some parts of them are covered
with fine red earth, which is blown by the ftrong weft
winds as far as the ifland of Ceylon p and when the
rays of the fun are refk6led from thefe mountains,
they feern to be all on fire. They make furprifing al¬
terations in the feafons; for on the north fide of Cape
Comorin, it is winter in May, June, July, Auguft,
and September, in which months it is fummer on the
fouth fide of the Cape; on,one fide there are continual
tempefts, thunder and lightning, while the other en¬
joys a conftantferenity. When black clouds are gathered
about
Plate XCI .
B A L
aSout tTie mountains, they are followed by fudden rain,
which caufes the overflowing of the rivers, and choaks
_ them up with fand, infomuch that they are unnavigable
for fome time afterwards. The buildings and clothes
of the inhabitants are fcarce fufficient to defend them
from the weather. They live upon rice, milk, roots,
* and herbs, with very little meat: they have likewife a
fort of Xmall arrac, but are never given to drunken-
nefs; nor do they import foreign vices, for they never
travel abroad.
BALAGNIA, a town of Mufcovy in the province
of little Novogorod, feated on the Wolga. E. Long.
45. 5. N. Lat. 50. 36.
BALAGUER, a city of Catalonia in Spain, feated
[ 757 1
B A I,
but inftead of refling on a fulcrum, is fufpended by Ba
fomething fattened to its centre of motion; confequently
the mechanifm of the balance depends on the fame
theorems as the lever.
Hence as the quantity of matter in known weight is
to its diftance from the centre of motion, fo is the di-
ftance of the unknown weight to its quantity of mat-
ter. Hence the nature and ufe of the fteel-yard is
eafily known. Let AB (fig. 6.) reprefent an in*
ftrument of this kind; a, the trutina or handle on
which the beam turns; Z', a ring on which the balance
may be fufpended on a nail or hook; f, the hook on
which the body to be weighed is hung; c, a collar
or guard by which the hook f is fattened to the beam;
s the north bank of the river Segra, at the foot of a g, & moveable collar; h, a fwivel; i, the counterpoife.
high mountain, on which there was formerly a fortrefs.
E. Long. c. 48. N. Lat. 41. 38.
BALAMBUAN, or Padambuan, a ftrong town
From what has been faid it evidently follows, that if
the body to be weighed be fattened to the hook/, and
the whole fufpended by the ringi, the divifion on which-
of Afia in the Indies on the eaft end of the ifland of the counterpoife is placed to maintain an equilibrium
Java, and capital of a territory of the fame name. E.
Long, x 15. 30. S. Lat. 7. 50.
BALANCE, or Ballance, one of the fix Ample
powers in mechanics, principally ufed in determining
the equality or difference of weights in heavy bodies,
and confequently their maffes or quantities of matter.
The balance is of two kinds: the ancient and the
modern. The ancient or Roman, called alfo, the Jla-
tera Romana, or fteel-yard, confifts of a lever or beam,
moveable on a centre, and fufpended near one of its
extremities: the bodies to be weighed are applied on
the balance, will (how the weight of the body re¬
quired ; provided the weight of the counterpoife i be
known, and the large divifions, 1, 2, 3, &c. be equal
to the diftance between the centre of the balance and
the fcrew which fattens the guard c to the fhorter arm
of the balance. It will alfo be neceffary that the fteel-
yard itfelf, with its whole apparatus, exclufive of the
counterpoife, be in equilibrio, when fufpended on the
ring k. If the body to be weighed be heavier than the
divifions on the longer arm will indicate, the balance
is turned the lower fide upwards, and fufpended on the
e fide of the centre ; and their weight is fhown by other ring £; by which means the divifions become
the divifion marked on the beam, where the weight,
which is moveable along the lever, keeps the fteel-yard
in equilibrio. This balance is ftill frequently ufed in
weighing heavy bodies.
fhorter, becaufe the diftance between the trutina d, and
the fcrew on which the guard c moves, is lefs: the di¬
vifions in the figure on this fide extending to 17,
whereas they extend only to 6 on the other. It will
The modern balance now generally ufed confifts of be unneceffary perhaps to obferve, that the fame pre-
a lever or beam fufpended exa&ly in the middle, ha¬
ving fcales or bafons hung to each extremity. The lever
is called the jugum or beam; and the two moieties
thereof on each fide the axis, the brachia or arms.
The line on which the beam turns, or which divides
its brachia, is called the axis; and when confidered
with regard to the length of the brachia, is efteemed
a point only, and called the centre of the balance : the
handle whereby it is held, or by which the whole ap-
[. paratus is fufpended, is called trutino ; and the flender
part perpendicular to the beam, whereby either the
equilibrium or preponderancy of bodies is indicated,
ia called the tongue of the balance. Thus in fig. 3. a £
is the beam, divided into two equal brachia or arms by
caution, with regard to the centre of gravity when the
balance is fufpended, is alfo neceffary when this fide of
the balance is ufed, as we before mentioned with re¬
gard to the other.
We have already obferved, that in the common fcales
the two brachia or arms of the balance, ef, eg,
fig. 4. are equal to each other, and confequently equal
weights placed in the fcales d, d, will be in equilibria
when the balance is fufpended on its centre e, as in the
figure, where the ring at the extremity of the trutina
is hung on the tapering rod a b, fixed in the foot or
balls c.
The Deceitfd Balance, or that which cheats by the
inequality of its brachia, is founded on the fame prin-
- __ „ n  j t  1 r 1
the white fpot in the centre, which is the axis or centre ciple as the fteel-yard. Let there be, for example, a
of the balance, and c is the tongue. The trutina, on
which the axis is fufpended, is not reprefented in this
figure, in order to render the other parts more confpi-
cuous.
It follows, from what has been obferved, therefore,
that in the Roman balance, the weight ufed for a coun¬
terpoife is the fame, but the points of application varies;
in the common balance the counterpoife is various, and
the point of application the fame. The principle on
which each is founded, may be very eafily underftood
from the following obfervations, and the general pro¬
perties of the lever. See Lever.
The beam AB (fig. 6.), is a lever of the firft kind ;
balance fo conftru&ed, that both the brachia with their
fcales lhall equiponderate, but that the length of the
one arm lhall be to that of the other as 10 to 9. In
this cafe, a weight of nine pounds put into the longeft
arm, will counterpoife one of ten pounds put into the
Ihorter one : but the cheat is immediately difcovered
by Ihifting the weight from one fcale to the other; in
which cafe, the balance will no longer remain in equi¬
librio.
Ajfay-BAtANCE, a very nice balance ufed in docima-
ftical operations, to determine exaftly the weight of
minute bodies; fee fig. 7. This balance fhould be
made of the belt fteel, and of the hardeft kind; becaufe
B A L [ 758 ] B A L
that metal is not fo eafily fpoiled with ruft as iron ;
and it is more apt than any other to take a perfe& po-
liih, which at the fame time prevents the ruft.
The ftrudhire of the affayer’s fcaie is little different
from that offcommon fcales, other-wife than by its
nicety and fmallnefs. The longer the beam of it is,
the more exaft may the weight of a body be found ;
however, 10 or 12 inches are a fufficient length. Tec
the thick nefs of it be fo little, that two drams may
hardly be hung at either of its extremities without its
bending; for the large ft weight put upon it feldom ex¬
ceeds one dram. The whole furface of this beam muft
be altogether without ornaments, which only increafe
the weight and gather dull, &c. The beam is fufpended
in a fork, the two legs of which are fteel fprings joined
at top, but kept together below with a brafs pliant
clafp, parallel, and two lines and a half diftant from
each other. This clafp being taken off, and the legs
of the fork being ftretched out, the axis of the beam
may be put into two holes made for that purpofe at the
ends of the legs, or be taken away from them. Let a
very ftiarp needle be fixed in the head of the fork, Hand¬
ing perpendicularly downwards, if the fork is fufpended,
and fo long, as that it may aimoft touch the top of the
tongue of the beam put into the fork when in equi-
librio. This needle is the mark of the equilibrium ;
and that the artifts may be able to obferve this, the
legs of the fork muft be broader in that place, and have
an opening two or three lines wide ; this fork may
be adorned at pleafure, provided the motion of the ba¬
lance is not hindered by fuch ornaments: then take two
fcales made of thin plate of filver, one inch and a half
■in diameter, hanging on three fmall filk ftrings, aimoft
as long as the beam, tied together at top, with a filver
hook in form of an S, and hang them to the extremities
of the beam : a fmaller filver difh or blued fteel, fome-
what lefs than one inch in -diameter, belongs to each
of thefe fcales. You firft put into thefe difhes, with a
•pair of pincers, the bodies to be weighed, or with a
fpoon or a fmall ftiovel, when they are pounded, and
•then you put them into the fcales; therefore the fmall
■dirties muft be perfeftly equal in weight. We ufe them,
that bodies may be more conveniently put into and
taken out of the fcales, and that thefe which are vaftly
thin may not be bent or foiled, and thence rendered
falfe by wiping.
This balance is fufpended on a moveable brafs or
copper fupport, which confifts of a pedeftal, and of a
column fet upon it about 20 inches high, at the top
of which comes out at right angles an arm one inch
long. At the extremity of this arm, put a fmall pul¬
ley three lines in diameter, another at the top of the
column, and a third near the bottom of it 5 all which
pullies mu-ft turn very eafily on their axes. At the di-
ttance of one inch and a half below the upper arm, let
another arm one inch and a half long come out of the
column at right angles, having a hole through it two
lines long, a quarter of a line broad, and placed per¬
pendicularly below the pulley of the upper arm, to re¬
ceive a fmall plate, one inch and a half long ; and of
fuch breadth and thicknefs, as that it may freely move
up and down, and yet not have too much play within
the hole. This plate muft alfo have a fmall hook at
■each extremity.
And as fuch a balance will hardly Hand ftill in the
open air, and becomes falfe when fpoiled with dud ; Balance,
it muft be put, together with its fupport, into a  v~*“*
fmall cafe -as reprefeuted in fig. 7. having glafles, a,
a, a, at top, and all round it, that you may fee what
is within.
Manner of ifing the aJJay-Balance.—Pafs a filk
firing over the three pullies of the fupport, and tie it *
at its upper extremity to the fmall hook introduced
into the hole of the inferior arm ; then put the fup¬
port in the middle of the fmall cafe, and pafs the other
extremity of the filk ftring below, through a hole bo¬
red in the middle of the lower part of the frame, con¬
taining the window in the forepart of the cafe, and
faften it to a fmall weight of a cubic form. Sufpend
the fork of the balance on the inferior hook of the
plate. By this means if you move backwards and
forwards the weight faftened to the ftring, placed upon
the top of the drawer jutting oat beyond the fore-part
of the cafe, the balance within is either lifted up or
let down. But you muft put the bodies to be weigh¬
ed, and the weights themfelves, in the fmall filver
difhes ; and thefe, when loaded, into the fcales, thro’
the fide-windows, which muft be opened for that pur¬
pofe. When any thing is to be added to or taken out
of them, you do it with the fmall pincers ; or, if it is
powder, with the fmall fhovel or fpoon : but you muft
let the balance*down every time any thing is to be ad¬
ded or taken away, that the fcales may reft upon the
bottom of the cafe ; and fhut the window's before the
balance is lifted up again, efpecially if the air is not
perfectly calm.
Hydrojlatic Balance, an inftrument contrived to
determine accurately the fpecific gravity of both folid
and fluid bodies. It is conftru&ed in various forms j
but we ftiall content ourfelves here with deferibing that
which appears of all others the moft accurate.
VCG, (fig. 5.) is the fland or pillar of this hydro-
ftatic balance, which is to be fixed in a table. From
the top A hangs, by two filk firings, the horizontal
bar B B, from which it is fufpended by a ring i, the
fine beam of a balance l; which is prevented from dc-
feending too low on either fide by the gently fpringing
piece t xy z, fixed on the fupport M. The harnefs is
annulated at o, to fhow diftinftiy the perpendicular
pofition of the examen, by the fmail pointed index fix¬
ed above it.
The firings by which the balance is fufpended, paf-
fing over two pullies, one on each fide the piece at
A, go down to the bottom on the other fide, and are
hung over the hook at v; which hook, by means of
a ferew P, is moveable about one inch and a quar¬
ter, backward and forward, and therefore the balance
may be raifed or deprefled fo much. But if a greater
elevation or depreffion be required, the Aiding piece
S, which carries the ferew P, is readily moved to any
part of the fquare brafs rod V K, and fixed by means
of a ferew.
The motion of the balance being thus "adjufted,
the reft of the apparatus is as follows. H H is a fmall
board, fixed upon the piece D, under the fcales d and
e, and is moveable up and down in a low flit in the
pillar above C, and faftened at any part by a ferew be¬
hind. From the point in the middle of the bottom of
each fcale hangs, by a fine hook, a hrafs wire a d
and a<, Thefe pafs through two holes toot in the
table.
B A L [ 759 1 B A L
table. To the wire a d fufpended a curious cylindric
wire rs, perforated at each end for that purpofe: this
wire ^ is covered with paper, graduated by equal di-
vifions, and is about five inches long.
In the corner of the board at E is fixed a brafs
tube, on which a round wire h i is fo adapted as to
move neither too tight nor too free, by its flat head I.
Upon the lower part of this moves another tube Q,
which has fufficient fri&ion to make it remain in any
pofition required : to this is fixed an index T, mo¬
ving horizontally when the wire h l is turned about,
and therefore may be eafily fet to the graduated wire,
r s. To the lower end of the .wire rs hangs a weight
L; and to that a wire p n, with a fmall brafs ball £■
about one-fourth of an inch diameter. On the other
fide, to the wire ac, hangs a large glafs bubble R, by
a horfe hair.
Let us firft fuppofe the weight L taken away, and
the wire p n fufpended from S : and, on the other
fide, let the bubble R be taken away, and the weight
F fufpended at c, in its room. This weight F we
fuppofe to be fufficient to keep the feveral parts, hang¬
ing to the other fcale in equilibrium; at the fame time
that the middle point of the wire/ n is at the furface of
the water in the veffel N. The wire / » is to be of
fuch a fize, that the length of one inch fhall weigh
four grains.
Now it is evident, fince brafs is eight times heavier
than water, that for every inch the wire finks in the
water it will become half a grain lighter, and half a
grain heavier for every inch it rifes out of the water :
confequently, by finking two inches below the mid¬
dle point, or rifing two inches above it, the wire
will become one grain lighter or heavier. Therefore,,
if, when the middle point is at the furface of the wa¬
ter in equilibrium, the index T be fet to the middle
point a of the graduated wire r s, and the diflance on
each fide a r and a s contains too equal parts: then, if
in weighing bodies the weight is required to the hun¬
dredth part of a grain, it may be eafily had by pro¬
ceeding in the following manner.
Let the body to be weighed be placed in the fcale
d. Put the weight X in the fcale e; and let this be
fo determined, that one grain more ffiall be too much,
and one grain lefs too little. Then the balance be¬
ing moved gently up or down by the fcrew P, till
the equilibrium be nicely ffiown at o; if the index T
be at the middle point a of the wire r s, it Ihows
that the weights put into the fcale e are juft equal
to the weight of the body. By this method we find
the abfolute weight of the body ; the relative weight
is found by weighing it hydroftatically in- water, as
follows.
Inftead of putting the body into the fcale e, as be¬
fore, let it hang with the weight F, _at the hook e, by
a horfe-hair,. as at R, fuppofing the veffel O of water
were away. The equilibrium being then made, the
index T Handing between a and r; at the 36 divi-
fion, (hows the weight of the body put in to be
io95»3(5 grains. As it thus hangs, let it be immerfed
in the water of the veffel O; and it will become much
lighter: the fcale e will defcend till the beam of
the balance reft on the fupport z. Then fuppofe
100 grains put into the fcale d reftore the equilibrium
precifely, fo that the index T Hand at the 36 divi-
fion above a ; it is evident that the weight of an e-
qual bulk of water would, in this cafe, be exaftly 100
grains.
After a like manner this balance may be applied to
find the fpecific gravity of liquids, as is eafy to con¬
ceive from what has been faid.
Balance of Trade. That which is commonly
meant by the balance of trade, is the equal importing
of foreign commodities with the exporting of the na¬
tive. And it is reckoned that nation has the advan¬
tage in the balance of- trade, which exports more of the
native commodities, and imports lefs of the foreign.
The reafon of this is, that, if the native commodities
be of a greater value than are exported, the balance of
that account muft be made up in bullion or money ;
and the nation grows fo much richer, as the balance of
that account amounts to.
Balance of a Clock or Watch, is that part which re¬
gulates the beats. See Clock-Making.
BALANCE-FiJh. See Squalus.
BALANCER, in the hiftory of infe&s, a ftyle,
or oblong body, ending in a protuberance or head,
found under each wing of the two-winged flies; thefe
ferve to poife the body of the fly.
BALANCING, among feamen, the contra&ing a
fail into a narrower compafs, in a ftorm, by retrench¬
ing, or folding up a part of it at one corner: this me¬
thod is ufed in contradiftin&ion to reefing, which is
common to all the principal fails; whereas balancing is
peculiar to few, fuch as the mizen of a (Kip, and the
main-fail of thofe veffels wherein it is extended by a
boom. See Boom, and Reef.—The balance of the
mizen is thus performed : the mizen yard is lowered a
little,, then a fmall portion of the fail is rolled up at the
peek or upper corner, and fattened to the yard about
one-fifth inward from the outer end or yard-arm to¬
ward the mail. See Mizen.—A boom- mainfail is
balanced, after all its reefs are taken- in, by rolling up
a fimilar portion of the hindmoft or aftmoft lower cor¬
ner called the clue, and fattening it ftrongly. to the
boom, having previoufly wrapped a piece of old canvas
round the part (which is done in both cafes) to pre¬
vent the fad from being fretted by the cord-which fa¬
llens it.
BALANUS, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpe-
oies of lepasi See Lepas.
BALANSTINES, in botany. See Punica.
BALAYAN, a province of the ifland of Manila in.
the Eaft Indies, belonging to the Spaniards.—It lies
next to the city of Manila, and extends along the
coail on the eaft fide of the iftand, a-little beyond the
bay of Batangas. There were formerly gold mines in
it, but they have been long fince abandoned. It is in¬
habited by about 2500 tributary Indians, and abounds
in cotton, rice, and palm trees. The province is w'ell:
cultivated-; and the Spaniards, generally (peaking,,
have country-houfes in it.-
BALE ASTRO,an epifcopaltown of Spain, in the
kingdom of Arragon, and capital of a diftrift of the
fame name. E. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 41. 50.
BALBEC, a city of Afia in Syria, anciently called
Heliopolis, and by the Arabians the wonder of Syria-.
It is fituated at the foot of Anti-Lebanon, precifely
on the laft rifing ground where the mountain termi¬
nates in the plain. As we arrive from the fouth we
4 dif.
B A L t 760 ] B A L
Balboe. Sifcover the cit^ only at the tliflanee of a league and
a behind a hedge of trees, over the verdant tops
of which appears a white edging of domes and mi¬
narets. After an hour’s journey we reach thefe trees,
which are very fine walnuts; and foon after, croffing
fome ill cultivated gardens, by winding paths, arrive
at the entrance of the city. We there perceive a ruin¬
ed wall, flanked with fquare towers, which afeends the
declivity to the right, and traces the precinfts of the
ancient city. This wall, which is only ten or twelve
feet high, permits us to have a view of thofe void
fpaces and heaps of ruins which are the invariable ap¬
pendage of every Turkifh city; but what principally
attrafts our attention is a large edifice on the left,
which, by its lofty walls and rich columns, manifeftly
appears to be one of thofe temples which antiquity
has left for our admiration. Thefe ruins, which are
fome of the moft beautiful and beft preferved of any
in Afia, merit a particular defeription.
To give a juft idea of them, we muft fuppofe our-
felves defeending from the interior of the town. Af¬
ter having crofted the rubbifh and huts with which it
is filled, we arrive at a vacant place which appears to
have been a fquare; there, in front, towards the
weft, we perceive a grand ruin, which confifts of two
pavilions ornamented with pilafters, joined at their
bottom angle by a wall 160 feet in length. This
front commands the open country from a fort of ter¬
race, on the edge of which we diftinguifti with diffi¬
culty the bafes of twelve columns, which formerly ex¬
tended from one pavilion to the other, and formed a
portico. The principal gate is obftru&edby heaps of
■ftones ; but, that obftacle furmbunted, we enter an
empty fpace, which is an hexoganal court of 180
feet diameter. This court is ftrewed with broken co-
1 Ur .ly j'.qtilatcd capitals, and the remains of pilafters,
ei ;,a?fcs, and cornices; around it is a row of
ruined edifices, which difplay all the ornaments of
the richeft architefture. At the end of this court,
oppofite the weft, is an outlet, which formerly was
a gate, through which we perceive a ftill more ex-
tenfive range of ruins, whofe magnificence ftrongly
excites curiofity. To have a full profpeA of thefe,
we muft afeend a flope, up which were the fteps to
this gate ; and we then arrive at the entrance of a
fquare court, much more fpacious than the former, being
350 feet wide and 336 in length. The eye is firft at¬
tracted by the end of this court, where fix enormousand
majeftic columns render thefceneaftonifhinglygrandand
piCfurefque. Another objeCt not lefsinterefting is a fe-
cond range of columns to the left, which appear to have
been part of the periftyle of a temple; but before we
pafs thither, we cannot refufe particular attention to
the edifices which inclofe this court on each fide.
They form a fort of gallery which contains various
chambers, fe0 of which may be reckoned in each
of the principal wings, viz. two in a femicircle
and five in an oblong fquare. The bottom of thefe
apartments ftill retains pediments of niches and ta¬
bernacles, the fupporters of which are deftroyed.
On the fide of the court they are open, and prefent
only four and fix columns totally deftroyed. It
is not eafy to conceive the ufe of thefe apartments;
but this does not diminilh our admiration at the beau¬
ty of their pilafters and the richnefs of the fiize
^°39-
of the entablature. Neither is it poflible to avoid Balhec. fl
remarking the Angular effeft which refults from the  v—
mixture of the garlands, the large foliage of the ca¬
pitals, and the fculpture ef wild plants with which
they are every where ornamented. In traverfing the
length of the court, we find in the middle a little
fquare efplanade, where was a pavilion, of which
nothing remains but the foundation. At length we
arrive at the foot of the fix columns; and then
■firft conceive all the boldnefs of their elevation and the
richnefs of their workmanlhip. Their fhafts are 21
feet eight inches in circumference and 58 high ; fo
that the total height, including the entablature, is
from 71 to 72 feet. The fight of this fuperb ruin,
thus folitary and unaccompanied, at firft ftrikes us
with aftoniftiment; but, on a more attentive exami¬
nation, we difeover a feries of foundations which
mark an oblong fquare of 268 feet in length and 146
wide, and which, it feems probable, was the periftyle
of a grand temple, the primary purpofe of this whole
ftrufture. It prefented to the great court, that is to
the eaft, a front of ten columns, with 19 on each fide,
which with the other fix make in all 54. The ground
on which it flood was an oblong fquare, on a level
with this court, but narrower thah it, fo that there
was.only a terrace of 27 feet wide round the colonnade;
the efplanade this produces fronts the open country to¬
ward the weft, by a floping wall of about 30 feet.
This defeent as you approach the city becomes lefs
fteep, fo that the foundation of the pavilion is on a
level with the termination of the hill; whence it is
evident that the whole ground of the courts has been
artificially raifed. Such was the former ftate of this
edifice ; but the fouthern fide of the grand temple was
afterwards blocked up to build a fmaller one, the pe¬
riftyle and walls of which are ftill remaining. This
temple, iituated fomewhat lower than the other, pre-
fents a fide of 13 columns by eight in front (in all
34), which are likewife of the Corinthian order; their
fhafts are x 5 feet eight inches in circumference, and 44
in height. The building they furround is an oblong
fquare, the front of which, turned towards the eaft,
is out of the line of the left wing of the great court.
To reach it you muft crofs-trunks of columns, heaps
of ftone, and a ruinous wall by which it is now hid.
After furmounting thefe obftacles you arrive at the
gate, where you may furvey the inclofure which
was once the habitation of a god; but inftead of the
awful feene of a proftrate people and facrifices offered
by a multitude of priefts, the fky, which is open from
the falling in of the roof, only lets in light to fhow a
chaos of ruins covered with duft and weeds. The
walls, formerly enriched with all the ornaments of the
Corinthian order, now prefent nothing but pediments
of niches and tabernacles, of which almoft all the fup¬
porters are fallen to the ground. Between thefe niches
is a range of fluted pilafters, whofe capitals fupport a
broken entablature ; but what remains of it difplays a
rich frize of foliage refting on the heads of fatyrs,
horfes, bulls, &c. Over this entablature was the an¬
cient roof, which was 57 feet wide and 110 in length.
The walls which fupported it are 31 feet high, and
without a window. It is impoflible to form any idea
of the ornaments of this roof, except from the frag¬
ments lying on the ground; but it could not have been
richer
B A L
[ 761 1
B A L
richer than the gallery of the periftyle : the principal which range under the whole edifice; but the inutility Balbee.
efea
■^remaining parts contain tablets in the form of lo¬
zenges, on which are reprefented Jupiter feated on his
eagle ; Leda careffed by the fwan ; Diana with her
bew and crefcent; and feveral bufis which feem to be
figures of emperors and empreffes. It would lead us
too far to enter more minutely into the defcription of
this aftonilhing edifice. The lovers of the arts will
find it defcribed with the greateft truth and accuracy
in a work publifhed at London in 1757, under the title
of Ruins of Balbec. This work, compiled by Mr Ro¬
bert Wood, the world owes to the attention and libe¬
rality of Mr Daw'kins, who in 1751 vifited Balbec
and Palmyra. But feveral changes, however, have
taken place fince their journey : for example, they
found nine large columns (landing; and in 17S4 Mr
Volney found but fix. They reckoned 29 at the lefler
temple ; but there now remain but 20 ; the others have
been overthrown by the earthquake of 1759. It has
likewife fo (haken the walls of the leffer temple, that the
done of the foffit, or croft (lone at the top of the
gate, has (lid between the two adjoining ones, and de-
of their refearches, added to the opprefiions and ex-'
tortions of the governors, who have made their fup-
pofed difcoveries a pretext, have at length difiieartened
them ; but they imagine the Europeans would be more
fuccefsful; nor would it be pofiible to perfuade them
but what we are pofieffed of the magic art of deftroy-
ing talifmans. It is in vain to oppofe reafon to igno*
ranee and prejudice : and it would be no left ridicu¬
lous to attempt to prove to them, that Solomon never
was acquainted with the Corinthian order* which was
only in ufe under the Roman emperors. But their
tradition on the fubjeft of this prince may fugged three
important obfervations. Firft, That all tradition re¬
lative to high antiquity is as falfe arpong the Orientals
as the Europeans. With them, as with us, fadts which
happened 100 years before, when not preferred in wri¬
ting, are altered, mutilated, or forgotten. To expedb
information from them with refp'edl to events in the
time of Davitl or Alexander, would be as abfurdas to
make inquiries of the Flemilh peafants concerning Clo-
Charlemagne. Secondly, That throughout Sy-
feended eight inches; by which means the body of ria, the Mahometans, as well as the Jews and Chridians,
the bird fculptured on that done is fufpended detached
from its wings and the two garlands which hung from
its beak, and terminated in two genii Nature alone
has not effected this devadation ; the Turks have had
their (hare in the dedrudlion of the columns. Their
motive is to procure the iron cramps, which ferve to
join the feveral blocks of which each column is com-
pofed. Thefe Cramps anfwer fo well the end intend-
attribute every great work to Solomon : not that the
memory of him dill remains by tradition in thofe coun¬
tries, but from certain paffages in the Old Tedament;
which, with the gofpel, is thefource of almod all their
tradition, as thefe are the only hidorical books read
or known ; but as their expounders are very ignorant,
their applications of what they are told are generally
very remote from truth : by an error of this kind, they
ed, that feveral of the columns are not even disjointed pretend Balbec is the houfe of the forejl of Lebanon built
by their fall; one, among others, as Mr Wood ob-
ferves, has penetrated a done of the temple wall with¬
out giving way ; nothing can furpafs the workmanfhip
of thefe columns ; they are joined without any cement,
yet there is not room for the blade of a knife between
their interdices. After fo many ages, they in gene¬
ral (HU retain their original whitenefs. But what is
dill more adonifhing, is the enormous (tones which
compofe the (loping wall., To the wed the fecond
layer is formed of dones which are from 28 to 35 feet
by Solomon ; nor do they approach nearer probability
when they attribute to that king the well of Tyre and
the buildings of Palmyra. Thirdly, That the belief
in hidden treafures has been confirmed by difcoveries
which have been really made from tirrv e. It
is not many years fince a fmall coffer wa>, fo at He¬
bron full of gold and filver medals, with an ancient
Arabic book on medicine. In the country of the
Druzes, an individual difeovered likewife, fome time
fince, ajar with gold coin in the form of a crefcent;
long, by about nine in height. Over this layer, at but as the chiefs and governors claim a right to thefe
the north wed angle, there are three (tones, which difcoveries, and ruin thofe who have made them, under
alone, occupy a fpace of 175! feet; viz. the firft 58 pretext of obliging them to make reftoration, thofe who
feet feven inches
exactly 58 feet;
the fecond 58 feet 11 ; and the third find any thing endeavour carefully to conceal it; they
nd each of thefe are 12 feet thick, fecretly melt the antique coins, nay, frequently bury
Thefe ftones are of a white granite, with large (hining them again in the fame place where they found them,
flakes like gypfe ; there is a quarry of this kind of from the fame fears which caufed their firft concealment.
(lone under the whole city, and in the adjacent moun¬
tain, which is open in feveral places, and among others
on the right, as we approach the city. There is (till
lying there a (lone, hewn on three fides, which is 69
feet two inches long, 12 feet 10 inches broad, and 13
feet three in thicknefs. By what means could the an¬
cients move thefe enormous maffes ? This is doubt-
left a problem in mechanics curious to refolve. The
inhabitants of Balbec have a very commodious manner
and which prove the fame tyranny formerly exifted ia
thefe countries.
When we confider the extraordinary magnificence
of the temple of Balbec, we cannot but be aftonilhed
at the filence of the Greek and Roman authors. Mr
Wood, who has carefully examined all the ancient wri¬
ters, has found no mention of it, except in a fragment
of John of Antioch, who attributes the conftru&ioa
of this edifice to Antoninus Pips. The inferiptions
of explaining it, by fuppofing thefe edifices to have which remain corroborate this opinion, which perfedt-
been conftnnSted by Djenoun, or genii, who obeyed 1 c —a-—- ~r- -r il-~ /~i-—
the orders of King Solomon ; adding, that the motive
-of fuch immenfe works was to conceal in fubterraneous
caverns vaft treafures, which (till remain there. To
difeover thefe, many have defeended into the vaults
Vol. II. Part II,
ly accounts for the conftant ufe of the Corinthian or¬
der, fince that order was not in general ufe before the
third age of Rome ; but we ought by no means to al¬
lege as an additional proof the bird fculptured over
the gate; for if his crooked beak, large claws, and
5 D the
B A L [76
Balbec the caduceus he bears, give him the appearance of an
H eagle, the tuft of feathers on his head, like that of
_ US’ .certain pigeons, proves that he is not the Roman eagle :
~ befides that the fame bird is found in the temple of
Palmyra; and is therefore evidently an oriental eagle,
confecrated to the fun, who was the divinity adored in
both thefe temples. His worfhip exifted at Balbec in
the moft remote antiquity. His ftatue, which rcfem-
bled that of Ofiris, had been tranfported there from
the Heliopolis of Egypt, and the ceremonies with which
he was worlhipped there have been defcribed by Mac-
robius, in his curious work intitled Saturnalia. Mr
Wood fuppofes with reafon, that the name of Balbec,
which in Syriac fignifies City of Bal, or of the fun, o-
riginated in this worfhip. The Greeks, by naming it
Heliopolis, have in this indance only given a literal
tranflation of the oriental word; a pra&ice to which
they have not always adhered. We are ignorant of
the date of this city in remote antiquity ; but it is to
be prefumed, that its fituation, on the road from Tyre
to Palmyra, gave it fome part of the commerce of thefe
opulent capitals. Under the Romans, in the time of
Auguftus, it is mentioned as a garrifon-town; and
there is ftill remaining, on the wall of the fouthern gate,
on the right as we enter, an infcription which proves
the truth of this, the words kenturia prima, in
Greek charafters, being very legible. One hundred
and forty years after, Antoninus built there the pre-
fent temple, inftead of the ancient one, which was
doubtlefs falling into ruins : but Chriftianity having
gained the afcendency under Conftantine, the modern
temple was negle&ed, and afterwards converted into
a church ; a wall of which is now remaining, that hid
the fanftuary of the idols. It continued thus until the
invafion of the Arabs, when it is probable they envied
the Chriftians fo beautiful a building. The church be¬
ing lefs frequented, fell to decay ; wars fucceeded ; and
it was converted into a place of defence ; battlements
were built on the wall which furrounded it, on the pa¬
vilions, and at the angles, which ftill fubfift; and from
that time, the temple, expofed to the fate of war, fell
rapidly to ruin. The ftate of the city is not lefs de¬
plorable. The wretched government of the emirs of
the houfe of Harfoufhe had already greatly impaired
it; and the earthquake of 1759 completed its de-
ftruftion. The wars of the Emir Youfef and Djezzar
have rendered it ftill more defected and ruinous. Of
5000 inhabitants, at which number they were eftima-
ted in 1751, not 1200 are now remaining; and all
thefe poor, without induftry or commerce, and culti¬
vating nothing but a little cotton, fome maize, and
water-melons.
BALBINUS, (Decimus Ccelius), the Roman em¬
peror, being chofen by the fenate in 237, was maflacred
by the foldiers, who had a diflike to fuch emperors as
were defied only by the fenators. This prince was e-
loquent, and wrote pretty good verfes.
BALBOA, (Vafco Nugnes de), a Caftilian ; a ce¬
lebrated navigator, and one of the firft difcoverers of
South America. He was beheaded by the Spanifh go¬
vernor of St Mary, through jealoufy of his growing
reputation, in 1517, aged 42.
BALBUS, (Lucius Cornelius Theophanes), was born
2 1 .. B A L .
at Cadiz, and diftinguifhed himfelf by his valour in the Balcony
war carried on by the Romans in Spain againft Serto- || M
rius and the Lufitanians ; on which account Pompey Baldnefs.
gave him the privileges of a Roman citizen. He was
conful in the 7 14th year of Rome, and was the firft fo¬
reigner on whom that dignity was conferred. He was
the friend of Pompey, Caefar, Craflus, and Cicero.—
There were many other illuitrious Romans of the name
of Balbus.
BALCONY, in archite&ure, a projedure in the
front of a houfe, or other building, fupported by pillars
or confolts, and encompaffed with a baluftrade.
BALDACHIN, or Baldaquin, in architefture,
a building in form of a canopy, fupported by pillars,
and frequently ufed as a covering to infulated altars.
Some alfo ufe the term baldachin for the (hell over a
door.
BALDINUCCI, (Philip', of Florence; a connoif-
feur in the polite arts, and the continuator of Vafar’s
lives of the painters. He died in 1696, aged 72.
BALDIVIA, or Valdivia, a fea-port town of
Chili, in America, belonging to the Spaniards. It is
fituated between the rivers Callaculles and Portero,
where they fall into the South Sea; W. Long. 80. j.
S. Lat. 4c. 5. It was built in 1551, by the Spanifh
general Baidivia, from whom it takes its name. We
may judge of its importance from the fum granted
annually by the king for maintaining the garrifon, and
keeping the fortifications in repair, being no lefs than
300,000 pieces of eight. It is defended by four ftrong
caftles, mounting ico pieces of fine brafs cannon.
Notwithftanding which, however, as the garrifon is
compofed moftly of tranfported criminals, on whom no
dependence can be placed, and generally ill fupplied
with ammunition, &c. it could make but a poor de¬
fence. In 1643, it was eafily taken by the Dutch, who
would probably have maintained their conqueft againft
all the power of the Spanifh viceroy, had they not been
obliged to relinquilh it through ficknefs and famine.
The inhabitants of Baidivia amount to about 2000.
The trade is lefs confiderable than formerly, becaufe
the gold mines in the neighbourhood are fhut up ; yet
feveral large fhips are employed in the trade between
this port and that of Lima, which confifts of gold, corn,
hides, and fait provifions, which are exchanged for
Haves, fugar, chocolate, and European commodities
and manufactures.
BALDNESS, a defeCl of hair, chiefly on the finci-
put. It differs from alopecia, area, ophiajis, and tineat
as thefe all arife from fome vice in the nutritious hu¬
mour ; baldnefs, from the defed of it. When the eye¬
lids flied their hair, it is called a ptilofs. Among the
caufes of baldnefs, immoderate venery is reputed one
of the chief : old age ufually brings it on of courfe.
Some will have the proximate caufe of baldnefs to be
the drynefs of the brain, and its fhrinking from the cra¬
nium ; it having been obferved, that in bald perfons
there is always a vacuity or empty fpace between the
Ikull and the brain.—Calvus, bald-pate, was a frequent
term of reproach among the Romans; among whom
this defied was in great difcredit. Hence divers arts to
conceal it, as falfe hair, a galericulus contrived on pur-
pofe. The later Romans, however, feem to have been.
recoa?*
B A L [ 763 J B A L
BaMoc reconciled to baldnefs ; for we find among them a kind
I! of officers, or fervants, called g'abratores, or glabrarii,
Sale‘ whofe bufinefs was to take off the hair from all parts,
~even from the head. In an ancient infcription,. there
is mention of one Diophantus, TI. CiESARIS or-
NATOR glabr. that is, Ornator Glabrarius.
B ALDOC, a town of Hertfordfhire, in England,
» chiefly noted for its trading in malt. W. Long. o. 10.
N. Lat. 51. 55.
BALDOCK, (Ralph de), bifliop of London in the
reigns of Edward I. and II. was educated at Moreton-
eollege, in Oxford; became dean of St Paul’s ; was af¬
terwards promoted to the fee of London ; and at laft
was made lord high chancellor of England. He had a
very amiable chara6ter both for morals and learning ;
and wrote Hijioria Anglica, or An Hiftory of the Britifli
Affairs down to his own time ; and, A Colle&ion of the
Statutes and Conftitutions of the church of St Paul.
Bifliop Baldock died at Stepney, July 24. 1313.
BALDWIN, archbirtiop of Canterbury, was born
of obfcure parents at Exeter, where, in the early part
of his life, he taught a grammar-fchool; after which
he took orders, and was made archdeacon of Exeter:
but he refigned that dignity, and became a Ciftertian
monk in the monaftery of Ford in Devonfliire, of which
In a few years he was made abbot. In the year 1 r8o,
he was confecrated Bifliop ofWorcefter. In 1184, he
v/as promoted to the fee of Canterbury by Pope Lu¬
cius III. and, by his fucceffor Urban III. was ap¬
pointed legate for that diocefe. He laid the founda¬
tion of a church and monaftery in honour of Thomas
Becket, at Hackington, near Canterbury, for fecular
priefts ; but, being oppofed by the monks of Canter¬
bury and the Pope, was obliged to defift. In 1190,
he crowned King Richard I. at Weftminfter ; and foon
after followed that prince to the holy land, where he
died at the fiege of Ptolemais. Giraldus Cambrenfis,
who accompanied him in this expedition, fays he was
of a mild difpofition, and of great abftinence. He
wrote various trafts on religious fubjefts, which were
colledted and publiflied by Bertrand Tiffierin 1662.
BALE, (John), bifliop of Offory in Ireland, w’as
born at Cove, near Dunwich in Suffolk, in the year
1495. At 12 years of age, he was entered in the mo¬
naftery of Carmelites at Norw'ich, and was thence fent
to Jefus-college in Oxford- He was educated a Ro ¬
man Catholic, but w^as converted to the Proteftant reli¬
gion by Thomas Lord Wentw'orth. On the death of
Lord Cromwell, favourite of Henry VIII. wbo pro-
tefted him from the perfecutions of the Romifti clergy,
he was obliged to retire into the Low Countries, where
he continued eight years. Soon after the acceffion of
Edwrard VI. he was recalled ; and being firft prefented
to the living of Biftiop’s Stocke in Hampftiire, in 1552,
he wfas nominated to the fee of Offory. During his re-
fidence in Ireland, he was remarkably affiduous in pro¬
pagating the Proteftant doftrines ; but to very little
purpofe, and frequently at the hazard of his life. Once,
in particular, they murdered five of his domeftics, who
w-ere making hay in a meadow near his houfe; and
would probably have done the fame by him, if the fo-
vereign of Kilkenny had not come to his affiftance with
rco horfe and 300 foot. On the acceffion of Queen
Mary, the tide of oppofition became fo powerful, that.
to avoid affaffination, he embarked for Holland; but Bale
was very unfortunate in his efcape. Firft he was taken fl
by a Dutch man of w'ar, and robbed by the captain of ®alcare*"
all his effects. Then, being forced by ftrefs of wea-
ther into St Ive’s in Cornwall, he was confined on fuf-
picion of treafon. Being, however, releafed after a
few days confinement, the (hip anchored in Dover road,
where he was again feized on a falfe accufation. After
his arrival in Holland, he was kept prifoner for three
weeks, and at length obtained his liberty, on paying
301. From Holland he travelled to Bafil in Switzer¬
land, where he continued till Queen Elizabeth afcend-
ed the throne. After his return to England, he was,
in 1560, made prebendary of Canterbury, probably
not choofing to return to his former flock of wolves.
He died in November 1563, at Canterbury, in the 68th
year of his age. He was fo fevere a writer againft the
church of Rome, that his books are particularly pro¬
hibited in the expurgatory index publilhed at Madrid,
in folio, in the year 1667. He is the earlieft dramatic
writer in the Englifti language, or at leaft author of
the firft pieces of that kind that we find in print. Of
his writings in that way no fewer than 21 have been
enumerated : only three of them, however, have beer
feen in print, viz. 1. God’s Promifes, an interlude; 2-*
St John Baptift, an interlude ; 3. Concerning the Laws
of Nature corrupted : the firft of which has been re¬
printed by Dodfley, in the firft volume of his collection
of old plays ; and the only copy extant of the laft is
preferved in St Sepulchre’s library in Dublin. As to
the reft, they are mentioned by himfelf as his own, in
"his accoupt of the writers of Britain before mentioned.
He alfo tranflated the tragedies of Pammachius. His
other works are very numerous ; but the chief is his
catalogue of Britilh Authors ; a book of fome merit,
as it contains fome information which is not elfewhere
to be found ; but he has deftroyed his credit by his in¬
temperate Billingfgate abufe of all thofe who differed
from him in religion. The authentic part of his work
is tranfcribed from Leland. The title of it is, Illtiftri-
um Majoris Britannia fcriptorum catalogus, a Japheto
fanflijjimi No a filio ad an. Dom. 1557.
BALE, in commerce. Any goods packed up in cloth,
and corded round very tight, in order to keep them
from breaking, or preferve them from the weather, is
called « bale.—A bale of cotton yarn is from 300 to
400 weight; of raw filk, is from 100 to 400 ; of lock-
ram or dowlas, either three, three and a half, or four
pieces.
BAr.E-Goods, among the Englifli merchants, are
all fuch as are imported or exported in bales ; but the
French give that name to certain hardwares, and o-
ther forts of merchandize, which come to Paris, and
are commonly made by bad workmen of indifferent
materials.
BALEARES insult, or the Balearic IJlands.
The appellation is commonly derived from Baxxuv, be-
caufe the inhabitants were excellent flingers. But
Bochart makes the name of Punic or Phoenician origi¬
nal, as were the people : Baal-jare, a mafter, orfkil-
ful at throwing; the Phoenicians and Hebrews being
dexterous at the ufe of the fling. The Greeks called
thefe iflands Gymnejia, (Strabo) ; becaufe in fummer
the inhabitants went naked, (Diodorus, Livy), or ra-
5 D 2 ther
B A L [ 764 ] B A L
Balearic ther becaufe only armed with a fling in war (Hefychius).
|| They are two in number, the Greater and the Lefs,
Balen. or Major and Minor; and hence the modern names
Majorca and Minorca. The Major is diftant from the
Minor 30 miles to the weft, in length 40 miles, and in
circuit 150 (Pliny). They were fubdued by Quintus
Metellus, thence furnamed Balearicus, in the year 1 20
B. C. The Baleares, together with the adjacent iflands,
were a part of the Provincia Citerior or Tarraconenfts,
and of the refort of the Conveutus Carthaginienfis, or
New Carthage. Thefe iflands are tailed Chosarades by
Apollonius, and Choeradades by Strabo, i. e. “ rocky.”
See Majorca and Minorca.
BALEARIC islands. See the preceding ar¬
ticle.
BALECHOU, ■ John Jofeph), a very celebrated
and well-known French engraver, floiirilhed about
1750. He died, according to Bafan, fome few years
fince, at Avignon. This extraordinary artift worked
entirely with the graver; and he was perfectly ma¬
tter of that inftrument. The clearnefs of his ftrokes,
and the depth of colour which he produced, are far
beyond any produ&ion prior to his own. The two
large plates which he did from Vernet, one repre-
fenting a Jlorm, the other a calm, mutt ever be confi-
dered as very aftonilhing exertions of the artift. They
are too welljcnown, and too much admired, to need
any further eulogium ; and were never equalled, until
they were perhaps" furpaffed by our countryman Wool-
let.
BALEN, (Hendrick Van), hiftory and portrait
painter, was born at Antwerp, in 1560, and was a
difciple of Adam Van Oort; but he quitted that ma¬
tter, to acquire a better tafte of defign and compofition,
by purfuing his ftudies at Rome, where he relided for
a confiderable time. He copied the antiques ; he at¬
tended to the works of the moft memorable modern
artifts; and at his return to his own country, the vi-
fible improvement of his tafte recommended him to the
favour and efteem of the ableft judges of the art. He
diftinguilhed himfelf by a good manner of defigning,
and his works are admitted into the cabinets of the
curious, among thofe of the principal painters. He
particularly excelled in the naked, and gave to his fi¬
gures fo much truth, roundnefs, and correftnefs of
outline, that few of his cotemporaries could enter into
competition with him. Several fine portraits of his
hand are at the Hague ; among which there is one ad¬
orned with allegorical figures of Wifdom and Juftice,
which extorts commendation from all who attentively
confider it. He died in 1632. All the hiftorical fub-
jefts painted by Van Balen have abundant merit. His
defigns of the Deluge, of Mofes ftriking the Rock,
and the drowning of Pharaoh, are grand and noble
compofitions. Houbraken obferves, that Van Balen,
with great judgment, hath introduced the Ifraelites in
a clear light in the back-ground, but the Egyptians in
a ftrong ihadow in the fore-ground, which had a very
fine effeift; the figures being well defigned, the atti¬
tudes and draperies well chofen, and the number of the
figures being very confiderable. Of this painter’s hand
alfo, the Judgement of Paris is accounted a mafterly
performance; in which the figure of Venus is fo ele¬
gantly defigned, fo full of life, and fo round, that it
feems to ftand forth from the furface. The landfcapes
and back-grounds of the pi&ures compofed by Van Balen
Balen, were generally painted by the Velvet lireug- Bales,
hel. y—«
BALEN, John Van), painter of hiftory, land¬
fcapes, and boys, was born at Antwerp in 1611 ; and
derived his knowledge of the art, and his fine tafte of
di awing and defign, from his father Hendrick Van
Balen ; but, as fuon as he had made a competent pro- .
grefs, Tie travelled to Rome, and lived for feveraT years
in that and other cities of Italy. There he acquired a
good gufto of defign, tho- he was fometim.es incor-
redt; and his particular merit was fhown in his naked
figures of boys, cupids, nymphs bathing or hunting,
of which fubjedfs he painted a confiderable number ;
and he procured both praife and riches by his landfcapes
and hiftories. His pictures were well handled, his
trees touched with fpirit, and his herbage and verdure
looked natural and lively. The carnations of his fi¬
gures were clear and frefh; his colouring in'general
was transparent; and the airs of his heads were in the
manner of Albano.
BALES, Peter), a very extraordinary perfon in
his way, and fit to be recorded in a work of this nature.
He was a mott famous matter in the art of penmanfhip,
or fair writing ; and one of the firft inventors (for
there fcems to have been more than one) of fliort hand
writing. He was born in 1547, and is ftyled by An¬
thony Wood “ a moft dexterous perfon in his profef-
fion, to the great wonder of fcholars and others
who adds, that “ he fpent feveral years in fciences a-
mong the Oxoniansj particularly as it feems in Gfou-
cefter-hall : but that ftudy, which he ufed for a diver-
fion only, proved at length an employment of profit.”
He is recorded for his fkill in micrography, or minia¬
ture-writing, in Hollinfhed’s Chronicle, anno 1575;
and Mr Evelyn alfo hath celebrated his wonderful Ikill
in this delicate operation of the hanu. “ Hadrian Ju¬
nius, fpeaking as a miracle of fomebody, who wrote the
Apoftle’s Creed, and the beginning of Bt John’s Go-
fpel, within the compafs of a farthing ; what would
he have faid,” fays Mr Evelyn, “ of our famous 1 eter
Bales, who, in the year 1575, wrote the Lord’s Pray¬
er, the Creed, Decalogue, with two fhort prayers in
Latin, his own name, motto, day of the month, year of
the Lord, and reign of the Queen, to wdrom he pre-
fented it at Hampton Court, all of it written within
the circle of a fingle penny, inchafed in a ring and
borders of gold, and covered wfith a cryftal, fo accu¬
rately wrought as to be very plainly legible, to the
great admiration of her Majefty, the whole Privy Coun¬
cil, and feveral ambafladors then at Court r” He was
farther very dexterous in imitating hand-writing, and,
about 15*6, was employed by Secretary Walfingham
in certain political manoeuvres. We find him at the
head of a fchool, near the Old Bailey, London, in
159c; in which year he publiftied his “ Writing
Schoolmafter, in three parts : the firft teaching fwift
writing ; the fecond, true writing ; the third, fair wri¬
ting ” In 1595, he had a great trial of fkill in the
Black-friars with one Daniel Johnlon, for a golden pen
of 201. value, and won it; and a contemporary author
farther relates, that he had alfo the arms of Caligra-
phy given him, w'hich are Azure, a Pen, Or, as a piize,
at a trial of fkill in this art among the beft penmen in
London. In J597, he republifhed his “ Writing
Schoohnafter,”
B A L [ 7<55 1
' Schoolmafter,” which was in fuch high reputation, «<5y4, 8vo.
that no Ids than eighteen copies of commendatory
" verfes, cOmpofed by learned and ingenious men of that
time, were printed before it. Wood fays, that he was
engaged in Effex’s treafons in 1600; but Wood was
iniTtaken : he.was only engaged, and very innocently
fo, in ferving the treacherous purpofes of one of that u _
Earl’s mercenary dependents. We know little more the Ealt-India fhips fomctimes return from China to
B A L
3. Direflions for healthy natural and ar¬
tificial; ’with medicines for all difeafes of the eyes, 1626,
4to. 4. Explicatio Galeni de potu convalefcentium et fe-,
num, &c. manufcript, formerly in Lord Ayldbury’s
library.
BALI, an iflandof Afia, in the Eaft Indies, form¬
ing the north fide of the ftraits of Java, through which
of this -curious perfon, but that he feems to have died
about the year 161c.
BALESTRA (Antonio), an excellent hiftorical
Europe : but the palfage is commonly difficult on ac¬
count of contrary winds. The ifland is extremely po¬
pulous, and abounds in rice and'other produ&ions pro¬
painter, was born at Verona in r 666. At the age of per to the climate. The inhabitants are Pagans, and
21' he went to Venice, where he entered himfelf in the
fchool of Antonio Bellucei, and continued for three
years under his direftion; but from thence he viiited
Bologna and Rome, and at the latter became the dif-
ciple of Carlo Maratti. Under the tuition of fo emi¬
nent a genius, he made a very great proficiency, and
exerted himfelf for fome hours of each day, in defign-
ing after the antiques, after Raphael, Correggio, An-
nibal Carracci, and other admired painters; by which
conduct he fo eiFe&ually confirmed his tafte and free¬
dom of hand, that he obtained the prize of merit in
the academy of St Luke, in the yfcar 1694, when.he
was only 28 years of age. From that time his repu¬
tation wras eitabliihed, and he received fufficient en¬
couragement ; being engaged to work for moft of the
churches, and in the palaces of the nobility, and
his paintings were admired in every part of Europe.
Hii
very warlike. E. Long. 1 1 j. 30.-S. Lat. 9.
BALIOL, or Balliol, (Sir John de), founder of
Baliol-college, in Oxford, was the fon of Hugh Baliol,
of Bernard’s caftle, in the diocefe of Durham ; and was
a perfdn very eminent for his power and riches. During
the coutefts and wars between King Henry III. and
his barons, he firmly adhered to the king. In 1263*
he began the foundation and endowment of Baliol-col¬
lege, which was afterwards perfefted by his widow*
He died in the year 1269.
Baliol, Ball'OL, ocBoilliol, (John), the bro¬
ther of Alexander king of Scotland, and competitor
with Robert Bruce for that crown. See Scotland.
BALISORE, a fea port town of Afia, in the Eail
Indies, to the north-weft of the bay of Bengal. It is
about four miles from the fea by land, but 20 by the
river-; feated in a very fruitful foil, producing rice,.
ftyle is fweet and agreeable, not unlike that of wheat, aromatic feeds, tobacco, &c. The inhabitants.
Maratti; and the judicious obferve 'in the works of Ba-
leftra, a certain mixture of the feveral manners of Ra¬
phael, Corregio, and Carracci. He died in 1740.
In the church of Santa Maria Mater Domini at Ve¬
nice, there is one of the moft capital performances of
Baleftra, reprefenting the nativity of our Saviour. It
is defigned in a grand ftyle, the compofition is excellent,
and has a great deal of grace. The heads are pecu¬
liarly fine ; and the whole has a noble effed, with re¬
make feveral forts of fluffs of cotton, filk, and a kind
of grafs. The Engliffi, French, and Dutch, have fac¬
tories here; but they are now of no great account*
E. Long. 85. 20. N. Lat. 21. 30.
BALISTES, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties be¬
longing to the order of amphibia nantes. The charac¬
ters are thefe : The head is flat; there are eight teeth,
in each fide, and the two anterior ones are longeft ; in
the place of gills, the baliftes has an aperture imme-
markable harmony. In a chapel belonging to the diately above the pe&oral fins ; the body is flat, the
church of S. Geminiano, in the fame city, there is a :*■—k" ^ k“"”
deadChrift in the arms of the Virgin, painted by this
mafter in a grand tafte; and although the compofition
confifts but of a few figures, they are finely defigned;
and in every part of it there is lufficient merit to claim
and juftify applaufe.
BA. EY (Walter), the fon of Henry Baleyof Warn-
well in Dorfetfhire, was born at Potfham in the fame
county, and educated at Winchefter fchool. From
thence he was fent to Oxford; and, after two years
probation, was admitted perpetual fellow of New Col¬
lege in the year 1 55c. Having taken his degrees in
fcales are joined together by the fkin, and the belly is
keeled. The fpecies of this genus are eight; viz.-
f. The monoceros, whofe head-fin confifts of but one
ray, and the tail-rays are carinated. It is called the
utucorn-fijh by Catefby ; who informs us, that the guts;
of this fifh are full of fmall fhelis and coralline fub-
ftances, which by the ftrength and hardnefs of its jaws
it is enabled to grind very fmall. Thefe fifti, he-
adds, are not eat, being accounted poifonous. They
moft frequent thofe feas, amongft th-j, Bahama iflands,,
where the corals- are in greateft plenty. 2 The hifpi-
dus, whofe head fin is uniradiated ; and there is a round
he pra&ifed phyfic, and in 1558 was proftor of black fpot in the tail-fin. The body is rough, and
the univerfity. About this time he obtained a pre¬
bend of Wells, which he refigned in 1579. In the
year 1561 he was appointed queen’s profeffor of phy-
fic, in 1563 proceeded do&or in that Faculty, and af¬
terwards became one of her majefty’s phyficians in or¬
dinary. He was thought Ikilful in his profeffion, and
had confiderable pra&ice. He died in 1592, aged 63 ;
and was buried in the inner chapel of New College. His
works are, 1. A difcourfe of three kinds ofpepper in com¬
mon ufe, 1588, 8vo. 2. Brief treatife of the preferva-
tion of the eye-fight. Firft printed in the reign of E-
lifabeth, in ismoj afterwards at Oxford in j6i6 and.
briftly towards the tail. The fpine or horn is fituated
between the eyes ; the fnout is Tubulated ; and iniiead
of a belly-fin, it has a jagged fliarp fpine. This fpecies
is a native of Carolina. 3. The Tomentofus, whofe-
head-fin is biradiated, and the body of it towards the:
hind part is hairy. It is a native of America, 4. The.
papillofus, has a biradiated back-fin, and a papillous
body. 5. The verrucofus, has a triradiated Back-fin 4
and the tail is full of little warts. In the place of a
belly-fin, this fpecies has a large, thick, warty ray. It
has 25 fmall reverfed fharp fpines at the fide of the tail,
difpofed in four rows. It is a native of India. 6. The
B A L r 766 ] B A L
B-HIvo, aculeatus has a triradiated back-fin ; and the fpines of
Balk, the tail lean upon each other. It is alfo a native of In-
dia. 7. The vetula, or old-wife, has a triradiated
back fin ; the belly fin is longitudinal, and fomewhat
carinated ; and the tail fin is forked. It is •found, at Af-
cenfion ifland. 8. The ringens has a triradiated back-
fin ; there are three folds on each fide of the head, and
the tail-fin is forked. This fpecies is likewife found
at Afcenfion ifland.
BALIVO amovendo, in law, was a writ for re¬
moving a bailiff from his office, for wa nt of having fuf-
ficient land in his bailwick to anfwer the king and his
people, according to the ftatute of Weftminfter, 2 reg.
Grig. 7?- ‘
BALK, among builders, is fometimes ufed for the
fummer-beam of a houfe ; fometimes for the poles and
rafters which fupporl the roofs of barns, &c. ; and
fbmetimes for the beams ufed in making fea-holds. N
Balk, or Balkh, a province of Great Bukharia in
Alia, about 360 miles long and 250 broad, fituated
to the South of the province of Samarkand, and to the
eaft of Bukharia Proper. It is the lead; of the three
provinces that make up what is called Great Bukharia ;
but being extremely fertile and well cultivated, the
prince draws a great revenue from it. The country
particularly abounds with filk, of which the inhabitants
make pretty manufadlures. The Uzbecks fubjedf to
the Khan of Balkh are the moft civilized of all the Tar¬
tars inhabiting Great Bukharia, owing probably to
their commerce with the Perfians: they are likewife
more induftrious, and more honeft, than the reft ; but
in other refpedts have the fame cuftoms with the reft
of the Tartars. The province is Jubdivided into feveral
counties; the moft remarkable of which are Khotlan
or Katlan, Tokhareftan, and Badagfhan. Its chief
cities are Balk, Fariyab, Talkhan, Badaglhan, and
Anderab.
Balk, the capital of the above-mentioned province,
fituated on the frontiers of Perfia, in E. Long. 65. 20.
N. Lat. 37. o. It is probably the ancient Badfra,
capital of the kingdom of Badtria ; and is faid by the
Perfians to have been founded by Kay-umarras the
firft king of Perfia, becaufe he met his brother upon»
the fpot where it ftood, after he had been loft for a
long time ; balkhiden, or balghiden, in the Perfic lan¬
guage, fignifying to receive and embrace a friend.
The firft kings of Perfia who refided in the province
of Media or Aderbijan, confidered this city as one of
their principal frontiers on the fide of Scythia. In
, the 27th year of ^e Hegira, of Chrift 647, Balk was
reduced by the Arabs, under the command of Abdal¬
lah Ebn Amer. It continued fubjedt to Arab princes
till the year of the Hegira 432, of Chrift 1041 ; when
it was reduced by Togrol Beg, the Tangrolipix of the
Greeks, and prince of the Seljukian dynafty. It was
taken by Jenghiz Khan, A. D. 1221, who with his
ufual and unparalleled cruelty caufed all the inhabi¬
tants to be brought without the walls and maflacred
without mercy. In 1369, Sultan Hofein, the laft of
the race of Jenghiz Khan, was driven from Balkh by
Tamerlane, whofe fucceflbrs were driven out by the
Uzbecks in the 15th century. It was afterwards re¬
deemed by Shah Ifmael Sufi ; but finally wrefted out
of his hands by the Uzbeck Tartars, between whom
and the Perfians it is the occafion of almoft continual
wars. It was, not long fince, the refidence of a khan
of Tartars. It is the moft confiderable city pofleffed
in thefe parts by the Mahometan Tartars, is large,
well built, and populous, the houfes confifting for the
moft part of ftone or brick. The fortifications confift
of bulwarks of earth, fenced without with a ftrong
wall high enough to cover the foldiers employed in
defence of thofe fortifications. As this place is the
refort of all the bufinefs tranfadled between the Indies
and Great Bukharia, trade flourifhes extremely at.
Balkh ; efpecially as it has a fine river palling through
its fuburbs, which is of vaft fervice to the town. This
river falls into the Amu, in N. Lat. 38. 30. upon the
confines of Great Bukharia and Kowarazm. The
khan’s palace, or caftle, is a large edifice built after
the oriental manner ; and confifts almoft entirely of
marble, of which there are fine quarries in the neigh¬
bourhood. The khan of Balk, however, was obliged
in >739 to fubmit to the Perfians under Khouli Kan ;
but fince that time has moft probably regained his in¬
dependency.
BALKERS, in the filhery, perfons placed on rocks,
and eminences at fea, to fpy the herring droves, and
give notice to the filhermen, by waving boughs, what
way they go and where they may be found.
BALL, in a general fenfe, a fpherical and round
body, whether naturally fo, or formed into that figure
by art.
Ball, in the military art, comprehends all forts of
bullets for fire arms, from the cannon to the piftol.
Cannon-balls . are of iron; mufleet-balls, piftol-balls,
&c. are of lead. The experiment has been tried of
iron balls for piftols and fufees ; but they are juftly re¬
jected, not only on account of their lightnefs, which
prevents them from flying ftraight, but becaufe they
are apt to furrow the barrel of the piftol, &c.
Ball of a Pendulum, the weight at the bottom. In
Ihorter pendulums, this is called the bob.
Ball, in pyrotechnics, is alfo a compofition of va*
rious combuftible ingredients, ferving to burn, fmoke,
give light, &c. In this fenfe we read of fire balls,
light-balls, fmoke-balls, ftink-balls, Iky-balls, water-
balls, land-balls.
Ball, among the Cornilh miners, fignifies a tin-
mine.
Ball, among printers, a kind of wooden tunnel
ftuffed with wool, contained in a leather cover, which
is nailed to the wood, with which the ink is applied on
the forms to be wrought off. See Printing.
Horfe-BALLs, among farriers. Horfes have a very
nice tafte ; it is therefore proper to give the more dif-
agfeeable drugs in the form of balls, and to make
drenches of the more palatable. Balls fhould be of an
oval fhape, not exceeding the fize of a pullet’s egg ;
and fhould be dipped in fweet oil to make them flip
down the eafier. Some horfes have a ftrait gulldt,
which makes them very averfe to a ball being thruft
down their throats; fuch horfes had better have
drenches given them, or their medicines may be mix¬
ed with bran, or in their mafhes. See Farriery,
Paflim.
Ball Vein, in mineralogy, a name given by the
miners of Suffex to a fort of iron ore, common there,
and wrought to confiderable advantage. It yields not
any great quantity of metal, but what it has runs freely
B A L [ 767 1 B A L
Ball, in tKe fire; it is ufually found in loofe tnafles, not in
the form of a ftratum, and is often covered with one
or more crufts. It generally contains fome fparkling
particles ; and is ufually of a circular form in the per¬
fect maffes, thickeft in the middle, and gradually thin¬
ner as it approaches the Tides. The ores of Suflex in
general are poor, but they require very little trouble
Iin the working; fo that a eonfiderable profit is made
annually from them.
Ball and Socket is an inftrument made of hrafs,
with a perpetual fcrew, fo as to move horizontally,
vertically, and obliquely ; and is generally ufed for the
managing of furveying and aftronomical inftruments.
Puff-BAiL, the Englifh name of the lycoperdon.
See Lycoperdon.
Martial Balls, in pharmacy, are a mixture of fil-
Iings of iron and cream of tartar, formed into a lolid
confiftence and form of a ball, which is ufed to im¬
pregnate water or other liquids with iron diflblved by
the tartareous acid. To make thefe balls, one part of
filings of iron and two parts powdered cream of tartar
are mixed well together, and put into an earthen or
iron veflel with fome water. This mixture is to be ftir
red from time to time, till it becomes almoft dry ; and
I then it is to receive more water, and to be ftirred as
before. This treatment is to be continued till it ac¬
quires, when nearly dry, fomewhat of the confiftence
and tenacity of foftened rofin Then it is to be rolled
up in the form of a ball, which is generally kept tied
up in a rag; and when intended to be ufed, it is to
be infufed in water, till it gives fonie colour to thaV
liquid. The infufion of martial balls is tonic, vulne¬
rary, difcutient, and aperitive ; and is employed both
* See Iron, internally and externally *. Iron being foluble in all
acids, is attacked in this preparation by the tartareous
acid, which reduces it to a kind of neutral fait not
cryftallizable. This fait would remain liquid, and would
form a foluble martial tartar, called tartarifed tincture
of Mars. If proper proportions of filings of iron and
cream of tartar be ufed, and treated long enough for
an entire and complete combination, nothing would be
obtained but a liquor or magma, which could not be
preferved in a folid form, but would be continual¬
ly moift. Therefore, in the martial ball there is a
good deal of the cream of tartar and filings of iron
not combined together, by which its folidity is pre¬
ferved.
Mercurial Balls, in pharmacy, are an amalgam of
mercury arid tin, fufficiently folid to be moulded, and
to preferve a given form. The method of making
them is by adding mercury to melted tin, and pouring
the fluid mafs into a round hollow mould.—Thefe balls
are employed to purify water, in w-hich they are boil¬
ed ; for which purpofe travellers often carry fome
along with them. Nothing, however, can be more
pernicious than fuch a pra&ice, ihould the water Con¬
tain any nitrous acid, which it very often does.
Balls of Silk Worms and Spiders, are little cafes
or cones of filk, wherein thofe infers depofit their
eggs. Spiders are extremely tender of their balls, which
they carry about with them, adhering to the papillae
about their anus. Grew mentions balls or bags of a
fpecies of filk worms in Virginia, as big as hens eggs,
and containing each four aurelias.
Zoologifts fpeak of a fort of balls of hair covered
over with a fmooth ihining coat, or fliell, found in the
ftomachs of oxen, cows*, calves, horfes, flieep, and
goats. See the article Bezoar.
Balls of Fire, in meteorology. See Fire {Balls
of).
Balls in ele&ricity, are two pieces of cork, or pith
of elder, nicely turned in a lathe to the fize of n fmall
pea, and fufpended by fine linAi threads ; intended as
eleftrometers, and of excellent ufe to difcover fmall
degrees of electricity, to obfervethe changes of it from
pofitive to negative, and vice verfa; and to eftimate
the force of a fliock before the difcharge, fo that the
operator ihould always be able to tell very nearly be¬
fore the difcharge, by knowing how high he has-
charged his jars, what the explofion will be.
Fire-BAi.Ls, are bags of canvas filled with gun¬
powder, fulphur, falt-petre, pitch, &c. to be thrown by
the foldiers, or out of mortars, in order to fire the houfes
incommoding trenches, advanced polls, or the like.—
The Greeks had divers kinds of fire-balls, or n\jpo(lu\ot
xi9oi; one kind called, more particularly, e-xu7«xia, or
truulaxiJtr, made of wood, fometimes a foot or even
a cubit long ; their heads being armed with fpikes of
iron, beneath which were hemp, pitch, and other
combuftibles, which being fet on fire, they were call:
among the enemy. The preparations of fire-balls^
among the moderns, confift of feveral operations, viz-
making the bag, preparing the compofition, tying,,
and, laitly, dipping the ball. 1. The bags for this
purpofe are either oval or round. • 2. The compofition
wherewith fire-balls are filled is variousTo ten
pounds of meal-gunpowder add two of faltpetre, one
of fulphur, and one of colophony j or, to fix pounds
of gunpowder, add four of faltpetre, four of fulphur,
one of powdered glafs, half a pound of antimony, as
much camphor, an ounce of fal-ammoniac, and four
of common fait, all pulverifed. Sometimes they even fill
fire-balls with hand granadoes. 3. For tying the fire¬
balls, they prepare two,iron rings, one fitted round the
aperture, where the ball is to be lighted, the other
near its bafe. A cord is tied to thefe rings in fuch a
manner, as that the leveral turns reprefent femicircles
of the fphere cutting the globe through the poles : over
the cords, extended according to the length of the ball,,
others are tied, cutting the former at right angles, and
parallel to each other, making a. knot at each interfec-
tion: laftly, after putting in a leaden-bullet, the reft
of the fpace is filled with tow or paper. 4. Thus com¬
pleted, the fire-ball remains to be dipped in a compo¬
fition of melted pitch four pounds, colophony two,
and linfeed oil or oil of turpentine two ; after dip¬
ping, they cover it round with tow,, and dip again,,
till it be brought to the juft diameter required.
Light-BALLs, are fuch as diffufe an intenfe light
around , or they are balls which, being call out of the
hand or a mortar, burn for fome time, and illuminate
the adjacent parts. 1. Luminous or light-balls for
the hand, are made of ground powder, faltpetre,
brimftone, camphor, and borax, all fprinkled with oil,
and moulded into a mafs with fuel; and this is wrap¬
ped up in tow, with a fheet of ftrong paper over it.
To fire it, they make a hole into it with a bodkin, ia-
to which they put fome priming that will burn flow.
Its ufe is to be caft into any works they would difcover
in the night-time.. 2. For the larger light-balls, or
thefts
it
Bail
BalllSd.
B A L . [ ?68 ] B A L
thole to be thrown to a greater diftanee, they melt
equal quantities of fulphur, turpentine, and pitch ; and
herein dip an earthen or ftone-ball, of a diameter much
lefs than that of the mortar out of which the fire¬
ball is to be call: then rolling it in gunpowder, and
covering it round with gauze, they dip it again, and
repeat the reft till it come to fit the cavity of the
mortar: iai.ly, they fprinkle it around with gun¬
powder. This, being once kindled, will ftrongly il¬
luminate all around the place where it is thrown, and
give opportunity to examine the ftate and condition
thereof.
Smoke or Dark Balls, thofe which fill the air with
fmoke, and thus darken a place to prevent difeoveries.
To prepare a darkening ball, make an oval or fpheri-
cal bag, melt rofin over the coals; and add an equal
part of faltpetre not purified, alfo of fulphur, and a
fifth part of charcoal. The whole being well incorpo¬
rated, put in tow firft hired, and fill the bags with
this compofition, and dip it after the fame manner as a
fire-ball.
Stink-Bju.s, thofe which yield a great ftench where
fired to annoy the enemy. Their preparation is thus:
Melt ten pounds of pitch, fix of rofin, twenty of falt¬
petre, eight of gunpowder, and four of colophony ; to
thefe add two of charcoal, fix of horfe-hoofs cut
fmall, three of afia-fostida, one of ftinking-faracen,
and any other olfenfive ingredients. The reft as in
the former.
Sky-BALis, thofe call: on high out of mortars, and
which, when arrived at their height, burfting like
rockets, afford a fpe&acle of decoration. Sky-balls
are made of a wooden {hell, filled with various compo-
fitions, particularly that of the ftars of rockets. Thefe
are fometimes intermixed with crackers and other com-
buftibles, making rains of fire, &c.
Water-Balls, thofe which fwim and burn a confi-
derable time in the water, and at length burft therein.
Thefe are made in a wooden {hell, the cavity of which
is filled with refined faltpetre, fulphur, faw duft boiled
in water of faltpetre, and dried ; to which fometimes
other ingredients are added, as iron filings, Greek
pitch, amber duft, powdered glafs, and camphor. The
ingredients are to be ground, mixed up, and moiftened
with linfeed oil, nut oil, olive oil, hempfeed oil, or pe¬
trol. At the bottom is placed an iron coffin, filled
with whole gunpowder, that the ball may at laft burft
with a greater noife • and, laftly, the ball is, by the ad¬
dition of lead or otherwife, made of the fame fpecific
gravity with water.
Land-BAi.Ls are thofe which, being thrown out
of a mortar, fall to the ground, burn, and burft there.
The ingredients are much the fame as in the ’water-
lalls, only the fpecific gravity is not attended to.
BALLAGHAN, a town of Ireland, in the coun¬
ty of Sligo, and province of Connaught. W. Long.
9. 50. N. Lat. 53. 48.
BALLAN, a town of France in the diocefe of
Mens, with the title of a marquifate, feated on the ri¬
ver Orne. E. Long. o. zo. N. Lat. 48. 10.
BALLAD, a kind of fong, adapted to the capa¬
city of the lower clafs of people ; who, being mightily
taken with this fpecies of poetry, are thereby not a
little influenced in the condud of their lives. Hence
N° 40.
we find, that feditious and defigning men never fail to
fpread ballads among the people, with a view to gain
them over to their fide.
BALLAST, any heavy matter, as ftone, gravel,
iron, &c. thrown into the hold of a {hip, in order to
make her fink a proper depth in the water, that fhe
may be capable of carrying a lufficient quantity of
fail without ovcrletting.
There is often great difference in the proportion of
ballaft required to prepare {hips of equal burden for a
voyage ; the quantity being always more or lefs ac¬
cording to the ffiarpnefs or flatnefs of the {hip’s bot¬
tom, which feamen call the fioor.
The knowledge of ballafting a Hup with propriety,
is certainly an article that deferves the attention of the
llvilful mariner : for although it is known, that fiiipsin
general will not carry a fuffieient quantity of fail till
they are laden fo deep that the furface of the water
will nearly glance on the extreme breadth amidftups,
yet there is more than this general knowledge requi¬
red ; fince, if Ihe has a great weight of heavy baliaft,
as lead, iron, &c. in the bottom, it will place the
centre of gravity too low in the hold; and although
this will enable her to carry a great fail, fhe will ne-
verthelefs fail very heavily, and run the rifle of being
difmafted by her violent rolling.
To ballaft a Ihip, therefore, is the art of difpofing
thofe materials fo that {be maybe duly poifed, and
maintain a proper equilibrium on the water, fo as nei¬
ther to be loo jliff nor too crank, qualities equally per¬
nicious : as in the firft, although the ffiip may be fit¬
ted to carry a great fail, yet her velocity will not be
proportionahly increafed ; whilft her marts are more
endangered by her fudden jerks and exceffive labour¬
ing: and in the laft, file will be incapable of carrying
fail, without the rifle of overfetting.
Stijfnefs, in ballafting, is occafioned by difpofing a
great quantity of heavy ballaft, as lead, iron, &c. In
the bottom, which naturally places the centre of gra¬
vity very near the keel; and that being the centre a-
bout which the vibrations are made, the lower it is pla¬
ced, the more violent will be the motion of rolling.
Cranknefs, on the other hand, is occafioned by ha¬
ving too little ballaft, or by difpofing the {hip’s lading
fo as to raife the centre of gravity too high, which alfo
endangers the maft in carrying fail when it blows hard:
for when the mafts lofe their perpendicular height, they
ftrain on the {hrouds in the nature of a lever, which in-
creafes as the fine of their obliquity ; and a {hip that
lofes her mafts is in great danger of being loft.
The whole art of ballafting therefore, confifts in
placing the centre of the gravity to correfpond with
the trim and ftiape of the veflel, fo as neither to
be too high nor too low; neither too far forward
nor too far aft, and to lade the ffiip lo deep, that the
furface of the water may nearly rife to the extreme
breadth amidfliips ; and thus {he will be enabled to
carry a good fail, incline but little, and ply well to the
windward.
Ships are faid to be in ballajl when they have no
other loading Matters of veflels are obliged to declare
the quantity of ballaft they bear, and to unload it at
certain places. They are prohibited unloading their
ballaft in havens, roads, &c. the negled of which has
ruined
B A L [ 769 ] B A L
Ballatoons ruined many excellent ports.— Ships and veflels taking
H in ballaft in the river Thames, are to pay fo much a
Balhconnel. tun to Trinity-houfe, Deptford ; who fhall employ bal-
ki»i—il_i' laftmen, and regulate them 5 and their lighters to be
marked, &c. on pain of 10I.
BALLATOONS, large heavy luggage-boats ufed
for carrying wood by the river from Aftracan and the
Cafpian fea to Mofcow. Thefe will carry from 100
to 200 ton, and have from 100 to 120 men employed
to row and tow them along.
BALLENDEN, (Sir John), a Scottifh poet, in
the reign of James V. of Scotland, was defcended from
an ancient family in that kingdom. His father, Mr
Thomas Ballenden of Auchinoul, was dire&or to the
chancery in the year 1540, and clerk-regifter in 1541.
Where our poet was educated, we are not imformed;
but from one of his poems vve learn, that in his youth
he had fome employment at the court of King James V.
and that he was in great favour with that prince. Ha¬
ving taken orders, and being created doftor of divinity,
at the Sorbonne, he was made canon of Rofs, and arch¬
deacon of Murray. He likewife obtained the place of
clerk-regifter; but was afterwards deprived of that
"employment by the factions of the times : however, in
the fucceeding reign, of Mary, he recovered that office,
and was one of the lords of feffion. Being a zealous
Papift, he, in conjunftion with Dr Laing, was extremely
afiiduous in retarding the progrefs of the reformation;
till at laft, finding the oppofition too powerful, he quit¬
ted Scotland, and went to Rome, where he died in the
year tyyo. He is generally efteemed one of the belt
Scottilh poets of that age. His works are, 1. The
hijlory and chronicles of Scotland of Heft or Boeis, (Boe¬
thius), tranfated by Mr John Ballenden, Edinb. 15J&
This is not a mere tranfiation, Ballenden having cor-
re&ed fcveral miftakes of his author, and made large
additions. It is in folio, and black letter. 2 Cofmo-
graphy to the hi/lory of Scotland, with a poetical proem.
3. A defeription of Albany. 4. Tranfation of Boethius's
defeription of Scotland- 5. Epijlles to king Janies V.
Bale fays he had feen thefe letters 6. Several poems
in Carmichael’s colleftion of Scottilh poems ; befides
many others in manufeript, in private libraries in Scot¬
land. 7. Virtue and vyce, a poem addrelfed to king
James V.
BALLET, Balet, or Baletto, a kind of dra¬
matic poem, reprefenting fome fabulous a&ion or fub-
jecl divided into feveral entries ; wherein feveral per-
fons appear, and recite things under the name of fome
deity, or other illuftrious charadfor
Ballet is more particularly ufed for a kind of comic
dance, confifting of a feries of feveral airs of different
kinds of movements, which together reprefent fome fub-
jedl or aftion. They are performed chiefly by mafks
reprefenting fylvans, tritons, nymphs, fhepherds, and
the like; and confift of three parts, the entry, figure,
and the retreat. The word is of Greek origin, formed
from fix\Ktir, jacere, to call, throw, or tofs ; whence,
alfo in writers of the middle age, we find ballationes
for faltationes, dancings; and ballare for failure, to
dance.
BALLIAGE, or Bailiage, in commerce, a final 1
duty paid to the city of London by aliens, and even
denizens, for certain commodities extorted by them.
BALLICONNEL, a town of Ireland, inthecoun-
Vol. II. Part II.
ty of Cavan, and province of Ulfter. W. Long. 7. Ballilhun-
45. N- Lat. 54. 6. non
BALLISHANNON, a large town of Ireland, in I
the county of Donegal, or Tyrconnel, with a good
haven. W. Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. 54. 25;. v—"V’"*-'
BALLISTA, a machine ufed by the ancients for
ftiooting darts ; it refembled in fome meafure our crofs-
bow. The word is Latin, fignifying a croft-bow ; and
is derived from the Greek fixKka, to Jhoot, or throw.
Vegetius informs Us, that the ballifta difeharged
darts with fuch rapidity and violence, ‘that nothing
could refill their force : and Athenasus adds, that Agi-
ftratus made one of little more than two feet in length,
which (hot darts 500 paces.
In Plate XCVII. is reprefented the ballifta ufed in
fieges, according to the Chevalier Folard : 2,2, the bafe
of the ballifta 5 3, 4, upright beams ; 5,6, tranfverfe
beams; 7, 7, the two capitals in the upper tranfverfe
beam, (the lower tranfverfe beam has alfo two fimilar
capitals, which cannot be feen in this tranfverfe figure);
9, 9, two polls or fupports for ftrengthening the tranf¬
verfe beams : 10, 10, two Ikains of cords faftened to
the capitals; it, 11, two arms inferted between the
two llrands, or parts of the Ikains ; 12, a cord faftened
to the two arms ; 13, darts which are Ihot by the bal¬
lifta; 14, 14, curves in the upright beams, and in the
concavity of which culhions are faftened, in order to
break the force of the arms, which ftrike again'ft them
with great force when the dart is difeharged ; 16, the
arbor of the machine, in which a groove or canal per-
feftly ftraight is formed, and in which the darts arc
placed in order to their being fhot by the ballifta ; 17,
the nut of the trigger ; 18, the roll or windlafs, about
which the cord is wound ; 19, an hook, by which the
cord is drawn towards the centre, and the ballifta cock¬
ed ; 20, a ftage or table on which the arbor is in part
fuftained.
BALLISTEUM, or BalListr^a, in antiquity,
a military fong or dance ufed on occafions of viftory.
Vopifcus has preferved the ballifeum fung in honour of
Aurelian, who, in the Sarmatian war, was faid to
have killed 48 of the enemy in one day with his own
hand. MHle, mille, mi lie, mille, milk, milk decollavi-
mus : Unus homo milk, milk, milk, milk decollavit ;
milk, milk, milk vivat, qui milk, milk occidit. Tan*
turn vini habet nemo, quantum fudit fanguinis. The
fame writer fubjoins another popular fong of the fame
kind : Milk Francos, milk Sarmatas, femel occidimus ;
milk, milk, milk, milk, milk Perfas queerimus. It
took the denomination ballifeum from the Greek (idwa,
jack, or jafto, to call or tofs, on account of the mo*
tions ufed in this dance, which was attended with great
elevations and fwjrngings of the hands. The balliflea
were a kind of popular ballads, compofed by poets of
the lower clafs, without much regard to the laws of
metre.
BALLOON, or Ballon, in a general fenfe, fig*
nifies any fpherical hollow body, of whatever matter
it be compofed, or for whatever purpofes it be defigned.
Thus, with chemifts, balloon denotes a round fhort-
necked veffel, ufed to receive what is diftilled by means
of fire ; in architecture, a round globe on the top of a
pillar ; and among engineers, a kind of bomb made of
pafteboard, and played off in fire-works, either in the
air or on the water, in imitation of a real bomb.
S L Air
B A L [77
dir-BALiooN. See Aerostation and Air-Balloon.
Balloon alfo denotes a kind of game fomething re-
fembling tennis. The balloon is played in the open
field, with a great round ball of double leather blown
up with wind, and thus driven to and fro with the
ftrength of a man’s arm, fortified with a brace of wood.
Balloon, orBALLOEN, is more particularly ufed a-
mong voyagers for the ftate-barges of Siam. The bal¬
loons are a kind of brigantine, managed with oars, of
very odd figures, as ferpems, fea-horfes, &c. but, by
their fharpnefs and number of oars, of incredible fwift-
jiefs. The balloons are faid to be made of a fingle piece
of timber, of uncommon length ; they are railed high,
and much decdrated with carving at head and ftern :
£ome are guilt over, and carry 120 or even 150 rowers
on each fide. The oars are either plated over with
filver, or gilt, or radiated with gold ; and the dome or
canopy in the middle, where the company is placed,
is ornamented with fome rich fluff, and furnifhed with a
balluflrade of ivory, or other coftly matter, enriched
with gilding. The edges of the balloon juft touch the
water ; but the extremities rife with a fweep to a great
height. Some are adorned with variety of figures,
made of pieces of mother of pearl inlaid : the richer
fort, inftead of a dome, carry a kind of fteeple in the
middle ; fo that, confidering the flendernefs of the vef-
fel, which is ufually 100 or 120 feet long, and fcarce
fix broad, the height of the two ends, and of the fteeple,
with the load of decorations, it is a kind of miracle they
are not overfet
Balloon, in the French paper-trade, is a term for
a quantity of paper, containing 24 reams.
Balloon, Ballon, or Ballot, in the French
glafs-trade, fignifies a certain quantity of glafs-plates,
fmaller or greater according to their quality. The
ballon of white glafs contains 25 bundles, of fix plates
per bundle ; but the ballon of coloured glafs is only of
J2i bundles, and of three plates to a bundle.
BALLOTA, white horehound: A genus of the
gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs
of plants : and in the natural method ranking under
the 42d order, Verticillatje. The calyx has 5 teeth,
with 1 o ftriae ; and the upper lip of the corolla is cre-
nated. It is a common weed growing on the fides of
banks in moft parts of England, as alfo in walk-places
near towns and villages in Scotland; fo is feldom ad¬
mitted into gardens. The flowers grow in whorls,
upon branched peduncles, and lean on one fide of the
ftalk ; they are commonly of a dull red colour, but
fometimes white. It was formerly ufed in hyfteric cafes,
but is now fallen into difufe. The Swedes reckon
it almoft an univerfal remedy in the difeafes of their
cattle. Horfes, cows, ftieep, and goats, refufe to eat
it.
BALLOTADE, in the menage, the leap of a horfe
between two pillars, or upon a ftraight line, made with
juftnefs of time, with the aid of the hand and the calves
qf the legs : and in fuch a manner, that when his fore¬
feet are in the air, he fliow's nothing but the ftioes of
his hinder-feet without yerking out.
BALLOTING, a method of voting at eledtions,
&c. by means of little balls ufually of different colours,
by the French called ballots j which are put into a box
grivately.
BALLS, or Ballets, in heraldry, a frequent bear-
1
B A . L
ing in coats of arms, ufually denominated, according Balluftef
to their colours, bezants, plates, hurts, &c. ||
BALLUSTER, a fmall kind of pillar ufed for bal- Balfam. ^
luftrades. — ~w~'»u
BALLUSTRADE. a feries or row of ballufters,
joined by a rail; ferving as w'ell for a reft to the elbows
as for a fence or inclofure to balconies, altars, ftair-
cafes, &c. See Architecture, n° 74.
BALM, in botany. See Melissa.
Balm, or Balsam. See Balsam.
Balm of Gilead. See Amyris.
BALNAVES,(Henry), aScottifhProteftant divine,
born in the (hire of Fife, in the reign of James V.
and educated at the univerfity of St Andrew’s. He
went afterwards to France in order to finifli his ftudies ;
and returning to Scotland, was admitted into the fa¬
mily of the earl of Arran, wdio at that time governed
the kingdom : but in the year 1542 the earl difmiffed
him for having embraced the Proteftant religion In
I 564, he joined, fays Mackenzie, the murderers of
cardinal Beaton ; for which he w'as declared a traitor,
and excommunicated. Whilft that party were be-
fieged in the caftle of St Andrew’s, they fent Balnaves
to England, who returned with a confiderable fupply
of provifions and money; but being at laft obliged
to lurrender to the French, he w'as fent with the reft
of the garrifon to France. He returned to Scotland
about the year 1559 ; and having joified the congrega¬
tion, he was appointed one of the commiflioners to
treat with the duke of Norfolk on the part of Queen
Elizabeth. In 1563, he was made one of the lords of
feffion, and appointed by the general affembly, with
other learned men, to revife the Book of Difcipline.
KAox, his cotemporary, and fellow-labourer, gives him
the charafter of a very learned and pious divine. He
died at Edinburgh in the year 1579. He wrote, 1.
A Treatife concerning Juf if cation. Edinb. 1550, 8vo.
2. A Catecbifni, or Confejjion of Faith. Edinb. 1584,
8vo.
BALNEARII servi, in antiquity, fervants or at¬
tendants belonging to the baths. Some were appoint¬
ed to heat them, called fornicatores y others were de¬
nominated capfarii, who kept the cloaths of thofe that
went into them ; others aliptee, wbofe care it was to
pull off the hair 5 others unttuarii, who anointed and
perfumed the body.
BALNEARIUS fur, in antiquity, a kind of thief
who pradtifed Healing the cloaths of perfons in the
baths; fometimes alfo called fur balnearum. The crime
of thofe thieves was a kind of facrilege ; for the hot.
baths were facred : hence they were more feverely pu-
niftred than common thieves who ftole out of private
houfes. The latter were acquitted with paying double
the value of the thing ftolen ; whereas the former were
puniftied with death.
BALNEUM, a term ufed by chemifts to fignify a
veffel filled with fome matter, as fand, water, or the like,,
in which another is placed that requires a more gentle
heat than the naked fire. See Chemistry, n0 79.
BALSA, an ancient town of Lufitania in the Ager,
Cunaeus ; now Tavira, capital of Algarva.
BALSAM, or Native Balsam, an oily, refinous,
liquid fubftance, flowing either fpontaneoufly, or by.
means of incifion, from certain plants. There are a
great variety of balfajns, generally denominated from
the
B A L [ 77i J B A L
B&lfamics the fubftances from which they are obtained ; and
^ which are explained under their names as they occur.
Baltzar. BALSAMICS. Balfamica is a Latin word which
fignifies ?nitigating. The term balfamic is a very lax
one ; it includes medicines of very different qualities, as
emollients, detergents, reftoratives, &c.; but in medi¬
cines of all thefe kinds there feems to be'this requilite
Motherly s in them, viz*- that they be foft, yielding, and adhe-
Mcd. Di£l. flve> aif0 that by their fmallnefs they have a ready dif-
pofition to motion. Medicines of this tribe are ge¬
nerally required for complaints whofe feat is in the
vifcera ; and as they cannot be conveyed there but by
the common road of the circulation, it follows, that nd
great effedfs can be expected from them but by their
long continuation. Hoffman calls by the name of bal-
Jamics thofe medicines which are hot and acrid, alfo
the natural balfams, gums, &c. by which the vital heat
k increafed.
BALSORA. See Bassora.
BALTAGI, among the Turks, porters, and hew¬
ers of wood, in the court of the Grand Signior ; who
alio mount on horfeback when the emperor rides out.
Part of them alfo, who for that purpofe muft be ca-
ftrated, keep watch at the gates of the firfl and fecond
courts of the feraglio. Thefe laft are called capigi, and
their commander capigi pafeha.
BALTIC sea, a great guiph furrounded by Swe¬
den, Rufiia, Courland, Pruffia, Pomerania, and Den¬
mark. The king of Denmark levies a tax at Elfineur
on every fhip that enters the Baltic fea. It is remark¬
able that this fea neither ebbs nor flows, and thefe is
always a current fets through the Sound into the ocean.
It is generally frozen over three or four months in the
year. Yellow amber is found in plenty on this coaft.
BALTIMORA, in botany : A genus of the poly-
gamia neceffaria order,belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants. The receptaculum is chaffy ; there is no
pappus ; the calyx is cylindrical and polyphyllous ; and
the ray of the corolla is quinqueflorous. There is but
one fpecies, the refta, a native of Maryland.
BALTIMORE, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Corke, and province of Munfter, with the title of a
barony. It is feated on a headland which runs into the
fea, five miles north-eafl of Cape Clear. W. Long. 9.
10. N. Lat. yt. 15.
Baltimore, (county and town of), in America. See
Virginia.
Baltimore-Bird. See Oriolus.
BALTZAR, (Thomas), a native of Lubec, was an
eminent mufical compofer, and efleemed the fineft per¬
former on the violin of his time. He came into Eng¬
land in the year 1658, and lived about two years in
the boufe of Sir Anthony Cope of Hanwel in Oxford-
fliire. He was the great competitor of Davis Mell,
who, though a clockmaker by trade, was, till Baltzar
came hither, allowed to be the fineft performer on the
violin in England ; and after his arrival he divided with
him the public applaufe, it being agreed that Mell ex¬
celled in the finenefs of his tone and the fweetnefs of
his manner, and Baltzar in the power of execution and
command of the inftrument. Moreover, it is faid of
the latter, that he firft taught the Englifh the practice
of (hitting, and the ufe of the upper part of the finger¬
board. Baltzar was given to intemperance, and is faid
to have fhortened his days by excefiive drinking ; he
was buried in Weftminfter-abbey on the 27th day of Baluclavo
July 1663. ||
BALUCLAVO, or Jambol, a fea-port town of B»Lac.
Crimea on the Black Sea, where they build (hips for the -"“v "«*f
Grand Signior. E. Long. 35. 15. N. Lat. 44. 50.
BALUZE, (Stephen), a French writer, born in
1651, and fome time librarian to M. Colbert. In 1693
he obtained a penfion, with the poft of director of the
royal college, for writing the lives of the popes cf A-
vignon; both which advantages he foon loft in the fluc¬
tuation of court-parties. M. BaluZe is much more
noted for collefting ancient MSS. and illuftrating them
by notes, than famed for his own compofitions.
BALYUR, or Baliur, a fea-port of Africa in the
kingdom of Dancali, about 14 hours journey weft from
Babel-Mandel. It is remarkable only for being the
landing place of the Abyfiinian Patriarch Alphonfus
Mendez, with his Jefuits and Portuguefe, on April 3.
1724. The king, who had received orders from the
Abyfiinian emperor to give them a proper reception,
difpatched his fon to meet them and conduft them to
him. The royal palace they found to confift of about
half a dozen of tents, and a fcore of huts, fenced about
with a thorn hedge, and (haded by fome wild kinds of
trees. Near the palace was a river, which was then
quite dried up, and no water to be found but what was
digged for in the channel. The hall of audience was
only a large tent about a mullet-(hot from the reft.
At the upper end was a kind of throne made of (tones
and clay, covered with a carpet, and two velvet cufliions.
At the other end was his Majefty’s horfe, with the
faddle and other accoutrements hanging on one fide; it
being the cuftom of this country for the mafter and
horfe to lie together, whether king or fubjedt. A-
round the hall were about 50 young men fitting crofs-
legged; and when the Portuguefe ambafiadors were
admitted, they were made to fit down in the fame po-
(lure. Soon after came the king, preceded by Come of
his domeftics, one having an earthen pitcher full of
hydromel, another a cup made of porcelane, a third
carrying a cocoa (hell full of tobacco, and a fourth
bringing a filver tobacco-pipe with fome fire Next to
them was the king, drefled in a light (ilk (tuff, having
on his head a turban, from the rims of which hung a
artel of rings nicely wrought, wrhich da^ gled before
is face. He had in his hand a (hort kind of javelin,
and was followed by all the chief officers of his court
and houfehold. The refpecl: paid him at his coming
in was by (landing on their feet, and fquatting down
again twice; after which they went forward to kifs his
hand.
BALZAC, (John Lewis Guez de), born at An-
gouleme in 1595. Voltaire allows him the merit of
having given numbers and harmony to the French profe,
but cenfures his ftyle as fomewhat bombaft. The cri¬
tics of his own time gave him no little difquiet; and he
gave them no little advantage over him by his fallies of
vanity, and fome particular propofitions which were a
little dangerous. Mr Balzac, getting rid of thefe dif-
putes by his moderation, fettled at his country-feat;
refined his ftyle and genius ; and got by his letters
and other writings which he publilhed from 'time to
time, the reputation -of being the firft writer in France.
He was at length drawn from his retirement by the
hopes of making his fortune under cardinal Richlieu,
5 E 2 who
BAM [ 772 ] BAM
Bamba who had formerly courted his friendihip ; but in a few
11 , years he retired again, difgufted with the flavifli de-
Bamboccio. pen(jence 0f a court-life. All he obtained from the
court was a penfion of zcoo livres, with the titles of
counfellor of Hate and hiftoriographer of France. He
died in 1654 ; and was buried in the hofpital of Notre
Dame des Anges, to which he bequeathed 12,000 livres.
He left an eftate of 100 franks per ann. for a gold me¬
dal, to be beftowed every two years for the belt difcourfe
on fome moral fubjedt. Befides his letters, he wrote a
work called Oeuvres Diverfes, i. e. on various fubjefts;
The Prince ; The Chriftian Socrates, &c. and many
other pieces ; all of which have been publilhed in two
Tolumes folio.
BAMBA, a province of the kingdom of Congo in
Africa.— It is fituated between the rivers of Ambrifi
and Lofe; the laft of which parts it from Pemba on
the eaft, as the Ambrifi does from the province of Sogno
on the north. Along the fea-coafts it extends itfelf
northward to the river Lelunda ; and on the fouth to
that of Danda, which parts it from the kingdom of
Angola. The governors of this province bear the title
of dukes, and are always fome of the princes of the
royal family. They are as defpotic and arbitrary as if
they were really kings, notwithftanding the care and
pains their monarchs have taken to keep them within
due bounds. The foil of this province is very fertile ;
and would produce all the neceffaries of life in great
plenty, were the inhabitants but induftrious in its cul¬
tivation. The fea coafts produce a vaft quantity of fait,
which could be purified with little trouble, and would
yield an extraordinary revenue if the duties were duly
paid; but thefe the governors find means to fink mollly
into their own coffers.—Here is alfo the filhery of the
ziinbis, or little fea-fnail, whole fliell is the current coin
not only in this and the neighbouring kingdom, but
alfo in the moft diftant parts of Africa Here are alfo
faid to be mines of gold, filver, quickfilver, copper, tin,
and iron ; but none except the iron mines are allcrwed
to be worked.
BAMBERG, a large handfome town of Franconia
in Germany, and capital of a biihoprick of the fame
name. It was formerly imperial, but is now fubjeft
to the bilhop. The country about it produces plenty
of corn, fruits, and liquorice. It has an univerfity,
founded in 15H5 ; and is fituated at the confluence of
the rivers Main and Reidnitz. E. Long. 10. 15.
N. Lat. 50. 10.
Bamberg, a town of Bohemia, fituated at the foot
of a mountain. E Long. 16. 50. N. Lat. 49. 53.
BAMBOCCIO, a celebrated painter of converfa-
tions, landfcapes*. cattle, &c. was born atLaeren, near
Narden, in 1613. His name was Peter Van Laer;
but in Italy they gave him the name of Bamboccio,
on account of the uncommon fliape of his body, the
lower part being one third part longer than the upper,
and his neck fo ftiort that it was buried between his
fhoulders. He had, however, an ample amends for
the unfeemlinefs of his limbs, in the fuperior beauties
of his mind : he was endowed with an extenfive genius;
and, indeed, had an univerfal tafte for every part of
painting. He refided at Rome for fixteen years fuc-
ceflively; every day Undying to improve himfelf by
thofe beautiful models which were continually open to
his obfervation, and by the lovely fcenery in the envi¬
rons of that city. He was held in the higheft efteem Bambo*.
by all ranks of men, as well as by thofe of his own pro- J
feffion ; not only on account of his extraordinary abi¬
lities, but alfo tor the amiable qualities of his mind.
He ttudied nature inceffantly ; obferving with a curious
exadtnefs every effedt of light on different objedts, at
different hours of the day ; and whatloever incident af¬
forded plealure to his imagination, his memory for ever
perfeftly retained. His ilyle of painting is fweet and
true; and his touch delicate, with great tranfparency
of colouring. His figures are always of a fmall iize,
well proportioned, and corredtly defigned ; and altho*
his fubjefts are taken but from the lower kind of nature,
fuch as plunderings, playing at bowls, inns, farrier
fhops, cattle, or converfations ; yet whatever he paint¬
ed was fo excellently defigned, fo happily executed,
and fo highly finilhed, that his manner was adopted by
many of the Italian painters of his time. His work®
are ftill univerfally admired, and he is juftly ranked a-
mong the firft clafs of the eminent mailers. His hand
was as quick as his imagination, fo that he rarely made
fketches or defigns for any of his works; he only marked
the fubjeft with a crayon on the canvas, and finilhed it
without more delay. His memory was amazing ; for
whatever objefts he faw, if he confidered them with
any intention to infert them in his compofitions, the
idea of them was fo ftrongly impreffed on his mind,
that he could reprefent them with as much truth as if
they were placed before his eyes Sandrart obferves,
that although painters who are accuftomed to a fmall
fize are frequently inaccurate in the difpofition of the
different parts of their fubjeft,- feeming content if the
whole appears natural; yet Bamboccio was as minute¬
ly exaft in having his figures, trees, grounds, and di-
ftances, determined with the utmoll precifion and per-
fpeftive truth, as the bell mailers ufually are in pic¬
tures of the largeft fize; which is one cii cumllance
that caufes the eye to be fo agreeably deluded by the
paintings of Bamboccio. In the latter part of his life,
he was feverely tormented with an allhmatic complaint,
which he endured with much impatience ; and it is re¬
ported, that as the diforder feemed co him unfupport-
able, he threw himfelf into a canal to Ihorten his mifery,
and was drowned. His death happened in 1673.
BAMBOE, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
of arundo. SccArundo.
Bamboe Habit; a Chinele contrivance, by which a
perfon who does not know how to fwim may eafily
keep himfelf above water. The following account of
it is from a letter to the author of the Seaman’s Pre-
fervative. “ In the year 1730, I was paffenger in a
Ihip from Batavia to China, burden about 400 tons,
called thzPridae, FrancifcoXavier commander, freight¬
ed by Englilh, Chinefe, and Portuguefe. Near the
coail of China, we met one of thofe ftorms called a
Tuftoon (Tau fong), or a great wind, which carried
away all our malts, bowfprit, and rudder ; and in our
hold we had fix feet of water, expefting every mo¬
ment the Ihip would founder.—We confequently were
confulting our prefervation : the Englilh and Portu¬
guefe Hood in their fhirts only, ready to be thrown
off; but the Chinefe merchants came upon deck, not in
a cork-jacket, but I will call it a ba?>iboe-habit, which
had lain ready in their chells againll fuch dangers; and
it was thus conffrufted; four bamboes, two before
and
I
J
BAM [ 773 ] BAM
Bambo- and two behind their bodies, were placed horizontally,
rough, and projected about 28 inches. Thefe were croffed on
Bambuck. p1(je by two others, and the whole properly fe-
^ ' cured, leaving a fpace for their body ; fo that they had
only to put it over their heads, and tie the fame fe-
curely, which was done in two minutes, and we were
fatisfied they could not poffibly fink.” The lhape is
here fubjoined.
BAMBOROUGH. See Hoir-IJland.
BAMBUCK, a country of Africa, of which the
following account is given by the Abbe Raynal, on
the credit of a modern traveller whom he does not
name. “ In the interior part of Africa, under the
12th or 13th degree of north latitude, there is (fays a
modern traveller) a pretty large country, known by
the name of Bambuck. It is not fubjeft to a particular
king ; but governed by village lords, called farims.
Thefe hereditary and independent chiefs are all ob¬
liged to unite for the defence of the ftate, when it is
either attacked as a community, or only in one of its
branches.
“ The territory of this ariftocratical ftate is dry and
barren. It produces neither maize, rice, nor pulfe.
The infupportable heat it is fubjeft to, proceeds in
pgrt from its being furrounded by high mountains,
which prevent the wind from refrefhing the air. The
climate is as unwholefome as it is difagreeable ; vapours,
which continually iflue from the bowels of a foil replete
with minerals, render this country unfit to live in, efpe-
cially to ftrangers.
“ It is gold that hath made this miferable country
an objeft worthy of notice : gold, which in the eyes of
the covetous man feems to compenfate for all the evils
of nature, tho* in reality it increafes them all. This
metal is fo common in this country, that it is found
almoft indifcriminately every where. To obtain it,
fometimes it is fufficient to ferape the furface of the
earth, which is clayifli, light, and mixed with fand.
When the mine is very rich, it is digged only to the
depth of a few feet, and never deeper ; though it has
been obferved, that the lower it was digged, the more
gold the foil afforded. The miners are too indolent to
purfue a toil which conftantly becomes more tedious,
and too ignorant to perceive the inconveniences it
would be attended with. Their negligence and their
folly are in this inftance fo extraordinary, that in waftir
ing the gold, in order to feparate it from the earth,
they only preferve the larger pieces : the light parts
pafs away with the water, which flows down an in¬
clined plain.
“ The inhabitants of Bambuck do not work thefe
mines at all times, nor are they at liberty to do it
when they pleafe. They are obliged to wait till pri¬
vate or public wants determine the farims to grant this
permiflion. When it is proclaimed, all who are able
to avail themfelves of this advantage meet at the ap¬
pointed place When their work is finilhed, a divifion
is made. Half of the gold goes to the lord, and the
remainder is equally diftributed among the labourers.
Thofe who want gold at any other time than that of
the general digging, fearch for it in the beds of the ri¬
vers, where it is very common.
“ The French and Englifh have fucceffively been
defirous of appropriating to themfelves thefe real or ima¬
ginary riches. Some thought they could reach this
country by the Niger, others by the Salum. Far from
having fucceeded in their attempts of becoming mailers,
of this country, they have not yet afeertained its ex-
iftence. The unfuccefsfulnefs of paft efforts hath re¬
doubled the adlivity of fanguine minds ; fenfible and
judicious merchants have chofen ta. limit themfelves to
a commerce much more important, which is that of
Haves”
BAMFF, a Ihire of Scotland, comprehending part
of Buchan, with the countries of Strathdovern, Boyn,
Enzie, Strathaven, and Balvenie, extends 32 miles
from eaft to weft, and 13 in breadth from north to
fouth. On the fouth, it is feparated from part of Bu¬
chan by the river Ugie ; on the eaft it is watered by
the Dovern and the German Ocean ; on the weft it is
bounded by the Spey and the county of Murray ; on
the fouth weft, it borders on Badenuch and the Braes
of Mar; and on the north, it is confined by the Mur¬
ray Frith. The face of the country is agreeably di-
verfified with hill and dale, not without woods, well
watered with rivers, and exhibiting many feats and;
plantations. The air is pure and keen, the climate
healthy, and the foil fertile, producing plentiful crops
of corn. The country of Buchan, extending north¬
wards from the river Ugie to the fea, and weftward as
far as Dovern, comprehending a tradl of 20 miles in¬
length, and nine in breadth, is more free from hills
and mountains than any other country of the fame ex¬
tent, in the kingdom of Scotland. It is inhabited chief¬
ly by Lowlanders, and gives the title of earl to the
family of Erlkine ; of which family, however, Erlkine
of Mar is the chief. The county of Bamff abounds
with the neceffaries and comforts of life. The pafture-
grounds yield flieep, cattle, and horfes : the arable
lands produce plenty of corn ; while the rivers and fea
fupply great quantites of fifli. Varioys minerals have
been found in different parts of the fhire ; and a piece
of amber, as large as a horfe, was once call afhore on
the beach. In the mountainous diftrift of Balvenie,
on the weftern fide of the fhire, watered by the Spey,
there is a noted rock, which produces hones and whet-
ftones fufficient to fupply the whole ifland. Here are
alfo veins of alum ftone, and fprings of alum water..
Strathallan, another diftridl to the north.eaft of Bal¬
venie, abounds with fuch plenty of lime-ftone, that
the inhabitants ufe it as common ftone in building their
houfes ; and moreover burn a great quantity of it into
lime, which they fell to good advantage in the village
of Keith, on the river Dovern. Along this whole
coaft, there are ancient Danifh monuments, fuch as
cairns, tumuli, and huge Hones Handing ereft. In;
Strathaven, a hilly country, lying along the limpid.
rives
BAM
Bamff river Avir., which falls into the Speyj
[
e meet with
'4 ] BAN
pleafe his grandfather, was flain with an arrow.—
Gordon Caftle, belonging to the Duke of Gordon, the laft, however, by the numberlefs multitude of the Mo-
'Bamiyan. mofl; princely edifice in the north of Scotland, confifl-
''“''v'"’J ing of noble apartments magnificently furnifhed, and
environed with fine gardens, and parks well ftored with
guls, who continued the attacks without intermiffion,
the city was taken, after its walls had been ruined in
many places, and the braveft foldiersand officers of the^
fallow-deer. The fame nobleman pofieffes feveral other garrifon fiain in its defence. The mother of the young
r“"t" *l”‘"   prince who had been killed entering with the troops,
and more deferring the name of a fiend than a woman,
caufed the throats of all. the inhabitants to be cut,
without excepting one. She even gave orders to rip
up the bellies of all the women with child, that not an
infant might be left alive. In fhort, to gratify the rage
of this inhuman monfter, the buildings were all levelled
with the ground ; the cattle, and every living creature,
deftroyed ; infomuch that the hardened Moguls them-
felves gave this place the name of Maubalig, which in
♦Uo.v I,—.—- c— ..v.. a ftrong
feats in this county.
Bamff, the capital of the fhire of that name in
Scotland, is pleafantly fituated on the fide of a hill, at
the mouth of the tiver Devron. it has feveral ftreets;
of which that with the town-houfe in it, adorned with
a new fpire, is very handfome. This place was erec¬
ted into a borough by virtue of a charter from Robert
II. dated October 7. 1372, endowing it with the fame
privileges, and putting it on the fame footing, with the
burgh of Aberdeen j, but tradition fays it was founded
in the reign of Malcolm Canmore. It gives title of their language fignifies the unfortunate city,
baron to a branch of the Ogilvie family. The harbour caftle has fince been built out of its ruins,
is very bad, as the entrance at the mouth of the Devron B AMOTH-baal (anc. geog.), one of the towns of
is very uncertain, being often (topped by the (hifting the tribe of Reuben, which feems alfo to have had a
of the fands, which are continually changing in great temple of Haal on an eminence; lying eaftwards, and
ftorms ; the pier is therefore placed on the outfide. not far from the river Arnon, and the territory of
Much falmon is exported from hence. About Troop-
head fome kelp is made ; and the adventurers pay the
lord of the manor 501. per annum for the liberty of
collefting the materials. Near the town is a moft
magnificent feat lately built by the Earl of Fife. It
lies in a beautiful plain wafiied by the Devron, the
lofty banks of which clothed with wood on the oppofite
fide, afford a delightful contraft to the foft vale beneath.
W. Dong. 2. 5. N. Lat. 57. 40.
BAMIER, the name of a plant common in Egypt.
It produces a pyramidal huflt, with feveral compart¬
ments of the colour of a lemon, and filled with mulky
Moab. Jerome calls it Banioth, a city of the Amo-
rites, beyond Jordan, in the poffeffion of the fons of
Reuben. Whether the fame with that mentioned
Numb. xxi. is doubtful, from the difagreement of in¬
terpreters ; and yet we may admit it to be the place of
encampment oftheIfraelites,andof Balaam’sfirftftation,
or where he had the firft view of the rear of the people.
BAMPTON, a town of Devonftiire, fituated in a
bottom furrounded with high hills. W. Long. 4. 25.
N. Lat. 51.5.
BAN, or Bans. See Bank.
Ban, in commerce, a fort of fmooth fine muflin,
feeds. This hulk dreffed wfith meat is a wholefome which the Engliffi import from the Eaft Indies. The
food, and has a very agreeable flavour. The Egyp- -1 — J 1 J —J 1—  J~
tians make great ufe of it in their ragouts.
BAMIYAN, a city of Afia, fituated in the pro-
rince of Zableftan, 10 days journey from Balkh, and
•eight from Gazna. It is remarkable only for its
dreadful cataftrophe when taken by Jenghiz Khan in
1221. At that time the city belonged to Sultan Jalal-
lodin, the laft of the famous Mahmud Gazni’s race.
Jenghiz Khan was at that time about to attack Gazna,
that prince’s capital; but was flopped by the garrifon
of Gazna, which he had hoped wmuld give him no
trouble. In this, however, he was difappointed. The
people had for a long time expefted an attack ; and had
therefore ruined the country for five or fix leagues
round, while the peafants had carried away the ftones,
and every thing that could be of ufe to the befiegers.
Accordingly, Jenghiz Khan having eredted wooden
towers, and planted his engines upon them, was in a
fhort time obliged to give over his attacks till millftones
• and other materials could be brought from a great di-
Jlance, The walls of the city were very ftrong, fo that
the engines of the Moguls made but little impreffion ;
.and the garrifon making frequent and furious fallies
piece is almoft a yard broad, and runs about 20 yards
and a half.
BANANA-tree, a fpecies of the mufa or plan¬
tain. See Musa.
BANARES, or benares, a handfome town of
Afia, in the dominions of the Great Mogul, greatly
celebrated for its fandlity, and being the univerfity of
the Indian Bramins. See Observatory. It is feated
on the north fide of the river Ganges, in E. Long. 82.
30. N. Lat. 26. 20.
BANBURY, a towm of Oxfordfhire in England,
fituated on the river Charwell, in W. Long. 1. 20.
N. Lat. 52. o.
BANC, or benoa, in law, denotes a tribunal, or
judgment-feat: hence king's banc is the fame with the
court of king’s bench, and common banc with that of
common pleas. (
BANCI jus, or the privilege of having a bench,
was anciently only allowed to the king’s judges, qui
fummam adminiftrant juficiam. Inferior courts, as
courts-baron, hundred courts, &c. were not allowed
that prerogative; and even at this day the hundred-
court at Freibridge in Norfolk is held under an oak
cut off whole fquadrons of their enemies, and frequent- at Gey-wood ; and that of Woolfry, in Herefordfhire,
ly overthrew their towers and engines. This exceed- under an oak near Aftiton in that county, called Hun-
ingly chagrined Jenghiz Khan ; who one day returning dred-oak.
from a fruitlefs attack, and hearing of the defeat of BANCA, an iftao^ of Afia, in the Eaft Indies, be-
one of his generals by Jalallodin, fwore to be revenged tw'een Sumatra and Borneo ; from the firft of which it
on Bamiyan. This fury coft the life of one of his is feparated only by a narrow channel. E. Long. 105.
grandchildren: who expofing himfelf too much, to 10. N. Lat. 13-25.
5 - > ^ fe BANCAL1S,
BAN
[ 77^ 1
BAN
FANCALIS, a fea-port town on the eaft coaft of What they produce in fuperfluities they want in necef- Bandage
the ifland of Sumatra, where the Dutch have a fettle-
ment E. Long. 99. 7. N. Lat. 1.
BANCK (Peter Vander), an engraver of confider-
able repute, was born at Paris, and received his in-
ftru&ions in the art from the celebrated Francois de
Poilly. He came over into England with Gafcar the
painter, about the year 1674; and married the filler
of a gentleman of eftate in Hertfordlhire, named Fo-
reller. He was a laborious artift : but the pay he re¬
faries. The land will not bring foith any kind of c
and the pith of the fago ferves the natives of the coun- 1
try inftead of bread.
As this food is not fufEcient for the Europeans who
fettle in the Moluccas, they are allowed to fetch pro-
vifions from Java, Macaffar, or the extremely fertile-
ifland of Bali. The company itfelf carries fome mer-
chandife to Banda.
This is the only fettlement in the Eaft Indies that
ceived for his plates being by no means adequate to can be confidered as an European colony; becaufe it
the time he bellowed upon them, he was reduced to " is the only one where the Europeans are proprietors of
want; and retiring from bufinefs, fought an afylum lands. The company finding that the inhabitants of
in the houfe of his brother-in-law. He died at Brad- Banda were favage, cruel, and treacherous, becaufe
field, and was buried in the church there, in 1674; they were impatient under their yoke, refolved to ex¬
leaving his widow in pofleffion of the chief part of his terminate them. Their pofleffions were divided among
plates, which Ihe difpofed of to Brown, a printfeller, the white people, who got Haves from fome of the neigh-
tOjgreat advantage, and left an eafy fortune. -His bouring iflands to cultivate the lands. Thefe white
chief employment was engraving of portraits ; and,
according to Virtue’s account of this artift publifhed
by the Hon. Mr Walpole, he was the firft in England
who engraved them on fo large a fcale. But even the
people are for the moft part Creoles, or malecontents
who have quitted the fervice of the company. In the
fmall ifland of Rofinging, there are likewife feveral ban¬
ditti, whom the law's have branded with difgrace; and
Like
novelty, it feems, added to their merit, could not fuf- young men of abandoned principles, whole families
wanted to get rid of them : fo that Banda is called the
ijland of correflion. The climate is fo unhealthy, that
thefe unhappy men live but a Ihort time. It is on ac¬
count of the lofs of fo great a number of hands, that
attempts have been made to transfer the culture of the
ficiently recommend them to fupport the artift.
many of Poilly’s difciples, his great merit, according
to Mr Strutt, confifts in the laboured neatnefs and
management of the mechanical part of the art. Free¬
dom, harmony, and chaftenefs of outline, are by no
means the chara&eriftic of his prints. However, tho’ nutmeg to Amboyna ; and the company were likewife
they cannot rank with the fuperior produflions of probably influenced by two other ftrong motives of in-
Edelink or Nantueil, &c. they have their Ihare of me¬
rit ; and doubtlefs will be always efteemed in England
as preferving the bed refemblance of many eminent
perfons who were living at that time.
B ANCO, an Italian word which fignifies bank- It
is commonly ufed to fignify the Bank of Venice.
BANCOCK, a towm of the kingdom of Siam in
Alia, with a fort, which was once in the poflefiion of diflocated bones.
tereft, as their trade could be carried on with lefs ex¬
pence and greater fafety. But the experiments that
have been made have proved unfuccefsful, and matters
remain in their former ftate.
BANDAGE, in furgery, a fillet, roller, or fwath,.
ufed in dreffing and binding up wounds, reftraining
dangerous hemorrhagies, and in joining fra£lured and
the French, but they were driven from it in 1688.
E. Long. 101. 5. N. Lat. 13. 25.
BAND, in a general fenfe, fome fmall narrow li¬
gament, wherewith any thing is bound, tied, or fa¬
ttened.
Band, in architedlure, a general name for any flat
low member, or moulding, that is broad but not very
deep.
Band of Soldie -', in military affairs, thofe who fight
under the fame flag or enfign.
Band of Penfioners, a company of 120 gentlemen,
vrho receive a yearly allowance of 100I. for attending
on his Majefty on folemn occafions.
Band is alfo the denomination of a militai'y order in
Spain, inftituted by AlphonfusXI. kingfof Caitile, for
the younger fons of the nobility; who, before their ad-
miffion, mutt ferve 10 years at leafl, either in the army
or at court; and are bound to take up arms for the ca¬
tholic faith againft the infidels.
Band, in furgery. See Bandage.
BANDALEER, or bandeleer, in military affairs,
a large leathern belt, thrown over the right (houlder,
and hanging under the left arm ; worn by the ancient
mufqueteers, both for the fuftaining of their fire-arms,
and for the carriage of their mulket-charges, which
being put up in little wooden cafes, coated with lea¬
ther, were hung, to the number of twelve, to each ban-
daleer.
BANDELET, or Bandlet, in architefture, any
little band, or flat moulding, as that which crowns the
Doric architrave.
BANDER-congo, a fmall fea-port town in Alia,
feated on the Perfian Gulph. E. Long. 54, 10. N. Lat;
19. o.
BANDERET, a general, or one of the comman*
ders in chief of the forces.—This appellation is given,
to the principal commanders of the troops of the canton
of Bern in Switzerland, where there are four banderets
who command all the forces of that canton.
BANDEROLE, a little flag, in form of a guidon.
BANDA islands, the general name of five iflands extended more in length than in breadth, ufed to be
in the Eaft Indies, belonging to the Dutch. Two of hung out on the mafts of vefiels, &c.
them are uncultivated, and almoft entirely uninhabited;
the other three claim the diftindlion of being the only
iflands in the world that produce the nutmeg.
If we except thiswaluable fpice, the iflands of Banda,
like all the Moluccas, are barren to a dreadful degree.
BANDITTI, from the Italian bandito; perfons
proferibed, or, as we call it, outlawed: fometimes
denominated banniti or forris banniti. It is alfo a
denomination given to highwaymen or robbers who
infett the roads in troops, efpeciully in Italy, France,
and.
BAN [ 776 ]
Han Ihti an3 Sicily. Mr Brydone, in his Tour through Sicily,
_ M informs us, that in the eattern part, called Val Detnoni
, an' y icg3. ^rom tjie 3evj]s tjiat are fUpp0fe3 to inhabit Mount
'v ’ iEtna, it has ever been found altogether imprafticable
to extirpate the banditti; there being numberlefs ca¬
verns and fubterraneous paflages round that mountain,
where no troops could poffibly purfue them : befides,
they are known to be perfectly determined and refo-
lute, never failing to take a dreadful r venge on all
who have offended them. Hence the prince of Villa
Franca has embraced it, not only as the fafell, but
likevvife as the wifeft and molt political fcheme, to be-
•come their declared patron and proteftor: and fuch
of them as think proper to leave their mountains and
forells, though perhaps only for a time, are fure to
meet with good encouragement and a certain protec¬
tion in his fervice, where they enjoy the moft un¬
bounded confidence, which, in no inftance, they have
ever yet been found to make an improper or a difhoneft
ufe of. They are clothed in the prince’s livery, yel¬
low and green, with filver lace ; and wear likewife a
badge of their honourable order, which intitles them
*to univerfal fear and refpeft from the people.
In fome circumftances, thefe banditti are the moft
refpeftable people of the ifland, and have by much
the higheft and moft romantic notions of what they
BAN
ftrong enough to fuftain the weight of his body. See
Valgus.
BANE (from the Sax. bana, a murderer), figni-
fies deftru&ion or overthrow. Thus, “ I will be the^
bane of fuch a man,” is a common faying. So, when a
perfon receives a mortal injury by any thing, we fay,
“ it was his baneand he who is the caufe of ano¬
ther man’? death, is faid to be le bane, i. e. a malefac¬
tor.
BANFF. See Bamff.
BANGHIR, a town of Ireland, in king’s county in
the province of Leinfter, feated on the river Shannon.
W. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 53. 10.
BANGLE ears, an imperfedion in a horfe, reme¬
died in the following manner. Place his ears in fuch a
manner as you would have them ftand; bind them
with two little boards fo fall that they cannot ftir, and
then clip away all the empty wrinkled Ikin clofe by the
head.
BANGIUS (Thomas), a Danilh divine, and an e-
legant Latin writer on the origin of languages and a
variety of other fubjeds. He died in i66f.
BANGOR, an epifcopal city of Carnarvonlhire in
North Wales. In ancient times it was fo confiderable,
that it was called Bangor the Great, and defended by
a ftrong caftle: but it is now a very mean place ; the
call their point of honour. However criminal they principal buildings being the cathedral, the bifhop’s
may be with regard to fociety in general; yet, with palace, and a free fchool. The fee is of very great
refped to one another, and to every perfon to whom antiquity, and its founder unknown. The church is
they have once profefled it, they have ever maintained dedicated to St Daniel, who was bifhop here about the
the moft uulhaken fidelity. The magiftrates have of- year 516; but for near 500 years afterwards, there is
ten been obliged to proted them, and pay them in no certainty of the names of his fucceflbrs. Owen
court, as they are known to be perfedly determined Glendower greatly defaced the cathedral church ; but
and defperate, and fo extremely vindidive, that they
will certainly put any perfon to death that has ever
given them juft caufe of provocation On the other
hand, it never was known that any perfon who had
put himfelf under their protedion, and {bowed that he
had confidence in them, had caufe to repent of it, or
was injured by any of them in the moft minute trifle ;
but, on the contrary, they will proted him from im-
Bifliop Dean repaired it again. This fee met a ftill
more cruel ravager than Owen Gleudower, in the per¬
fon of Bifliop Bulkeley ; who not only alienated many
of the lands belonging to it, but even fold the bells of
the church. This diocefe contains the whole of Car-
narvonfliire except three pariflies, the (hire of Anglefey,
and part of the (hires of Denbigh, Merioneth, and
Montgomery; in which are 107 parifhes, whereof 36
pofitions of every l^ind, and fcorn to go halves with impropriated. It has three archdeaconries, viz. Ban-
the landlord, like moft other condudors and travel- gor, Anglefey, and Merioneth; of which the two firft
ling fervants, and will defend him with their lives if
there is occafion. Thofe of their number who have
thus enlifted themfelves in the fervice of fociety, are
known and refpeded by the other banditti all over
the ifland ; and the perfons of thofe they accompany
are ever held facred. For thefe reafons, moft travellers
choofe to hire a couple of them From town to town ;
and may thus travel over the whole ifland in fafety.
BANDORA, the capital of the ifland of Salfet, on chorifters, and two officers,
the weft coaft of the peninfula on this fide the Ganges. 53. 20.
It is feparated from the ifland of Bombay by a narrow ~
channel, andfubjed to the Portuguefe. E. Lon. 72. 30.
N. Lat. t 9. o.
BANDORE, the name of a mufical inftrument
with firings, refembling a lute, and faid to be invent¬
ed in the fourth year of Queen Elizabeth, by John
Rofe, a citizen of London.
BANDY-legs, from the French bander, ‘to bend.
commonly annexed to the biflioprick for its better
fupport. This fee is valued in the king’s b.^oks at
L. 131 : 16:4, and is computed to be worth annually
L. 1200. The tenths of the clergy are L. 151 : 14:34.
To the cathedral there belong a oifliop, a dean, an
archdeacon, a treafurer, and two prebendaries, endow¬
ed ; a precentor, a chancellor, and three canons, not
endowed; three vicars coral, an organift, lay-clerks,
~ W. Long. 4. 10. N. Lat.
Bangor, a town of Ireland, in the county of Down
and prdvince of Ultter. It is feated on the fouth (bore
of the bay of Garrick Fergus, oppofite to the town of
that name ; and fends two members to parliament
W. Long. 6. N. Lat. 54. 42.
B ANGUE, a fpecies of opiate, in great ufe through¬
out the eaft, for drowning cares and infpiring joy.—*
This by the Perfians is called beng; by the Arabs,
a diftortion of the legs, when they turn either inward ej/rar, corruptly ajferal, and ajfarth; by the Turks,
or outward on either fide; arifing from fome defeft bengitie, and vulgarly called mafiack by the Euro¬
in the birth, or imprudence in the nurfe, endeavour- pean naturalifts, bangue or bange.—It is the leaf of a
ing to make a child ftand or walk before his legs were kind of wild hemp, growing in the countries of the
N°40. Levant.;
BAN [ 777 ] B A' N
Bangue Levant; it differs little, either as to leaf or feed, from
11 our hemp, except in fize» Some have miftaken it for
Banians. a fpec{es Qf althaea.
1 There are divers manners of preparing it, in different
countries. Olearius defcribes the method ufed in Per-
lia. Mr Sale tells us, that, among the Arabs, the leaf
is made into pills, or conferves. But the molt diftinft
account is that given by Alexander Maurocordato, coun-
fellor and phyfician of the Ottoman Porte, in a letter to
Wedelius. According to this author, bangue is made of
the leaves of wild hemp, dried in the lhade, then ground
to powder; put into a pot wherein butter has been kept;
fet in an oven till it begin to torrify; then taken out,
and pulverized again ; thus to be ufed occafionally, as
much at a time as will lie on the point of a knife. Such
is theTurkifh bangue.—The effefts of this drug are,
to confound the underftanding; fet the imagination
loofe; induce a kind of folly and forgetfulnefs, wherein
all cares are left, and joy and gaiety take place thereof.
Bangue, in reality, is a fuccedaneum to wine, and ob¬
tains in thofe countries where Mahometanifm is efta-
blilhed; which prohibiting the ufe of that liquor abfo-
lutely, the poor muffulmans are forced to have recourfe
to fuccedanea, to roufe their fpirits. The principal are
opium and this bangue. As to the opinion among Eu¬
ropeans, that the Turks prepare themfelves for battle
by a dofe of bangue, which roufes their courage, and
drives them, with eagernefs, to certain death. Dr Mau¬
rocordato affures us, that it is a popular error : the
Turks think they are then going affuredly to receive
the crown of martyrdom ; and would not, for any con-
fideration, lofe the merit of it, which they would do
by eating the bangue, as being held unlawful by their
apoftle, among other things which intoxicate.
BANIALUCH, or Bagnaluch, a city of Euro¬
pean Turky, the capital of Bofnia, upon the frontiers
of Dalmatia, near the river Setina. E. Long, x 8. 20.
N. Lat. 44. 20.
BANIAN-tree. See Ficus.
BANIANS, a religious feft in the empire of the
Mogul, who believe a metempfychofis ; and will there¬
fore eat no living creature, nor kill even noxious ani¬
mals, but endeavour to releafe them when in the hands
of others.—The name of Banian is ufed with fome
diverfity, which has occafioned much confufion, and
many miftakes. Sometimes it is taken in a lefs proper
fenfe, and extended to all the idolaters of India, as
contradiftinguilhed from the Mahometans : in which
fenfe. Banians include the Bramins and other calls.
Battiansy in a more proper fenfe, is reftrained to a pe-
euliarcaft, or tribe, of Indians, whofe office orprofef-
fion is trade and merchandize : in which fenfe, Ba¬
nians ffand contradillinguiflied from Bramins, Cutlery,
and Wyfe, the three other calls into which the Indians
are divided. The four calls are abfolutely feparate as
to occupation, relation, marriage, &c. though all of
the fame religion ; which is more properly denominated
the religion of the Bramins, who make the ecclefiaftical
tribe, than of the Banians, who make the mercantile.
The proper Banians are called, in the Shajier, or book
of their law, by the name of Shuddery ; under which
are comprehended all who live after the manner of
merchants, or that deal and tranfaft for others, as bro¬
kers ; exclufive of the mechanics, or artificers, who
make another call, called Wyfe. Thefe Banians have
Vox.. II. Part II.
no peculiar feft or religion, unlefs it be, that two of Banians,
the eight general precepts given by their legiflator Bre- —^
maw to the Indian nation, are, on account of the pro-
feffion of the Banians, fuppofed more immediately to
relate to them, viz. thofe which enjoin veracity in their
words and dealings, and avoiding all pradtices of cir¬
cumvention in buying and felling. - Some of the Bos¬
nians, quitting their poffeffion, and retiring from the
world, commence religious, affume a peculiar habit, and
devote themfelves more immediately to God, under the
denomination of Vertea. Thefe, though they do not
hereby change their cad, are commonly reckoned as
bramins of a more devout kind; much as monks in the
Romilh church, though frequently not in orders, arc
reputed as a more facred order than the regular clergy.
The name Banian imports as much, in the Bramin lan¬
guage, (wherein their law is written), as a people in¬
nocent and harmlefs; void of all guile ; fo gentle, that
they cannot endure to fee either a fly or a worm in¬
jured ; and who, when ftruck, will patiently bear it,
without refilling or returning the blow.—Their mien
and appearance is defcribed by Lord *, in terms a little * Bifcov,
precife, but very fignificant : “ A people prefentedi?r% At-
themfelves to my eyes clothed in linen garments, fome-"'3"*
what low defcending, of a gellure and garb, as I may
fay, maidenly, and well nigh effeminate, of a counte¬
nance Ihy and fomewhat ellranged.”—Gemelli Careri
divides the Banians into 22 tribes, all diltinft, and not
allowed to marry with each other. Lord affiires us
they are divided into 82 calls or tribes, correfpondent
to the calls or divifions of the Bramins or priells, un¬
der whofe difcipline they are, as to religious matters;
though the generality of the Banians choofe to be un¬
der the direction of the two Bramin tribes, the Vifal-
nagranaugers and Vulnagranaugers.
The Banians are the great fadlors, by whom mofl;
of the trade of India is managed; in this refpeft,
comparable to the Jews and Armenians, and not be¬
hind either, in point of Ikill and experience, in what¬
ever relates to commerce. Nothing is bought but by
their mediation. They feem to claim a kind of jus
divinum to the adminiftration of the traffic of the na¬
tion, grounded on their facred books, as the Bramins
do to that of religion. They are difperfed, for this
purpofe, through all parts of Afia, and abound in
Perfia, particularly at Ifpahan and Gombroon, where
many of them are extremely rich, yet not above ailing
as brokers, where a penny is to be got. The chief
agents of the Englilh, Dutch, and French Eall-India
companies, are of this nation : they are faithful, and
are generally trailed with the calh of thofe companies
in their keeping. They ail alfo as bankers, and can
give bills of exchange for moll cities in the Eall In¬
dies. Their form of contrail in buying and felling is
remarkable; being done without words, in the pro-
foundell filence, only by touching each other’s fingers :
the buyer loofening his pamerin, or girdle, fpreads it
on his knee, and both he and the feller having their
hands underneath, by the intercourfe of the lingers,
mark the price of pounds, Ihillings, &c. demanded,
offered, and at length agreed on. When the feller
takes the buyer’s whole hand, it denotes a thoufand ;
and, as many times as he fqueezes it, as many thou¬
fand pagods, or roupees, according to the fpecies in
queltion, are demanded : when he only takes the five
5 F fingers.
BAN [ 778 ] BAN
Banier fingers, it denotes five hundred ; and when only one,
II one hundred : taking only half a finger, to the fecond
Bank' .joint) denotes fifty ; the fmall end of the finger, to the
£rft joint, ftands for ten.
BANIER, (Anthony), licentiate in laws, member
of the academy of infcriptions and belles lettres, and
ecelefiaftic of the diocefe of Clermont in Auvergne ;
died in November 1741, aged 69. He is principally
celebrated for his translation of the Metamorphofes of
Ovid, with hiftorical remarks and explanations; which
was publilhed in 1732, at Amfterdam, in folio, finely
ornamented with copperplates, by Picart; and reprint¬
ed at Paris 1738, in two vols 4to: and for his Mytho¬
logy, or fables of the ancients explained by hiftory 5 a
work full of the mod important information, which
was tranflated into Englilh, and printed at London in
1741, in 4 vols 8vo.
BANISHMENT, exile, among us is of two kinds :
the one voluntary, and upon oath ; the other by com-
pulfion, for fome offence or crime. The former pro¬
perly called abjuration, is now ceafed; the latter is
chiefly enjoined by judgment of Parliament. Yet out¬
lawing and tranfportation may alfo be confidered as
fpecies of exile.
BANISTER, (John), a phyfician and furgeon in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was educated at Oxford,
where, fays Anthony Wood, he ftudied logicals for a
time ; but afterwards applied himfelf folely to phyfic
andfurgery. 101573, he took the degree of ^bachelor
of phyfic; and, obtaining a licence from the univerfity
to praftife, fettled at Nottingham, where he lived many
years in great repute, and wrote feveral medical trea-
tifes. His works were collefted and publifhed in 1633,
4to.
BANISTERIA, in botany : A genus of the trigy-
nia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 23d order,
Trihilattie. The calyx is quinquepartite, with nefa¬
rious pores on the outfide of the Safe; the petals are
roundifh and ungulated ; the feeds are three, with
membranaceous wings. There are feven fpecies, all na¬
tives of warm countries, but poffeffing no remarkable
properties.
BANK, in. commerce, a common repofitory, where
many perfons agree to keep their money, to be always
ready at their call or diref ion : or, Certain focieties
or communities, who take the charge of other people’s
money, either to improve it, or to keep it fecure.
The firft inftitution of banks was in Italy, where
the Lombard Jews kept benches in the market-places
for the exchange of money and bills ; and banco being
the Italian name for bench, banks took their title from
this word.
^omPa* Banks are of two principal kinds, i. One fort is
*y-Danks. publicr confifting of a company of monied men,
who being duly eftablifhed, and incorporated by the
laws of their country, agree to depofit a confiderable
fund, or joint flock, to be employed for the ufe of the
fociety, as lending money, upon good fecurity, buying
and felling bullion, difcounting bills of exchange, &c.;
or private, i. e. fet up by private perfons, or partner-
fliips, who deal in the fame way as the former, upon
their own fingle flock and credit.
The greateft bank of circulation in Europe is the
Bank of England, The company was incorporated by
parliament in the fifth and fixth years of King William Bank:
and Queen Mary, by the name of The Governors and
Company of the Bank of England; in confideration ofBank of
the loan of ! ,20o,o®ol. granted to the government; for?n£j?ncb
which the fubfcribers received almoft 8 per cent. BjbHftiment
this charter, the company are not to borrow under their regUiat;on’3j
common feal, unlefs by aft of parliament; they are notimport-
to trade, or fuffer any perfon in truft for them to trade, ance, &u
in any goods or merchandize ; but they may deal in
bills of exchange, in buying or felling bullion, and fo¬
reign gold and filver coin, &c.
By an aft of parliament paffed in the 8th and 9th year
of William III. they were impowered to enlarge their
capital flock to 2,201,171!. 10s. It was then alfo
enafted, that bank-flock fhould be a perfonal, and not
a real eftate ; that no contraft, either in word or wri¬
ting, for buying or felling bawk-ftock, ffiould be good
in law, unlefs regiftered in the books of the bank within
7 days, and the flock transferred in 14 days; and that
it fhall be felony, without benefit of clergy, to counter¬
feit the common feal of the bank, or any fealed bank-
bill, or any bank-note, or to alter or erafe fuch bills or
notes. By another aft paffed in the 7th of Queen Anne,
the company were impowered to augment their capital
te 4,402,343 1. and they then advanced 400,000!. more
to the government; and in 1714, they advanced ano¬
ther loan of 1,500,000!.
In the third year of the reign of King George I. the
intereft in their capital flock was reduced to 5 per cent*
when the bank agreed to deliver up as many exchequer
bills as amounted to 2,000,0001. and to accept an an¬
nuity of 100,0001.; and it was declared lawful for the
bank to call from their members, in proportion to their
interefts in the capital flock, fuch fums of money as in
a general court fhould be found neceffary. If any mem¬
ber fhould negleft to pay his fhare of the monies, fo
called for, at the time appointed by notice in the London
Gazette, and fixed upon the Royal Exchange, it fhould
be lawful for the bank, not only to flop the dividend
of fuch member, and to apply it towards payment of
the money in queftion, but alfo to flop the transfers of
the fhare of fuch defaulter, and to charge him with an
intereft of 5 per cent, per annum, for the money fo o-
mitted to be paid : and if the principal and intereft
fhould be three months unpaid, the bank fhould then
have power to fell fo much of the flock belonging to
the defaulter as would fatisfy the fame. After this, the
bank reduced the intereft of the 2,000,0001. lent to the
government from 5 to 4 per cent, and purchafed feve¬
ral other annuities, which were afterwards redeemed by
the government, and the national debt due to the bank
reduced to 1,600,0001. But in 1742, the company
engaged to fupply the government with L. 1,600,000
at 3 per cent, which is now called the 3 per cent, annui¬
ties ; fo that the government was now indebted to the
company L. 3,200,000, the one half carrying 4, and
the other 3 per cent. v
In the year 1746, the company agreed that the Aim
of L. 986,800 due to them in the exchequer-bills unfa-
tisfied, on the duties for licences to fell fpirituous li¬
quors by retail, fhould be cancelled, and in lieu thereof
to accept of an annuity of L. 39,442, the intereft of
that fum at 4 per cent. The company alfo agreed to ad¬
vance the further fum of L. i,ooc,oco into the exche¬
quer, upon the credit of the duties arifing by the malt
BAN t 779 J BAN
Bank, and land-tax, at 4 per cent, for excliequer-bills to be
V—iffued for that purpofe ; in confideration of which, the
company were enabled to augment their capital with
L. 986,80s ; the intereft of which, as well as that of the
other annuities, was reduced to 3 i per cttuf. till the 25th
•of December 1757, and from that time to carry only
3 percent.
And in order to enable them to circulate the faid ex¬
chequer bills, they eftablifhed what is now called bank-
■circulation. The nature of which may be underftood
from what follows.
The company of the bank are obliged to keep caffi
Tufficient not only to anfwer the common, but alfo any
extraordinary demand that may be made upon them ;
and whatever money they have by them, over and above
the fum fuppofed neceflary for the purpofes, they em¬
ploy in what may be called the trade vf the conipany ;
that is to fay, in difeounting bills of exchange, in buy-
ing of gold and filver, and in government-fecurities, &c.
But when the bank entered into the above-mentioned
contra&, as they did not keep unemployed a larger fum
of money than what they deemed neceffary to anfwer
their ordinary and extraordinary demands, they could
not conveniently take out of their current calh fo large
a fum as a million, with which they were obliged to
furnilh the government, without either lefiening that fum
they employed in difeounting, buying gold and filver,
Ac. (which would have been very disadvantageous to
, them), or inventing fome method that flrould anfwer all
the purpofes of keeping the million in cafti. The me¬
thod which they chofe, and which fully anfwers their
end, was as follows :
They opened a fubfeription, which they renew an¬
nually, for a million of money; wherein the fubferibers
advance 10 per cent, and enter into a contraft to pay
the remainder, or any part thereof, whenever the bank
fhall call upon them, under penalty of forfeiting the
\o per cent, io advanced; in confideration of which,
the bank pays the fubferibers 4 per cent, intereft for
the money paid in, and ^ per cent, for the whole fum
they agree to furnifh; and in cafe a call fhall be made
upon them for the whole, or any part thereof, the bank
further agrees to pay them at the rate of 5 per cent,
per annum for fuch fum till they repay it, which they
are under an obligation to do at the end of the year.
By this means the bank obtains all the purpofes of
keeping a million of money by them ; and though the
fubferibers, if no call is made upon them, (which is in
general the cafe), receive 6iper cent, for the money they
advance, yet the company gains the fum of L. 23,500
per annum 1 y the contraft ; as will appear by the fol¬
lowing account:
The bank receives from the government £,.
for the advance of a million,, - - 30,000
The bank pays the fubferibers who advance
L-. 100,000, and engage to pay (when called
for) L. 900,000 more, * - - 6,500
The clear gain to the bank therefore is 23,500
This is the ftate of the cafe, provided the company
fhould make no call on the fubferibers; which they
will be very unwilling to do, becaufe it would not only
leflen their profit, but affeft the public credit in ge¬
neral.
Bank-ftock may not improperly be called a trading Bank.
Jlock, finee with this they deal very largely in foreign-y—
gold and filver, in difeounting bills of exchange, &C.
Befides which, they are-allowed by the government ve¬
ry confiderable fums annually for the management of
the annuities paid at their office. All which advantages
render a {hare in their (lock very Valuable; though it is
not equal in value to the Eaft-India flock. The com¬
pany make dividends of the profits half-yearly, of which
notice is publicly given ; when thofe who have occafion
for their money may readily receive it; but private per-
fons, if they judge convenient, are permitted to conti¬
nue their funds, and to have their iuterett added to the
principal.
This company is under the direftion of a governor,
deputy-governor, and 24 directors, who are annually
elefted by the general court, in the fame manner as in
the Eaft-India company. Thirteen, or more, compofe
a court of direftors for managing the affairs of the com¬
pany. The officers of this company are very numerous.
The liability of the bank of England is equal to that
of the Britiffi government. All that it has advanced
to the public muft be loft before its creditors can fu-
ftain any lofs. No other banking company in England
can be eftabliffied by aft of parliament, or can confift
of more than fix members. It afts, not only as an or ¬
dinary bank, but (as we have already feen) as a great
engine of ftate ; receiving and paying the greater part
of the annuities which are due to the creditors of the
public ; circulating exchequer-bills ; and advancing to
government the annual amount of the land and malt
taxes, which are frequently not paid up till fome years
thereafter. It likewife has, upon feveral different oc-
cafions, fupported the credit of the principal houfes,
not only in England, but of Hamburgh and Holland.
Upon one occafion, it is faid to have advanced for this
purpofe, in one week, about L. 1,600,000, a great part
of it in bullion.
In Scotland there are two public banks, both at E- Scotch
dinburgh. The one, called The Bank of Scotland, wasba.nks> Pc’*
eftabliffied by aft of parliament in 1695 * the other, an<*
-called The Royal Bank, by royal charter in 1727. private.
Within thefe 30 years, there have alfo been erefted
private banking companies in almoft every confiderable
town, and even in fome villages. Hence the bufinefs
of the country is almoft entirely carried on by paper-
currency, /.e. by the notes of thofe different banking
companies ; with which purchafes and payments of all
kinds are commonly made. Silver very feldom appears,
except in the change of a twenty-ffiillings bank-note,
and gold ftill feldomer. But though the conduft of all
thofe different companies has not been unexceptionable,
and has accordingly required an aft of parliament to
regulate it; the country, notwithftanding, has evident- '
ly derived great benefit from their trade. It has been
afferted, that the trade of the city of Glafgow doubled
in about 15 years after the firft ereftion of the banks
there ; and that the trade of Scotland has more than
quadrupled fince the firft ereftion of the two public
banks at Edinburgh. Whether the trade, either of
Scotland in general, or of the city of Glafgow in par¬
ticular, has really increafed in fo great a proportion,
during fo ffiort ii period, we do not pretend to know.
If either of them has increafed in this proportion, it
-feems to -be an effeft too great to be accounted for by
5 F 2 the
BAN [78
Bank, the foie operation of this caufe. That the trade and
11 induftry of Scotland, however, have increafed very con-
fiderably during this period, and that the banks have
contributed a good deal to this increafe, cannot be
doubted.
Smith't The value of the filver money which circulated in
Wealth of Scotland before the Union in I 707, and which imme-
Uationsy diately after it was brought into the bank of Scotland
book II. hi order to be recoined, amounted to L. 411,117 : 10:9
«hap. ii. Sterling. No account has been got of the gold coin ;
but it appears from the ancient accounts of the mint
of Scotland, that the value of the gold annually coined
fomewhat exceeded that of the filver. There were a
good many people too upon this occafion, who, from a
diffidence of repayment, did not bring their filver into
the bank of Scotland ; and there was, befides, fome
Englifh coin, which was not called in. The whole va¬
lue of the gold and filver, therefore, which circulated
in Scotland before the Union, cannot be dlimated at
lefs than a million Sterling. It feems to have confti-
tuted almofl the whole circulation of that country ; for
though the circulation of the bank of Scotland, which
had then no rival, was confiderable, it feems to have
made but a very fmall part of the whole. In the pre-
fent times, the whole circulation of Scotland cannot be
eftimated at lefs than two millions, of which that part
which confifts in gold and filver moft probably does
not amount to half a million. But though the circu¬
lating gold and filver of Scotland have fuffered fo great
a diminution during this period, its real riches and
profperity do "hot appear to have fuffered any. Its a-
griculture, manufactures, and trade, on the contrary,
the annual produce of its land and labour, have evi¬
dently been augmented.
Difconnt- It is chiefly by difcounting bills of exchange, that
ing of bills.^3j by advancing money upon them before they are due,
that the greater part of banks and bankers iflue their
promiflbry notes. They deduft always, upon whatever
fum they advance, the legal intereft till the bill fhall
become due. The payment of the bill, when it be¬
comes due, replaces to the bank the value of what had
been advanced, together with a clear,profit of the in¬
tereft. The banker, who advances to the merchant
whofe bill he difcounts, not gold and filver, but his own
promifibry notes, has the advantage of being able to
difcount to a greater amount, by the whole value of
his promiffory notes, which he finds by experience
are commonly in circulation. He is thereby enabled
to make his clear gain of intereft on fo much a larger
fum.
The commerce of Scotland, which at prefent is not
very great, was ftill more inconfiderable when the two
firft banking companies were eftablilhed; and thofe
companies would have had but little trade, had they
confined their bufinefs to the difcounting of bills of ex¬
change. They invented, therefore, another method of
iffuing their promiflbry notes, by granting what they
Calh-ac- called cajh-accounts; that is, by giving credit to the
counts. extent of a certain fum (L. 2coo or L. 3000 for ex¬
ample), to any individual who could procure two per-
fons of undoubted credit and good landed eftate to be¬
come furety for him, that whatever money ftiould be
advanced to him, within the fum fcr which the credit
had been given, ftiould be repaid upon demand, toge¬
ther with the legal intereft. Credits of this kind are
o ] BAN
commonly granted by banks and bankers in all differ- Bank,
ent parts of the world. But the eafy terms on which
the Scots banking companies accept of repayment are
peculiar to them, and have perhaps been the principal Advantage ,
caufe, both of the great trade of thofe companies from thefej.
and of the benefit which the country has received
from it.
Whoever has a credit of this kind with one of thofe
companies, and borrows L. icoo upon it, for example,
may repay this fum piece-meal, by L. 20 and L. 30 at
a time, the company difcounting a proportionable part
of the intereft of the great fum from the day on which
each of thofe fmall fums is paid in, till the whole be in
this manner repaid. All merchants, therefore, and al-
moft all men of bufinefs, find it convenient to keep fuch
cafh-accounts with them; and are thereby interefted to to the
promote the trade of thofe companies, by readily re-banks, and.
ceiving their notes in all payments, and by encouraging
all thofe with whom they have any influence to do the
fame. The banks, when their cuftomers apply to them
for money, generally advance it to them in their own
promiffory notes. Thefe the merchants pay away to
the manufacturers for goods, the manufacturers to the
farmers for materials and proviiiohs, the farmers to their
landlords for rent, the landlords repay them to the mer¬
chants for the conveniences and luxuries with which
they fupply them, and the merchants again return them
to the banks in order to balance their cafh-accounts, or
to replace what they may have borrowed of them; and
thus almoft the whole money bufinefs of the country is
tranfaCted by means of them. Hence the great trade
of thofe companies.
By means of thofe cafh-accounts, every merchant
can, without imprudence, carry on a greater trade than
he otherwife could do. If there are two merchants,to the
one in London and the other in Edinburgh, who em- country.,
ploy equal ftocks in the fame branch of trade, the E-
dinburgh merchant can, without imprudence, carry on
a greater trade, and give employment to a greater
number of people, than the London merchant. The
Logdon merchant muft always keep by him a confi¬
derable fum of money, either in his own coffers, or in
thofe of his banker, (who gives him no intereft for it),
in order to anfwcr the demands continually coming up¬
on him for payment of the goods which he purchaies
upon credit. Let the ordinary amount of this fum be
fuppofed L. 500. The value of the goods in his ware-
houfe muft always be lefs by L. 50c than it would have
been, had he not been obliged to keep fuch a fum un¬
employed. Let us fuppoie, that he generally difpofes
of his whole flock upon hand, or of goods to the va¬
lue of his whole flock upon hand, once in the year.
By being obliged to keep fuch a great fum unem¬
ployed, he muft fell in a year L. 500 worth lefs goods
than he might otherwife have done. His annual pro¬
fits muft be lefs by all that he could have made by the
fale of L. 500 worth more goods ; and the number of
people employed in preparing his goods for the market,
muft be lefs by all thofe that L.500 more flock could
have employed. The merchant in Edinburgh, on the
other hand, keeps no money unemployed for anfwering
fuch occafional demands. When they actually come
upon him, he fatisfies them from his cafh-account with
the bank, and gradually replaces the fum borrowed
with the money or paper which comes in from the oc¬
cafional
BAN
[ 7%l 1
BAN
cafional fales of his goods. With the fame flock,
* therefore, he can, without imprudence, have at all
times in his warehoufe a larger quantity of goods than
the London merchant; and can thereby both make a
greater profit himfelf, and give .conftant employment
to a greater number of induftrious people who pre¬
pare thofe goods for the market. Hence the great
benefit which the country has derived from this
trade.
The late multiplication of banking companies in
both parts of the united kingdom, an event by which
many people have been much alarmed, inftead of di-
mimfhing, increafes the fecurity of the public. It
obliges all of them to be more circumfpeifl in their con-
duft, and, by not extending their currency beyond its
due proportion to their cafh, to guard themfelves
againft thefe malicious runs which the rivalfhip of fo
many competitors is always ready to bring upon them.
It reftrains the circulation of each particular company
within a narrower circle, and reduces their circulating
notes to a fmaller number. By dividing the whole cir-
Nuremberg, feem to have been all originally eftafcli(he<l
with this view, though fome of them may have after- v
wards been made fubfervient to other purpofes. The
money of fuch banks, being better than the common
currency of the country, necefiarily bore an agio, which
was greater or fmaller, according as the currency was
fuppofed to be more or lefs degraded below the fland-
ard of the ftate. The agio of the bank of Hamburgh,
for example, which is faid to be commonly about [4.
per cent, is the fuppofed difference between the good
ftandard money of the ftate, and the dipt, worn, and
diminiflied currency poured into it from all the neigh¬
bouring ftates.
Before 1609, the great quantity of dipt and worn
foreign coin, which the extenfive trade of Amfterdam
brought from all parts of Europe, reduced th£ value of
its currency about 9 percent, below that of good money
frefh from the mint. Such money no fooner appeared,
than it was melted down or carried away, as it always
is in fuch circumflances. The merchants, with plenty
of currency, could not always find a fufficient quantity
culation into a greater number of parts, the failure of of good money to pay their bills of exchange ; and the
any one company, an accident which, in the courfe of value of thofe bills, in fpite of feveral regulations which
things, muft fometimes happen, becomes of lefs con-
fequence to the public. This free competition too
obliges all bankers to be more liberal in their dealings
with their cuftomers, left their rivals fhould carry them
away. In general, if any branch of trade, or any di-
vifion of labour, be advantageous to the public, the
freer and more general the competition, it will always
be the more fo. See further, the article Paver-
Money.
II. Banks of 2* The other kind of banks confift of fuch as are
depofit. inftituted wholly on the public account, and are called
Banks of Depoft; the nature of which not being ge¬
nerally underftood, the following particular explana¬
tion may not be unacceptable.
The currency of a great ftate, fuch as Britain, ge¬
nerally confifts almoft entirely of its own coin. Should
Smith's
Wealth of
Nations,
Book IV
chap. iii.
were made to prevent it, became in a great meafure un¬
certain. In order to remedy thefe inconveniencies, a Bank oE
bank was eftablilhed in 1609 under the guarantee ofAmfter-
the city. The bank received both foreign coin, and the^1^"”6^
light and worn coin of the country, at its real and in- o10 a*
trinfic value in the good itandard-money of the coun-jts mftitu-
try, deducting only fo much as was neceffary for de- tion, regu-
fraying the expcnce of coinage, and the other neceffary lation, uti-
expence of management. For the value which remained^cc*
after this fmall deduftion was made, it gave a credit in
its books. This credit was called bank-money ; which,
as it reprefented money exa&ly according to the ftand¬
ard of the mint, was always of the fame real value, and
intrinfically worth more than current money. It was at
the fame time enafted, that all bills drawn upon or ne¬
gotiated at Amfterdam of the value of 6co gilders and
this currency, therefore, be at any time worn, dipt, or upwards fhould be paid in bank-money, which at
otherwife degraded below its ftandard value, the ftate once took away all uncertainty in the value of thofe
by a reformation of its coin can effedtually re-eftablifh bills. Every merchant, in confequence of this regu-
its currency. But the currency of a fmall ftate, fuch lation, was obliged to keep an account with the bank
as Genoa or Hamburgh, can feldom confift altogether
in its own coin, but muft be made up, in a great mea¬
fure of the coins of all the neighbouring ftates with
which its inhabitants have a continual intercourfe. Such
order to pay his foreign bills of exchange, which
neceffarily occafioned a certain demand for bank-mo¬
ney.
Bank-money, over and above both its intrinfic fupe-
a ftate, therefore, by reforming its coin, will not al- riority to currency, and the additional value which
ways be able to reform its currency. If foreign bills of this demand neceffarily gives it, has likewife fome other
exchange are paid in this currency, the uncertain value
of any fum, of what is in its own nature fo uncertain,
advantages. It is fecure from fire, robbery, and other
accidents ; the city of Amfterdam is bound for it; it
muft render the exchange always very much againft can be paid away by a fimple transfer, without the
fuch a ftate, its currency being, in all foreign ftates, ne¬
ceffarily valued even below what it is worth. In order
to remedy the inconvenience to which this difadvantage-
ous exchange muft have lubje&ed their merchants, fuch
fmall ftates, when they began to attend to the intereft
trouble of counting, or the rifle of tranfportjng it from
one place to another. In confequence of thofe different
advantages, it feems from the beginning to have borne
an agio ; and it is generally believed that all the money
originally depofited in the bank was allowed to remain
of trade, have frequently enafted, that foreign bills of there, nobody caring to demand payment of a debt
exchange of a certain value fhould be paid, notin com- which he could fell for a premium in the market. Be-
mon currency, but by an order upon, or by a transfer fides, this money could not be brought from thofe cof¬
in the books of, a certain bank, eftablifhed upon the fers, as it will appear by and by, without previoufly
credit and under the protedfion of the ftate ; this bank paying for the keeping.
being always obliged to pay, in good and true money, Thofe depofits of coin, or which the bank was bound
exactly according to the ftandard of the ftate. The to reftore in coin, conftituted the original capital of the
banks of Venice, Genoa, Amfterdam, Hamburgh, and bank, or the whole value of what was reprefented by
what-
BAN [ 782 ] BAN
what is called bank-money. At preferit they are fuppo-
fed to conftitute hyt a very {mall part of it. In order
to facilitate the trade in bullion, the bank has been for
thefe many years in the practice of giving credit in its
books upon depofits of gold and filver bullion. This
credit is generally about 5 per cent, below the mint
price of fuch bullion. The bank grants at' the fame
time what is called a recipice or receipt, intitling the
perfon who makes the depoflt, or the bearer, to take
out the bullion again at any time within fix months,
upon re-transferring to the bank a quantity of bank-
money equal to that for which credit had been given
in its books when the depofit was made, and upon pay-
ing ^ percent, for the keeping if the depofit was in fil¬
ver, and \ per certt. if it was in gold ; but at the fame
time ded rring, that in default of fuch payment, and
upon the expiration of this term, the depofit fhould be¬
long to the bank at the price at which it had been re¬
ceived, or for which credit had been given in the tranf-
fer books. What is thus paid for the keeping of the
depofit may be confidered as a fdrt of warehoufe rent;
and why this warehoufe rent fhould be fo much dearer
for gold than for filver, feveral different reafons have
been affigned. The finenefe of gold, it has been faid,
is more difficult to be afcertained than that of filver.
Frauds are more eafily pradtifed, and oecafion a great¬
er lofs in the more precious metal. Silver, befides,
being the ftandard metal, the ftate, it has been faid,
wifhes to encourage more the making of depofits of
filver than of thofe of gold.
Depofits of bullion are moll commonly made when
the price is fomewhat lower than ordinary ; and they
are taken out again when it happens to rife- In Hol¬
land the market-price of bullion is generally above the
mint-price, for the fame reafon that it was fo in Eng¬
land before the late reformation of the gold coin. The
difference is faid to be commonly from about fix to
fixteen ftivers upon the mark, or eight ounces of filver
of eleven parts fine and one part alloy. The bank-
-price, or the credit which the bank gives for depofits
of fuch filver (when made in foreign coin, of which the
finenefs is well known and afcertained, fuch as Mexico
dollars), is 22 gilders the mark ; the mint-price is about
23 gilders ; and the market-price is from 23 gilders fix
to 23 gilders fixteen ftivers, or from 2 to 3 per cent.
above the mint-price. The proportions between the
bank-price, the mint-price, and the market-price, of
gold bullion are nearly the fame. A perfon can gene¬
rally fell his receipt for the difference between the mint-
price of bullion and the market-price. A receipt for
bullion is almoft always worth fomething ; and it very
feldom happens, therefore, that any body fuffers his re¬
ceipt to expire, or allows his bullion to fall to the bank
at the price at which it had been received, either by
not taking it out before the end of the fix months, or
by negleiling to pay the £ or per cent, in order to
■obtain a new receipt for another fix months. This,
however, though it feldom happens, is faid to happen
fometimes, and more frequently with regard to gold
than with regard to filver, on account of the higher
warehoufe-rent which is paid for the keeping of the
more precious metal.
The perfon who by making a depofit of bullion ob¬
tains both a bank-credit and a receipt, pays his bills of
exchange as they become due with his bank-credit; and
either fells or keeps his receipt, according as he judges
that the price of bullion is likely to rife or to fall. The v-
receipt and the bank-credit feldom keep long together,
and there is no occafion that they fliould. The perfon
who has a receipt, and who wants to take out bullion,
finds always plenty of bank-credits, or bank-money to
buy at the ordinary price ; and the perfon who has
bank-money, and wants to take out bullion, finds re¬
ceipts always in equal abundance.
The owners of bank-credits and the holdersof receipts
conftitute two different forts of creditors againft the
bank. The holder of a receipt cannot draw out the bul¬
lion for which it is granted, without re-afligning to the
bank a fum of bank-money equal to the price at which
the bullion had been received. If he has no bank-money
of his own, he muft purchafe it of thofe who have it.
The owner of bank-money cannot draw out bullion
without producing to the bank receipts for the quan¬
tity which he wants. If he has none of his own, he
muft buy them of thofe who have them. The holder
of a receipt, when he purchafes bank-money, purchafes
the power of taking out a quantity of bullion, of which
the mint-price is 5 per cent, above the bank-price. The
agio of 5 per cent, therefore, which he commonly pays
for it, is paid, not for an imaginary, but for a real value.
The owner of bank-money, when he purchafes a re¬
ceipt, purchafes the power of taking out a quantity of
bullion, of which the market-price is commonly from
2 to 3 percent, above the mint-price. The price which
he pays for it, therefore, is paid likewife for a real va*
lue. The price of the receipt, and the price of the
bank-money, compound or make up between them the
full walue or price of the bullion.
Upon depofits of the coin current in the country,
the bank grants receipts likewife as well as bank-credits;
but thofe receipts are frequently of no value,' and will
bring no price in the market. Upon ducatoons, for
example, which in the currency pafs for three gilders
three ftivers each, the bank gives a credit of three gil¬
ders only, or 5 per cent, below their current value. It
grants a receipt likewife intitling the bearer to take
out the number of ducatoons depofited at any time
within fix months, upon paying £ per cent, for the
keeping. This receipt will frequently bring no price
in the market. Three gilders bank-money generally
fell in the market for three gilders three ftivers, the full
value of the ducatoons if they were taken out of the
bank ; and before they can be taken out, ^ per cent.
muft be paid for the keeping, which would be mere
lofs to the holder of the receipt. If the agio of the
bank, however, fhould at any time fall to 3 per cent.
fuch receipts might bring fome price in the market,
and might fell for 1^ per cent. But the agio of
the bank being now generally about 5 per cent, fuch
receipts are frequently allowed to expire, or, as they
exprefs it, to fall to the bank. The 5 per cent, which
the bank gains, when depofits either of coin or bul¬
lion are allowed to fall to it, may be confidered as the
wrarehoufe rent for the perpetual keeping of fuch de¬
pofits.
The fum of bank-money for which the receipts are
expired rauft be very confiderable. It muft compre¬
hend the whole original capital of the bank, which,
it is generally fuppofed, has been allowed to remain
there from the time it was firft depofited, nobody
caring
BAN
[ 783 ]
BAN
caring either to renew his receipt or to take out his is the intereft pf the owners of bank-money, on the Bank.
^ depofit, as, for the reafons already affigned, neither contrary, to raife the agio, in order either to fell their ‘
the one nor the other could be done without lofs. But
whatever may be the amount of this fum, the propor¬
tion which it bears to the whole mafs of bank-money is
fuppofed to be very fmall. The bank of Amfterdam
has for thefe many years paft been the great warehoufe
of Europe for bullion, for which the receipts are very
feldom allowed to expire, or, as they exprefs it, to fall
to the bank. The far greater part of the bank-money,
or of the credits upon the books of the bank, is fup-
pofed to have been created, for thefe many years paft,
by fuch depofits which the dealers in bullion are con¬
tinually both making and withdrawing.
No demand can be made upon the bank but by means
of a recipice or receipt. The fmaller mafs of bank-mo-
bank-money fo much dearer, or to buy a receipt fo
much cheaper. To prevent the ftock-jobbing tricks
which thofe oppofite interefts might fometimes occa-
fion, the bank has of late years come to a refolution to
fell at all times bank-money for currency, at 5 per cent.
agio, and to buy it again at 4 per cent. agio. In con-
fequence of this refolution, the agio can never either
rife above 5 or fink below 4 per cent, and the propor¬
tion between the market-price of the bank and that of
current money is kept at all times very near to the pro¬
portion between their intrinftc values. Before this re-
lolution was taken, the market price of money ufed
fometimes to rife fo high as 9 percent, agio, and fome¬
times to fink fo dow as par, according as oppofite in-
ney, for which the receipts are expired, is mixed and terefts happened to influence the market.
confounded with the much greater mafs for which they
are ftill in force ; fo that, though there may be a con-
fiderable fum of bank-money for which there are no
receipts, there is no fpeeific fum or portion of it which
may not at any time be demanded by one. The bank
The bank of Amfterdam profeffes to lend out no part
of what is depofited with it, but, for every gilder for
which it gives credit in its books, to keep in its repo-
fitories the value of a gilder either in money or bullion.
That it keeps in its repofitories all the money or bullion
cannot be debtor to two perfons for the fame thing; and for which there are receipts in force, for which it is at
the owner of bank-money who has no receipt cannot
demand payment of the bank till he buys one. In or¬
dinary and quiet times, he can find no difficulty in get¬
ting one to buy at the market-price, which generally
correfponds with the price at what he can fell the coin
or bullion it intitles him to take out of the bank.
It might be otherwife during a public calamity ; an
invafion, for example, fuch as that of the French in
1672. The owners of bank-money being then all eager
to draw it out of the bank, in order to have it in their
own keeping, the demand for receipts might raife their
price to an exorbitant height The holders of them
all times liable to be called upon, and which, in reality,
is continually going from it and returning to it again,
cannot well be doubted. But whether it does fo like-
wife with regard to that part of its capital for which,
the receipts are long ago expired, for which in ordi¬
nary and quiet times it cannot be called upon, and
which in reality is very likely to remain with it for¬
ever, or as long as the States of the United Provinces
fubfift, may perhaps appear more uncertain. At Am¬
fterdam, however, no part of faith is better eftablifhed,.
than that for every gilder circulated as bank-money
there is a correfpondent gilder in gold and filver to be
might form extravagant expeftations, and, inftead of found in the treafure of the bank. The city is gua-
r 5 percent, demand half the bank money for which
credit had been given upon the depofits that the re¬
ceipts had refpeftively been granted for. The enemy,
informed of the conftitution of the bank, might even
rantee that it ftiould be fo. The bank is under the di-
re&ion of the four reigning burgomafters, who are.
changed every year. Each new fet of burgomafters vi-
fits the treafure, compares it with the books, receives
buy them up in order to prevent the carrying away of it upon oath, and delivers it over, with the fame awful
the treafure. In fuch emergencies, the bank, it is fup¬
pofed, would break through its ordinary rule of making
payment only to the holders of receipts. The holders
of receipts, who had no bank-money, muft have recei¬
ved within. 2 or 3 per cent, of the value of the depofit
for which their refpedlive receipts had been granted.
The bank, therefore, it is faid, would in this cafe make
no fcruple of paying, either with money or bullion, the
full value of what the owners of bank-money who could
get no receipts were credited for in its books ; paying
at the fame time 2 or 3 per cent, to fuch holders of re¬
ceipts as had no bank-money, that being the whole
value which in this ftate of things could juftly be fup¬
pofed due to them.
folemnity, to the fet which fucceeds it; and in that fo-
ber and religious country oaths are not yet difregarded.
A rotation of this kind feems alone a fufficient fecurity
againft any pradlices which cannot be avowed. Amidlt
all the revolutions which faftion has ever occafioned in
the government of Amfterdam, the prevailing party
has at no time accufed their predeceflbrs of infidelity in
the adminiftration of the bank. No accufation could
have aflfe&ed more deeply the reputation and fortune of
the difgraced party; and if fuch an accufation could
have been fupported, we may be aflured that it would
have been brought*' In 1672, when the French king
was at Utrecht, the bank of Amfterdam paid fo readily
as left no doubt of the fidelity with which it had ob-
Even in ordinary and quiet times it is the intereft of ferved its engagements. Some of the pieces which were
the holders of receipts to deprefs the agio, in order ei-
- ther to buy bank-money (and confequently the bullion
which their receipts would then enable them to take
out of the bank) fo much cheaper, or to fell their re¬
ceipts to thofe who have bank-money, and who want
to take out bullion, fo much dearer ; the price of a re¬
ceipt being generally equal to the difference between
the market-price of bank-money and that of the coin
or bullion for which the receipt had been granted. It
then brought from its repofitories appeared to have been
fcorched with the fire which happened in the town?
houfe foon after the bank was eftablilhed. Thofe
pieces, therefore, muft have lain there from that time.
What may be the amount of the treafure in tha
bank is a queftion which l\as long employed the fpecu?
lations of the curious. Nothing but conjecture can ba
offered concerning it. It is generally reckoned, that
there are about 2cco people who keep accounts withv
the
BAN f7S4] BAN
Bank, tlie bank ; and allowing them to have, one with another,
|| the value of 15001. lying upon their refpe&ive ac-
Banking. counts, (a very large allowance), the whole quantity of
^ ~ — bank-money, and confequently of treafure in the bank,
will amount to 3,000,006!. or, at 11 guilders the pound
Sterling, 33,■''00,000 of gilders; a great fum, and fuf-
ficient to carry on a very extenfive circulation, but
daftly below the extravagant ideas which fome people
have formed of this treafure.
The city of Amfterdam derivesa confiderable revenue
from the bank. Befides what may be called the 'ivare-
houfe-rent above mentioned, each perfon, upon firft o-
pening an account with the bank, pays a fee of io gil¬
ders ; and for every new account, 3 gilders 3 ftivers ;
for every transfer, 2 divers ; and if the transfer is for
lefs than 300 gilders, 6 ftivers, in order to difcourage
the multiplicity of fmall tranfa&ions. The perfon who
negledfs to balance his accounts twice in the year for¬
feits 25 gilders. The perfon who orders a transfer for
more than,is upon his account, isobliged to pay 3 per
cent, for the fum overdrawn, and his order is fet aftde
into the bargain. The bank is fuppofed too to make
a confiderable profit by the fale of the foreign coin or
bullion which fometimes falls to it by the expiring of
receipts, and which is always kept till it can be fold
with advantage. It makes a profit likewife by felling
'bank-money at y per cent, agio, and buying it in at 4.
Thefe different emoluments amount to a good deal more
than what is neceflary for paying the falaries of officers,
and defraying the expence of management. What is
paid for the keeping of Bullion upon receipts, is alone
fuppofed to amount to a neat annual revenue of be¬
tween 150,000 and 200,000 guilders. Public utility,
however, and not revenue, was the original objedt of
this inftitution. Its objeft was to relieve the merchants
from the inconvenience of a difadvantageous exchange.
The revenue which has arifen from it was unforefeen,
and may be confidered as accidental.
Bank, in fea-affairs, denotes an elevation of the
ground or bottom of the fea, fo as fometimes to fur-
mount the furface of the water, or at leaft to leave the
water fo fhallow as ufually not to allow a veflel to re¬
main a-float over it.—In this fenfe, bank amounts to
much the fame as flat, ftroal, &c. There are banks
of fand, and others of ftone, called alfo Jhelves, or
rocks. In the north fea they alfo fpeak of banks of
ice, which are large pieces of that matter floating.
BANKER, a perfon who traffics and negociates in
money ; who receives and remits money from place to
place by commiffion from correfpondents, or by means
of bills or letters of exchange, &c.
The ancient bankers were called argcntarii, and num-
vmlarii; by the Greeks, rpart^U,, noxw/iirai, and «r
yvpxfiiot(ioi. Their chief bufinefs was to put out the
money of private perfons to intereft : they had their
boards and benches, for this purpofe, in all the markets
and public places, where they took in the money from
fome, to lend it to others.
BANKING, the making of banks to oppofe the
force of the fea, rivers, or the like, and fecure the land
from being overflowed thereby. With refpeft to the
water which is to be kept out, this is called banking;
with refpeft to the land, which is hereby to be de¬
fended, imbanking.
Banking is alfo applied to the keeping a bank, or
N° 40.
the employment of a banker. Banking, in this fenfe, Banklfh.
fignifies the trading in money, or remitting it from Bankr«pt*
place to place, by means of bills of exchange. This “■^V^***
anfwers to what the French call faire la banque. In
France, every body is allowed to bank, whether mer¬
chant or not; even foreigners are indulged in this kind
of traffic. In Italy, banking does not derogate from
nobility, efpecially in the republic ftates ; whence it
is, that moll of the younger fons of great families en¬
gage in it. In reality, it was the nobility of Venice
and Genoa, that, for a long time, were the chief
bankers in the other countries of Europe.
BANKISH, a province of the Mogul’s dominions,
in the north part of the Hithex India, lying fouth-weft
of the province of Caffimere.
BANKRUPT, {bancus ruptus), is fo called, be-
caufe, when the bank or flock is broken or exhaufted,
the owner is faid to be a bankrupt. And this word
bankrupt is derived from the French bank route, which
fignifies a breaking or failing in the world: banque in
French is as much as tnenfa in Latin, and route is the
fame as vejligium ; and this term is faid to be taken o-
riginally from the Roman menfarii, which were fet in
public places.; and when a tradefman flipped away, with
an intention to deceive his creditors, he left only fome
vejligia or figns of his table or (hop behind him. But
a bankrupt with us, from the feveral defcriptions given
of him in our ftatute-law, may be defined “ a trader,
who fecrets himfelf, or does certain other afts tending
to defraud his creditors.” For the better underftanding
of this article, it will be proper to confider, 1. Who may-
become a bankrupt: 2. What atts make a bankrupt:
3. The proceedings on a commiffion of bankruptcy : and,
4. In what manner an eflate in goods and chattels may¬
be transferred^ bankruptcy.— But of thefe, the two
laft being treated under the articleCoMMissiON of Bank¬
ruptcy, the two firft only belong to this place.
1. A bankrupt was formerly confidered merely in
the light of a criminal or offender; and in this fpirit
we are told by Sir Edward Coke, that we have fetched
as well the name, as the wickednefs, of bankrupts from
foreign nations. But at prefent the laws of bank¬
ruptcy are confidered as laws calculated for the benefit
of trade, and founded on the principles of humanity as
well as juftice ; and to that end they confer fome pri¬
vileges, not only on the creditors, but alfo on the bank¬
rupt or debtor himfelf. On the creditors; by com-t
pelling the bankrupt to give up all his effefts to their
ufe, without any fraudulent concealment: on the debtor,
by exempting him from the rigor of the general law,
whereby his perfon might be confined at the difcretion
of his creditor, though in reality he has nothing to fa-
tisfy the debt; whereas the law of bankrupts, taking
into confideration the fudden and unavoidable accidents
to which men in trade are liable, has given them the
liberty of their perfons, and fome pecuniary emolu¬
ments, upon condition they furrender up their whole
eftate to be divided among their creditors.
In this refpeft our legiflature feems to have attendedSlacif
to the example of the Roman law. We mean not theCcmw. II.
terrible law of the twelve tables ; whereby the creditors 47*> &c‘
might cut the debtor’s body into pieces, and each of
them take his proportionable fhare : if indeed that law,
de debitore in partes fecando, is to be underftood in fo
very butcherly a light; which many learned men have
with
BAN [ 785 ] BAN
JB*nkrupt. wltH reafon doubted. Nor do we mean thofe lefs in-
human laws, (if they maybe called fo, as their meaning
is indifputably certain 1, of imprifoning the debtor’s
perfon in chains ; fubje&ing him to ftripes and hard la¬
bour, at the mercy of his rigid creditor; and fome-
times felling him, his wife, and children, to perpetual
foreign flavery trans Tiberim (a) : an opprellion which
produced fo many popular infurre&ions, and feceflions
to the mom facer. But we mean the law of ceflion, in¬
troduced by the Chriftian emperors; whereby, if a
debtor ceded or yielded up all his fortune to his. credi¬
tors, he was fecured from being dragged to a gaol,
“ omni quoque corporali cruciatu femoto.” For, as the
emperor juftly obferves, “ inhumatmm erat fpoliatum
fbrtunis fuis in folidum damnari.” Thus far was juft
and reafonable : but as the departing from one ex¬
treme is apt to produce its oppofite, we find it after¬
wards enadted, that if the debtor, by any unforeleen
accident, was reduced to low circumftances, and would
fwear that he had not fufficient left to pay his debts, he
* fhould not be compelled to cede of give up even that
which he had in his poffeffion ; a law which, under a
falfe notion of humanity, feems to be fertile of perjury,
injuftice, and abfurdity.
The laws of England, more wifely, have fleered in
the middle between both extremes ; providing at'once
againft the inhumanity of the creditor, who is not fuf-
fered to confine an honeft bankrupt after his effedls are
delivered up; and at the fame time taking care that
all his juft debts fhall be paid, fo far as the effedls will
extend. But flill they arc cautious of encouraging
prodigality and extravagance by this indulgence to
debtors : and therefore they allow the benefit of the
laws of bankruptcy to none but adlual traders ; fince
that fet of men are, generally fpeaking, the only per-
fons liable to accidental Ioffes, and to an inability of
paying their debts, without any fault of their own. If
perfons in other fituations of life run in debt without
the power of payment, they muft take the conlequences
of their own indifcretion, even though they meet with
fudden accidents that may reduce their fortunes : for
the law holds it to be an unjulliiiable pradtice, for any
perfon but a trader to encumber himfelf with debts of
any confiderable value. If a gentleman, or one in a
liberal profeffion, at the time of contradling his debts,
has a fufficient fund to pay them, the delay of pay¬
ment is a fpecies of difhonefty, and a temporary inju
ftice to his creditor : and if, at fuch time, he has not
fufficient fund, the diffionefty and injuftice is the greater.
He cannot therefore murmur, if he fuffers the punifh-
ment which he has voluntarily drawn upon himfelf. But
In mercantile tranfadlions the cafe is far otherwife.
Trade cannot be carried on without mutual credit on
both fides: the contradling of debts is therefore here
not only juftifiable, but neceffary. And if, by acci¬
dental calamities, as by the lofs of a ffiip in a tempeft,
the failure of brother-traders, or by the non-payment
of perfons out of trade, a merchant or trader becomes
incapable of difcharging his own debts, it is his mif-
fortune and not his fault. To the misfortunes therefore
Vol. II. Part 11.
of debtors, the law has given a compaffionate remedy* Bankrupt,
but denied it to their faults : fince, at the fame time —
that it provides for the fecurity of commerce, by en-
adling that every confiderable trader may be declared
a bankrupt, for the benefit of his creditors as well as
himfelf, it has alfo, to difcourage extravagance,declared,
that no one ffiall be capable of being made a bankrupt,
but only a trader ; nor capable of receiving the full be¬
nefit of the ftatutes, but only an induftrious trader.
In the interpretation of the feveral ftatutes made
concerning Engliffi bankrupts *, it hath been held, that * 34 He*,
buying only, or felling only, will not qualify a man to c4-
be a bankrupt; but it mull be both buying and fell- ^
ing, and alfo getting a livelihood by it; as, by exerci-c ^ '
fing the calling of a merchant, a grocer, a niercer, or, 5 Geo. U.
in one general word, a chapman, who is one that buys c. 30.
and fells any thing. But no handicraft occupation
(where nothing is bought or fold, and therefore an ex-
tenfive credit, for the flock in trade, is not neceffary
to be had) will make a man a regu ar bankrupt; as
that of a hufbandman, a gardener, and the like, who
are paid for their work and labour. Alfo an inn¬
keeper cannot, as fuch, be a bankrupt; for his gain or
livelihopd does not arife from buying and felling in
the way of merchandize, but greatly from the ufe of
his rooms and furniture, his attendance, and the like4
and though he may buy corn and vidluals, to fell a-
gain at a profit, yet that no more makes him a trader,
than a fchoolmafter or other perfon is, that keeps a
boarding-houfe, and makes confiderable gains by buy¬
ing and felling what he fpends in the houfe; and fuch
a one is clearly not within the ftatutes. But where
perfons buy goods, and make them up into faleable
commodities, as fhoemakers, fmiths, and the like;
here, though part of the gain is by bodily labour, and
not by buying and felling, yet they are within the fta¬
tutes of bankrupts; for the labour is only in meliora¬
tion of the commodity, and rendering it more fit for
fale.
z. To learn what the arts of bankruptcy are which
render a man a bankrupt, we muft confult'the feveral
ftatutes, and the refolutions formed by the courts
thereon. Among thefe may therefore be reckoned,
1. Departing from the realm, whereby a man with¬
draws himfelf from the jurifdiction and coercion of the
law, with an intent to defraud his creditors. 2. De¬
parting from his own houfe, with intent to fecrete
himfelf and avoid his creditors. 3. Keeping in his
own houfe, privately, (except for juft and neceffary
caufe), fo as not to be feen or fpoken with by his credi¬
tors ; which is likewife conltrued to be an intention tp
defraud his creditors, by avoiding the procefs of the
law. 4. Procuring or fuffering himfelf willingly to be
arrefted, or outlawed, or imprifoned, without juft and
lawful caufe; which is likewife deemed an attempt to
defraud his creditors. 5. Procuring his money, goods,
chattels, and effefts, to be attached or fequeftiated by
any legal procefs ; which is another plain and direft
endeavour to difappoint his creditors of thfrir fecurity.
6. Making any fraudulent conveyance to a friend, or
5 G fecret
(a) In Pegu, and the adjacent countries in Eaft India, the creditor is intitled to difpofe of the debtor him¬
felf, and likewife of his wife and chddren : infomuch that he may even violate, with impunity, the chartity of
the debtor’s wife } but then, by fo doing, the debt is underftood to be difcharged.
BAN
[ 736 ]
BAN
Bankrupt, fecret truftee, of his lands, tenements, godds, or chat- imagination many difagreeable circumftances into
Banks, tels; which is an aft of the fame fufpicio'us nature with which indigence, the too frequent attendant on poeti-
■^the lafl. 7. Procuring any proteftion, not being him-
felf privileged by parliament, in order to fcreen his per-
fon from arrefts; which alfo is an endeavour to elude
the juftice of the law. 8. Endeavouring, or defiring,
cal purfuits, frequently threw him. His turn was en- -
tirely to tragedy. His merit in which is of a peculiar
kind. For at the fame time that his language muft.
be confeifed to be extremely unpoetical, and his n
by any petition to the king, or bill exhibited in any of bers uncouth and unharmonious ; nay, even his cha-
the king’s courts againft any creditors, to compel them
to take lefs than their juft debts ; or to procraftinate
the time of payment originally contrafted for ; which
are an acknowledgement of either his poverty or his
knavery. 9. Eying in prifon for two months, or more,
upon arreft or other detention for debt, without find¬
ing bail, in order to obtain his liberty. For the in¬
ability to procure bail argues a ftrong deficiency in his
credit, owing either to his fufpefted poverty or ill
charafter; and his negleft to do it, if able, can arife
rafters very far from being ftrongly marked or diftin-
guiihed, and his epifodes extremely irregular: yet it
is impoflible to avoid being deeply affefted at the re-
prefentation, and even at the reading, of his tragic,
pieces. This is owing, in the general, to an happy
choice of his fubjefts; which are all borrowed from
hiilory, either real or romantic ; and indeed the molt of
them from circumftances in the annals of our own coun¬
try, which, not only from their being familiar to our
continual recolleftion, but even from their having fome
only from a fraudulent intention : in either of which degree of relation to ourfelves, we are apt to receive with
cafes, it is high time for his creditors to look to them-
felves, and compel a diftribution of his effefts.
a kind of partial prepofleffion, and a pre-determination
to be pleafed. He has conftantly chofen as the bafis
Efcaping from prifon after an arreft for a juft debt of of his plays fuch tales as were in themfelves and theit
E. too, or upwards. For no man would break prifon
that was able and defirous to procure bail; which brings
it within the reafon of the laft cafe. 11. Neglefting
well-known cataftrophes molt truly adapted to the pur-
pofes of the drama. He has indeed but little varied
from the ftriftnefs of hiftorical fafts ; yet he feems to
to make fatisfaftion for any juft debt to the amount of have made it his conftant rule to keep the fcene perpe-
E. too, within two months after fervice of legal pro-
cefs, for fuch debt, upon any trader having privilege
of parliament.
Thefe are the feveral afts of bankruptcy exprefsly
defined by the ftatutes relating to this article ; which
being fo numerous, and the whole law of bankrupts
being an innovation on the common law, our courts of
juftice have been tender of extending or multiplying
afts of bankruptcy by any conftruftion or implication.
And therefore Sir John Holt held, that a man’s remo¬
ving his goods privately to prevent their being feized
in execution, was no aft of bankruptcy. For the fta¬
tutes mention only fraudulent gifts to third perfons,
and procuring them to be feized by iham procefs, in or¬
der to defraud creditors : but this, though a palpable
fraud, yet, falling within neither of thofe cafes, cannot
be adjudged an aft of bankruptcy. So alfo it has been
determined exprefsly, that a banker’s flopping or refu-
fing payment is no aft of bankruptcy : for it is not
within the defcription of any of the ftatutes ; and there
tually alive, and never fuffer his charafters to droop.
His verfe is not poetry, but profe run mad. Yet will
the falfe gem fometimes approach fo near in glitter to
the true one, at leaft in the eyes of all but the real
connoifleurs, (and how fmall a part of an audience are
to be ranked in this clafs will need no ghoft to inform
us), that borabaft will frequently pafs for the true
fublime ; and where it is rendered the vehicle of inci¬
dents in themfelves affefting, and in which the heart i*
apt to intereft itfelf, it will perhaps be found to have
a ftronger power on the human paffions than even that
property to which it is in reality no more than a bare
fuccedantum. And from thefe principles it is that
we muft account for Mr Banks’s writings having in the
general drawn more tears from, and excited more ter¬
ror in, even judicious audiences, than thofe of much
more correft and more truly poetical authors. The
tragedies he has left behind are, 1. Albion §>uiens. 2.
Cyrus the Great. 3. DeJlnUUon of Troy. 4. Innocent
Ufurper. 5. Ijland Queens. This is only the Albion
may be good reafons for his fo doing, as fufpicion of Queens altered. 6. Rival Kings. 7. Virtue betrayed.
forgery, and the like : and if, in confequenee of fuch 8. Unhappy Favourite. The Albion Queens was rejeft-
refufal, he is arrefted, and puts in bail, Hill it is no aft ed by the managers in 1684 ; but was afted by Queen
of bankruptcy ; but if he goes to prifon, and lies there
two months, then, and not before, is he become a
bankrupt.
As to the confequences refulting from the unhappy
Anne’s command in 1706, with great applaufe, and
has been feveral times revived. The Unhappy Fa¬
vourite continued till very lately a ftock-tragedy at the
theatres; but gives way at prefent to the latter trage-
fituation of a bankrupt, fee the article Commission of dies from the fame ftory, by Jones and Brooke —Nei-
Bankruptcy.
BANKS, (John),
ther the time of the birth, nor that of the death, o£
i dramatic writer, was bred to this author, are afcertained. His remains, however,.
the law, and belonged to the fociety of Gray’s Inn; lie interred in the church of St James’s, Weftminr
but this piofefiion not fniting his natural difpofition, fter.
he quitted it for the fervice of the mufes. Here, how- BANKS’s island, a fmall ifland in the South Sea,
ever, he found his rewards by no means adequate to difeovered by Captain Cook in 1770, in S. Eat. 53. 32.
his deferts-. His emoluments at the beft were preca- W. Long. 186. 30. It is of a circular figure, and a-
rious, and the various fucceffes of his pieces too feel¬
ingly convinced him of the error in his .choice. This,
bout 24 leagues in eompafs : it is fufficiently high to be
feen at the diftance of 21 or 15 leagues; and the land has.
however, did not prevent him from purfuing with a broken irregular furface, with tlie appearance of bar-
eheerfulnefs the path he had taken ; his thirft of fame, rennefs rather than fertility. It is, how ever, inhabited,
and warmth of poetic enthufiafm* alleviating to his as fome llraggling favages were obferved upon it.
BAN [ 787 J BAN
BankSa BANKSIA, in botany ; a genus of the monogynia
il order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants. The
Bann. amentum is fcaly, the corolla confifts of four petals ;
the anthera; are in the cavity of the folds, and fofiile ;
the capfule is bivalvular ; and the feed is folitary, and
bipartic. There are four fpecies, the ferrata, inte-
grifolia, eridae folia, and ^entata, all natives of New
Holland.
BANN, or ban, (from the Brit. ban. i. e. clamour),
is a proclamation or public notice ; any public fum-
mons or edift, whereby a thing is commanded or for¬
bidden. It is a word ordinary among the feudifts;
and there is both banus and banum, which fignify two
feveral things.—The word banns is particularly ufed in
England in publilhing matrimonial contrails; which
is done in the church before marriage, to the end that
if any perfons can fpeak againft the intention of the
parties, either in refpeft of kindred, precontraft, or for
other juft caufe, they may take their exception in time,
before the marriage is confummated; and in the canon
law, Bannx funt proclamattones fponft et fponf<e in eccle-
ftis fieri folit.e. But there may be a faculty or licence
•for the marriage, and then this ceremony is omitted;
and minifters are not to celebrate matrimony between
any perfons without a licence, except the banns have
been firft publifhed three feveral times, upon pain of
fufpenfion, &c. Can. 62.
The ufe of matrimonial banns is faid to have been
firft introduced in the Gallican church, though fome-
thing like it obtained even in the primitive times ; and
it is this that Tertullian is fuppofed to mean by tri-
nundina promulgatio. The council of Lateran firft ex¬
tended, and made the ufage general. By the ordinance
of Blois, no perfon could validly contract marriage,
without a preceding proclamation of three banns; nor
could any perfon whatever be difpenfed with, except
for the two laft. But the French themfelves have
abated much of this feverity; and only minors are now
under an abfolute neceffity of fubmitting to the forma¬
lity of banns. For majors, or thofe of age, after pu¬
blication of the firft banns, the two latter are eafily
bought off.
Bann is alfo ufed to denote profcription or banilh-
ment for a crime proved; becaufe anciently publifhed
by found of trumpet; or, as Voflius thinks, becaufe
thofe who did not appear at the above-mentioned fum-
mons were punifhcd by profcription. Hence, to put a
prince under the bann of the empire, is to declare him di¬
verted of all his dignities. The fentence only denotes
an interdift of all intercourfe, and offices of humanity,
with the offender ; the form of which feems taken from
that of the Romans, who banifiied perfons by forbid¬
ding them the ufe of fire and water. Sometimes alfo
cities are put under the imperial bann ; that is, ftripped
of their rights and privileges.
Bann alfo denotes a pecuniary mulft, or penalty,
laid on a delinquent for offending againft a bann.
Bann, or Bannus, a title anciently given to the
governor or viceroy of Croatia, Dalmatia, and Scla-
vonia.
Epifcopal Bann, {Bannus Epifcopalis), a muhft paid
to the bifhop by thofe guilty of facrilege and other
crimes.
Bank is alfo ufed for a folemn anathema, or excom¬
munication, attended with curfes, &c. In this fenfe Bann
we read of Papal banns, &c. II
Bann, in military affairs, a proclamation made in Banncfet3-i
the army by beat of drum, found of trumpet, &c. re- ^
quiring the drift obfervance of difcipline, either tor the
declaring a new officer, or punilhing an offender.
BANNER denotes either a fquare flag, or the prin¬
cipal ftandard belonging to a prince.
We find a multiplicity of opinions concerning the
etymology of the word banner ; fome deriving it from
the Latin bandum, a band or flag others from the
word bann, “ to fummons the vaffals to appear in arms;”
others again from the German ban, “ a field or tene¬
ment,” becaufe landed men alone were allowed a ban¬
ner ; and, finally, there are fome who think it is a cor¬
ruption of panniere, from pannus, “ cloth,” becaufe ban¬
ners were originally made of cloth.
The Banner of France, was the largeft and richeft
of all the flags borne by the ancient kings in their great
military expeditions. St Martin’s cap was in ufe 600
years as the banner of France ; it was made of taffety,
painted with the image of that faint, and laid one or
two days on his tomb to prepare it for ufe. About the
ear 1100 came in a more pompous apparatus The
anner royal was faftened to the top of a mart, or fome
tall tree, planted on a fcaffold, borne on a carriage
drawn by oxen, covered with velvet houfings, decora¬
ted with devices or cyphers of the prince reigning. At
the foot of the tree was a prieit, who faid mafs early
every morning. Ten knights mounted guard on the
fcaffold ni^nt and day, and as many trumpets at the
foot of the tree never ceafed flourifhing, to animate the
troops. This cumberfiyne machine, the mode of which
was brought from Italy, continued in ufe about 130
years Its port was in the centre of the army. And
here it was that the chief feats were performed, to car¬
ry off and defend the royal banner ; for there was no
vi&ory without it, nor was any army reputed vanquifti-
ed till they had loft this banner.
BANNERETS, an ancient order of knights, or feu¬
dal lords; who, poffeffing feveral large fees, led their
vaffals to battle under their own flag or banner, when
fummoned thereto by the king. The word feems form¬
ed from banner, “ a fquare flag;” or from band, which
anciently denoted a flag.—Bannerets are alfo called in
ancient writers milites vexillifcri, and vexillarii, banne-
rarii, bannarii, banderifti, &c.
Anciently there were two kinds of knights, great
and little; the firft whereof were called bannerets, the
fecond bachelors ; the firft compofed the upper, the fe-
cond the middle, nobility.
The banneret was a dignitary allowed to march un¬
der his own flag, whereas the bachelarius eques follow¬
ed that of another. To be qualified for a banneret,
one muft be a gentleman of family, and muft have a
power to raife a certain number of armed men, witft
eftate enough to fubfift at leaft 28 or 30 men. This
muft have been very confiderable in thofe days; be¬
caufe each man, befides his fervant, had two horfemen
to wait on him armed, the one with a crofs-bow, the
other with a bow and hatchet. As he was not allow¬
ed to be a baron who had not above 13 knights fees,
fo he was not admitted to be a banneret if he had lefs
than 10.
5G2
Banneret,
BAN [ 788 ] BAN
Banneret, Banneret, acc.Qtding to Spelman, was a middle or-
Bannock. (Jer between a baron and a Ample knight; called fome-
‘’V—' times alfo vexillarius minor, to diftinguifh him from the
greater, that is, from the baron, to whom alone pro¬
perly belonged the jus vexilli, or privilege of the fquare
flag. Hence the banneret was alfo called bannerettus,
quaji baro minor; a word frequently ufed by Englifh
writers in the fame fenfe as banneret was by the French,
though neither of them occur before the time of Ed¬
ward II.
Some will have bannerets to have originally beep per-
fons who had fome portion of a barony afligned them;
and enjoyed, it under the title of baro proximus, and
that with the fame prerogatives as the baron himfelf.
Some, again, find the origin of bannerets in France,
others in Brittany, others in England. Thefe lalt at¬
tribute the inftitution of bannerets to Conan, lieutenant
of Maximus, who commanded the Roman legions in
England under the empire of Gratian in 383. This ge¬
neral, fay they, revolting, divided England into 40
cantons, and in thefe cantons diftributed 40 knights;
to whom he gave a power of affembling, on occafion,
under their feveral banners, as many of the effeftive
merr as were found in their refpe6tive diftri&s : whence
they are called bannerets. However this be, it appears
from Froiffart, &c. that anciently fuch of the military
men as were rich enough to raife and lubfift a company
of armed men, and had a right to do fo, were called
bannerets. Not, however, that thefe qualifications ren¬
dered them knights, but only bannerets ; the appella¬
tion of kniaht being only added thereto, becaufe they
were fimpie knights before.
Bannerets weri. fecond to none but knights of the
garter. They were reputed the next degree below the
nobility ; and were allowed to bear arms with fupport-
ers, which none elfe may under the degree of a baron.
■In France, it is faid, the dignity was hereditary ; but
in England it died with the perfon that gained it.
The order dwindled on the inftitution of baronets by
King James I. and at length became extinft. The laft
perfon created banneret was Sir John Smith, made fo
after Edghill-fight, for refeuing the itandard of King
Charles I.
The form of the banneret’s creation was this : On
a day of battle, the candidate prefented his flag to the
king or general; who, cutting off the train orlkirt there¬
of, and making it a fquare, returned it again, the proper
banner of bannerets, who are hence fometimes called
knights of the fquare flag. There feems to have been
bannerets created either in a different manner, or by
others than the fovereign ; fince King James, in the pa¬
tent of baronets, gives them precedence to all knights-
bannerets, except fuch as are created by the king himftlf
in the field;- which implies, eithier that there are fome of
this order created out of the field, or by inferior perfons.
Banneret is alfo the name of an officer or magi-
ftrate of Rome towards the clofe of the 14th century.
—The people of that city, and throughout the terri¬
tory of the church, during the difputes of the anti¬
popes, had formed a kind of republican government
where the whole power was lodged in the hands of a
magiftrate called fenator, and twelve heads of quarters
called bannerets, by reafon of the banners which each
raifed in his diftriit.
BANNOCK, a kind of oat-cake, baked in the em¬
bers, or on a ftone placed before the fire. It is common Banmitn
in the northern parts of this kingdom. j|
B ANNUM,. in law, fignifies the utpioft bounds of Bantam,
a manor or town.
BANQUET, a feaft or entertainment where people
regale themfelves with pleafant foods or fruits.
Banquet, in the menage, that fmall part of the
branch of a Bridle that is under the eye ; which being
rounded like a fmall rod, gathers and joins the extre¬
mities of the bit to the branch, in fuch a manner that
the banquet is not feen, but covered by the cope, or
that part of the bit that is next the branch.
BnN$uEr-Line, an imaginary line drawn, in making
a bit, along the banquet, and prolonged up or down,
to adjuft the defigned force or weaknefs of the branch,
in order to make it ftiff or eafy.
Banquet, or Banquette, in fortification, a little
foot-bank, or elevation of earth, forming a path which
runs along the infide of a parapet, upon which the
mulketeers get up, in order to difeover the counter-
fcarp, or to fire on the enemy, in the moat or in the
covert-way.
BANQUETING room or house. See Saloon.
The ancient Romans fupped in the atrium, or vefti-
bule, of their houfes ; but, in after times., magnificent
faloons, or banqueting-rooms, were built, for the more
commodious and fplendid entertainment of their guefts.
Lucullus had ieveral of theie, each diftinguifhed by the
name of fome god; and there was a particular rate of
expence appropriated to each. Plutarch relates with
what magnificence he entertained Cicero and Pompey,
who went with defign to lurprife him, by telling only a
Have who waited, that the cloth ftiould be laid in the
Apollo. i he emperor Claudius, among others, had a
fplendid banqutting-room named Mercury. But every
thing of this kind was outdone by the luftre of that
celebrated banqueting-houfe of Nero,, called-i/owztt/ au-
rea; which, by the circular motion of its partitions
and ceilings, imitated the revolution of the heavens,
and reprefented the different feafona of the year, which
changed at every fervice, and fhowered down flowers,
effences, and perfumes, on the guefts.
BANSTICKLE, in ichthyology. See Gastero
steus.
BANTAM, a large town of the ifland of Java, in
the Ealt Indies, fituated in E. Long. 105.16. S. Lat.
6.20. It is the.capital of a kingdom of the fame
name, with a good harbour and fortified caftle. It is^
divided into two towns, feparated by a river, and one
of them inhabited by the Chinefe. For its hiftory, &c.
fee Java.
Bantam-work, a kind of painted or carved work,
refembling that of Japan, onlymore gaudy.
There are two forts of Bantam, as well as of Japan
work. As, in the latter, fome are flat, lying even
with the black, and others high and tmboffed ; fo, in
Bantam-work, fome are flat, and others in cut, or
carved into the wood, as we find in many large fereens i
with this difference, that the Japan arlifts work chiefly
in gold and other metals ; and thofe of Bantam gene¬
rally in colours, with a fmall fprinkliug of goiu nere
and there : for the flat Bantam-work is done in colours,
mixed with gum-water, proper for the thing deligned
to be imitated. For the carved, 9r in-cut kind, the
method of performing it is thus deferibed by an in¬
genious
BAP
[ 789 1
BAP
genious artift: I. The wood is to be primed with
whiting and fize, fo often, till the primer lie near a
’ quarter of an inch thick; then it is to be water plain¬
ed, e. rubbed with a fine wet cloth, and, fome time
after, rubbed very fmooth, the blacks laid on, varnifhed
up with a good body, and polifhed well, though with
a gentle hand This done, the defign is to be traced
out with vermilion and gum-water, exa&ly in the
manner wherein it is intended to be cut; the figures,
trees, buildings, &c. in their due proportion : then the
graver is applied, with other tools of proper fhapes,
differing according to the workman’s fancy : with thefe
he cuts deep or fhallow, as is found convenient, but
never deeper than the whiting lies, the wood being
never to feel the edge of the inftrument. Lines, or
parts of the black, are HOI to be left for the draperies,
and other outlines, and for the diflindion of one
thing from another ; the rule being to cut where the
white is, and leave the black untouched. The carving
being finifhed, then take to the pencil, with which the
colours are laid into the cut-work : after this, the gold
is to be laid in thofe places which the defign requires ;
gave men the peffe&ion of Chriitian:, and a right to Baptifm.
partake of the To To.imv, which was the Lord’s Supper •' —
it had alfo the name of and the ini¬
tiation, becaufe it was the admittance of men to alj the
facred rites and myfleries of theChriftian religion.
Baptifm has been fuppofed by many learned authors Its or;g;n>
to have had its origin from the Jewifh church, in&£.
which, as they maintain, it was the pradfice long be¬
fore Chrill’s time, to baptize prolelytesor converts to
their faith, as part of the ceremony of their admiffion ;
a pradlice which, according to fome, obtains among
them to this day ; a perfon turning Jew', is firil cir-
cumcifed, and, w'hen healed, is bathed, or baptized in
water, in prefence of their rabbins; after which he is
reputed a good Jew. Others, however, iulift that the
Jewifh profelyte baptifm is not by far fo ancient, and
that John the Baptill was the firlt adminillrator of
baptifm among the Jews. Of this opinion were Dey-
lingius, J. G. Carpzovius, Boernerus, Wernfdoriius,
Zeltnerus, Owen, Knatchbull, Jennings, Gill, and o-
thers.
Grotius is of opinion, that the rite of baptifm had
for which purpofe, a ftrong thick gum-arabic -water is its original from the time of the deluge ; immediately
taken and laid with a pencil on the work ; and, while
this remains wet, leaf-gold is cut with a fharp fmooth
edged knife, in little pieces, fhaped to the bignefs and
figure of the places where they are to be laid. Thefe
being taken up with a little cotton, they daub them
with the lame clofe to the gum-water, which affords a
rich luftre. The work thus finifhed, they clear up the
black with oil, taking care not to touch the colours.
The European workmen ordinarily ufe brafs-duft, which
is lefs bright, and beautiful.
BANTR.Y, a town of Ireland, i
Corfc, and province of Munfter. It
of the fame name, in W. Long. 9. jy. N. Lat. 51. 30.
BAOBAB, the name given by Profper Alpinus to
the African calabafli-tree, fince called Adansoni'a.
See that article.
BAPTISM, in matters of religion, the ceremony
of wafhing ; or a facrament, by which a perfon is ini¬
tiated into the Chriftian church. The word is formed
from the Greek of fta-rlu, to dip, or <wajh. Bap¬
tifm is known, in ecclefiaflical writers, by divers other
names and titles. Sometimes it is called palingenejia.
after which, he thinks, it was inflituted in memory of
the world having been purged by water. Some learned
men think it was added to circumcifion, foon after the
Samaritan fchifm, as a mark of diftin&ion to the ortho¬
dox Jews. Spencer, who is fond of deriving the rites
of the Jewifh religion from the ceremonies of the Pa¬
gans, lays it down as a probable fuppofition, that the
Jews received the baptifm of profelytes from the neigh¬
bouring nations, who were wont to prepare candidates
for the more facred fundtions of their religion, by a fo-
the county of lemn ablution ; that, by this affinity of facred rites,
feated on a bay they might draw the Gentiles to embrace their religion,
and that the profelytes (in gaining of whom they were
extremely diligent) might the more eafily comply with
the tranfition from Gentilifm to Judaiim. In confir¬
mation of this opinion, he obferves, firft, that there is
no divine precept for the baptifm of profelytes, God
having enjoined only the rite of circumcifion for the
admiffion of flrangers into the Jewifh religion. Se¬
condly, that, among foreign nations, the Egyptians, Per-
fians, Greeks, Romans, and others, it was cultomary that
thofe who were to be initiated into their myfteries, or fa*
or iaver of regeneration; fometimes falus, or life and cred rites, fhould be firil purified by dipping their whole
Bingham
Orig. £ec
falvation; fometimes appayt;, fgnaculum Domini, and
fignaculum fidei, or the feal of faith; fometimes abfo-
lutely myferium, and facramentwn; fometimes the fa¬
crament offaith; fometimes viaticum, from its being
adminiilered to departing p rfons ; foinetimes facerdo-
r titan laid, or the lay priejlhood, becaufe allowed, in cafes
''/-of neceffity, to be conferred by laymen : fometimes it is
body in water. That learned writer adds, as a farther
confirmation of his opinion, that the cup of bleffing
likewife, added to the pafchal fupper, feems plainly to
have been derived from a pagan original ; for the
Greeks, at their feafts, had one cup, called TTOTnplOV
a>«Sa Sai^otoc, the cup of the good daman or god, which
they drank at the conclufion of their entertainment.
called x\*<i great drciw’cijion, becaufe it was imagined to when the table was removed. Since then, a rite of
iucceed in the room of circumcifion, and to be a feal of Gentile origin was added to one of the Jewifh facra-
the Chriftian covenant, as that v
nant made with Abraham: fo, i
Chrifl for its author, and not n
is the feal of the cove-
egard that baptifin had
ments, viz. the paffover, there can be no abfurdity in
fuppofing, that baptifm, which was added to the other
by the name of and Kupm, the gift of the
Lord: fometimes it was limply called Sap*,, without any
other addition, by way of eminence, becaufe it was
t was anciently known facrament, namely circumcifion, might be derived from
the fame fource. In the laft place, he obferves, that
Chrifl, in the inflitution of his facraments, paid a pe¬
culiar regard to thofe rites which were borrowed from.
both a gratuitous and lingular gift of Chrifl : in refe- the Gentiles : for, rejedling circumcifion and the pafchal
fence to the making men complete members of Chriit’s fupper, he adopted into his religion baptifm and the
body, the church, it had the name of Tixt/wo-ir, and facred cup; thus preparing the way for the converfion
Tfxijy, the confecration, and canfunwiation} becaufe it and reception of the Gentiles into his church.
The
BAP
•Baptifm,
t 79° ]
BAP
The defign of the Jewifti baptifm, if baptifm be
/ pra&ifed by them, is fuppofed to be, to import a rege¬
neration, whereby the profelyte is rendered a new man,
tind of a Have becomes free. The effeft of it is, to cancel
ell former relations; fo that thofe who were before akin
to the perfon, after the ceremonyceafed to be fo. It is to
this ceremony Chriil is fuppofed to have alluded, in his
expreflion to Nicodemus, that it was necelTary he ihould
be born again, in order to become his difciple.—The
Salmafius, and Suicerus from him, deliver it as Baptifm.
authentic hiftory, that for the two firft ages, no one^A^^g
received baptifm, who was not firlt initru&ed in the
faith and dodlrine of Chrift, fo as to be able to an-
fwer for himfelf, that he believed; becaufe of thofe
words. He that belineth, and is baptized: which, in
effeft, is to fay, that no infant, for the firft two ages,
was ever admitted to Chriftian baptifm. But, after¬
wards, they own, that psedo-baptifm came in, upon
neceffity of baptifm to falvation, is grounded on thofe the opinion- that baptifm was neceflaVy to falvation,
two fayings of our Saviour : He that believeth, and is But Voflius. Dr Forbes, Dr Hammond, Mr Walker,
baptized, Jhall be fared; and, Except a man be born of and efpecially Mr Wall, who has exactly confidered
Opinions
concerning
'water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the king-
°f God.—The ancients did not generally think the
theneceflity mere want of baptifm, where the procuring it was im-
of baptifm “prafticable, excluded men abfolutely from the hopes of
<tpfalvation. eternal falvation. Some few of them, indeed, are pret¬
ty fevere upon infants dying without baptifm ; and fome
■others feem alfo, in general terms, to deny eternal life
to adult perfons dying without it : but when they in¬
terpret themfelves, and fpeak more diftindtly, they
make fome allowances, and except feveral cafes, in
the teftimony and authority of almoft every ancient
writer that has faid any thing upon this fubjeit, en¬
deavour to evince, that infants were baptifed even in
the apoftolical age. It is certain, Tertullian pleads
ftrongly againft giving baptifm to infants; which Aiows,
at leaft, that there was fome fuch pradfice in his age,
though he difapproved of it. It is certain, the ordinary
fubjedts of this facrament in the firft ages were Con¬
verts from Judaifm and Gentilifm, who, before they
could be admitted to baptifm, were obliged to fpend
which the wTant of baptifm may be fupplied by other fome time in the ftate of catechumens, to qualify them
means. Such are, martyrdom, which commonly goes
by the name of fecond baptifm in mens o'wn blood, in the
writings of the ancients ; becaufe of the power and ef¬
ficacy it was thought to have, to fave men by the in-
vifible baptifm of the fpirit, without the external ele¬
ment of water. Faith, and repentance, were alfo e-
fteemed a fupplement to the want of baptifm, in fuch
catechumens as died while they were pioufly preparing
themfelves for baptifm. Conftantly communicating
to make their profefiions of faith, and a Chnftian life,
in their own perfons : for, without fuch perfonal pro-
feflions, there were ordinarily no admiflion of them to
the privilege of baptifm. Thofe baptifed in their
fick beds were called clinics ; and were held in fome re¬
proach, as not being reputed true Chriftians. Flence
feveral cenfures, in councils and ecclefiaftical writers,
of clinic baptifm. This clinic baptifm was not fuffi-
cient to qualify the perfon, in cafe of recovery, for
with the church, was thought to fupply the want of ordination. Some had their baptifm put off by way
of punifhment, when they fell into grofs and fcanda-
lous crimes, which were to be expiated by a longer
courfe of difcipline and repentance. This was fome-
times 5, 10, 20 years, or more ; even all their lives, to
the hour of death, when their crimes were very flagrant.
In the earlieft ages of the church, there wras no ftated
time or place for the reception of baptifm. After¬
wards, Eafter, Whitfuntide, and Epiphany, became
folemn feafons, out of which baptifm was not admi-
niftered, except in cafes of neceffity. The catechu¬
mens, who w'erc to receive it at thefe times, were called
competentes : and to thefe it is that St Cyril addreffes
his catechefes. In the apoftolical age, and fome time
baptifm, in perfons who had been admitted to
munion, on a prefumption of their being duly bap¬
tifed, though the contrary afterwards appeared. For
infants dying without baptifm, the cafe was thought
more dangerous : as here, no perfonal faith, repen¬
tance, or the like, could be pleaded, to fupply the de-
feft, and wafli away original fin : on this account,
they who fpoke moft favourably of them, as Greg. Na-
zianzen, and Severus bifhop of Antioch, only affigned
them a middle ftate, neither in heaven nor hell. But
the Latins, as St Auguftin, Fulgentius, Marius Mer¬
cator, See. who never received the opinion of a mid¬
dle ftate, concluded, as they could not be received
into heaven, they muft go to hell. Pelagias, and his after, before churches and baptifteries were generally
followers, who denied original fin, afferted, that they erected, they baptized in any place where they had
might be admitted to eternal life and falvation, though convenience; as John baptized in Jordan, and Philip
not to the kingdom of heaven ; between which they baptized the eunuch in the wildernefs, and Paul the
diftinguilhed. Where the fault was not on the fide of jailor in his own houfe. But in after ages, baptifteries
the child, nor his parents, but of the minifter, or were built adjoining to the church ; and then rules
where any unavoidable accident rendered baptifm ab- were made, that baptifm (hould ordinarily be admini-
folutely impoffible, Hincmar, and others, make an ex- ftered no where but in thefe buildings. Juftinian, in
ception, in holding the child faved without baptifm. one of his novels, refers to ancient laws, appointing
Oflthetime ^ie rece*vmg baptifm is not limited to anytime, or that none of the facred myfteries of the church fhould
place, and age of life. Some contended for its being adminifter- be celebrated in private houfes. Men might have pri-
iubjtcts of ed like circumcifion, precifely on the eighth day, as vate oratories for prayer in their own houfes ; but they
fiaptifm. Greg. Nazianzen ; and others would have it deferred were not to adminifter baptifm or the eucharift in them,
till the child is three years of age, and able to hear the unlefs by a particular licence from the bifhop of the
myftic words, and make anfwer thereto, though they place. Such baptifms are frequently condemned in
do not underftand them. In the canon law we find
divers injunftions againft deferring the baptifm of in¬
fants beyond the 37th day, s. th day, and the 9th day ;
fome of them under pecuniar y forfeitures.
Tupa/iaxha ftalx,
the ancient councils, under the name
baptifms in private conventicles.
As to the attendant ceremonies and manner of bap- Ancient
tifm in the ancient church ; The perfon to be baptized, ceremonies;
if
BAP [ 79i 1 BAP
Baptifm. IF”'an adult, was firft: examined by the biihop or ofR-
“■—V*1"*-'dating prieft, who put fome queftions to him ; as, firlt,
Whether he abjured the devil and all his works; fecond-
ly. Whether he gave a firm aflent to all the articles of
the Chriftian faith : to both which he anfwered in the
affirmative. If the perfon to be baptized was an in¬
fant, thefe interrogatories were anfwered by his fpon-
fores, or godfathers. Whether the ufe of fponfors
was as old as the apoftles days, is uncertain : perhaps
it was not, fince Juftin Martyr, fpeaking of the me¬
thod and form of baptifm, fays not a word of them.—
After the queftions and anfwers, followed exorcifm; the
manner and end of which was this : The minifter laid
his hands on the perfon’s head, and breathed in his
face, implying thereby the driving away or expelling
of the devil from him, and preparing him for baptifm,
by which the good and holy fpirit was to be conferred
upon him—After exorcifm, followed baptifm itfelf:
and firft the minifter, by prayer, confecrated the water
for that ufe. Tertullian fays, “ any waters may be
“ applied to that ufe : but then God muft be firft in-
“ vocated ; and then the Holy Ghoft prefently comes
“ down from heaven, and moves upon them, and fanc-
“ tifies them.” The water being confecrated, the per¬
fon was baptifed “ in the name of the Father, and of
“ the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft by which “ de-
“ dication of him to the blefled Trinity, the perfon
“ (fays Clemens Alexandrinus) is delivered from the
corrupt trinity, the devil, the world, and the fleffi.”
In performing the ceremony of baptifm, the ufual
cuftom (except in clinical cafes, or where there was
fcarcity of water), was to immerfe and dip the whole
body. Thus St Barnabas, defcribing a baptifed per
fon, fays, “ We go down into the water full of fin
“ and filth, but we afcend bearing fruit in our hearts.”
And this pra&ice of immerfing the whole body was fb
general, that we find no exceptions made in refpeft ei¬
ther to the tendernefs of infants, or the baffifulnefs of
the other fex, unlefs in cafe of ficknefs or other difabi-
lity. But to prevent any indecency, men and women
were baptized apart. To which end, cither the bap-
tifteries were divided into two apartments, one for the
men, the other for the women, as Bingham has obfer-
ved; or the men were baptized at one time, and the
women at another, as is ftiown by Voffius, from the
Or do Romanus, Gregory’s Sacra?ne>itariuin, &c. Add,
that there wras anciently an order of deaconefles, one
part of whofe bufinefs was to affift at the baptifm of
women. Thefe precautions, however, rather indicate
a fcrupulous attention to delicacy, than imply any in¬
decency in the circumftance of immerfion itfelf From
the candidates being immerfed, there is at lead no rea-
fon to infer that they were naked: The prefent Bap-
tifts never baptize naked, though they always immerfe.
After immerfion, followed the unftion ; by which (fays
St Cyril) was fignified, that they were now cut off
from the wild olive, and were ingrafted into Chrift,
the true olive-tree ; or elfe to (how, that they were
now to be champions for the gofpel, and were anointed
thereto, as the old athletas were againft their folemn
games. With this anointing was joined the fign of the
crofs, made upon the forehead of the perfon baptized ;
which being done, he had a white garment given him,
to denote his being wafhed from the defilements of fin,
or in allufion to that of the apoftle, “ as many as are
“ baptized into Chrift have put on Chrift.” From this
cuftom the feaft of Penteqoft, which was one of the Baptifn*.
annual feafons of baptifm, came to be called IVhitfmday, —
i. e. White-funday. This garment was afterwards laid
up in the church, that it might be an evidence againft
fuch perfons as violated or denied that faith which
they had owned in baptifm.— When the baptifm was
performed, the perfon baptized, according to Juftin
Martyr, “ w^as received into the number of the faith-
“ ful, who then fent up their public prayers to God,
“ for all men, for themfelves, and for thofe who had
“ been baptized.”
The ordinary minifters, who had the right of ad-
miniftering this facrament, that is, of applying the
water to the body, and pronouncing the formula, were
prefbyters or biftiops ; though on extraordinary occa-
fions, laymen were admitted to perform the fame.
As to the prefent fonn of a iminiftering baptifm, Modern
the church of Rome ufes the following. When a,°rnl',•
child is to be baptized, the perfons who bring g.
wait for the prieft at the door of the church, who
comes thither in his furplice and purple Hole, attended
by his clerks. He begins with queftioning the god¬
fathers, whether they promife, in the child’s name, to
live and die in the true catholic and apoftolic faith, and
what name they would give the child. Then follows
an exhortation to the fponfors ; after which the prieft,
calling the child by its name, alks it as follows : What
doji thou demand of the church ? The godfather an¬
fwers, Eternal life. The prieft goes on : If you are de*
from of obtaining eternal life, keep God's commandments,
thou Jhalt love the ordihy God, &c. After which he
breathes three times in the child’s face, faying, Come
out of this child, thou evil fpirit, and make room for the
Holy Ghof. This laid, he makes the fign of the crofs
on the child’s forehead and breaft, faying, Receive the
fign of the crofs on thy forehead, and in thy heart. Then-
taking off his cap, he repeats a fhort prayer; and laying
his hand gently on the child’s head, repeats a fecond
prayer : which ended, he bleffes (ome fait; and putting
a little of it into the child’s mouth, pronounces thefe
words, Receive the fait of ‘wifdom. All this is per¬
formed at the church-door. The prieft, with the god¬
fathers and god-mothers, coming into the church, and
advancing towards the font, repeat the apoftles-creed
and the Lord’s-prayer. Being come to the font, the
prieft exorcifes the evil fpirit again ; and taking a little
of his own fpittle, with the thumb of his right-hand,
rubs it on the child’s ears and noftrils, repeating, as he
touches the right ear, the fame word (Ephatha, be thou
opened) which our Saviour made ufe of to the man born
deaf and dumb. Laftly, they pull off its fwaddling-
cloaths, or ftrip it below the ffioulders, during which
the prieft prepares the oils, &c. The fponfors then
hold the child direftly over the font, obferving to turn
it due eaft and weft : whereupon the prieft aiks the
child, Whether he renounces the devil and all his -works ;
and the godfather having anfwered in the affirmative,,
the prieft anoints the child between the (houlders in the
form of a crofs. Then taking fome of the confecrated
water, he pours part of it thrice on the child’s head,
at each perfufion calling on one of the Perfons of the
Holy Trinity. The prieft concludes the ceremony of
baptifm with an exhortation.—The Romifti church al¬
lows midwifes, in cafes of danger, to baptize a child
before it is come entirely out of its mother’s womb r
where it is tq be obferved, that fome part of the body^
BAP f 792 ] BAP
Baptifm, of the child muft appear before it can be baptized, and during the bloody reign of queen Mary, and re turning Baptifm. >!
w^V^^that it is baptized on the part which firft appears : if home when queen Elizabeth came to the crown, brought
it be the head, it is not neceffary to rebaptize the child; back with them a great zeal for the Proteltant churches
but if only a foot or hand appears, it is neceffafy to re- beyond fea, where they had been flickered and received;
peat baptifm. A flillborn .child, thus baptized, may and having obferved, that at Geneva and fome other
be buried'in confecrated ground. places, baptifpi was adminiftered by fprinkling, they
The Greek church differs from the Romifh, as to the thought they could not do the church of England a
rite of baptifm, chiefly, in performing it by immcrfxon, greater piece of fervice than by introducing a praftice
or plunging the infant a'l Over in the water. k.. rz ——<■ -» r*“,”i** rrk;“ *■—»-
The forms of adminiftering baptifm among us being
form mthetoo wej] known to require a particular defeription, we
litnrgy of on]y mention one ortw’o of the more material dif-
Js-l*.award.  <   .t . r   r:_n.
In the
Greek
Englifh
’ ferences between the form, as it flood in the firft litur¬
gy of king Edward, and that in the Englifli Com¬
mon-Prayer Book at prefent. Firft, the form of con-
fecrating the water did not make a part of the office,
:in King Edward’s liturgy, as it does in the prefent,
'becaufe the water-in the font was changed, and confe
dictated by fo great an oracle as Calvin. This, toge¬
ther wfith the coldnefs of our northern climate, was
what contributed to banifli entirely the practice of dip¬
ping infants in the font.
Many different notions have been entertained con-Notion* §1
cerning the effects of baptifm, wTich it would be end-conoernin^d
lefs to enumerate.—The Remonftrants and Sociniansffi6 effe**fl
reduce baptifm to a mere fign of divine grace. Theof bif>t m*|j
Romanifts, on the contrary, exalt its powrer ; hold¬
ing, that all fin is entirely taken away By it; that it
crated but once a month. The form likewife itfelf abfolutely confers the grace of juftification, and
was fomething different from that now ufed ; and w'as fequently grace ex ope re operetta. Some alfo fpeak of
'ntroduced with a ffiort prayer, that Jefus Chriji, upon an indelible character impreffedon the foul by it, call-
•whoin (when he was baptized) the Holy Ghojl came down
in the likenefs of a dove, would fend down the fame Holy
:Spirit, to fanftify the fountain of baptifm ; which prayer
■was afterwards left out, at the fecund review.— By
King Edward’s firft book, the minifter is to dip the
.child in the water thrice ; firft, dipping the right fide;
fecondly, the left; the third time, dipping the face to¬
ward the font. This trine immerfion was a very an-
.cient praftice in the Chriftian church, and ufed in ho¬
ed char after dominicas, and char after regius : but this
is held, by others, a mere chimera; for that the fpi-
ritual character, conferred in regeneration, may eafily
be effaced by mortal fins. Dodwell maintained, that
it is by baptifm the foul is made immortal ; fo that,
thofe who die without it will not rife again. It muff
be added, he reftrains this effeft to epifcopal baptifm
alone. From the effedts ordinarily aferibed to bap¬
tifm, even by ancient waiters, it ffiould feem, that the
as Jewifh origin ;
: ufe of it, like the
v members into the church,
tinuance in the grave. Afterwards, the Arians ma- but hold, with the heathens, a virtue in it for remit-
king an ill ufc of it, by perfuading the people that it ting and waffiing away fins. The Bramirts are ftill
was ufed to denote that the three Perfons in the Tri- faid to baptize with this latter view, at certain fea-
nity were three diftindt fubftances, the orthodox left it fons, in the river Ganges ; to the waters whereof they
off, and ufed only one Angle immerfion. have annexed a cleanfing or fandtifying quality ; and
By the firft common-prayer of King Edward, after hence it is that they flock from all parts, even of Tar-
tbe child was baptized, the godfathers and godmothers tary, driven by the expedlation of their being eafed
were to lay their hands upon it, and the minifter was of their load of fins. But, in this point, many Chri-
to put on him the white veftment commonly called the ftians feem to have gone beyond the folly of the hea-
chryfome, and to fay, “ Take this white vefture, as a thens. It was only the fmaller fins of infirmity which
token of the innocency, which, by God’s grace, in thefe latter held to be expiable by wafhing ; for crimes
this holy facrament of baptifm, is given unto thee;
and for a fign, whereby thou art admoniftied, fo long as
thou liveft, to give thyfelf to innocence of living, that
of a blacker dye, they allowed no water could efface
them, no purgation could difeharge them. The Chri¬
ftian dodfrine of a total remiflion of fins by baptifm
after this tranfitory life thou mayeft be partaker of could not fail, therefore, to fcandalize many among
the life everlafting. Amen.” As foon as he had pro'
nounced thefe words, he was to anoint the infant on
the head, faying, “ Almighty God, the father of our
Lord Jefus Chrift, who hath regenerated thee by wa¬
ter and the Holy Ghofl, and hath given unto thee re-
miffion of all thy fins ; may he vouchfafe to anoint thee
the heathens, and furnifhed Julian an occafion of fati
rifing Chriftianity itfelf: “ Whoever (fays he) is guilt
of rapes, murders, facrilege, or any abominable crime
let him be waffied with water, and he will become pur
and holy.”
In the ancient church, baptifm was frequently con-
with the undtion of his Holy Spirit, and briag-tKee to ferred on Jews by violence ; but the church itfelf never
the inheritance of everlafting life. Amen.” This was feems to have allowed of force on this occafion. By
.nifeftly done in imitation of the pradfice of the pri¬
mitive church.
canon of the fourth council of Toledo, it is exprtfs-
ly forbid to baptize any againft their wills. That
The cuftom of fprinkling children, inftead of dip- which looks moft like force in this cafe, allowed by
ping them in the font, which at firft was allowed in law, were two orders of Juftinian; one of which ap-
cafe of the weaknefs or ficknefs of the infant, has fo points the heathens, and the other Samaritans, to be
far prevailed, that immerfion is at length quite exclu- baptized, with their wives and children and fervants,
ded. What principally tended to confirm the pradtice under pain of confifcation. By the ancient laws, bap-
pf affufion or fprinkling, was, that feveral of our Pro- tifm was not to be conferred on image-makers, ftage-
teftant divines, flying into Germany and Switzerland players, gladiators, attriga or public drivers, magi-
jqo 40. cians,
BAP t 793 ] BAP
3 Biptifm. clans, or even ftmlllng beggars, till they quitted fuch
'V-—' profeffions. Slaves were not allowed the privilege of
baptifm without the teftimony and confent of their
Wt’ghctm mailers ; excepting the flaves of Jews, Heathens, and
l 7f c 5. heretics, who were not only admitted to baptifm, but,
§ 4.1. 8. in confequence thereof, had their freedom. Vofiius
c.u.§ 17- has a learned and elaborate work De Baplifmo, where¬
in he accurately difeuffes all the queftions concerning
baptifm according to the doftrine of the ancients.
Baptism by Fire, fpoken of by St John the Baptift,
has occafioned much conje&ure. The generality of the
fathers held, that believers, befor they enter paradife,
are to pafs through a certain fire, which is to purify
them from all pollutions remaining on them unexpia¬
ted. Others, with St Bafil, underftand it of the fire
I of hell; others, of that of tribulation and temptation.
Others, with St Chryfoftom, will have it denote an a-
bundance of graces. Others fuppofe it to mean the de-
feent of the Holy Ghoft on the apoftles, in form of
fiery tongues. Lallly, others maintain, that the word
fire here is an interpolation ; and that we are only to
read the text. He that Jhall come after me ‘will baptize
you ‘with the Holy Ghofi. In reality, it is not found in
9 divers manufeript copies of St Matthew.
The ancient Selucians and Hermians, underftand-
ing the palfage literally, maintained, that material lire
was neceffary in the adminiftration of baptifm. But
we do not find how or to what part of the body they ap¬
plied it, or whether they were fatisfied with obliging
the perfon baptized to pafs through the fire. Valenti¬
nus rebaptized all who had received water-baptifm, and
conferred on them the baptifm of fire.
Bis docuit tingi, traduBoque corpore fiamma.
Tertull. Cam. contr. Marc. 1. r.
Heracleon, cited by Clemens Alexandrinus, fays, that
feme applied a red-hot iron to the ears of the perfon
baptized, as if to imprefs fome mark upon him.
Baptism of the Dead, a cuftom which anciently pre¬
vailed among fome people in Africa, of giving baptifm
to the dead. The third council of Carthage fpeaks of
it as a thing that ignorant Chriftians were fond of.
Gregory Nazianzen tdfo takes notice of the fame fuper-
flitious opinion prevailing among fome who delayed to
be baptized. In his addrefs to this kind'of men, he
afks, whether they ftaid to be baptized after death ?
Philaftrius alfo notes it as the general error of the Mon-
. tanifts or Cataphrygians, that they baptized men after
v^eath. The praAice feems to be grounded on a vain
©pinion, that, when men had negleAed to receive bap-
^. tifm in their life-time, fome compenfation might be
made for this default by receiving it after death.
Baptifm of the Dead was alfo a fort of vicarious
baptifm, formerly in ufe, where a perfon dying with¬
out baptifm, another was baptized in his fte.a j.
St Chryfoftom tells us, this was praAifed among
the Marcionites with a great deal of ridiculous cere¬
mony; which he thus deferibes: After any catechu¬
men was dead, they hid a living man under the bed of
the deceafed; then coming to the dead man, they afked
him, whether he would receive baptiTmi’ and he ma¬
king no anfwer, the other anfwered for him, and far’d,
he would be baptized in his Head : and fo they bap-
tifed the living for the dead.
Epiphanius aflures us, the like was alfo praAifed a.-
Vol.1L Part 1L
mong the Corinthians. This praAice they pretended Baptifm.
to found on the apoftle’s authority ; alleging that text v—^
of St Paul for it. If the dead rife not at all, •what Jhall
they do •who are baptized for the dead ? A text which
has given occafion to a gneat variety of different fyftems
and explications. Bolius enumerates no lefs than nine
different opinions among learned divines concerning
the fenfe of the phrafe being baptized for the dead.
St Ambrofe and Walafred Strabo feem clearly of
opinion, that the apoftle had refpeA to fuch a cuftom
then in being; and fevcral moderns have given into the
fame opinion, as Baronins, Jof. Scaliger, Juftellus, and
Grotius.
Several among the Roman-catholics, as Bellarmin,
Salmeron, Menochius, and a number of fchoolmen, un¬
derftand it of the baptifm of tears, and penance, and
prayers, which the living undergo for the dead ; and
thus allege it as a proof of the belief of purgatory in
St Paul’s days.
Hypothetical Baptism, that formerly adminiftered in
certain doubtful cafes, with this formula : If thou art
baptized, I do not rebaptize ; if thou art not, I baptize
thee in the name of the Father, See. This fort of bap¬
tifm, enjoined by fome ancient conllitutions of the Eng-
lifh church, is now fallen into difufe.
Solemn Baptism, that conferred at ftated feafons
fuch, in the ancient church, were the Pafchal baptifm,
and that at Whitfuntide. ' This is fometimes alfo called
general baptifm.
Lay-BAPTisu, we find to have been permitted by
both the Common-prayer Books of King Edward and
that of Queen Elizabeth, when an infant is in imme¬
diate danger of death, and a lawful minifter cannot
be had. This was- founded upon the miftaken notion
of the impoflibility of falvation without the facrament
of baptifm : but afterwards, when they came to have,
clearer notions of the facraments, it was unanimoufly
refolved in a convocation, held in the year 1575, that
even private baptifm, in a cafe of neceflity, was only to
be adminiftered by a lawful minifter.
Baptism is alfo applied, abufively, to certain cere¬
monies ufed in giving names to things inanimate.
The ancients knew nothing of the cuftom of giving
baptifm to inanimate things, as bells, fhips, and the
like, by a fuperftitious confecration of them. The firlt
notice we have of this is in the Capitulars of Charles
the Great, where it is only mentioned to be cenfured
but, afterwards, it crept into the Roman offices by de¬
grees- Baronius carries its antiquity no higher than
the year 968, when the greateft bell of the church of
Lateran was chriftened by Pope John LII. At laft it
grew to that fuperftitious height, as to be thought pro¬
per to be complained of in the Centum Gravamina of
the German nation, drawn up in the public diet of the
empire held at Nurimberg anno 1581 ; where (after
having deferibed the ceremony of baptizing a bell, with
godfathers, who make refgonfes as in baptifm, and
give it a name, and clothe it with a new garment as-
Chriftians were ufed to be clothed, and all this to make
it capable of driving away tempefts and devils), they
conclude againit it, as not only a fuperftitious praAice,,
but contrary to the Chriftian religion, and- a mere fo-
duAion of the fimple people.
Baptism, in the fea language, a ceremony in long,
voyages on board merchant fhips, praAifed both on.
5 H perfon*
BAP [79+1 BAP
Baptismal pitrfons and veflels who pafs the tropic or line for the
B firft time. The baptizing the vefl'el is fimple, and
” 1 ’ confifts only in wafhing them throughout with fea-
*" v water; that of the pafl’engersis more myfterious. The
oldeft of the crew, that has pail the tropic or line,
comes with his face blacked, a grotefque cap on his
head, and fome fea-book in his hand, followed by the
reft of the feamen dreffed like himfelf, each having
fome kitchen utenfil in his hand, with drums beating ;
he places himfelf on a feat on the deck, at-the foot of
the main malt. At the tribunal of this mock magi-
ftrate, each paffenger not yet initiated, fwears he will
take care the fame ceremony be obferved, whenever he
is in the like circumftances : Then, by giving a little
money by way of gratification, he is difcharged with
a little fprinkling of water; otherwife he is heartily
drenched with ftreams of water poured upon him ; and
the fliip-boys are inclofed in a cage, and ducked at dif-
cretion.—The feamen, on the baptizing a (hip, pretend
to a right of cutting off the beak-head, unlefs redeem¬
ed by the captain.
BAPTISMAL, fdmething belonging to baptifm ;
thus we fay baptifmal vow, prefents, &c.
Baptismal Vodj or Covenant, a profefiion of obe¬
dience to the laws of Chrift, which- •perfons in the an¬
cient church made before baptifm. It was an indif-
penfable part of the obligation on catechumens, before
they were admitted to the ceremony of regeneration.
It was made by turning to the Eaft ; for. what myfti-
cal reafons, is not well agreed on.
Baptismal Prefents are in ufe in Germany, made
by the fponfors to the infant, confiding of money,
plate, or even fometimes fiefs of lands ; which by the
laws of the country are to be kept for the child till of
age, the parents having only the the truft, not the right,
of difpofing of them. An anonymous author haspub-
lifhed a difcourfe exprefs on this occafion, intitled, De
pecunia luftrica.
BAPTIST (John), Monnoyer, a painter of flowers
and fruit, vyas born at Lifle in 1635, and educated at
Antwerp, where he perfected himfelf in the knowledge
of his art, and in his firft years was intended for a
painter of hiftory: but having foon. obferved that his
genius more ftongly inclined him to the painting of
flowers, he applied his talents to thofe fubjefts, and in
that ftyle became one of the greateft mafters. His
pi&ures are not fo exquifitely finilhed as thofe of Van
Huyfum, but his compofition and colourifig are in a
bolder ftyle. His flowers have generally a remarkable
freedom and loofenefs, as well in the difpofition as in
penciling; together with a tone of colouring that is
lively, admirable, and nature itfelf. The difpofition of
his objefts is furprifingly elegant and beautiful; and in
that refpeft his compoiitions are eafily known, and as
ealily diftinguilhed from the performances of others.
He died in 1699.—^ a f°n» Anthony, who
painted flowers in the fame ftyle and manner, and had
great merit.
BAPTISTS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, (from
I baptize') ; a denomination of Chriftians, diftinguiftied
from other Chriftians by their particular opinions re-
fpe&ing the mode and the fubjefts of baptifm.
Inftead of adminifteritig the ordinance by fprinkling
■v* or pouring water, they maintain that it ought to be
adminiftered only by immerfion. Such, they infill, is
the meaning of the word; fo that a command Baptifh. -
to baptize is a command to immerfe. Thus it was
underftood by thofe who firft adminiftered it. John
the Baptift, and the apoftles of Chrift, adminiftered it
in Jordan and other rivers, and places where there was
much water. Both the adminiftrators and the fubjedls
are defcribed as going down into, and coming up again
out of, the water ; and the baptized are faid to be
buried in baptifm, and to be railed again ; which lan¬
guage could not, they fay, be properly adopted on
(uppofition of the ordinance being adminiftered in any
other manner than by imrqis.rfion. Thus alfo, they af¬
firm, it was in general atdminiftered in the primitive
church. Thus it is now admihiftered in the Ruffian
and Greek church : and thus it is, at this day, direded
to be adminiftered in the church of England, to all
who are thought capable of fubmitting to it in this
manner. With regard to the fubjeds afrbaptifm, the
baptifts fay, that this ordinance ought not to be admi¬
niftered to children or infants at all, nor to grown up
perfons in general; but to adults only of a certain cha-
rader and defcription. Our Saviour’s commiffion to
his apoftles, by which Chriftian baptilm was inftitu-
ted, is to go and teach all nations, baptizing them:
that is, fay they, not to baptize all they meet with ;
but firft to inftrud them—to teach all nations, or to
preach the gofpel to every creature—and whoever re¬
ceives it, him to baptize in the name of the Father,
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft. To fiich
perfons, and to fuch only, baptifm appears to have been
adminiftered by the apoftles, and the immediate dif-
ciples of Chrift. They are defcribed as repenting of
their fins, as believing in Chrift, and as having gladly
received the word. Without thefe qualifications, Pe¬
ter acquaints thofe who were converted by his fermon,
that he could not have admitted them to baptifm.
Philip holds the fame language in his difcourfe with
the eunuch; and Paul treats Lydia, the jailor, and
others, in the fame manner. Without thefe qualifica¬
tions, Chriftians in general think it wrong to admit
perfons to the Lord’s fupper ; and, for the fame rea¬
fons, without thefe qualifications, at lead a profefiion
of them, the Baptifts think it wrong to admit any to
baptifm. Wherefore they with-hold it, not only from
the impenitently vicious and profane, and from infidels
who have no faith ; but alfo from infants and children,
who have no knowledge, and are incapable of every
a&ion civil and religious. They further infill, that
all pofitive inftitutions depend entirely upon the will
and declaration of the inftitutor; and therefore, that
reafoning by analogy from abrogated Jewiftt rites is to
be rejedled, and the exprefs commands of Chrift re-
fpedling the mode and fubjedts of baptifm ought to
be our only rule.
The Baptifts in England form one of the denomina¬
tions of Proteftant Diffenters. They feparate from the
eftablifhment for the fame reafons as their brethren of
the other denominations do ; and’from additional mo¬
tives derived from their particular tenets refpedling
baptifm. The conftitution of their churches, and their
modes of worlhip, are congregational or independent:
in the exercife of which they are protedled, in com¬
mon with other diffenters, by the a<fr of toleration. Be¬
fore this a6l, they were liable to pains and penalties
as nonconformifts, and often for their peculiar fenti-
ments
BAP
f 795 ]
Baptld?, merits as Baptifts. A proclamation was Iffued out a- was a figure of _
^Baptinery gajnft them and fome of them were burnt in Smith- the Holy Ghoft.
BAP
dove in gold or filver ; to reprefent
field in 1538. They bore a confiderable fliare in the
perfecutions of the laft and of the preceding centuries;
and, as it fhould feem, in thofe of fome centuries be¬
fore ; for there were feveral among the Lollards and
the followers of Wickliff, who difapproved of infant-
The name baptijlery is fometimes alfo given to a kind
of chapel in a large church, which ferved for the fame
office. It is an obfervation of fome learned men, that
anciently there was but one baptiftery in a city, and
that at the biihop’s church ; and that afterwards they
baptifm. There were many of this perfuafion among were fet up in parifh churches, with the fpecial allow-
the Proteftants and reformers abroad. In Holland, ance however of the bifhop.
Germany, and the North, they went by the names of ” ^ ’
Anabaptists and M^nnonites ; and, in Piedmont
and the fouth, they were found among the Albigen-
J3AR, in a general fenfe, denotes a flender piece of
wood or iron, for keeping things clofe together.
Bar, in courts of juftice, an inclofure made with a
ses and Waldenses. See the hidories of the Refor- ftrong partition of timber, where the council are pla-
mation, and the above articles in this Dictionary.
The Baptijis fubfift under two denominations, viz.
the Particular or Calviniltical, and the General or Ar-
minian. The former is by far the moft numerous.
Some of both denominations allow of mixed communion,
viz. of perfons who have been fprinkled in their in¬
fancy, and therefore unbaptized in the view of the
Baptifts ; others difallow it : and fome of them ob-
ferve the feventh day of the week as the fabbath, ap¬
prehending the law that enjoined it, not to have been
repealed by Chrift or his apoftles. But a difference
of opinion refpeCting thefe and other matters, is not
peculiar to the Baptifts: it is common to all Chriftians,
and to all bodies of
themfelves.
BAPTISTERY, in ecclefiaftical writers, a place
in which the ceremony of baptifm is performed.
In the ancient church it was one of the exedrse or
buildings diftinCl from the church itfelf: and confifted
of a porch or anti-room where the perfons. to be bap¬
tized made their confeffion of faith, and an inner room
where the ceremony of baptifm was performed. Thus
it continued till the fixth century, when the baptifteries
began to be taken into the church-porch, and after¬
wards into the church itfelf.
The ancient baptifteries were commonly called po1‘-
»■»?!«, photijieria, q. d. places of illumination ; an ap¬
pellation fometimes given to baptifm. Or they might
have the name for another reafon, becaufe they were
ced to plead caufes. It is alfo applied to the benches
where the lawyers or advocates are feated, becaufe an¬
ciently there was a bar to feparate the pleaders from,
the attorneys and others. Hence our lawyers who are
called to the bar, or licenfed to plead, are ternied bar-
rijlers, an appellation equivalent to licentiate in other
countries.
Bar, or Barr, (Latin barra, and in French barre),
in a legal fenfe, is a plea or peremptory exception of a
defendant, fufficient to deftroy the plaintiff’s a£tion.
And it is divided into bar to common intendment, and
bar fpecial; bar temporary, and perpetual. Bar to a
common intendment is an ordinary or general bar, which
who. thirtk and judge for ufually difableth the declaration of the plaintiff; bar
fpecial is that which is mote than ordinary, and falls
out upon fome fpecial circumftance of the fadt as to
the cafe in hand. Bar temporary is fuch a bar as is
good for the prefent, but may afterwards fail; and bar
perpetual is that which overthrows the action of the
plaintiff for ever.
Bar, in heraldry, an ordinary in form of the fefs,
but much lefs. See Heraldry.
Bar, in the manege, the higheft part of that place
of a horfe’s mouth fituated between tire grinders and
tufhes, fo that the part of the mouth which lies under
and at the fide of the bars retains the name of the
gum. A horfe with fenfible bars has a fine light mouth,
with an even and firm appui. See Appci.
To Bar a Vtin, in farriery, is an operation performed
the places of an illumination, or inftru&ion, preceding upon the veins of the legs of a horfe and other parts,
baptifm : for here the catechumens feem to have been with intent to ftop the malignant humours. It is done
trained up, and inftrufted in the firft rudiments of the by opening the fkin above it, difengaging it, and ty-
Chriftian faith.
Thofe baptifteries were anciently very capacious;
becaufe, as Dr Cave obferves, the ftated rimes of bap¬
tifm returning but feldom, there were ufually great
multitudes to be baptized at the fame time : and then
ing it both above and below, and ftriking between the
two ligatures.
Bar, in mufic, a ftroke drawn perpendicularly acrofs
the lines of a piece of mufic, including between each
two a certain quantity or meafure of time, which i
the manner of baptizing, by immerfion, or dipping various as the time of the mufic is either triple or com-
under water, made it neceffary to have a large font mon. In common time, between each two bars is in-
likewife. In Venantius Fortunatus, it is called aula eluded the meafure of four crotchets; in triple, three.
baptifmatis, the large hall of baptifm ; which was in- The principal ufe of bars is to regulate the beating of
deed fo capacious, that we fometimes read of councils time in a concert. The ufe of bars is not to be traced
meeting and fitting therein. This hall, or chapel, was higher than the time when the Englifti tranflation of
always kept Ihut during Lent, and the door fealed up Adrian le Roy’s book on the I’ablature was publiftied,'
with the biffiop’s feal, not to be opened till Maunday-
Thurfday.
The baptiftery was always reputed a facred place.
In the Roman order, we find the ceremonies ufed in
the confecration of the baptifteries : they were to be
built of a round figure, and diftinguifhed with the
image of St John the Baptift ; over the bafon or font
viz. the year 1574; and it was fome time after that
before the ufe of bars became general. To come nearer
to the point, Barnard's cathedral mufic, printed in
1641, is without bars; but bars are to be found
throughout in the Ayres and Dialogues of Henry Lawes
publiftied in 1653; from whence it may be conjectured
that we owe to Lawes this improvement.
5 H 2 ^ Bar,
BAP [ 796 ] ' BAP
Bar, in hydrography, denotes a bank of fand, or Round him turn vertically, in a circle, 12 little chil- Barabinai-
other matter, whereby the mouth of a river is in a dren which reprefent the feraphims; below them, in a||s
another circle, which turns horizontally, are 1 2 more* jjaran-
reprefenting the cherubims : below thefe a fun turns wahr.
vertically, with a child at the extremity of each of the  ;—■*
four principal radii of his circle, who afcend and ^e*
fcend with his rotation, yet ftill Hand upright. Be-
low the fun is the lowed circle, about feven feet from thro' Sicilj,
the ground, in which 12 boys turn horizontally with-&c.
out interruption: thefe are intended for the twelve
apoftles, who are fuppofed to furround the tomb of
manner choaked up.
The term bar is alfo ufed for a ftrong beam where¬
with the entrance of a harbour is fecured : This is more
commonly called boom.
Bar of a tavern or coffee-houfe, the place where the
waiters attend to anfwer the calls of the cuftomers.
Bar, among printers, denotes a piece of iron with
a wooden handle, whereby the fcrew of the prefs is
turned in printing. See Printing.
Bars of Iron, are made of the metal of the fows and the Virgin at the moment when Ihe afcends into hea-
pigs as they come from the furnace. Thefe pafs thro’ ven. This complication of fuperftitious whirligigs
two forges called the finery and the chaufery; where, may have already nearly turned the ftomachs of fome
undergoing five feveral heats, they are formed into of our readers, or at leaft rendered them fqueamilh.
bars.
Bar, a very ftrong city of Podolia in Poland upon
the river Kiow. E. Long. 28. 30. N. Lat. 50. 6.
Bar, a duchy of France, bounded on the eaft by
But think of the poor little cherubims, feraphims, and
apoftles, who are twirled about in this proceffion ! for,
fays Mr Houel, u fome of them fall afleep, many of
them vomit, and feveral do ftill worfe but thefe un-
Lorrain, on the north by Luxembourg, on the weft feemly effufions are no drawback upon the edification
by Champagne, on the fouth by part of the fame coun¬
try and by Franche Compte. It is crofted by the
river Meufe from north to fouth, and watered by fe¬
veral other rivers, which render it very fertile. It is
divided into four balliages, viz. Bafiilyni, Bar, St Mi¬
chael, and Clermont. The chief towns are Bar-le-duc,
Clermont, St Michael, Longuey, Pont a Mouflbn, and
of the people ; and nothing is more common than 1
fee fathers and mothers foliciting with ardour for their
boys and girls the pious diftindipn of puking at the
bara. This machine is not drawn by afles or mules,
but by a multitude of robuft monks.
BARABINZIANS, a tribe of Tartars, living on
both fides the river Iris. They feem to derive their
Stenay. In 1736, it was given to Staniflaus then king name from Barabaian Aefaxt, whofe lakes fupply
of Poland. them abundantly with fiih, on which and their cattle
Bar-Ic-Duc, the capital of the duchy of Bar, feated they chiefly fubfift. They have plenty of game and
on the declivity of a hill. It is divided into the higher wild-fowl of every kind, particularly ducks and puf-
and lower town : the lower is watered by the rivulet fins. Moft of them are heathens, but Mahometanifin
Orney, which abounds with excellent trouts. The
wines are excellent, and not inferior to thofe of Cham¬
pagne. E. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat. 48. 37.
BAR-le-Mont, a town of the French Netherlands,
in Hainault, fituated on the river Sombre. E. Long.
3. 40. N. Lat. 50. 10.
daily gains ground among them. Some of them pay
tribute to the Emprefs of Ruffia, and others to the
Khan Taiflia.
BARACOA, a town in the north-eaft part of the
ifland of Cuba, W. Long. 76 10. N. Lat. 2i. 5.
BARAL1PTON, among logicians, a term deno-
Bar fur Auche, an ancient town of France, feated tingthe firft indireft mode of the firft figure of fyllogifm.
at the foot of a mountain. E. Long. 4. 50. N. Lat. A fyllogifm in baralipton, is when the two firft pro-
48. 14.' pofitions are general, and the third particular, the mid-
Bar fur Seine, a town of France, in the duchy of die term being the fubjeft in the firft propofition, and
Burgundy, feated between a mountain which covers it the predicate in the fecond. The following is of this
on the weft, and the river Seine which runs on the kind:
Eaft. E. Long. 4. 30. N. Lat. 48. 5.
BAR-Mafer, among miners, the perfon who keeps
the gage, or difh, for meafuring the ore.
BARA (anc. geog.), a fmaft ifland in the Adriatic,
oppofite to Brundufmm : the Pharos of Mela. Alfo
Every evil ought to be feared ;
Every violent paflion is an evil ;
Therefore fomething that ought to be feared
is a violent paflion.
BARALLOTS, in church-hiftory, a feft of he-
a frith or arm of the fea of Britannia Secunda (Pto- reties at Bologna in Italy, who had all things in com-
lemy) j fuppofed to be the Murray-frith.
Bara, one of the Hebrides or Weftern Iflands of
Scotland. It is a fmall rock, only a 'quarter of a mile
in circumference, being part of a chain called the
mon, even their wives and children.—Their facility in
complying with all manner of debauchery made them
get the name obedientes, “ compliers.”
BARANCA de malambo, a town of Terra Firma
Long IJland, the whole duller appearing at low water in America, with a biftiop’s fee and a good haven.
as one ifland. Bara is altogether barren; but abouads T‘  ~c ‘ *“J“ —A " —
with great numbers of lea-fowl, fuch as folon geefe,
guillamotes, puffins, &c.
Bara, the name of a feftival celebrated with much
magnificence at Meffina, and reprefenting the afliimp-
It is a place of great trade, and is feated on the river
Magdaleine. W. Long. 75. 30. N. Lat. 11. 10.
BARANGI, officers among the Greeks of the lower
empire. Cujas calls them in Latin proteftores, and o-
thers give them the name of fecurigeri. It was their
tion of the Virgin. The bara, though ufed as the bufinefs to keep the keys of the city-gates, where the
general denomination of this feftival, fignifies more emperor refided.
particularly a vaft machine 50 feet high, at the top of BAR AN WAHR, a town of Lower Hungary, in
which a young girl of 14, reprefenting the Virgin, a county of the fame name, taken by the emperor of
itands upon the hand of an image of Jefus Chrift. Germany from the Turks in 1684. It is feated be--
1 tween
BAR [ 797 1 , BAR
Barartinim, tween Buda and Belgrade, in E. Long. 20. 5. N. Lat. at the univerfity of Hall: at Berlin he wag honoured Bmts
Baratiere. ^,6.0. with feveral converfations with the king of Pruffia, and
k““"'v BARATHRUM, in antiquity, a deep dark pit at was received into the royal academy. Towards the
Athens, into which condemned perfons were caft head- clofe of his life he acquired a tafte for medals, infcrip-
kng. It had fharp fpikes at the top, that no man tions, and antiquities; metaphyfical inquiries, and ex¬
might efcape out; and others at the bottom, to pierce perimental philofophy, intervening occalionally between
and torment fuch as were caft in.—Its depth and ca- thefe ftudies. He wrote feveral effays and differta-
pacioufnefs made it to be applied proverbially to a co- tions ; made aftronomical remarks, and laborious calcu-
vetous perfon : to a glutton, called Barathro by the lations ; took great pains toward a hiftory of the he-
Romans (Lucretius, Horace), and Barathrum in the relies of the anti-trinitarians. and of the 30 years war
fame fenfe (Horace) ; and for a common proftitute in Germany : his laft publication, which appeared in
(Plautus). 1740, was on the fucceffion of the bilhops of Rome.
BARATIERE (Philip), a moft extraordinary in- The final work he engaged in, and for which he had
fiance of the early and rapid exertion of mental facul- gathered large materials, was Inquiries concerning the
ties. This furpriling genius was the fon of Francis Ba- Egyptian Antiquities. But the fubftance of this bla-
ratiere, minifter of the French church at Schwobach zing meteor was now almoft exhaufted : he was always
near Nuremberg, where he was born Jan. 10th 1721.
The French was his mother-tongue, together with fome
words of High Dutch ; but by means of his father
infenfibly talking Latin to him, it became as familiar to
him as the reft : fo that, without knowing the rules of
grammar, he at four years of age talked French to his
mother, Latin to his father, High Dutch to the maid
or neighbouring children ; and all this without mixing
or confounding the refpective languages. About the
middle of his fifth year he acquired Greek in like man¬
ner ; fo that in 1 s months he perfectly underftood all
the Greek books in the Old and New Teftament,
which he readily tranllated into Latin. When he was
five years and eight months old, he entered upon He¬
brew ; and in three years time was fo expert in the He¬
brew text, that from a bible without points, he could
give the fenfe of the original in Latin or French ; or
tranflate extempore the Latin or French verfions into
Hebrew, almoft word for word ; and had all the He¬
brew pfalms by heart. He compofed at this time a
dictionary of rare and difficult Hebrew words, with
critical remarks and philological obfervations, in about
400 pages in 4to ; and, about his tenth year, amufed
himfelf for twelve months with the Rabinical wri¬
ters. With thefe he intermixed a knowledge of the
Chaldaic, Syriac, and Arabic; and acquired a tafte
for divinity and ecclefiaftical antiquity, by ftudying
the Greek fathers, and councils of the firft four ages
of the church. In the midft of thefe occupations, a
pair of globes coming into his poffeffion, he could in
8 or 1 o days time refolve all the problems on them; and
in about three months, in Jan. 1735, devifed his pro-
jecl for the difcovery of the longitude, which he com¬
municated to the Royal Society at London and the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin. In June 1731,
he was matriculated in the univerfity of Altorf; and at
the clofe of the year 1732, he was prefented by his fa¬
ther at the meeting of the reformed churches of the
circle of Franconia; who, aftonifhed at his wonderful
talents, admitted him to affift in the deliberations of
the fynod ; and to preferve. the memory of fo Angular
an event, it was ordered to be regiftered in their acts.
In 1734, the Margrave of Brandenburgh Anfpach
granted this ) oung fcholar the ufe of whatever books
he wanted from the Anfpach library, together with a
penfion of 50 florins, which he enjoyed three years ;
and his father receiving a call to the French church at
Stetin in Pomerania, young Baratiere was, on the jour¬
ney, admitted mafter of arts, with univerfal applaufe,
weak and fickly ; and died October 5. 1740, aged 19
years 8 months and 16 days. He publifhed it different
pieces, and left 26 manufcripts on various fubje&s,
the contents of which may be feen in his life written
by M. Formey profeffor of philofophy at Berlin.
BARATZ (Turkifh), letters-patent granted by
the Turkiffi emperors to the Greek patriarch, bifhops,
&c. for the exercife of their ecclefiaftical fun&ions.
This Baratz gives the bifhops full power and autho¬
rity to eftablifh and depofe the inferior clergy, and all
other religious perfons ; to grant licences for marriages,
and iffue out divorces; to colled! the revenues belong¬
ing to the churches ; to receive the pious legacies be¬
queathed to them ; in fhort, to enjoy all the privileges
and advantages belonging to their high ftation : and
all this (as it is expreffed in the baratz itfelf) “ ac¬
cording to the vain and idle ceremonies of the Chri-
ftians.”
BARB, or Barbe, a horfe brought from Barbary.
See Equus.
BARBA, in botany, a fpecies of pubes, or down,
with which the furface of fome plants is covered. The
term was invented by Linnaeus; and by its application
in the Species Piantarum, feems to fignify a tuft or- bunch
of ftrong hairs terminating the leaves. Mefembryanthe-
mum barbatum, furnifhes an example.
The word is alfo often ufed in compofition with
fome other, to form the trivial names of feveral plants,
as barb a jovis, barba capree, &c.
BARBACAN, or Barbican, an outer defence or
fortification to a city or caftle, ufed efpecially as a fence
to the city or walls; alfo, an aperture made in the wall
of a fortrefs, to fire through upon the enemy. See
Castle.
Barbacan is alfo ufed to denote a fort at the en¬
trance of a bridge, or the outlet of a city, having a
double wall with towers.
BARBADOES, the moft eafterly of all the Carib-
bee Iflands, fubjeft to Great Britain, and, according to
the beft geographers, lying between 59. 50. and 6©. 2.
of weft longitude, and between 12. 56. and 13. 16. of
north latitude. Its extent is not certainly known : the
moft general opinion is, that it is 25 miles from north
to fouth, and 15 from ealt to weft ; but thefe menfu-
rations are fubjett to fo many difficulties and uncer-
• tainties, that it will perhaps convey a more adequate
idea of this ifland to tell the reader that in reality it
does not contain above 107,000 acres. The climate is
• hot, but not unwholefome, the heat being qualified by
BAR [ 793 ] BAR
Barbach?'. fea -breezes; and a temperate regimen renders this
ifland as fafe to live in as any climate fouth of Great
Britain ; and, according to the opinion of manyi as
ev< .t Great Britain itfelf. This ifland has on its eail
fide two ftreams that are called rivers, and in the middle
is faid to have a bituminous fpring which fends forth a
liquor like tar, and ferves for the fame ufes as pitch or
lamp-oil. The ifland abounds in wells of good water,
and has feveral refervoirs for rain-water. Some parts
of the foil are faid to be hollowed into caves, feme of
them capable of containing 300 people. Thefe are
imagined to have been the lurking-places of runaway
negroes, but may as probably be natural excavations.
The woods that formerly grew upon the ifland have
been all cut down, and the ground converted into fit-
gar plantations. When thofe plantations were firll
formed, the foil was prodigioufly fertile, but has fince
been worn out, infomuch, that about the year 1730,
the planters were obliged to raife cattle for the fake of
their dung, by which means the profit of their planta¬
tions was reduced to lefs than a tenth of its ufual value.
Notwithftanding the fmallnefs of Barbadoes, its foil is
different; being in fome places fandy and light, in o-
tbers rich, and in others fpungy ; but all of it is culti¬
vated according to its proper nature, fo that the ifland
prefents to the eye the moll beautiful appearance that
can be imagined. Oranges and lemons grow in Bar¬
badoes in great plenty, and in their utmoit perfection.
The lemon juice here has a peculiar fragrancy. The
citrons of Barbadoes afford the belt drams and fweet-
meats of any in the world, the Barbadoes ladies excel¬
ling in the art of preferving the rhind of the citron
fruit. The juice of the limes, or dwarf lemons, is the
moft agreeable fouring we know, and great quantities
of it have of late been imported into Britain and Ire¬
land. The pine apple is alfo a native of Barbadoes,
and grows there to much greater perfection than it can
be made to do in Europe by any artificial means. A
vaft number of different trees peculiar to the climate are
alfo found to flouriih in Barbadoes in great perfection;
fuch as the aloe, mangrove, calabafli, cedar, cotton,
maftic, &c. Here likewife are produced fome fenfi-
tive plants, with a good deal of garden fluff, which is
common in other places. In fhort, a native of the fineft,
the richeft, and molt diverfified country in Europe, can
hardly form an idea of the variety of delicious and at
the fame time nutritive vegetable productions with
which this ifland abounds.
When Barbadoes was firft difeovered by the Englifh,
few or no quadrupeds were found upon it, except hogs,
which had been left there by the Portuguefe. For con¬
venience of carriage to the fea-fide, fome of the planters
at firft procured camels ; which undoubtedly would in
all refpeCts have been preferable to horfes for their fu-
gar and other works; but the nature of the climate
difagreeing with that animal, it was found impoffible
to preferve the breed.* They then applied for horfes to
Old and New England : from the former they had
thofe that were fit for fhow and draughts; from the
latter thofe that were proper for mounting their mi¬
litia, and for the faddle. They had likewife fome of
an inferior breed from Ouraffao, and other fettle-
ments. They are reported to have had their firft
breed of black cattle from Bonavifta and the ifle of
May; they, now breed upon the ifland, and often
do the work of horfes. Their affes are very fer- Barhadoe*.
viceable in carrying burdens to and from the planta-  
tions. The hogs of Barbadoes are finer eating than
thofe of Britain, but the few Iheep they have are not
near fo good. They likewife have goats, which when
young are excellent food. Racoons and monkeys are
alfo found here in great abundance. A variety of birds
are produced on Barbadoes, of which the humming
bird is the moft remarkable. Wild fowl do not.often
frequent this ifland; but fometimes teal are found near
their ponds. A bird which they call the man of 'wart
is faid to meet Ihips at 20 leagues from land, and their
return is, to the inhabitants, a fifre fign of the arrival
of thefe ftiips. When the wind blows from the fouth
and fouth-weft, they have flocks of curlews, plovers,
fnipes, wild pigeons, and wild ducks. The wild pi¬
geons are very fat and plentiful at fuch feafons, and
rather larger than thofe of England. The tame pi¬
geons, pullets, ducks, and poultry of all kinds, that
are bred at Barbadoes, have alfo a fine flavour, and are
accounted more delicious than thofe of Europe. Their
rabbits are fcarce;'they have no hares; and if they have
deer of any kind, they are kept as curiolities. The in-
feds of Barbadoes are not venomous, nor do either their
fnakes or fcorpions ever fting. The mufkettoes are trou-
blefome, and bite; but are more tolerable in Barbadoes
than on the continent. Various other infeds are found
on the ifland, fome of which are troublefome, but in
no greater degree than thofe that are produced by e-
very warm fummer in England. Barbadoes is well fup-
plied with filh; and fome caught in the fea furrounding;
it are almoft peculiar to itfelf; fuch as the parrot-filh,
fnappers, grey cavallos, terbums, and coney-filh. The
mullets, lobfters, and crabs, caught here are excellent;
and the green turtle is perhaps the greateft delicacy
than ancient or modern luxury can boaft of. At Barba¬
does this delicious fhell-fiih feldom fells for lefs than a
(hilling a pound, and often for more. There is found
in this ifland a kind of land-crab which eats herbs
wherever it can find them, and flickers itfelf in houfes
and hollows of trees. According to report, they are a
ihell-fifli of paffage; for in March they travel to the lea
in great numbers. See Cancer.
The inhabitants may be reduced to three claffes;
viz. the mailers, the white fervants, and the blacks.
The former are either Englilh, Scots, or Irilh: but
the great encouragement given by government to the
peopling of this and other Weft Indian Iflands, induced
fome Dutch, French, Portuguefe, and Jews, to fettle
among them with their eflates; by which, after a cer¬
tain time, they acquire the rights of naturalization in
Great Britain. The white fervants, whether by cove¬
nant or purchafe, lead more eafy lives than the day-
labourers in England; and when they come to be over-
feers, their wages and other allowances are coniiderable.
As to the treatment of the negro Haves in this and
the other illands, that falls to be fpoken of under the
articles Negro, Slave, West-Indies; which fee.
The manners of the white inhabitants, in general, are
the fame as in moft polite towns and countries in Eu¬
rope. The capital of the illand is called Bridge-Town;
fee that article.
As the hiftory of this ifland furnilhes no very remark¬
able events, the following Ihort hints concerning it
may fulficc.
5
When
BAR [ 799 1 BAR
Bartadoe*, When the Englifli, fome time after the year 1625,
Barbara. fu-ft landed here, they found it the moft favage and
v " deftitute place they had hitherto vifited. It had not
the leaf! appearance of ever having been peopled even
by favages. There was no kind of beafts of pafture
or of prey, no fruit, no herb, no root fit for fupport-
ing the life of man. Yet as the climate was fo good,
and the foil appeared fertile, fome gentlemen of fmall
fortune in England refolved to become adventurers
thither. The trees were fo large, and of a wood fo
hard and ftubborn, that-it was with great difficulty they
could clear as much ground as was neceflary for their
Fubfiftence. By unremitting perfeverance, however,
they brought it to yield them a tolerable fupport; and
they found that cotton and indigo agreed well with
the foil; and that tobacco, which was beginning to
come into repute in England, anfwered tolerably.
Thefe profpefts, together with the ftorm between the
king and parliament, which was beginning to break
out in England, induced many new adventurers to
tranfport themfelves into this ifland. And what is ex¬
tremely remarkable, fo great was the increafe of people
1 in Baibadoes, 25 years after its firft fettlement, that
in 1650 it contained more than 50,000 whites, and a
much greater number of negro and Indian (laves. The '
latter they acquired by means not at all to their ho¬
nour: for they feized upon all thofe unhappy men,
without any pretence, in the neighbouring iflands, and
carried them into flavery; a practice which has ren¬
dered the Caribbee 1 ndians irreconcileable to us ever
fince. They had begun a little before this to cultivate
fugar, which foon rendered them extremely wealthy.
The number of (laves, therefore, was dill augmented ;
and in 1676 it is fuppofed that their number amount¬
ed to 100,000, which, together with 50,000 whites,
make 150.000 on this fmall fpot: a degree of popu¬
lation unknown in Holland, in China, or any other
part of the world moft renowned for numbers. At this
time Barbadoes employed 400 fail of (hips, one with
another, of 150 tons in their trade. Their annual ex¬
ports in fugar, indigo, ginger, cotton, and citron-
water, were above L. 35,000, and their circulating
ca(h at home was L. 200,000. Such was the increafe
of population, trade, and wealth, in the courfe of 50
years. But fince that time this ifland has been much
on the decline ; which is to be attributed partly to the
growth of the French fugar colonies, and partly to
our own eftablifliments in the neighbouring ides. Their
numbers at prefent are faid to be 20,000 whites, and
100,000 (laves. Their commerce confifts of the fame
articles as formerly, though they deal in them to left
extent.
BdRBjnoES-Tar, a mineral fluid of the nature qf
the thicker fluid bitumens, of a naufeous bitterifli tafte,
veiy ftrong and difagreeable fmell, found in many parts
of America trickling down the (ides of the mountains,
and fometimes floating on the furface of the waters. It
has bee.1 greatly recommended in coughs and other
difordei >f the bread and lungs.
BARBARA, among logicians, the firft mode of
the firft figure of fyllogifms. A fyllogifm in barbara Barbarian
is one whereof all the prepofitions are univerfal and N -.
affirmative ; the middle term being the fubjeft of the mrl^rolla;
firft propofition, and attribute in the fecond.
Exavip. Bar. Every wicked man is miferable j
Ba. All tyrants are wicked men 5
Ra. dherefore all tyrants are miferable;
BARBARIAN, a name given by the ancient
Greeks and Romans to all who were not of their own
country, or were not initiated in their language, man¬
ners, and cuftoms—In this fenfe, the word lignified
with them no more than fbreigner; not fignifying, as
among us, a wild, rude, or uncivilized perfon.
BARBARISM, in a general fenfe, a rudenefs of
language or behaviour.
Barbarism, in grammar, an offence againft the
purity of ftyle or language ; or an ungrammatical way
of fpeaking or writing, contrary to the true idiom of
aqv particular language.
BARBAROSSA (Aruch, and Hayradin), two
famous corfairs, the fons of a potter in the ifle of Eel-
bos ; who, turning pirates, carried on their deprada-
tions with fuch fuccefs and conduct, that they were
foon poffeffed of 12 galleys befide fmaller veffels. Of
this fleet Aruch the elder brother, called Barbarotfct
from the rednefs of his beard, was admiral, and Hay¬
radin the fecond in command : they called themfelves
the friends of the fea, and the enemies of all who failed
upon it; and their names became terrible from the
(traits of Dardanelles to thofe of Gibraltar. With fuch
a power they wanted an dlablifliment; and'the oppor¬
tunity of fettling themfelves offered in 1516, by the
inconfiderate application of Eutemi king of Algiers to
them for afliftance againft the Spaniards. Aruch, lea¬
ving his brother to command the fleet, carried 5000
men to Algiers, where he was received as their deli¬
verer ; and fecretly murdering the prince he came to
aid, caufed himfelf to be proclaimed king in his (lead.
To this ufurpation he added the conqueft of Treme-
cen ; when his exploits and piracies i.iduc^ the em¬
peror Charles V. to furnifh the Marquis de Gomarez
governor of Oran with troops to fupprefs him ; by
whom he was defeated and killed near Tremecen His
brother Hayradin, known aifo by the name of Barba-
rcjfa, affumed the feeptre at Algiers with the fame abi¬
lities, and with better fortune; for the Spaniards, fuf-
ficiently employed in Europe, giving him no difturb-
ance, he regulated the interior police of his kingdom
with great prudence, carried on his naval operations
with vigour, and extended his conquefts on the conti¬
nent of Africa. He put his dominions under the pro-
teftion of the Grand Signior, Solyman the Magnifi¬
cent ; and obtained the command of the Turkifh fleet.
With fp powerful a prote&or, he acquired the king¬
dom of Tunis in a manner fimilar to that by which his
brother gained Algiers. Since the time of the Barba-
roffas, Algiers has been underftood to be dependent on
the Porte ; but this dependence is now little more
than merely nominal.
END OF THE SECOND VOLUME.
Plate
5CXX. to face
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXIII.
XXXIV. >
xxxv. y
XXXVI.
XXXVII. f
xxxvm.f
xxxix. j
XL. I
XLI. f
XLII.
XLI1I.
XLIV.
XLV.
XL VI.
XL VII.
XLVI1I.
XLIX.
u
LI.
tin.
LIV. Afcaris.
LV. Afcidia.
LVI. Artocarpus.
LVII. Alia.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of VOL.IL
Page.
a6
»7
3*
aaa
»55
»36
*37
241
*43
*44
*4S
246
*49
*50
377
393
Plate (Iviil. or)
LX.
LXI.
LXIf.
LX III.
LXIV.
LXV.
LXVI.
LXVII.
LXVI1I.
LXIX.
LXX.
LXXI.
LXXII.
LXXHI.
LXXIV.
LXXV.
LXXVI.
LXXVII.
Lxxvm.
LXX IX.
LXXX.
LXXXI.
LXXXII.
LXXXIII.
LXXXIV.
LXXXV.
LXXXVI.
LXXXVII.
Lxxxvm.
LXXXIX.
xc.
XCI.
Part II.
Page.
417
4*0
4*8
43*
• 440
444
' 4J*
43 <>
460
468
47*
480
484
49*
496
5°4
J08
Ji6
J*o
5*8
53*
544
55*
560
568
57*
576
580
584
588
59*
257
[In all, 60 Plates.3